UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING SOC 101: Introduction to Psychology II (2 Units)

Course Facilitator:

SOC 101: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY II

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STUDY GUIDE Course Code/ Title: Credit Units: Timing: Total hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six hours (26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester. You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours per course throughout the week. This will apply to all course materials you have. This implies that each course material will be studied for two hours in a week. Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including all the activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them adequately. All activities should be timed from five minutes (5minutes) to ten minutes (10minutes). Observe the time you spent for each activity, whether you may need to add or subtract more minutes for the activity. You should also take note of your speed of completing an activity for the purpose of adjustment. Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study session. Find out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need to add or subtract some minutes depending on your speed. You may also need to allocate separate time for your self-assessment questions out of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one hour which was not used out of the two hours that can be utilized for your SAQ. You must be careful in 2

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utilizing your time. Your success depends on good utilization of the time given; because time is money, do not waste it. Reading: When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a novel. You should start by having a pen and paper for writing the main points in the study session. You must also have dictionary for checking terms and concepts that are not properly explained in the glossary. Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those main points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that the book is not spoiled for further usage. Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand its meaning and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those meanings in the glossary are not enough for you, you can use your dictionary for further explanations. When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that you are sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to the in-text to locate the answers to the question. You must be brief in answering those activities except when the question requires you to be detailed. In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer carefully, making sure you understand them and locate them in the main text. Furthermore before

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you attempt answering the (SAQ) be sure of what the question wants you to do, then locate the answers in your in-text carefully before you provide the answer. Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention to what you are reading, noting the major points and terms and concepts. But when you are tired, worried and weak do not go into reading, wait until you are relaxed and strong enough before you engage in reading activities. Bold Terms: These are terms that are very important towards comprehending/understanding the in-text read by you. The terms are bolded or made darker in the sentence for you to identify them. When you come across such terms check for the meaning at the back of your book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear to you, you can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the term/concept. Do not neglect any of the bold term in your reading because they are essential tools for your understanding of the in-text. Practice Exercises a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each activity is to remind you of the immediate facts, points and major informations you read in the in-text. In every study session there is one or more activities provided for you to answer them. You must be very careful in answering these activities because they provide you with major facts of the text. You can 4

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have a separate note book for the activities which can serve as summary of the texts. Do not forget to timed yourself for each activity you answered. b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers are provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To every question, there is answer. So please note all the questions and their answers, they will help you towards remembering the major points in your reading. c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of what you studied so you must give adequate attention in answering them. The remaining time from the two hours allocated for this study session can be used in answering the self- assessment question. Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ, you are expected to write down the major points related to the particular question to be answered. Check those points you have written in the in-text to ascertain that they are correct, after that you can start explaining each point as your answer to the question. When you have completed the explanation of each question, you can now check at the back of your book, compare your answer to the solutions provided by your course writer. Then try to grade your effort sincerely and honestly to see your level of performance. This procedure should be applied 5

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to all SAQ activities. Make sure you are not in a hurry to finish but careful to do the right thing. e-Tutors: The eTutors are dedicated online teachers that provide services to students in all their programme of studies. They are expected to be twenty- four hours online to receive and attend to students Academic and Administrative questions which are vital to student’s processes of their studies. For each programme, there will be two or more e-tutors for effective attention to student’s enquiries. Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e-tutors through their email addresses or phone numbers which are there in your student hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting your e-tutors when in doubt about your learning. You must learn how to operate email, because e-mailing will give you opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost. In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course facilitators through their phone numbers and e-mails which are also in your handbook for use. Your course facilitators can also resolve your academic problems. Please utilize them effectively for your studies.

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Continuous assessment The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total marks. The medium of conducting continuous assessment may be through online testing, Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be required to submit your test or assignment through your email. The continuous assessment may be conducted more than once. You must make sure you participate in all C.A processes for without doing your C.A you may not pass your examination, so take note and be up to date. Examination All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri Centre for Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the Centre for a period of one week for their examinations. Your preparation for examination may require you to look for course mates so that you form a group studies. The grouping or Networking studies will facilitate your better understanding of what you studied. Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you have partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social Networking are better approaches to effective studies. Please find your group. You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must engage in comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies, making brief summaries of all materials you read or from your first summary on activities, in-text questions and answers, as well as on self assessment questions that you provided solutions at 7

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first stage of studies. When the examination week commences you can also go through your brief summarizes each day for various the courses to remind you of main points. When coming to examination hall, there are certain materials that are prohibited for you to carry ( i.e Bags, Cell phone, and any paper etc). You will be checked before you are allowed to enter the hall. You must also be well behaved throughout your examination period.

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1.0. STUDY SESSION 1: SOME CONCEPTS IN SOCIOLOGY 1.1 INTRODUCTION In sociology, like in other disciplines, we use mans’ concepts to describe the subject matter we deal with. In this topic you will be introduced to only some basic concepts in sociology. We shall be studying the following sub-topics: • Culture Concept • Socialization • Status and Role Within each of these sub-topics, which are themselves concepts in sociology, we shall learn quite a number of concepts that are basic concepts in the discipline of sociology in addition to learning about these broad sub-topics. 1.2 CULTURE CONCEPT As you know, there is no single definition of culture. Loosely however culture can be defined as something that is shared by group of people who inhabit a common area. That something may be ideas or material things. For example, democracy, which is an idea of governance, is a non-material culture while a motorcar is a material culture. Again, a hoe for example is a material culture in a subsistent agrarian society while all the ideas around the hoe in that society is the nonmaterial culture. 1.2.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CULTURE CONCEPT The concept culture has meant different things at different times. It has a history and development within systems of thought, which can be traced back to the eighteenth century. Generally the concept culture was developed within Western systems of thought and demonstrates western prejudices about the value of African cultures. In the 18th century, culture was thought of in singular term. It was believed that not all countries had cultures. Only technologically advanced countries had cultures. It was thought that the people ability to develop culture was dependent on their psychological development, which was associated with brain 9

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size. People with bigger brains were thought to be more psychologically developed. Thus, culture and civilization were firmly associated with the psychic properties of the European race, who were thought to have bigger brains than the black race. Consequently, culture and civilization were presented as goals that African societies were moving towards. It was in the middle of the I9th century that culture came to he discussed in a plural sense. It became accepted that all societies possess a culture. However, there was also the idea that some cultures arc superior to others in terms of their importance to human development. Thus, E. B. Tailor in his work, “Primitive cultures” (1871) advanced the idea of the progress of cultures through three stages: savagery, barbarism and civilization. As we move into the 20th century, we can see the emergence of modern definitions of culture based on the plural conception of culture. Tailor for example, defined culture as: That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs and all other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society Similarly, L. Mair defined culture as: ‘the common possession of a bod’ of people who share the same tradition. In social terms a body is a Society. From the two modern definitions of culture we can see that culture, rather than being he product of the psychic properties of a particular race, it is a social phenomenon which cutacross societies. Culture therefore, is something that is shared by “group of people who inhabit a common area. It goes without saying therefore that Nigeria has a culture. However, conceptualizing Nigerian culture is complicated let social and ethnic diversity, this complication has led many people to argue or think that we cannot talk of a Nigerian culture. They are wrong. There is a Nigerian culture, hut it is a complicated one. Having discussed the concept and meaning of culture, we will now look at some of the most important terms associated with culture concept. There are many terms associated with the culture concept. In the forgoing section we are going to consider only the most central of them. 10

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1.2.3. ARTIFACT AND MENTIFACT Culture consists of both material and nonmaterial things. The terms artifact and manifest refer to the material and non-material things of culture respectively. Artifacts therefore refer to such objects as the farming, hunting, fishing and cooking etc, equipment. It also refers to things like dress, architecture, curving, etc. Manifest on the other hand, refers to the ideas members of society hold about so many things. In short it refers to the values, norms, beliefs, e.t.c, of the society. 1.2.4. SYMBOLIC COMMUNICATION Human beings communicate in symbols with one another at a highly sophisticated level. This is the one factor that sets us apart from other animals. We communicate with symbols in three main ways: spoken language; written language, and’ bodylanguage. We use spoken language to facilitate teaching and communication, while we use written language to facilitate the preservation of learning and the legacy of culture 1.2.5. CULTURAL NORMS A cultural norm is an established standard of what our society approves of in terms of thought and conduct. This therefore varies from one society to another. Cultural norms take different forms some of which include values, folkways and mores. i.

ii.

iii.

Values: There are sentiments that are widely and deeply held in our society that dictate the actions and behaviors of members. Our modern Nigerian society for example puts a high value on material wealth. Folkways: These are the customary or habitual ways of acting within a society. Wearing formal attire at a cocktail party, eating with forks and knives, etc are examples of modern folkways in our country, Nigeria. Mores: These are customs with significant implications of right and wrong. Mores are usually incorporated into the society’s religious teachings and legal systems. Murder, assault, rape, treason, etc. are some of the more obvious mores, in modern Nigeria.

1.2.6. CULTURAL ORGANIZATION 11

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In order to permit individuals and groups to interact efficiently, a culture is organized in a systematic manner. Cultural traits, cultural complex, institutions, subculture, counter-culture and cultural integration arc concepts closely related to the organization of culture. i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

vi.

A cultural trait: This refers to the smallest unit of a culture such as an object, a phrase, a symbol, a gesture, etc. On a football game for example, all the material objects such as the ball, boots, uniforms, nets, goal posts, etc, are cultural traits. So also are the particular gesture rules and terminologies special to the game. A cultural complex: This refers to a cluster of related traits. Thus, a sport of football is a cultural complex made up of all the related traits given in the above example. An Institution: This is an organized or patterned systemof social relationships that permit functions to be performed and individuals and group needs to be met. For example, the family, educate 1, political, economic and religious institutions are the five basic institutions societies have established to carry out functions to meet the need of their members. A subculture: This is a culture within a larger culture. It is dated to the larger culture because it accepts many of the norms of the larger culture, but the subculture is also distinguishable from the larger culture in the sense that it has norms of its own. Any society has both its larger and many sub-culture. In Nigeria for example the various sub-cultural groups such as the Igbo, the Hausa, the Yoruba, etc, constitute sub-cultures to the lager Nigerian culture. We can also talk of the upper, the middle and the lower-class sub-cultures in Nigeria. Counter-culture: This refers to the culture that sharply challenges and rejects the norms and expectations of the dominant culture, i.e. the larger culture of the society. For example, some delinquent sub-cultures are more or less counter cultures, while the middle class sub-culture usually constitutes the dominant culture, i.e. the larger culture, in modern societies such as Nigeria. Cultural Integration: This refers to the functionally integrated organization and operation of all traits and complexes in a culture. Cultural integration is very necessary if a culture is to function efficiently and effectively. Cultural

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integration remains one of our serious problems in Nigeria. The various dements of our culture do not seem to work together properly. 1.2.7. IDEAL AND REAL CULTURE Ideal culture refers to the overt formally approved behavior patterns. Real culture on the other hand, refers to what people actually do. Discrepancies usually exist between the ideal and the real cultures. For example things like corruption adultery/fornication, cheating, etc, which are condemned publicly in Nigeria are widely practiced privately. 1.2.8. ETHNOCENTRISMS This is the tendency of individuals in a society to assume the superiority of their own culture. ‘W. G. summer who first coined the term in his book Folkways, (1906), defined it as the: ‘View of things in which ones own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it’. It was western European ethnocentrisms in the 18th century that was responsible for the notion that the Africans did not have culture, which was discarded later. Within Nigeria too examples of ethnocentrisms abound. To the fulanis for example all otherethnic groups arehaabe, a word meaning uncultured, low, uncivilized, etc. Similarly, to the kanuris all other ethnic groups except the fulanis, are kircli which is synonymous to the haabe concept amongst the Fulani. Ethnocentrism is both beneficial and harmful. On the beneficial side, ethnocentrism serves to reinforce one’s feelings of group loyalty and to heighten the level if morale, patriotism and nationalism. On the harmful side, ethnocentrism leads to a needless rejection of the wisdom and knowledge of other culture, thereby erecting harriers that prevent cultural exchange and enrichment. In the Nigeria context where we have too many ethnic groups, ethnocentrism heightens ethnicity and slows down to a great extent the movement towards cultural integration. 1.2.9. CULTURAL CHANGE Due to their ethnocentrisms, people are usually reluctant to relinquish old traditions, values, and customs in favour of new ones. Notwithstanding this, cultures do experience some degrees of changes over time. Cultural change occurs 13

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whenever new traits and complexes appear in a culture and thus alter both the content and the structure of the culture. There are several sources of cultural change, which include economy, technology, physical environment, population and perceived needs. Changes in any of the above four elements generate corresponding changes in the total culture. Cultural changes are also brought about by ‘culture contacts’. When two cultural traits and complexes meet, they diffuse each other and constitute a new culture. It has been observed that resistance to change is most instance when the change involves the non-material aspects of culture than the materials aspects, hence changes in the non-material culture is slower than changes in the material culture. Consequently, the nonmaterial elements of culture are always trying to keep pace with changes in the material elements. This discrepant situation is referred to as ‘cultural lag’. 1.2.10. SOCIALIZATION Socialization is the process through which a human begins to learn the way of life of his or her society, acquires a personality, and develops the capacity to function both as an individual and as a member of the group. At a very early age, the child learns from others what behavior is expected of him and what kind of person he or she is. 1.2.11. BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL INTERACTION The socialization process begins at birth with the care of the newborn infant. As we know, infants are totally dependent on those around them. Food, clothing and shelter must he provided for them. Equally important however, is their need for love, attention and physical contact with other people. Experiments have demonstrated that if monkeys are taken away from their mothers and raised in isolation, they will not develop normally. Although similar experiments have not of course been performed on human infants, we would expect that under similar circumstances the human infant would react in the same manner as the monkey. GOALS OF SOCIALIZATION The basic goals of socialization may include the following: 14

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1. The person must be taught the’ necessary skills required for living ih his society. 2. The person must be able to communicate effectively and develop the ability to read, write and speak. 3. Control of the organic functions must be learned brought proper toilet training. 4. The individual must internalize the basic values and beliefs of the society. 1.3.2.3. TYPES OF SOCIAUZATION Specialization may take place through both formal and informal means Educational institutions and the military are examples of the more formal, more structured agencies responsible for transmitting the accepted ways of acting and thinking within a society. Socializationhowever may also take place through interac1oii with pears and membership in informal clubs and groups. 1.2.12. AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION The major agents of socialization are the family, the school, peer groups and the mass media. The family: It is within the family that the process of socialization begins. To our young children, the family represents the whole world around them. Their selfimage is a reflection of how they believe members of the family feel about them. Thus, their perception of themselves, the world and the people around them is directly influenced by their families’ attitudes and beliefs. The values that we as individuals have and the various roles that we are expected to play are initially learned within the family setting. The school: The school is the agency primarily responsible for transmitting the accumulated knowledge and ways of a society to its young people once they reach five or six years of age. As an agent of socialization the school is highly structured and organized around a set of rules that everyone is expected to obey. Peer Groups: Although the major purpose of pear groups may be recreational, next to the family it is probably the most influential agent of socialization. Since peers are relatively equal, they usually share a common standing as the’ relate to personsin authority. As an agent of socialization, the peer group reaches its peak ot 15

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influence during adolescence. At this point, popularity becomes a most important goal of young people, and w internalize and express the values of the peer group will generally enhance or contribute to ones acceptance. Mass Media: The mass media have been playing an important role in the socialization process in America and Europe. Most American and Europeans spend a significant amount of time reading books, newspapers, magazines, or viewing television, movies or listening to radios. The mass media is also becoming increasingly important in the’ third world countries too. It has been noted that the mass media may both reinforce norms and distort norms by’ giving the impression that what is transmitted or printed represents a true reflection of society. 1.2.13. THE SELF AND SELF IMAGE Through socialization the’ human individual learns to view himself or herself as a distinct separate entity, apart from all other people and things. The self has a personal identity, and others respond to it. The infant has no concept of self at the time of birth, and. the awareness of his or her own being develops as part of the socialization process. Self-image plays ‘an important part in determining how an individual is likely to act. Confidence that one can perform an act is highly correlated with successful completion of that act Lack of confidence, on the other band, often leads to defeat or failure. 1.2.14. THE WOKING-GLASS SELF The sociologist Charles Horton Coolev formulated the theory of the “looking-glass self”. The looking is society, which acts as a mirror that makes it possible to observe the reactions of others to our own behaviour. The development of a social self begins early in life. The infant’s self-image is derived from the family and continues to develop throughout life as the person has contact with playmates, peer groups and associates. Thus, our behaviour is in large measure determined by the reactions of others. If the image that we see is favorable, our self-concept is hightened and our behavior reinforced. On the other hand, if the image is unfavorable, our self-concept is likely to be lowered and our behavior modified. 16

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1.2.15. “1” AND “ME” George Herbert Mead saw the self as divided between the “1” and the “Me”. The “Me” is the reflection of the norms and values of the society; the “I” represents the unique, individual aspects of one self. The “I” is largely impulsive and uninhibited. For example, the person who commits a murder is behaving from the “I” segment of the self. The person has ignored the societal prohibitions against murder and the value placed on the life of the individual. 1.2.16. THE GENERALIZED OTHER Mead developed the concept of the “generalized other. The “generalized other” is a composite of the expectations one believes others hold toward him or her. ‘The individual examines himself as though he ‘ere another person. Through the processes of “role-talking” and “role-playing”, the individual awareness of this “generalized other” is developed. Role taking: As communication skills develop, the child becomes able to assume the role of some other person and act in a manner consistent with that person’s role. Role-Playing: The child, who takes a role in teaching, may eventually hold the role of a teacher. By actually becoming a teacher and acting in a way consistent with that occupation, the child is role-playing. Significant other: Persons who exercise major influence over the attitudes of individual are called “significant others”. An effort is made to please the significant other and follow the advice and direction that he or she may offer. The football coach for example will in all likelihood serve as a significant other to his players. The coach will instruct the players and try to set an example for them to follow. In turn, the players will follow the instructions given by the coach and try to please him. They know too well that in order to succeed, the coach must have a positive image of them as players. 1.2.17. STATUS AND ROLE

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Status refers to the social position that an individual holds in a group or the social ranking of a group when compared to other groups. An individual’s status will dictate the rights and privileges to which that person will be entitled. Role refers to the behavior expected by others of one who holds a certain status. The roles are learned as part of the socialization process and then internalized by the individual. 1.2.18. ASCRIBED AND ACHIEVED STATUS Ascribed Status is acquired by the individual at birth and is based, for the most part, on the family background of the newborn child. In other words, status is attained through ascription because of who you are, rather than what you have done to earn the position. Achieved Status refers to the process of acquiring a status position because of hard work and demonstrated ability on the part of the individual. 1.2.19. ROLE MODELS Those persons whom we recognize as being rather special and whose behaviors we imitate are referred to as role models. 1.2.20. PRESCRIBED ROI.E AND ENANCTED ROLE The manner in which society expects us to carry out a particular role is referred to as the prescribed role. An enacted role is the way in which a person actually carries out a particular role. Sometimes discrepancies occur between prescribed and enacted roles. The discrepancy between the prescribed role and enacted role may be due to: i. ii. iii.

A lack of understanding on the part of the individual as to what the role require; A wish not to conform to the expected requirements of the role, or An inability on the part of the individual to play the role effectively.

1.2.21. ROI.E DISTANCE An individual who performs a particular role in an emotionally detached manner is showing a characteristic referred to as role distance. This often occurs when the 18

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role does not occupy a high priority in the life of the individual. Rather than incorporating the role into his or her self-image, the person performs the role because it is necessary or expedient to do so. 1.2.23. ROLE STRAIN Sometimes an individual has difficulties in carrying out an expected role because of conflicting obligations or expectations pertaining to that role; this is refereed to as role strain. 1.2.24. ROLE FAILURE In our modern society today, a single individual may have to undertake several roles simultaneously, and thus be subjected to conflicting demands. It is not uncommon for a person in these circumstances to fail in his or her role. 1.5. SUMMARY The topic has identified, defined and/or described at least a dozen of basic concepts within each of the broad concepts of culture, socialization, status and role. It has also attempted to draw relevant examples from the Nigerian context to make each concept clearer and down to earth. 1.6. IN-TEXT QUESTION ITQ: i describe all the key terms within the broad concepts of culture, socialization, status and role. ii. Explain the relevant examples from the Nigerian context. ITA:

1.7. SEFL.-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1. From your understanding of the culture concept and its complexity, state whether or not there is a Nigerian culture. 2. Describe briefly the basic concepts listed below. Illustrate ‘our answers with examples. a. Ascribed and achieved status; 19

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b. Prescribed and enacted roles; c. Role distance; d. Role strains, and; e. Role failure. 3. Explain the following within the context of socialization process a. The family; b. The school; c. Peer groups. and; d. Mass media. 1.6. REFERENCES Bottomore, Tom (1987) Sociology: A Guide to Problems and Literature, Third Edition, (London; Alien & Unwin) Ember, C.R. & Ember M. (1981) Cultural Anthropology’. (N): Presence-Hall, Inc) Igho, E.M. (2003) Basic Sociology, (Enugu: CIDJAP Press) Malinowski, B. (1930) ‘Culture’, in Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences Mitchell, G. Duncan (1968) A Dictionary of Sociology. (London: Rutledge & IKegan Paul) Othwait Willam (1 983) Culture in Bottonorc T (d) 4 du tumary o Manzsi Thought (Oxford; Blackwell). 1.7. SUGGESTED READINGS Bottomore, Tom (1987) Sociology: A Guide to Problems and Literature, Third Edition,(London: Allen & Unwin) Ember, CR. & Ember M (1981) Cultural Anthropology, (NJ: Presence-Hall. Inc) Igbo. EM. (2003) Basic Sociology, (Enugu: CIDJAP Press) Mitchell, G. Duncan (1968) A Dictionary of Sociology, (London: Rutledge &. KeganPaul)

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2.0. STUDY SESSION TWO: SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 2.1. INTRODUCTION In this topic we shall learn the broad concept of social institution, types of social Institutions, and relationships, transfer of functions, competitions and cooperation among institutions. 2.2. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS An institution is a relatively permanent, organized system of social patterns, which Embodies certain sanctioned and unified behaviors for the purpose of satisfying and meeting the basic needs of a society. 2.3. TYPES OF INSTITUTION AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS There are five basic social institutions present in all societies. These institutions are the family, educational, religious, economic and governmental (political). In order for us to fully understand the above definition of institution, it might be helpful we examine six of the more important characteristics of institutions. First, each institution has as its primary objective the satisfaction of specific social needs. Second, institutions embody the ultimate values that are shared by their members. The governmental institution in the USA for example embodies values such as a democratic system of running the affairs of the state, open elections, a representative legislative branch, and equality before the law. Third, institutions are relatively permanent, in that the behavior patterns established within the institutions become part of the tradition of the given culture. 21

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From time in memorial all members of a family for example occupy an assigned role and status that is based upon the age and sex of each member. Fourth, the social bases of institutions are SO broad that their activities occupy a central place within a society; a dramatic change in one institution is likely to produce changes in the others. Severe fluctuations if the economic cycle such as periods of inflation, recession, and depression will not only affect ones job the may also have a profound influence on the stability of the family, the quality of education, and the ability of the government to provide necessary services to the people. Fifth, even though all institutions are interdependent within a society, each individual institution is highly structured and organized around an expected set of norms, values, and behavior patterns. Educational institutions for example is highly structured and have become extremely bureaucratic and places high values on learning and the accumulation of knowledge, earning grades, progressing from one class to the next, developing good study habits, and cooperating with both teachers and fellow students. Sixth, the ideals of an institution are generally accepted by the great majority of the members of a society regardless of whether or not they actually participate in the institution. A bachelor for example, who chooses to remain apart from the traditional family structure, it will not necessarily advocate a new type of social organization that would replace the family unit. Rather, he still recognizes and accepts the institution of the family in terms of the functions that the family performs, In terms of functions institutions perform, we can distinguish three broad categories namely: broad basic functions, specific institutional functions and manifest and latent functions. 2.2.1. BROAD FUNCTIONS OF INSTITUTIONS The broad functions that are found in all institutions consist of the following: 1. They provide for the individual a model of appropriate social behavior in various situations. When voting in a public election for example we know that proper behavior dictates that we be legally registered in the proper precinct, that

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we wait in line until it is our turn, that we cast our vote in secrete, and that we vote once only. 2. The institution provides a large number of roles and defines appropriate role behaviour in various situations. 3. Institutions serve the culture by providing its members with stability and consistency. We tend to think of the institutionalized way as the proper way of behaving. For example, honest’, inteWitv, charitY and fidelity are some of the institutionalized way of behaving. 4. Institutions tend to both regulate and control behaviour. Because the institutions embody the accepted expectations of Society, deviation from these expectations may be met with negative sanctions. Rather than risk punishment or ridicule, it is sometimes easier for the individual to conform. 2.3.1.3. SPECIFIC INSTITUTIONAL FUNCTIONS Each of the five social institutions exists for a specific purpose. and each performs certain specialized functions as well. 2.3.1.3.1. THE FAMILY INSTITUTION The family performs the following specific functions: Regulation of sexual behaviour; Replacement of members from generation to generation through reproduction; Care and Protection of children, the infirm and the elderly; Socialization of children; Fixing social life and establishing status passed on through social inheritance, and; Economic security provided by the family as the basic unit of economic production. 2.3.1.3.2. THE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION The specific functions of educational institution include: 23

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- Providing preparation for occupational roles; -Serving as a vehicle for the transmission of cultural heritage; - Acquiring individuals with various roles in society; - Preparing individuals for certain expected social roles; - Providing a basis for evaluating and understanding relative Status; - Promoting change through involvement in scientific research; and - Strengthening personal adjustrnent and improving social relationships. 2.3.1.3.3. THE RELIGIOUS INSTITUTJON The religious institution performs three specific functions: -Assistance in the search for moral identity; -Providing interpretations to help explain one’s physical and social environment; and - Promotion of sociality, social cohesion, and group solidarity. 2.3.1.3.4. THE ECONOMIC INSTITUTION Economic institution also has three major specific functions, which are: -Production of goods and services; -Distribution of goods and services along with distribution of economic resources (labour and equipment); and -Consumption of goods and services. 2.3.1.3.5. THE GOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTION Finally, there are five specific functions of governmental institutions, viz: - The institutionalization of norms through laws passed by the legislative bodies of government; 24

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- The enforcement of laws that have been passed; - Resolution of conflicts existing among members of society; -Establishment of services such as health care, education, welfare, etc, and; - Protection of citizens from attack by other nations and maintenance of civil alertness to danger. 2.3.2 MANIFEST AND LATENT FUNCTIONS Sociologists have also found it useful to distinguish between manifest and latent functions of institutions. The manifest functions are those that are obvious, apparent, and arc geiwrallv accepted by the members of society. Thus, all the specific functions listed above under each of the five institutions can be regarded as the institutions manifest functions. The latent functions of institutions on the other hand are those functions that are less obvious and apparent and may even be disapproved by the members of society. Taking a political party as an example, its manifest functions include selecting the candidates who best represent the ideals and goals of the party, are attractive to voters and will make a contribution to their office once elected, but the latent functions may include a strong system of patronage for giving jobs to those who have been loyal to the party, a method of protecting from prosecution those past members who have committed crimes, and a system for collecting funds from lobbyists and special interest groups. 2.3.3 RELATIONSHIP AMONG INSTITUTIONS The five basic social institutions are highly related in terms of the functions that the’ perform. If a society is to function effectively, the basic institutions must relate to one another in an efficient and political manner. A propel- and sometimes delicate balance must be maintained between the familial, governmental, religious, economic and educational. Because institutions perform numerous functions which sometimes overlap, it is at times difficult to hold this balance in place. Although several institutions may be capable of contributing to a similar need, it is inevitable that a single institution will remain dominant and exercise a considerable amount of influence over the others. For example, both the family and the formal educational institutions contribute to the socialization of young people. On a modern industrial society, the schools will have the primary responsibility for 25

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performing the educational function. In rural agricultural communities, however, the family will do a good deal of the educating since the expectation may he that the children will One day assume the responsibilities of running the family farm. 2.3.4 TRANSFER OF FUNCTIONS As certain institutions gain in importance, there will be a shifting of institutional functions from one to the other. Such a shift in function may take place when either one of two conditions exists: I. An institution fails to meet a given need, or 2. Two or more institutions are capable of meeting the need, but one clearly demonstrates that it can perform at a superior level. In modern industrial society, the family has probably lost more function that any other institution. The schools have assumed much of the socialization function; the family unit is now primarily a consumer of goods (while at one time it was both a producer and consumer) and the economic factors that affect the family are now controlled by the economic institutions and government. The shifting of functions among institutions wil1 very often be seen as a cure for any shortcomings that have arisen. 2.3.5 COMPETITION AND COOPERATION AMONG INSTITUTIONS As we have already seen, social institutions may overlap and share certain functions. The institutions are so closely interwoven within society that they not only interact with each other but also indeed are interdependent and interrelated in a number of ways. Because institutions are so closely interrelated, the’ tend to support and depend upon one another in order to be collectively effective. For example, since a very large part of our educational system lies in the public sector, educational institutions are closely related to governmental institutions, especially units of state and local governments. These eventually lead to the weakening of one or more elements within an institution. This competitive spirit exists because each institution, by performing a variety of essential functions, will enter into competition with another institution that may 26

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perform the same function. It should also be noted that certain institutions might place considerable influence over others. For example, while the liberal scholars believe that the governmental institutions exert a good deal of influence over the other four institutions, the Marxist believe that it is the economy that exerts more influence over the other institutions and cultural ideas. 2.4 SUMMARY This topic has attempted a definition of social institutions and identification of some broad functions of social institutions. ‘We have also described five basic institutions and their specific functions. The importance of manifest and latent functions of institutions was also highlighted. We concluded the topic with the examination of relationships, transfers of functions, competitively and cooperation amongst institutions. 2.5. IN TEXT QUESTIONS ITQ: ii. Explain five basic types of societal institutions with their specific functions. Iii. Explain relationships, transfers of functions, competition and cooperation amongst institutions. ITA: 2.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1. Briefly’ describe six of the more important characteristics of social institutions. 2, List the five major social institutions and explain two functions of each that you consider more central to it. 3. Explain briefly how the five major social institutions influence one another.

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REFERENCES Balandier, Georges (1 967) Political Anthropology, (London: Allen Lane, 1 970) Durkheirn, Emile (1922) Education and Sociology, (Glencoe, III: Free Press, 1956) Ember, CR. & Ember M. (1981) Cultural Anthropology, (NJ: Presence-Hall, mc) Engels, Friedrich (1 884) The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, (NY:International Publishers, 1 972) Igho, E.M. (2003) Basic Sociology, (Enugu: CIDJAP Press) Mitchel, G. Duncan (1 968) A Dictionary f Sociology, (London: Rutledge & KeganPaul) Parsons, T. (1 95 1) The Social System, (NY: Free Press) Radcliffe-Brown, A.R (1952) Structure and Function in Primitive Society, (London:Cohen and West) Sthpra, 1. (1956) Government and Politics in Tribal Sacictics (Lond.on; Watt Weber, Max (1 92 1) Economy and Society, Q, part 1, Chp 3, and part 3, Chps 1-3. 2.7 SUGGESTED Readings Bottomore, Tom (1987) Sociology: A Guide to Problems and Literature, Third Edition,(London: Allen & Unwin) Ember, CR. & Ember M. (1981) CulturalAnthropology, (NJ: Presence-Hall, mc) Igbo, E.M. (2003) Basic Sociology, (Enugu: CIDJAP Press) Mitchell, G. Duncan (1968) A Dictionary of Sociology, (London: Rutledge & Kegan Paul)

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3.0. STUDY SESSION 3: SOCIAL GROUPS 3.1 INTRODUCTION In this topic we shall study the following sub-topics: - Basic Types of Groups - Voluntary and Involuntary Groups -In—Group and Out-Groups - Primary and Secondary Gmups - Formal and Informal Structure Of Groups - Group Leadership - Reference Group There are several definitions of the word group in sociology, but the one that appears as most popular define group as ‘any number of people interacting together who share a consciousness of membership based on shared expectations of behavior’. 3.2.1.BAS1C TYPES OF GROUP In studying groups sociologists have identified three basic types of group. In the first a group is seen as any physical collection of people (an aggregation or collectivity). A number of passengers together on a luxurious bus and the spectators at soccer game are both examples of an aggregation or collectivity. The only identifiable common denominator among these people is that they happen to be in the same place at the same time. A second type of group is a number of people who share some common characteristic (a catego’). People who share the same ethnic background, age group, sex and occupation are all examples of members of the same category. The third way of seeing a group is as a number of people who share some organized panern of recurrent interaction. The members of a group such as Parent 29

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Teacher Association (PTA), Students Union, Muslim Students Union or Church Choir are examples of groups, which share some organized pattern of recurrent interaction. 3.2.1.1. VOLUNTARY AND INVOLUNTARY GROUPS In certain cases the individual may elect the groups that he or she wishes to hold membership in; these are referred to as voluntary groups. Students at a university for example are members of a voluntary group. In other cases, however, individuals may he placed in groups through no choice of their own: these are referred to as involuntary groups. Inmates at a prison are menthe’s or involuntary group. 3.2.1.2 IN-GROUP AND OUT-GROUP In order to maintain a distinction between “we” of the group and “they’ who remain outside the group; boundaries are created. The in-group consists of a number of persons in whose presence the individual feels comfortable and at home. The sense of “we-ness” that develops is usually the result of shared common experiences. The boundaries that distinguish members from non-members max’ he either formal or informal. When formal boundaries are present, membership in the group is based on a predetermined criterion such as election to the group. Formal boundaries may he maintained by the use of uniforms, membership cards or insignias. On the other hand, when the in-group develops around some kind of temporary activity, the boundaries that distinguish members from non-members are likely to be informal. The out-group consists of a number of People with whom a person feels a lack of common interests; this person is likely to believe that he or she does not belong. The members of out-group are often stereotyped. To the member of an in-group they do not appear as individuals with varying qualities, but rather as a homogenous group. Typical examples of in-group are the family, religious and ethnic groups, and clubs, organizations and political parties. The members of these groups see for example other family, religious and ethnic groups as out-groups. 3.3.1.3. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROUPS 30

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The primary group may he viewed as analogous to gemenschaft and the secondary group as analogous to gesellschaft. The basic characteristics of the primary group include direct, intimate, face-to-face contact among members, strong emotional ties, permanence, endurance, and strong bonds of affection. Secondary groups ideally have the following characteristics: few emotional ties existing among members, non-permanence, and very limited face-to-face relationships among members .Although all large groups are secondary groups, smaller primary groups can usually be identified within them. The family and the military are ideal examples of primary and secondary groups respectively. 3.3.1.4. FORMAL AND INFORMAL STRUCTURES OF GROUPS The relationship among the members of a group may take many forms, ranging from the formal to the informal. The formal structure of an organization is represented by the formally recognized rules, regulations and conditions that determine the roles of its members. When formal structure is examined, one often finds such documents as by laws, constitutions, statutes and organizational charts outlining the chain of command. Formally structured organizations have the following characteristics: • Established patterns of communication; Formal application of discipline; Assignment of specialized tasks and responsibilities; Recognized chain of amorist; and Application of pre-determined positive and negative sanctions used to reward and punish group members. The one great problem of formal organizations is that the means of achieving stated goals often become more important than the goals themselves develop personal relationship, however, an informal structure will eventually develop within the larger formal structure. Through this informal structure, procedures will emerge that will allow people to solve problems not being adequately covered by formal regulations. 3.3.1.5. REFERENCE GROUP 31

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Reference group are important to an individual as models for making judgments and evaluations about himself or herself. In order to evaluate our behavior, performance, physical appearance, values, and so on, we refer to some standard that is demonstrated by the reference group. If for example a student receives ‘B’ on her social assignment and learns that her grade is the highest in her class, she is likely to experience an increase in her self esteem, but if she learns that threequarters of the students in all the other sections received ‘As’ on the same Soc 101, her level of self-esteem will most likely decrease. 3.3.2. GROUP LEADERSH1P As a leader of a group, an individual should be in a position to influence and direct the behavior of others. Two types of leadership that have been distinguished from one another by sociologists are instrumental leadership and expressive leadership. The instrumental leader is the type who will organize and direct the group, keeping in mind, its goals and objectives and is responsible for formulating the means that will he used to reach these ends. The expressive leader on the other hand, is the type who tends to create feelings of good will and harmony within the group. Morale is usually maintained at a high level, and internal disrupt If is held to a minimum. In their studies of groups sociologists have also found three (3) distinct styles of leadership. The first is the authoritarian leader, who will make all decisions him or herself and simply order others to carry out these decisions. The second is the democratic leader, who vial look to the group for the development of ideas and proposals that vile he implemented in order to accomplish the goals of the organization. Decision-making will be based on group consensus. 1inallv, the laissez-faire leader is the person who usually has other interests, and the direction that the organization will take is not his or her top priority. 3.3. SUMMARY The topic has defined social group and described three basic and four other types of groups. The topic has also been able to describe two types ol group structures and distinguishes between five different types of group leadership. 3.4 INTEX QUESTIONS ITQ: i. Define social group 32

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ii Describe the basic and other types of groups. iii. Explain two types of group structures iv. Distinguish between five different types of group leadership. ITA: 3.4. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1 . Distinguish between in-group and out-group 2. State how primary groups differ from secondary groups 3. Differentiate formal structures of group from the informal ones 3.5. REFERENCES Argyle, M. (1 957) The Scienti!Ic Study of Social Behaviour, (London: Met huen), Part 2,Chp 5, ‘Small Social Groups’Bottomore, Tom (1 987) Sociology: A Guide to Problems and Literature, Third Edit ion,(London: Allen & Unwin) Homans, G.C (1948) The human Group, (NY: Harcourt Brace) Igbo, EM. (2003) Basic Socioloçy, (Enugu: CIDJAP Press) Mitchel, G. I)uncan (1968) A Dictwnary of Sociology, (London: Rutledge & KeganPaul) 3.6. SUGGESTED READINGS Bottornore, Tom (1987) Sociology: A Guide to Problems and Literature, Third Edition, (London: Allen & Unwin) Igbo, E.M. (2003) Basic Sociology, (Enugu: CIDJAP Press) Mitchell, G. Duncan (1 968) A Dictionary ?f Sociology, (London: Rutledge &. KeganPaul)

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4.0. STUDY SESSION 4: SOCIAL STRATIFICATION 4.1. INTRODUCTION in this topic, learn the following sub-topics: - Social class -Status symbol -Class versus caste -Social class and life-style -Functionalist and conflict theories of stratification 4.3.1. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Stratification system in any society ranks individuals in accordance with the number of desirable qualities that they posses and places them in the appropriate social class. Desirable qualities are culturally determined. Thus, among the nomadic Fulani for example, one of the desirable qualities is the number of cattle a man has. In highly polygamous agricultural communities, the number of wives a man is one of the desirable qualities. In present day/modern Nigeria, the desirable qualities include a high income, a large amount of wealth, a good education and participation in a high prestige occupation. 4.3.1.1. SOCIAL CLASS This refers to a segment of the population that differs from other segments of the same population in terms of shared values, prestige, associational activities; Different societies have different social class arrangements such as upper class, middle class, working class and the lower class. Such indicators as income occupation, education, race, religion, sex, location of residence, family background, nationality etc, arc used to place individuals in social classes. 4.3.1.2 STATUS AND STATUS SYMBOL This refers to the social position that an individual holds in a group or the social ranking of a group when it is compared to other groups. Status symbols are valuable possessions the wealthy use as a method of gaining recognition and 34

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ensuring their separation from the other social classes. Examples of these are expensive cars, jewelry, estates, ‘erases vacations, etc. 4.3.1.3 CLASS VERSUS CASTE Caste refers to a rigid sustain of social stratification in which people cannot freely move from one level to another. Unlike social class a person born into a particular caste must remain in it throughout his or her life. Thus, caste is “closed” while social class is “open’. In other words, upward mobility is available in a class system either through hard work, luck, or inter-marriage; in a caste system, it is not available. ‘World known caste system existed in India for 2,500 years before it was abolished in 1949 by the government. The highest caste before the abolishing was Brahmin consisting of scholars and priests, while the lowest caste was Harijans; the outcasts of society. They are also referred to as the untouchables’ because even to be touched by their shadow required ritual purification. 4.3.1.4 SOCIAL CLASS AND IJFESTYI.E Lifestyle refers to the manner in which different social classes establish a style of living along with an accepted set of attitudes and beliefs. The social class into which one belongs has fundamental influence on one’s entire life: -The number of children one will have, - Number of years one will live - One s mental health, - Education - Occupation, - Political behaviour - Marital stability, - Social participation, - Religious affiliation; and, 35

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- Attitudes. 4.3.1.5 CLASS ETHNOCENTRISM Members of all social classes tend to be ethnocentric because they judge members of other social classes as being inferior to themselves. 4.3.2 FUNCTIONALIST AND CONFLICT THEORIES OF STRATIFICAT1ON In the analysis of social stratification two theories or perspectives are prominent; functionalist and conflict theories. The two are opposed to each other. While the functionalists hold that social stratification exists in order to better satisfy the needs of Society’, conflict theorists hold that inequality (i.e. stratification) is not functional to society, but is merely a matter of the wealthy exploiting the poor. In other words, conflict theorists, unlike the functionalists do not believe that the survival of society is dependent on the unequal distribution of rewards such as income, power, status, etc. Such rewards should he equally distributed among the members of society. A popular example of a conflict theorist is Karl Marx, author of the Communist Manifesto and Das Capital. He believed that an individual’s social class position was contingent on his or her relationship to the means of production such as land, factories, wage, labour and other factors of productions. Thus the owners ot natural resources (such as land) and factories will occupy the higher-class positions, while owners of labour or wage earners will occupy the lower positions. These two classes are known as bourgeoisie (i.e. the owners of means of production) and the proletarian or workers (i.e. the owners of only labour). Marx argued that the bourgeoisie, because of their economic political’ controlled the Government and the whole of civil society. Marx concluded however that the proletariat would become conscious of itself as an exploited class and would rise up in revolution to overthrow the bourgeoisie, establish a government of proletariat, and start a classless society. Max Weber, rather than base his definition of social class solely on economic criteria he identified class based on three basic identifiable elements: power, wealth, and prestige. According to him a person may rank high on one variable and low on another. Thus, Weber’s multidimensional approach allows us to consider other variables than economic status when identifying class. 4.4 SUMMARY 36

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This topic has attempted to define social stratification and all other related concepts. It has also been able to distinguish between two major contending theories of social stratification, namely: functionalist and conflict theories. 4.5. INTEXT QUESTION ITQ: Explain the various concepts and processes involved in social stratification in any society including the Nigerian society. ITA: 4.6 SEAF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1. Define social stratification 2. Distinguish between class and caste. 3. Explain how social class influences life-style 4.6 REFERENCES Bottomore, Tom (1987) Sociology: A Guide to Problems and Literature, Third Edition,(London: Allen & Unwin) Dhurkheim, Emile (1893) The Division of Labour, (NY: Macmillan, 1 938) Ember, C.R. & Ember M. (1981) Cultural Anthropology, (NJ: Presence-Hall, mc) Igbo, E.M. (2003) Basic Sociology, (Enugu: CIDJAP Press) Lawrence and Wishart, Ltd (1 968) Mart and Engels: Selected Works in One Volume,(London: Lawrence and Wishart, hd) Turner, J.H. (1984) Societal Strat Ocaelvn: A Theattical Anafrsis, (NY: Colombia Univ. Press) 4.7 SUGGESTED READINGS Bottoniore. Tom (1987) Sociology: A Guide to Problems and Literature, Third Edition,(London: Allen a Unwin) Ember, Cit a Ember M. (1981) Cultural Anthropology, (NJ: Presence-Hall, mc) Igbo, E.M. (2003) Basic Sociology, (Enugu: CIl)fAP Press) 37

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Mitchell, G. Duncan (1968) A Dictionary cf Socioky, (London: Rutledge & Kegan Pad)

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5.0 STUDY SESSION 5. SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 5.1 INTRODUCTIONS In this topic, we shall learn the following sub-topics: - Characteristics of social movements - Types of social movements - Social conditions fostering social movements - Stages of social movements - Membership and leadership of social movements - The functions 01 social movement 5.2.1 .SOC1AI.. MOVEMENTS When a group of individuals are engaged in an organised effort either to maintain or change some elements of the larger society we call such a situation a social movement. It is different from the elementary form of collective behaviour such as a mob because it is more tightly organized and has a life span that is considerably longer. The difference between it and a social institution is the permanence of the later compared to the temporary nature of the former. Examples of social movements are Women in Nigeria (WIN) and various civil and human rights groups in Nigeria. 5.2.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL. MOVEMENTS There are three main characteristics that cut across all social movements: ideology, objectives; and strategies/programs for attempting to reach those objectives. The ideology of a social movement does the following: - Brings its members together - Provides criticism of social conditions as they exist Spell out the objectives of the movement and methods that will be used to reach the objectives. The objectives of a social movement are usually broad hut dearly established and directed towards changes needed by the movement. 39

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The strategic programs for reaching the objectives of social movement vary widely ranging from non-violent sit-ins to murder and destruction of property. 5.3.1.2. TYPES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS There are very many types of social movements, which include the following: • Conservative Movement One that attempts to keep souet 1mm hung changed. • Reform Movement: One that attempts to modify some aspects of the society without completely transforming/changing it. • Progressive Movement: One that attempts to improve society by making positive changes in its institutions and organizations. • Revolutionary Movement: One that attempts to bring quicker and more drastic change within society by toppling down the existing system and replacing it with another. • Migratory Movement: This is a movement of individuals who have experienced much discontent with their preset set of circumstances arid have moved elsewhere with the hope of finding a brighter future. • Regressive (Reactionary) Movement: One that attempts to return conditions to a former state, because they are obviously unhappy with Current state of things or social trends. • Utopian (withdrawal or separatist) Movement: This is an attempt to create an ideal social environment for a rather small group of followers’ or members. • Expressive Movement: Individuals in this movement modify their perception of an unpleasant external reality rather than change the external condition itself because they believe they are faced with a hopeless situation.

5.3.1.3. SOCIAL CONDITIONS FOSTERING SOCIAL MOVEMENTS Conditions such as widespread discontent, frustration, insecurity, social disorganization, alienation, state of formlessness (anomie), etc. can move people to 40

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search for a better life especially when such conditions are accompanied Lw a perceived social injustice. Cultural drift, i.e. changes or modifications in the values of the population of a society, also make many people dissatisfied with their present lifestyle and therefore come together to bring about other changes in society that are consists with Their needs. 5.3.1.4. STAGES OF SOC1AL MOVEMENTS Once social movements emerged at a time of crisis they grow at various rates, and then either disappear or become institutionalized. ‘N.E. Gettv identified five (5) stages through which social movements develop viz: Unrest Stage: A malfunction of a system creates general dissatisfaction in the population. This stage may last for many years before social movements begin to emerge. Excitement Stage: After attention has been focused on the conditions causing unrest, a collectivity is gathered. Agitators or leaders generate the excitement present within the collectivity. Individuals of the collectivity are told that there are many others who share their problems. and that collectivity they can solve these problems. Formalization Stage: At this stage, a formal organized structure, with a hierarchy of officers, emerges. The ideology of the movement is made clear to a membership that is now disciplined. The reasons for discontent/frustrations, the objectives of the movement, and the plan of action are spelled out in details. Institutionalization Stage: At this stage a bureaucracy is established and professional disciplined leadership replaces the charismatic figures of the earlier stages. 5.3.1.5. MEMBERSHIP AND IEADERSHJP OF SOCIAL. MOVEMENTS Members of social movements tend to be individuals who have not been well integrated into either their family or community. They are most likely insecure, restless, bored, lonely, alienated and frustrated. They are generally dissatisfied with their conditions in life and tend to view’ any change from the status quo as better. The dedication (i.e. support and loyalty) of members of a movement is crucial for it to be successful. In most. Cases the dedication is created and maintained through the use of propaganda, speeches, slogans, badges and ideologies. This means that 41

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effective leadership is very significant. The two types of leadership are very important for social movement to be successful. The are charismatic and administrative leaderships. The former has the capability to rally masses of people in support of the course of the movement by inspiring enthusiasm among followers, arousing excitement, and encouraging them to unite in pursuant of the course of the movement. The administrative leader on the other hand must be concerned with very practical matters, including the organization of the movement, recruitment, the delegation of duties and responsibilities, fund-raising and public relations. 5.3.1.6. THE FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL.. MOVEMENT Successful movements have led to changes in legislation that have produced a new and better life for millions of people. Similarly, successful movements have resulted in the institutionalization of many programs that have ensured the equal protection and equal rights of many groups who at one time were discriminated against. 5.4 INTEXT QUESTIONS ITQ: i. Define social movements, ii. Describe various types of social movements, iii. Explain the factors that give rise to social movements, and describe the stages, membership and leadership of social movements. iv.

Understand the functions of social movements.

ITA: 5.5. SUMMARY In this lecture you have been able to define social movements, describe various types of social movements, explain the factors that give rise to social movements, and describe the stages, membership and leadership of social movements. In addition, we are able to highlight on the functions of social movements. 5.6. SELFASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 42

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1. State the three major characteristics of all social movements. 2. Distinguish between progressive social movements, reactionary social movements, and conservative social movements. 3. Explain the differences between reform movement, revolutionary movement and withdrawal or separatist movements. 5.7. REFERENCES Bottomore, Tom (1 987) Sociology: A Guide to Pivbleins aiul Literature, Third Edition,(London: Allen & Unwin) Storr, Merl (2002) ‘Sociology and Social Movements: theories, analyses and ethical dilemmas’ in Hamilton, P. and Thompson, K (eds.) The Uses of Sociohgy, (The Open University, UK: Blackwell Publishers) 5.8. SUGGESTED Readings Bottomore, Toni (1987) Sociology: A Guide to Problems and Literature, Third Edition,(London: Allen & Unwin) Storr, Merl (2002) ‘Sociology and Social Movements: theories, analyses and ethical dilemmas’ in Hamilton, P. and Thompson, K (eds.) The Uses qf Sociology, (The Open University, U1(: Blackwell Publishers)

SOLUTIONS TO SELF ASSESMENT QUESTIONS (SAQ) STUDY SESSION 1: SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN SOCIOLOGY

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QUESTION 1: From your understanding of the culture concept and its complexity, State whether or not there is a Nigerian culture. ANSWER: This question is an analytical one. First you need to define culture from at least two perspectives. Tailor for example, defined culture as: That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs and all other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society Similarly, L. Mair defined culture as: ‘the common possession of a body of people who share the same tradition. in social terms a body is a society”. From the two modern definitions of culture we can see that culture, rather than being the product of the psychic properties of a particular race, it is a social phenomenon which cut-across societies. Culture therefore, is something that is shared by “group of people who inhabit a common area”. It goes without saving therefore that Nigeria has a culture. However, conceptualizing Nigerian culture is complicated by social and ethnic diversity, this complication has led man’ people to argue or think that we cannot talk of a Nigerian culture. They are wrong. There is a Nigerian culture, but it is a complicated one. QUESTION 2: Describe briefly the basic concepts listed below. Illustrate your answers with examples. a) Ascribed and achieved status; b) Prescribed and enacted roles; c) Role distance; d) Role strains, and; e) Role failure. ANSWER: a) Ascribed and Achieved Status: Ascribed Status is acquired by the individual at birth and is based, for the most part, on the family background of the newborn 44

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child and Achieved Status refers to the process of acquiring a status position because of hard work and demonstrated ability on the part of the individual. b) Prescribed and enacted roles: The manner in which society expects us to carry out a particular role is referred to as the prescribed role. An enacted role is the way in which a person actually carries out a particular role. c) Role distance: An individual who performs a particular role in an emotionally detached manner is showing a characteristic referred to as role distance. Role strains: Difficulties in carrying out an expected role because of conflicting obligations or expectations pertaining to that role Role failure: Inability to carry out one’s role successfully. QUESTION 3: Explain the following within the context of socialization process e. The family; f. The school; g. Peer groups, and; h. Mass media. ANSWER: The four concepts above are agents of socialization. In other ivords they are the media for socializing the individual members of society. The family: The values that we as individuals have and the various roles that we are expected to play are initially learned within the family setting. The ‘school: The school is the agencY Primarily responsible for transmitting the accumulated knowledge and ways of a society to its young people once they reach five or six years of age. l u’ugtl” nrta1pn,c.P )fnarg1 up ma,” hr eatinij to the family it is probably the most influential agent of socialization. As an agent of socialization, the peer group reaches its peak of influence during adolescence. 45

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Mass Media: these refer to such things as books, newspapers, magazines. television, and radios. The mass media have been playing an important role in the socialization process in modern world especially in the developed world. It has been noted that the mass media may both reinforce norms and distort norms by giving the impression that what is transmitted or printed represents a true reflection of society STUDY SESSION 2: SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS QUESTION 1: Briefly describe six of the more important characteristics of social institutions. ANSWER: The six more important characteristics of social institutions are as follows: 1. Each institution has as its primary objective the satisfaction of specific social needs. 2. Institutions embody the ultimate values that are shared by their members. 3. Institutions are relatively permanent, in that the behaviour patterns established within the institutions become part of the tradition of the given culture. 4. The social bases of institutions are so broad that their activities occupy a central place within a society; a dramatic change in one institution is likely to produce changes in the others. 5. Even though all institutions are interdependent within a society, each individual institution is highly structured and organised around an expected set of norms, values, and behaviour patterns. 6. The ideals of an institution are generally accepted by the great majority of the members of a society regardless of whether or not they actually participate in the institution. QUESTION 2: List the five major social institutions and explain two functions of each that you consider more central to it. ANSWER: 46

SOC 101: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY II

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The family Institution: It performs the following two major functions Out of many: a) regulation of sexual behavior, and; b) replacement of members from generation to generation through reproduction. The Education: It. performs the following two major functions out of many: a) providing preparation for occupational roles, and; b) promoting change through involvement in scientific research. The religious institution: It performs the following two major functions out of many: a) Assistance in the search for moral identity, and; b) Providing interpretations to help explain one’s physical and social environment. The Economic institution: It performs the following two major functions out of many: a) Distribution of goods and services along with distribution of economic resources (labour and equipment); and; b) consumptions of goods and services. Political Institutions: a) establishment of services such as health care, education, welfare, etc, and; b) protection of citizens from attack by other nations and maintenance of civil alertness to danger. QUESTION 3: Explain briefly how the five major social institutions influence one another. ANSWER: As we have already seen, social institutions may overlap and share certain functions. The institutions are so closely interwoven within society that they not only interact with each other but also indeed are interdependent and interrelated in a number of ways. Because institutions are so closely interrelated, they tend to support and depend upon one another in order to be collectively effective. For example, since a very large part of our educational system lies in the public sector, educational institutions are closely related to governmental institutions, especially units of state and local government. There is also a strong element of competition among institutions that max’ eventually lead to the weakening of one or more elements within an institution. This competitive spirit exists because each institution, by performing a variety of essential functions, vilI enter into competition with another institution that may 47

SOC 101: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY II

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perform the same function. It should also be noted that certain institutions might place considerable influence over others. For example, while the liberal scholars believe that the governmental institutions exert a good deal of influence over the other four institutions, the Marxist believes that it is the economy that exerts more influence over the other institutions and cultural ideas. STUDY SESSION 3: SOCIAL GROUPS QUESTION 1: Distinguish between in-group and out-group ANSWER: In order to maintain a distinction between “we” of the group and “they” who remain outside the group, boundaries are created. The in-group consists of a number of persons in whose presence the individual feels comfortable and at home. The sense of “we-ness” that develops is usually the result of shared common experiences. The out-group consists of a number of people with whom a person feels a lack of common interests; this person is likely to believe that he or she does not belong. QUESTION 2: State how primary groups differ from secondary groups? ANSWER: The basic characteristics of the primary group include direct, intimate, face-to-face contact among members, strong emotional ties, permanence, endurance, and strong bonds of affection. Secondary groups ideally have the following characteristics: few emotional ties existing among members, non-permanence, and very limited face-to- face relationships among members. QUESTION 3: Differentiate formal structures of group from the informal ones. ANSWER: The formal structure of an organization is represented by the formally recognized rules, regulations and conditions that determine the roles of its members. When formal structure is examined, one often finds such documents as by-laws, constitutions, statutes and organizational charts outlining the chain of command. As members of a formally structured organization get to know each other and 48

SOC 101: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY II

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develop personal relationship, however, an informal structure will eventually develop within the larger formal structure. Through this informal structure, procedures will emerge that will allow people to solve problems not being adequately covered by formal regulations. STUDY SESSION 4: SOCIAL STRATW1ATiON QUESTION 1: Define social stratification ANSWER: Stratification system in any society ranks individuals in accordance with the number of desirable qualities that they posses and places them in the appropriate social class. Desirable qualities are culturally determined. Thus, among the nomadic Fulani for example, one of the desirable qualities is the number of cattle a man has. In highly polygamous agricultural communities, the number of wives a man is one of the desirable qualities. In lwem davmodern Nigeria, the desirable qualities include a high income, a large amount of wealth, a good education and participation in a high prestige occupana. QUESTION 2: Distinguish between class and caste. ANSWER: A social class refers to a segment of the population that differs from other segments of the same population in terms of shared values, prestige. associational activities, accumulated wealth and other personal possessions and social etiquette. Caste refers to a rigid system of social stratification in which people cannot freely move from one level to another. Unlike social class a person born into a particular caste must remain in it throughout his or her life. Thus, caste is “closed” while social class is “open”. In other words, upward mobility is available in a class system either through hard work, luck, or inter-marriage; in a caste system, it is not available. QUESTION 3: Explain how social class influences life-style ANSWER: Lifestyle refers to the manner in which different social classes establish a style of 49

SOC 101: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY II

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living along with an accepted set of attitudes and beliefs. The social class into which one belongs has fundamental influence on one’s entire life in the following number of ways, viz.: • The number of children one will have, • Number of years one will live • One’s mental health, • Education, • Occupation, • Political behaviour • Marital stability, • Social participation, • Religious affiliation; and, • Attitudes. STUDY SESSION 5: SOCIAL MOVEMENTS QUESTION I: State the three major characteristics of all social movements. ANSWER: There are three main characteristics that cut across all social movements, which are ideology; objectives, and; strategies/programs for attempting to reach those objectives. QUESTION 2: Distinguish between progressive social movements, reactionary social movements, and conservative social movements. ANSWER: Progressive social movement is one that attempts to improve society h’ making positive changes in its institutions and organiSations. Conservative social movement is one that attempts to keep society from being changed. And 50

SOC 101: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY II

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reactionary or regressive social movement is one that attendant to return conditions to a tower state, because the members of the movement are obviously unhappy with current state of things or social trends. QUESTION 3: Explain the differences between i-eform movement, revolutionary movement and withdrawal or separatist movements. ANSWER: Reform movement is one that attempts to modify some aspects of the Society without completely transforming or changing it. Revolutionary Movement is one that attempts to bring quicker and more drastic change within society by dismantling the existing system and replacing it with another. Utopian withdrawal, separatist or utopian movement is one I hat attempts to create an ideal social environment for a rather small group (>1 followers or ifleml)ers.. TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT INSTRUCTION: Answer c1I questions TIME Allowed: 3 Hours 1. List and explain six of the more important characteristics of social institutions. 2. Discuss how social class influences life-style. 3. Distinguish between progressive social movements and conservative social movements. 4. Write short notes on the following groups i. In—group and out—group ii. Primary and secondary groups iii. Voluntary and involuntary groups iv. Formal and informal St Wet tires of groups.

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