University of Bath Mahamavo Expedition 2009: Final Report

Mahamavo forest and wetlands, western Madagascar 4th July – 19th August 2009 In conjunction with Development & Biodiversity Conservation Action for Madagascar (DBCAM) Aim: To characterise forest structure, survey the biodiversity of birds, reptiles and lemurs of Mahamavo forest and associated wetlands, and complete a socioeconomic survey. Authors: Harri Washington Mamy Rabenoro, Nirina Andriambololona, Olly Griffin, Frazer Higgins, Tim Osmond, Punit Shah, Virginie Marie Clementine Department of Natural Sciences University of Bath Claverton Down Bath BA2 7AY [email protected] www.mahamavo.org

Contents Page 1 Summary

4

2 Introduction

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3 Location

7

3.1 3.2

Topographical map Satellite image

7 8

4 Expedition members

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4.1 4.2

9 9

UK team members Host country members

5 Fieldwork and research

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5.1 5.2

10 10

Background planning and aims Biodiversity survey 5.2.1 5.2.2

5.3

Methods: fieldwork and follow-up Results

10 13

5.2.2.1 Incidental observations

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Socioeconomic survey 5.3.1 5.3.2

Methods: fieldwork and follow-up Results 5.3.2.1 From a male perspective 5.3.2.2 From a female perspective 5.3.2.3 Incidental observations

5.4

Discussions and conclusions

6 Administration and logistics 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9

Destination area Research materials and information sources Training and equipment testing Permission and permits Fund-raising Finances Insurance Travel, transport and freighting Food and accommodation

16 16 17 18 21 25 26 31 31 31 31 32 32 33 33 34 35

6.10 6.11 6.12

Communications Specialist equipment Risks and hazards

36 36 37

6.12.1 Original risk assessment 6.12.2 Implementation of risk assessment in the field 6.13 6.14

Medical arrangements Environmental and social impact assessment 6.14.1 Pre-expedition assessment 6.14.2 Post-expedition evaluation

6.15 6.16

Itinerary Photography and sound recordings

37 38 39 40 40 41 41 41

7 Diary

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8 Conclusion

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9 Acknowledgements

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10 Appendices

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10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8

Summary of finances Design of data collection sheets Raw field data Database Complete species lists Full socioeconomic report Photographs Equipment donated to partner NGO

50 56 60 60 61 64 95 97

11 Address list and web links

99

12 Bibliography

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13 Distribution list

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1

Summary

This expedition aimed to perform the first extensive assessment of the biodiversity and habitat of Mahamavo forest and associated wetlands, north-west Madagascar, accompanied by base-line socioeconomic data. Line transects sampled presence and abundance of lemurs, reptiles and amphibians, point counts were used to assess birds. Socioeconomic data was gathered through informal interviews. Due to insufficient manpower, habitat surveys were not undertaken. In total, 74 bird, seven lemur, eighteen reptile and two amphibian (plus two unidentified) species were recorded across the four study sites. Ten of these species feature on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, including the Critically Endangered Madagascar Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vociferoides which is hunted in some areas. The likely threats to Mahamavo biodiversity include hunting (of e.g. lemurs), and habitat loss or damage caused by „slash and burn‟ agriculture, practised to clear land for cultivation or to produce fresh growth for cattle grazing. Livestock farming and agriculture are the main activities here, providing income for 60-80% of the population. Forest resource extraction is the primary livelihood of up to 20% of the population. Many locals are unaware of the international conservation importance of their native species. Results suggest that Mahamavo could qualify for designation as an Important Bird Area or Ramsar site (Wetland of International Importance). The whole region currently has no protection, but provides habitat for several threatened species, some of which are hunted. The government identified Mahamavo for preliminary research and the results show it is of key importance in conserving Madagascan biodiversity.

Cette expédition vise à réaliser la première évaluation complète de la biodiversité et de l'habitat de la forêt Mahamavo et zones humides associées, (Ladite forêt se situe au Nord-Ouest de Madagascar), accompagnée de la ligne de base données socio-économiques. Ligne transect échantillonnée le presence et l'abondance des lémurs, des reptiles et des amphibiens, point chefs d'accusation ont été utilisées pour évaluer les oiseaux. Les données socio-économiques ont été recueillies par le biais d'entretiens informels. En raison d'un manque de main-d‟œuvre, l'habitat enquêtes ont été pas menées. Au total, 74 oiseaux, sept lemuriformes, dix-huit reptiles et amphibiens deux (plus deux non identifiés) espèces ont été enregistrées sur les quatre sites d‟études. Dix de ces espèces sont inscrites sur la Liste Rouge de l‟UICN (espèces menacées), dont le Pygargue de Madagascar (Haliaeetus vociferoides) qui est gravement menacées et chassé dans certains domaines. Les menaces susceptibles pour la biodiversité de Mahamavo comprennent la chasse (p. ex. lemurs) et la perte de l'habitat ou dommages causés par l'agriculture 'barre oblique et brûler', pratiquée pour nettoyer des terres arables pour la culture ou de produire des frais de croissance pour les bovins de pâturage. L‟élevage et l'agriculture sont les principales activités ici, prévoyant des revenus de 60 à 80 % de la population. L‟extraction de ressources forestières est le principal gagne-pain du 20 % de la population. De nombreux habitants ne connaissent pas l'importance de la conservation internationale de leurs espèces indigènes. Les résultats suggèrent que Mahamavo pourraient bénéficier de la désignation comme un site important de réseau d'oiseaux ou de Ramsar (Zones humides d'importance internationale). L'ensemble de la région actuellement n'a aucune protection, mais offre un habitat pour plusieurs espèces menacées, dont certaines sont chassées. Le gouvernement a identifié Mahamavo pour des recherches préliminaires et les résultats montrent que c'est une importance capitale dans la conservation de la biodiversité malgache.

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Ity fitsidihana fikarohana ity dia nahafaha-nanombana ny harena voajanahary sy ny toera-ponenana amin‟ny alan‟i Mahamavo (amin‟ny faritra avaratra andrefan‟i Madagasikara) sy ireo faritra mando ao aminy, ny lafiny fiaraha-monina sy toe-karena koa moa dia voadinika noho izany. Ny santionantoerana nikarohana dia nahalalana ny hamaron‟ireo ragidro, ny biby mandady sy mikisaka ary indrindra koa ny amin‟ny vorona.Serasera malalaka moa no paika nahalalana ny momba ny fiarahamonina sy toe-karena.Noho ny tsy fahampian‟ny tana-manefa anefa dia mbola vitsy ihany ireo toerana tra-pikarohana. Amin‟ny ankapobeny dia karazam-borona 74, karazan-dragidro fito ary biby mandady sy mikisaka ankevitry ny roapolo any ho any no hita tamin‟ireo toerana efatra nanaovana fikarohana.Am-polony amin‟ireo karazam-biby ireo dia voalaza ao amin‟ny Lisitra Menan‟ny UICN fa tadindomin-doza (espèces menacées), ary ao anatin‟izany koa ny vorona atao hoe Ankoay (Haliaeetus vociferoides) izay voalaza fa atahorana ho lany tamingana (gravement menacée) nefa hazain‟ny olona amin‟ny faritra sasantsasany aza. Ny loza mananontanona ny zavaboaarin‟i Mahamavo dia ny fihazana (amin‟ny trangan‟ny ragidro ohatra), eo koa ny fahasimbana ateraky ny afo tsy voafehy sy voalanjalanja amin‟ny haitaom-pambolena na ireo iniana atao hampitombo ny sakafon‟ireo biby fiompy mikarenjy.Ny fambolena sy fiompiana no asa fototra fivelomam-pon‟ny olona ao.60 hatramin‟ny 80 isan-jaton‟ny mponina dia manao izany asa izany avokoa. Ny 20 isan-jato eo ho eo kosa dia ny fitrandrahana ny ala no ataony antom-pivelomana.Ny ankabeazan‟ny mponina dia tena tsy mahalala ny tombontsoa azo avy amin‟ny fiarovana sy fikolokoloana ireo zavaboaary ao aminy. Ny vokatry ny fikarohana dia nahafahana naka tsoakevitra fa: hahazo tombontsoa ny mponina ao an-toerana raha toa isaina ho faritra mahaliana momba ny vorona na isaina ho faritra mando Ramsar ny faritra Mahamavo.Ny ankabeazan‟ny faritra, amin‟izao ankehitriny izao dia tsy misy fiarovana sy fikarakarana.Amin‟ny alalan‟ny fikarohana sava ravina toa itony, ny Fitondrana Malagasy dia afaka naka tsoa-kevitra ny mahazava-dehibe tokoa ny fikoloana ny zavaboaary malagasy.

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2

Introduction

No extensive biodiversity assessment of the Mahamavo region of dry forests and associated wetlands had ever been carried out, although nearby Mahajamba Bay and the immediately adjacent forests were declared an Important Bird Area (IBA) following a brief visit by Projet ZICOMA in 1999. This was due to the recorded presence of Haliaeetus vociferoides (Madagascar Fish Eagle, Critically Endangered) and Ardea humbloti (Humblot‟s Heron, Endangered) (IUCN 2010). As a result of the anticipated value of the Mahamavo region in terms of biodiversity, our partner NGO in Madagascar, Development and Biodiversity Conservation Action for Madagascar (DBCAM), was invited by the Ministry of Water and Forests to undertake a comprehensive assessment of the biodiversity of the large patches of dry forest and associated wetlands there. In rural villages in western Madagascar, people rely on their immediate environment for almost all subsistence needs. Viewed in the context of human population growth and migration, global climate change and potential future commercial exploitation of forest resources, it is critical to understand the Mahamavo socio-ecological system in order for the needs of this region to be taken into account during environmental policy making in Madagascar. The expedition aimed to make a genuine contribution to biodiversity conservation by collecting some of the evidence base essential for conservation planning, and by disseminating this information effectively to stakeholders including regional governments, environment ministries and international NGOs. The envisaged outputs for the expedition were species lists for lemurs, birds, reptiles and amphibians present in the Mahamavo forest and associated wetlands, allowing the identification of the key features of biodiversity present at this site. In addition, it was hoped to identify areas where forest cover has changed or wetland extent altered with reference to two sheets of 1:100 000 topographic maps from 1970 and historical satellite images. The simple socioeconomic survey would produce vital information – such as human population sizes in the villages of the region and areas of forest used by local people – needed to make management decisions about the site. Results would be presented in map form wherever possible to make the results more widely understandable, particularly where a language barrier may exist. The problems facing Madagascar are both environmental and socio-political in nature, and the root cause of both of these issues can be attributed to energy usage. Over 70% of the current population live in rural communities, and with only 3% having access to electricity, biomass is the primary source of fuel. This reliance on biomass has led to large scale deforestation – destroying habitats and endangering further the vulnerable endemic species of Madagascar. Lack of electricity means that communication with the majority of the population is extremely difficult and the introduction of governmental institutions such as hospitals and schools has proved a major challenge. One member of the team, Tim Osmond, undertook research to target small scale power needs, based either on single household or small community scales, using easily maintainable and affordable technology to satisfy the primary requirements of the people concerned. The primary goal was to develop ideas to reduce the quantity of biomass used to decrease future deforestation, with a secondary aim of electricity generation. Initially all forms of energy generation were considered, utilising a vast array of papers published on the subject to refine investigation. The feasible possibilities were narrowed down to wind power and some form of direct solar power. The aim of this side project of the expedition was to develop a prototype in the field and test its efficiency and practicality, allowing for thorough evaluation with the plan to further develop the design at a later date.

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3 3.1

Topographical map

Location

3.2

Satellite image

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4 4.1

Expedition Members

UK team members

Harri Washington: 21; third year Natural Sciences undergraduate at University of Bath, outdoor experience, French spoken, experience of working with an NGO in Africa; expedition team leader (in field logistics, liaison with local authorities and general organisation), responsible for accounts, data analysis and writing of final report; performed herptile and lemur surveys. Olly Griffin: 21; final year Natural Sciences undergraduate at University of Bath, outdoor experience, graphic design and advanced web design; responsible for publicity and science communication – in the field this entailed communicating research aims and preliminary findings in the field through media (blogs, slideshow presentations and a website); performed mainly lemur and herptile surveys, also bird point counts. Tim Osmond: 23; Automotive Engineering MEng from University of Bath (undergraduate at the time of the expedition), interest in renewable technologies for energy generation, French spoken; responsible for logistics in UK, in the field responsible for photographing species found, and first aid and medical treatment; performed herptile and lemur surveys, and spent some time developing a prototype solar energy collector for heating water. Frazer Higgins: 22; Biology BSc from University of Bath (undergraduate at the time of the expedition), field experience in Honduras and Trinidad, familiarity with GIS; responsible for biodiversity records, in the field responsible for data analysis using GIS and satellite imaging; performed mainly bird point counts, and also some herptile and lemur surveys. Punit Shah: 21; final year Natural Sciences undergraduate at University of Bath, outdoor experience; prior to the expedition responsible for arranging first aid training and formulating risk assessments, in the field responsible for helping the cooks; performed bird point counts.

4.2

Host country members

Sam The Seing: 30; MSc Ecology, ornithologist, consultancy experience with WWF, WCS, CI and Peregrine Fund, fluent English; DBCAM project manager; responsible for logistics in Madagascar. Marc Rabenandrasana: 35; MSc Ecology, ornithologist, consultancy experience with MOBOT, Birdlife and Dynatec, fluent English; DBCAM technical advisor; responsible for bird point counts and bird identification in the field. Virginie Marie Clementine: 38; MSc Botany, consultancy experience with Projet ZICOMA and Birdlife, good English; DBCAM administrator; responsible in the field for botany and ornithology, performed bird point counts and helped with provisional habitat surveys. Rabenoro Mamy: 33; MSc Anthropology, considerable experience working with rural communities in western Madagascar, good English; DBCAM social scientist; responsible for social science data collection and analysis, and helping with in-field logistics. Nirina Andriambololona: 31; BSc Law, expert on ecotourism and sustainable tourism, fluent English; director of DBCAM; responsible in the field for social science data collection and analysis, and for translation between UK team and local people.

5 5.1

Fieldwork and Research

Background planning and aims

The study location and potential for research was first envisaged by Malagasy NGO Development and Biodiversity Conservation Action for Madagascar (DBCAM). This organisation has links with University of Bath through Dr. Peter Long, to whom the DBCAM members communicated their desire to work in the Mahamavo region. The expedition leader, Harri Washington, contacted Peter for suggestions of expeditions to carry out in Madagascar and was put in contact with DBCAM. DBCAM was set up with the aim to integrate biodiversity conservation with rural development in Madagascar, with a particular focus on the empowerment of women. The staff has a good working relationship with the local people in the Mahamavo area and brought considerable taxonomic expertise to the team. The advantages for DBCAM of collaborating with a British team were two-fold. The team from the University of Bath had the means to leverage some grant funding in support of the project from UK-based organisations (applications to some of which would have been impossible for foreign researchers). In addition the UK students would complement the skills of the Malagasy members by providing knowledge of using GIS, sophisticated population biology analysis, scientific writing, and science communication to disseminate the results to a wider audience. DBCAM are well placed to ensure that the results of the expedition are disseminated and used locally, and delivered to appropriate policy makers. With help from Dr. Long, the expedition was organised with input from UK members and Malagasy members, with an outlined aim to characterise forest structure and survey the biodiversity of birds, reptiles, amphibians and lemurs of Mahamavo forest and associated wetlands, and interpret these patterns in the local socio-economic context. This would be undertaken via the following objectives: -

Visit four village sites Establish sixty sample sites in forest to characterise habitat structure and as ground-truth locations Conduct ten minute bird point counts at one hundred locations in forest and wetlands, each repeated four times Complete four repeated time-constrained active searches for herptiles along sixteen transects Complete four time-constrained active searches for lemurs along sixteen transects Gather baseline socio-economic data on the four base-villages by interviewing key informants.

Originally, four villages were outlined as sample study sites: Namakia, Mariarano, Ampasimaleotra and Ankilahila. In the months running up to the expedition, several DBCAM members made a reconnaissance trip to the study area and decided that it would be more suitable to instead visit Ambenja, Mitsinjo, Antanambao and Mariarano. These villages are much closer together than those originally proposed, meaning more time could be given to data collection, as travelling between sites only took one day each time rather than several. There was also better access available to forest sites of interest from the amended village selection.

5.2

Biodiversity survey

5.2.1 Methods: fieldwork and follow-up Data was collected from four sites in the Mahamavo region, along specified transects. The four villages visited were Ambenja, Mitsinjo, Antanambao and Mariarano. Base camp was set up in the villages visited, with one exception. At Antanambao base camp was set up roughly five kilometres from the village, in order to access the forest of Antanikofo. In all sites three transects were created, starting at, or just outside base camp, and continuing for up to four kilometres. The transects followed pre-existing paths through forest and other habitat. Pre-existing paths were chosen to minimise time spent creating a transect, so that more time

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could be spent on data collection. In order to cover as large an area as possible at each site, and to cover as many habitats as possible, the transects radiated from a point, away from each other on different bearings. Bird surveys Presence and abundance of bird species data was gathered using bird point counts (Bibby et al 1998, Sutherland 2006). A team of three or four people followed a transect, stopping roughly every ten minutes to perform a bird point count. This method was fine-tuned from an original unspecified amount of time spent walking in between points after the first set of data collection in Ambenja yielded few point counts on each transect. For each point count, the location was noted using GPS to provide UTM coordinates. The time, date and observers were also noted, as well as weather conditions such as wind and rain, which could affect the species seen. A „settling period‟ of five minutes was allowed before the data was collected – a period of time during which all members of the group remained still and silent at the location of the point count to allow any birds present to accustom to their presence after the initial disturbance of arrival. The group then remained silent for ten minutes, listening and looking for birds. Any birds seen or heard were recorded by species, group size, distance in metres from the point, and method (seen/heard). To ensure that individual birds were not listed twice, once sighted by one member the birds in question were indicated to the other members of the group with a pre-determined set of gestures allowing communication of whether the bird had been recorded or not without breaking the silence. Before moving on, the point was marked with plastic strips tied to branches, in a prominent location to the transect path. Bird species were identified at the time of sighting with the aid of a field guide and where necessary the guidance of the two Malagasy members who were ornithologists. Bird point counts were repeated all the way along the transect, and the whole transect was studied again in this way at least once, to provide more repeatable data. On the last repetition, each marker was removed in order to prevent a negative impact on the environment. When studying birds in the wetlands surrounding Mariarano, it was envisaged that a similar method of point counts as used in the forest would be the best way to gather data. However, once out on the water it became clear that the small local boats used would struggle to be kept stationary (without making much noise) for ten minutes in order to complete a count. As a result, the method was changed to keep the locations obtained by GPS more accurate, and a bird occasions study used instead; similar to the way in which data was gathered for lemurs and herptiles. The time, date, transect followed, weather conditions and UTM coordinates of the start were noted, and then on each occurrence of a bird the species name, group size, estimated perpendicular distance from the route and UTM coordinates were recorded on the data sheets. Due to time constraints and difficulties posed by the tidal nature of the area studied, the exact transects were not repeated; however the routes followed give a good overview of the immediate wetland area. Reptile and amphibian surveys Presence and abundance of herptile (reptile and amphibian) species was recorded using a time-constrained active walk along each transect (Bennett 1999, Sutherland 2006). At the beginning of each transect the time, date, weather conditions, UTM coordinates and observers were noted. Herptile transect walks were timed to run over the middle of the day, when many reptiles would be found basking in the midday heat. Those collecting the data would proceed slowly along the transect, noting each sighting of a reptile or amphibian with the species name, group size, estimated perpendicular distance in metres from the path and the location in the form of UTM coordinates. In addition, any particular features about the individual seen were recorded – for example on one transect in Mariarano, several Phelsuma species were seen with a limb missing. Effort was made to actively look for herptiles by for example, lifting up dead wood, or peeling back dead bark from trees. Each herptile walk was repeated on a different day to ensure as many species present in the area were recorded as possible. Identification books were taken on transects, and where possible the species were identified when sighted. Also, the team photographer Tim Osmond took pictures of most specimens, particularly when it was felt that identification would need to be confirmed by consulting others back at base camp or by examining the defining characters in more detail than was possible without startling the individual in question.

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Lemur surveys Data on lemur species present in the area was collected in much the same way as for herptiles. Transects were followed and time-constrained active searches carried out (Barnett and Dutton 1995, Sutherland 2006). The time, date, UTM coordinates, weather conditions and observers were noted. Each sighting of lemurs would be recorded with species name, group size, estimated perpendicular distance from the path and UTM coordinates. Additional information such as the presence of juveniles was also recorded next to the relevant entries. As well as looking for active lemurs, tree holes and thick tangles of branches were examined using binoculars to search for species sleeping at the time of the transect. Two identification books were taken out onto the transects to aid with identification; the photographs in these were also shown to the guides to seek their opinion on the classification. Each transect was repeated at least once. Habitat surveys Two habitat surveys were carried out following the method elucidated when planning the fieldwork. This was to take a random location along a transect and mark out a 20 metre by 20 metre square, with the point on the transect being used as the south-west corner of the square. The location of the quadrat was recorded using UTM coordinates taken from a GPS unit, and the time and date of the survey noted on a specially designed data collection sheet. The diameter at breast height (dbh) of all trees greater than dbh=10cm was measured, in order to approximate basal area. The height of the canopy was estimated by using trigonometry to measure the height of six randomly selected trees within the quadrat. The number of dead trees – key habitat features – was recorded as was the estimated number of saplings (defined as having a dbh of less than 10 centimetres) in a sub-quadrat with dimensions of 4 by 4 metres (Newton 2007). This method was tested in woodland surrounding University of Bath prior to the expedition, and the methods were found to be suitable and applicable. However in the field, certain constraints were discovered. The forest visited by many of the transects was so dense that one habitat survey took three people two hours to complete. Due to the nature of the need to divide the expedition team into smaller groups to complete all of the data collection, a group of more than three people was not available to carry out the habitat surveys. It is estimated that with a group of five to six people, one habitat survey could be completed in Mahamavo forest in roughly half an hour. The expedition team had insufficient time and manpower to complete the originally envisaged sixty habitat surveys, and instead were only able to carry out two. This however had the important opportunity to highlight problems with the method that could not have been ascertained in the UK before the expedition, and to outline possible steps that could be taken by an expedition team in the future to enable this useful data to be collected. In order to provide a reference for the habitats studied in the absence of the specified surveys, several photographs were taken and a written note made of the habitats passed through by each transect. This is a substitute for the habitat survey to allow at least a primitive association to be made between the organisms found and the habitat in which they are present. Recording incidental observations All expedition members kept personal field notebooks recording the presence and details of interesting things encountered on transects or otherwise that were not necessarily the direct focus of the work being carried out. For example the lemur and herptile team recorded information including GPS location of birds seen on transects. This proved to be an invaluable addition as this team witnessed the presence of two Red List classified birds that were not seen by the bird team when studying the same transects. Also, notes were made of human disturbances in the forest, and information given by local people relating to their (or others‟) use of the forest. In-field analysis and outputs In the field, all of the data collected was entered into the specially designed database, created for the project in the UK before commencement of the expedition. This allowed for an immediate back-up of the data, and also for preliminary queries to be run.

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Photographs were uploaded every evening, allowing identification of individual species to be cross-checked with advice from other team members and the zoom capabilities on a computer image. The photographs were then used to aid presentations given at two village meetings, one held at Ambenja (the first research site) and Mariarano (the last research site). These meetings were generally accepted well by the villagers, with much enthusiasm when shown photographs of some of the wildlife recorded. It was felt that these meetings were important to build up the relationship with the local community, to ensure a good reception and support for others who may decide to carry out research in Mahamavo as a result of this expedition. A blog was also written detailing the research carried out and anecdotes of each day (Griffin et al. 2009). As well as being a requirement stipulated by a supporting body, it was decided that this would be an additional useful record of the expedition, written while all the events were still fresh in the minds of the team members. Post-expedition analysis Once the team returned to the UK the information in the database was analysed to provide various statistics and outputs useful for stakeholders, and to summarise the findings of the expedition. Species diversity was calculated using the Shannon-Wiener Index, for both the area as a whole and for each taxon surveyed. Species discovery curves were created for each taxon to give an indication of the likelihood that all species in the given taxon present in Mahamavo were detected in the duration of the expedition or whether further surveying would be expected to reveal large numbers of additional species. International guidelines for biodiversity were consulted where relevant to the species concerned. For example all species recorded were looked up in the IUCN Red List database (IUCN 2010) to establish their global conservation status. Qualifying criteria for Important Bird Areas (IBAs), Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) and Ramsar wetlands of international importance (Ramsar Convention Bureau 1990) were consulted for the Mahamavo region as a whole and also particularly in relation to the mangrove wetland system at Mariarano.

5.2.2 Results The habitats of Mahamavo consist of western dry forest and wooded grassland-bush land mosaic (vegetation classifications from Du Puy and Smith 2007) with several extensive mangroves on the coast. In some areas the dry forest has been extensively cleared to provide land for livestock grazing or agriculture, however large areas of forest do remain. The largest areas of uncleared forest were found at Mariarano (when compared to the other three study sites). The villages are often surrounded by areas of savannah, populated mainly by palms. Some of these areas show evidence of fires. Twelve transects were followed in the assessment of herptile abundance, and eleven of these were repeated. The remaining transect was deemed unsuitable after its first completion due to very adverse terrain and thick overgrown scrub that made it impossible to successfully search for reptiles and amphibians. A total of 874 records were made, covering 18 reptile species and 2 amphibian species. In addition there were at least two unidentified species of amphibian. Twelve transects (using the same route as those for herptile surveys) were used to gather data on lemurs, and ten of these were repeated. Of the two not repeated, one was for the same reason as detailed above, the other due to insufficient time at one of the study sites. Seven species were recorded to be present in the region, with the team making sightings on 151 occasions in total. The wetlands near Mariarano were investigated using four transects, with no repeats (due to the tidal nature of the mangroves making access to the same areas on different days very difficult). Over the four visits 1018 records were made, distributed across 27 species. In the forests of Mahamavo, a total of 114 point counts were surveyed. These were all repeated at least once, with the exception of fifteen points on an additional transect in Mariarano. These were not repeated as the transect was not planned, but used on a day when the plans to visit the wetlands were not possible due to a lack of available pirogues (see Diary in Section 7). A further five points were not repeated on various transects due to a lack of time – sometimes due to the tidal nature of the area studied. Consequently, all

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together 223 bird point counts were performed (four points were visited four times, seven were visited three times and 83 visited twice). These counts provided 1673 records across 57 species. The presence of an additional five bird species was recorded from opportunistic observations noted by various team members at any time within the duration of time spent in the study region. For full lists of all the species encountered in the study, refer to Appendix (Section 10.5). Many of the species found are listed as at risk on the IUCN Red List (IUCN 2010); these can be read from Table 5.2.1. Table 5.2.1: Globally threatened (i.e. IUCN „Red-Listed‟) animals occurring in Mahamavo, with respective conservation status. (Classifications in order from least to most risk are Least Concern, Near Threatened, Vulnerable, Endangered, Critically Endangered, Extinct in the Wild, Extinct (IUCN 2010).) Taxon Species Scientific Name Species Common Name IUCN Conservation Status Acrantophis Reptiles madagascariensis Malagasy Ground Boa Vulnerable Haliaeetus vociferoides Madagascar Fish Eagle Critically endangered Lophotibis cristata Madagascar Crested Ibis Near threatened Birds Threskiornis bernieri Madagascar White Ibis Endangered Avahi occidentalis Western Avahi Endangered Eulemur fulvus Common Brown Lemur Near threatened Eulemur mongoz Mongoose Lemur Vulnerable Lepilemur edwardsi Milne-Edwards's Sportive Lemur Vulnerable Microcebus ravelobensis Golden-brown Mouse Lemur Endangered Primates Propithecus coquereli Coquerel's Sifaka Endangered The species richness (total number of species) and species diversity – calculated using the Shannon-Wiener Index (Sutherland 2000) – for the Mahamavo area studied are summarised in Table 5.2.2. Species richness is high for the area, 101, with birds contributing most to this total (74). Observed species richness was lowest for amphibians. The species diversity is high overall (3.23), again with birds having the highest value when split between the taxa. The lemurs show a very low species diversity of 0.69.

Table 5.2.2: Species richness and diversity (Shannon-Wiener index) as a total across the Mahamavo area and corresponding values for each taxon considered individually. Index/Statistic Parameters Value

Species richness

Across all study areas

Species diversity (Shannon's Index)

Across all study areas

Total Birds Reptiles Lemurs Amphibians Total Birds Reptiles Lemurs

101 74 18 7 2 3.23 2.91 1.84 0.69

Figure 5.2.1 shows the cumulative number of species discovered over the duration of the expedition, for lemurs, reptiles and birds. As just two species of amphibian were identified during the study, and both of these during the first week, the curve for amphibians is not shown. These graphs provide species discovery curves, showing the rate at which new species were discovered.

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Figure 5.2.1: Species discovery curves for a) birds, b) reptiles and c) lemurs, showing cumulative number of species discovered during the study. Note the scale of the y-axis varies. All three discovery curves for the three taxa in Figure 5.2.1 reach a plateau towards the last few days of the study. Sightings of species not previously recorded were very common in the first week for all taxa (intuitively obvious for the first few days). All of the curves show a less steep gradient from eight to twelve observer days onwards.

5.2.2.1 Incidental observations Biodiversity Between twenty and thirty Madagascar Flying Fox (Pteropus rufus, listed as Vulnerable, A2acd (IUCN 2010)) were recorded in mangroves close to Ambenja village, on UTM coordinates of 710160 8309587. In the mangroves in Mariarano it is thought that the presence of the team on a bird opportunistic survey disturbed a roost as over four hundred of these bats were seen flying in the air. In Mariarano wetlands at 683933 8290252 (UTM) an individual Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) of roughly eight feet in length was sighted. Locals report that there are many crocodiles in this area. Exploitation of natural resources In a small village near Ambenja, with UTM coordinates of 711470 8307709, some lemur traps were seen that had been put in place by the locals. Although they were reluctant to explain which lemurs they were aiming to catch, a Coquerel‟s Sifaka (Propithecus coquereli) was present in the immediate vicinity of the traps. A local guide from Mitsinjo estimated that approximately 85 lemurs were hunted in any one to two month period in the area surrounding his village. The people in Mitsinjo do not hunt sifakas; they believe it to be fady (taboo) to do so as they so closely resemble humans. In the village of Ambenja itself, the local people construct darts to use with blowpipes, to hunt Helmeted Guinea fowl (Numida meleagris). Similarly, blow darts were used in Mitsinjo, where the team was informed that one boy could hunt and kill up to twenty quail each day to eat and sell – a bird that in this area is viewed as a delicacy. In Mariarano, Madagascar Fish Eagle (Haliaeetus vociferoides CR) are hunted; the young birds are stolen from the nest and then positioned by the hunters to lure the adult fish eagles into a trap. Also hunted in this area are African Darter (Anhinga rufa) and the Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) found in the wetlands surrounding Mariarano. At Antanikofo the paths on which the transects were based had originally been created by a petrol company that cleared paths in the area several decades ago in order to perform analysis of the practicalities of extracting oil from the area. The transects (originally wide enough for at least one 4x4 car) were then used by an Indian logging company that obtained logging rights to the area. The paths have clearly not been used as much in recent years, and much of the edges of the forest are re-growing after the disturbance. However, there is still some illegal logging occurring in the area; wood is taken to build schools in other regions, and teak is removed often.

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Customs and superstitions (fady) There are many customs and superstitions throughout Madagascar, known as fady. These cover a wide range of topics including working habits, family life and interaction with the environment. Fady are very widely respected, though they may differ between villages and areas. If a person does not respect a fady then they are often expected to pay a fine, or are treated unequally in society for a time. The village of Ambenja has changed locations several times since it was first established. It is customary that when the monarch of the village dies, they are buried in the current village site, and then the whole village leaves the area and moves somewhere else under a new name. The previous name of Ambenja was Tsinjorano. The area where the monarch is buried becomes sacred, and it is fady for strangers to enter this area unless with permission of the current monarch. The village has however stayed in its current location for several monarchs now, as the local people are happy with their position. When the team arrived at Ambenja and visited the regional traditional queen to obtain permission for working in the area, it was stipulated that nobody may enter the area of forest to the north-west of the village (an area that was originally identified in planning stages as a place of study interest). This area of the forest is where the last kings have been buried, and as a result no-one is allowed to enter here. Although it would be useful to know about the biodiversity of this region, it at least seems to be well protected through the belief that it is fady to exploit this piece of forest in any way. Some of the residents of Mariarano felt strongly that the expedition should not have gathered data from Ambenja as they saw it as a holy place. One of the expedition members, Harri, had a sprained wrist, sustained before entering the field, but one of the guides employed at Mariarano, not knowing this information, believed that the injury had occurred as a result of the team going to a holy place and then leaving again. None of the people in the other villages visited seemed to have such strong feelings of fady about Ambenja.

5.3

Socioeconomic survey

5.3.1 Methods: fieldwork and follow-up The socioeconomic component of the expedition formed a feasibility study for the future effects of biodiversity conservation actions on the local people, and future actions and effects of development, as well as helping to understand life in a village in the Mahamavo area of Madagascar. The information was gathered from the four villages closest to the study sites (Ambenja, Mitsinjo, Antanambao and Mariarano) through direct observations, group discussion, discussion with significant members of the population, household surveys and by studying documentation and other written resources. In addition the commune of Mariarano was considered as a whole. Personal observations and household surveys Most of the data was gathered through informal interviews with key informants in each village, and personal observations. Recording personal observations allowed for the verification of some of the information divulged in household surveys and informal interviews. Household surveys allow collection of information of real living conditions and attitudes. The members of each family were interviewed with and without their leader, to gather all opinions present in the household. Discussions with the heads of families provided good information on the socioeconomic situation. These interviews provided base-line socioeconomic data that is easily compared between villages, and can be compared with figures gathered in the future. The information gathered consisted of the population size of each village, the relative importance of major sources of livelihood such as rice cultivation, maps of village hinterlands (the region from which natural resources are collected), and data of simple economic indicators of household wealth (such as number of zebu, presence of concrete floors in houses). Documentation Since the duration of the study was fairly short, some essential contacts were not present for interviewing during the research, so additional sources of information were vital. One resource used particularly

16

extensively for this report is the Plan Communal de Développement (PCD; Municipal Development Plan 2007). Population figures were obtained from the District of Mahajanga II office. Discussion with significant members of the population The significant members of the population, often leaders, can provide much useful information, as they have a good knowledge of the historical and socioeconomic development of their society. Among some of those consulted were the practitioners of traditional medicine (ombiasy), the chief of each fokotany (the smallest administrative unit in Madagascar comprised of one, or a couple of villages) and the headmasters of the schools. Group discussion Participatory techniques help to identify those issues that villagers regard as most important for their area, these could include healthcare, education and infrastructure for example. Meetings were held with each of the following groups of people: women, teenagers, children and men. Each individual was given the opportunity to speak and express their opinions aloud in these brainstorming sessions. Also, during the expedition, meetings open to all were held at two of the study sites; Ambenja and Mariarano. These gave the local people an opportunity to ask questions about the work of the expedition team and for them to air any concerns or ideas about development and other socioeconomic factors. Photographs were taken (with permission) of the local people carrying out traditional activities, or relaxing during their free time, to help to build up a visual profile of life in the villages of the Mahamavo area.

All data was gathered by two Malagasy members of the team, to minimise social differences between interviewer and interviewee, which could have affected the reliability of the opinions given. The socioeconomic scientists consisted of one male and one female, which should highlight any gender-oriented differences in opinion or reaction with regards to this study. As such the reports have been written separately to preserve these differences and allow comparison. After the expedition the information was collated by the Malagasy members and analysed, and then a draft report was written by each in English, to be incorporated into this overall report.

5.3.2 Results According to the last census, taken in 2007, the population of Mariarano commune was 7294 (note: a more up to date estimation of population will soon be possible from the SDSAS/RGPH/INSTAT projections for 2009). The population density is four people per kilometre squared, with each household having an average of six to seven inhabitants. The active population (aged 18 years and over) comprises 38% of the total population. Several ethnic groups make up the population : Sakalava, Tsimihety, Betsileo, Antaisaka, Sihanaka, Merina and Antandroy. The majority of the population belong to the Sakalava or Tsimihety groups. Mariarano rural commune consists of eleven fokotany. Each of the villages studied are a fokotany in the rural commune of Mariarano.

Table 5.3.1: Population sizes of the four villages studied, including numbers of males, females and adults within the population. Figures obtained from the District of Mahajanga II, July 2007. Male Female 18 years and Commune Fokontany Total population population over Mariarano 1064 1086 714 2150 Mariarano Antanambao 497 486 431 983 Ambenja 360 455 320 815 Mitsinjo 321 347 280 668

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5.3.2.1 From a male perspective 5.3.2.1.1

Main sources of livelihood

As shown in Table 5.3.2, the main occupation of people throughout the study sites visited is agriculture of rice, maize and cassava, and livestock farming (60-90%). The percentage involved in these sources of livelihood is highest in Antanambao, possibly due to the fact that nobody undertakes fishing; Antanambao is completely landlocked (see Figure 3.2). Fishing products are fresh, smoked, and salted fish. Extraction of forest resources of various wood types and raffia is fairly constant across all villages, though slightly lower in Ambenja. Only females take part in making craft products such as baskets and mats woven from raffia, and most of them do so – 80% in each village excluding Mitsinjo, where the number is slightly lower; only 70%.

Table 5.3.2: Occupations of the populations of each village study site, shown as percentages of the whole population (artisans are percentages of female populations), with the main resources/products involved. Occupation Agriculturers Farmers Fishers

Percentage of total population of fokotany

Products Rice, maize, cassava Zebu Fresh, smoked and salted fish

Ambenja

Mitsinjo

Antanambao

Mariarano

80

60

90

75

15

30

0

15

Artisans

Baskets, mats

80% of female population

70% of female population

80% of female population

80% of female population

Extractors of forest resources

Various types of wood, raffia

5

10

10

10

Agriculture and livestock farming are grouped together, as most people who take part in one will take part in another to some extent, making splitting the numbers quite complicated. Much of the food grown is for personal consumption by the farmer and his family.

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Figure 5.3.1: Maps showing the hinterlands, areas from where various natural resources are gathered, surrounding a) Ambenja, b) Mitsinjo, c) Antanambao and d) Mariarano. Note that the scale is different in d).

5.3.2.2.2 Economic indicators of household wealth The indicators chosen to assess household wealth were selected to be easily observable by the team. This meant that any figures given by interviewees could be compared with the team‟s observations, allowing confirmation of the results, and removing any bias or exaggerated answers. The economic indicators chosen represent wealth in this culture, as they are expensive resources. The indicators are: number of zebu, number of land titles held, number of houses with corrugated iron roofs, number of houses with concrete floors, number of built houses, number of houses in ruins, and number of houses in the process of construction. The results can be seen in Table 5.3.3.

Table 5.3.3: Simple economic indicators of wealth present in each village studied (indicators chosen to be easily observable to allow observation comparison with any results given by an interviewee – see text for full details), assessed quantitatively. Indicator

Ambenja

Mitsinjo

Antanambao

Mariarano

Zebu

2000

1500

1500

2500

Land titles

0

0

0

0

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Observations Unofficial information – an estimation of all zebu; native, registered and stray.

Houses with corruagted iron roofs

2

2

8

10

Houses with concrete floors

11

4

8

15

189

101

120

500

20

6

18

30

22

10

5

25

Houses built Houses in ruins Houses in the construction process

The economic indicators are assessed at the fokotany level rather than household level so represent an average for each village. From these results it can be concluded that Mariarano appears to be the most wealthy fokotany by these parameters, followed by Ambenja, Antanambao then Mitsinjo. There are no land titles held in any of the fokotany. Interestingly, it seems that the more houses a village has, the more there are in ruins, as well as construction. Whether or not houses are repaired when they fall into ruins was not assessed in this study.

5.3.2.2.3 Key issues for the villagers The issues that villagers find most important were assessed using participatory meetings as well as interviews. There are four main areas about which the people feel strongly. These are, as listed in Table 5.3.4, improvement of the local school and equipment, creation of a Centre de Santé de Base (CSB ; a health centre), improvement of paths and roads and development of agricultural equipment. One hundred people were surveyed in each village.

Table 5.3.4: Key issues that the villagers in each fokotany feel are most important to them, with the number of people ranking this issue as their main concern for each study site. Theme

Ambenja

Mitsinjo

Antanambao

Mariarano

Improvement of the school and equipment

44

56

52

47

Creation of a Centre de Santé de Base (CSB ; a health centre)

28

0

7

0

Improvement of paths and roads

21

16

11

11

Development of agricultural equipment

7

26

30

42

Total

100

100

100

100

In all four study sites, improvement of the school and equipment was seen as the main issue. Secondary to these in three out of four sites was the development of agricultural equipment. In Ambenja, creation of a CSB was the second concern. Note that Mitsinjo and Mariarano already have a CSB I and II respectively (hence the lack of responses citing creation of a CSB as a major issue in these fokontany). Improvement of the infrastructure in all villages was the third main issue. The full socioeconomic report from Mamy Rabenoro, including information on Mariarano as a commune, can be found in the Appendix (Section 10.6).

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5.3.2.2 From a female perspective 5.3.2.2.1 Main sources of livelihood The distribution of sources of livelihood within the population of each village is summarised in Table 5.3.5, and includes activities such as agriculture, livestock farming, fishing, extraction of forest resources and craftsmanship (usually only practised by the women). Most of the local people do not commit themselves solely to one source of income. Instead they have two or three, and rotate between these when the conditions for one are less than suitable to ensure a reliable source of livelihood. As such, the percentages in Table 5.3.5 add up to more than one hundred. In Mitsinjo, due to unfavourable conditions, all of the male population have an investment in each source of livelihood (excluding illicit activities), hence the percentages are equal.

Table 5.3.5: The main sources of livelihood in the Mahamavo area, and the percentage of each village‟s active population that relies on these for income. Note that percentages for all villages add up to more than 100% due to people switching between sources of income in response to environmental factors. See text for full explanation. Source of livelihood

Percentage of population reliant on income source Ambenja

Mitsinjo

Antanambao

Mariarano

Agriculture

50

50

100

80

Livestock

50

50

100

75

Fishing

50

50

0

20

Illegal extraction of forest resources

20

20

20

20

Craftsmanship (women)

80

70

80

80

The village hinterlands are the regions from which natural resources are collected. These are areas often completely surrounding the village and include agricultural land, savannah and forest. Agriculture The main area of agriculture is rice plantations, and of lesser importance are the culture of cassava, maize, sugar cane and bananas. Rice is grown to the south west and north of Mariarano and on the side of the mangroves of Antanandava (see Figure 5.3.1), and is intended solely for the consumption of villagers. The cassava, maize, sugar cane and bananas are grown at a higher altitude from the south through to the north of the area and also to the west. These are also only for local consumption. The rice-fields of Antanambao are located to the north west of the area. Sugar cane is grown on low, fertile land which is also the area for growing fruit and vegetables. Maize and cassava are cultivated at higher altitudes. All products are sold within the village. In Antanambao other fruit and vegetables are grown as well, whereas in Ambenja only rice and a limited quantity of cassava are cultivated. Most of the food grown is destined for local consumption (i.e. within the village concerned), although Ambenja often will sell up to 60% of its rice output further afield. If there is no rice left, then the local people begin to sell off their zebu to provide a source of income. The village hinterlands are located to the north east and the north, in Ambinda, Madirovalo and Mahabo (see Figure 5.3.1). Mahabo is managed by the Vondron’Olona Ifotony (VOI; which means Local Basis Community of Ambenja, whose constitution is currently under development. Cassava and maize are cultivated in Mitsinjo in addition to rice, but there are not many open fields (lemaka), so farmers must dig around a field before it is planted, in order to stem the rainwater into the designated area. The edges of forests are usually chosen for the location of these fields, to collect the run-off of the water from within the forest. The fields are located within a five kilometre radius of the village. As in Ambenja, if there is no rice left then zebu are sold to provide money for food. Most products of agriculture are kept by the farmer for subsistence, and products are only sold if there is a surplus. There is often, instead, a deficit, which the villagers conquer by consuming the pulp of the Bismarckia palms found on the savannah.

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The surface of land available for cultivation surrounding Mitsinjo is small, and so crops are only grown for half a year, and as such do not have a huge impact on the food situation in the village. The land is most fertile in the spring. Each person owns a very small piece of land, that may not be large enough to grow enough rice for themselves and their families. As a result people move to Ambenja or Andranoboaka to cultivate rice. Livestock farming The main form of livestock farming is of zebu, which are grazed on the extensive savannahs surrounding each village area. In addition, small scale poultry farming often occurs in some families, though this is generally not relied on as a source of income. In Mariarano the zebu are grazed on the large savannahs in the south and west of the area. Poultry farming occurs on a small scale, to provide food for the farmers themselves. North of Mariarano livestock farming is not a source of livelihood but some people breed a few zebu. In Antanambao the grazing for zebu is found to the north, south and west of the village in areas known locally as kijana. Poultry farming occurs at a similar level to Mariarano; to feed the farmer or receive guests. Some zebu are sold at the weekly markets of Mariarano and Betsako (a nearby village not covered by this study). In Ambenja zebu graze in the south and west, and poultry is farmed, with the meat reserved for special family occasions or the arrival of guests. Forty percent of the zebu in Ambenja are sold there and then transported to Mariarano en route to Betsako. It is necessary for sellers to obtain a “passport” for each zebu before arriving at the market in Betsako. An adult zebu costs around 500,000Ar (£167), and young zebu are sold for anything from 150,000Ar (£50) up to the price of an adult. On average in this area an individual owns three zebu, with many people such as fishermen owning the animals even though it is not their main source of livelihood. Due to difficulties in obtaining fertile land for cultivation in Mitsinjo many people keep some zebu, which they will sell to provide some income if other sources of earning fail. There is only a small market for zebu here so most follow the above route as described for Ambenja. Prices for individual zebu are similar throughout the area. Fishing Mariarano is surrounded by much water (see Figure 5.3.1) and so fishing is a major source of livelihood, with 50% of the population taking part. The main products are striped mullet (Mugil cephalus, locally known as antafa), fibezo, robust mullet Valamugil robustus (bika), yellow-tailed emperor (Lethrinus mahsena, or menahelika), bisony, flagtail (Kuhlidae, sampia), and Forsskål´s Indo-Pacific jack fish / yellow spotted trevally (Caranx ignobilis / Carangoides fulvoguttatus – it is not certain which of these two species is caught, as the Malagasy name, kikao, given by the locals refers to both of the species mentioned. This is often a problem when identifying species with the help of local guides). These fish are dried, by hanging from pieces of wood in the sun, then smoked and sold for 1000Ar (34 pence) per kilogram. During the monsoon, or varatraza, no fish are sold – as they cannot be dried. Crabs are also caught here – 80% of which are sent to Mahajanga for the market there; the others are sold in the local area. They are taken from the mangroves (vavarano) of Marosakoa, in Mariarano Bay. The village of Antanambao is totally land-locked and so fishing is not a part of people‟s livelihood here. In Ambenja, 20% of the fish caught are refrigerated, or dried and smoked and sent to Mahajanga. The fish are caught from Mahajamba Bay, and include bika; striped mullet; fibezo; angoho (which could refer to Scomberomorus commerson – narrow-barred Spanish mackerel, Euthynnus affinis – kawakawa, or Acanthocybium solandri – wahoo); sea catfish (Arius spp., gogo); yellow-tailed emperor; two-spot red snapper (Lutjanus bohar, tsivaravara); sharks, which are caught for their fins (ankio); maheriloha; African arowana Heterotis niloticus (vangolopaka); and Rendall‟s tilapia Tilapia rendalli (tilapia/salapia). It has not been possible to associate all of the vernacular names given with scientific names or English common names; so some species are referenced by only local vernacular name. The fish are usually sold in bundles of six, tied with string, for 1000Ar in the local area. When sold to the people who come collecting from Mahajanga for the market, the prices are 1000 to 1200Ar per kilogram. There is no generator to run a refrigerator in Ambenja so the fish are kept on ice blocks during transportation to Mahajanga in order to preserve them. In Mitsinjo the main activity related to fishing is the catching of crabs, due to the presence of mangroves, making this an easier source of income. All fishing products are caught on the east of Mitsinjo, in Mahajamba Bay, and those destined for Mahajanga are transported by oxcart. The species most commonly exploited here

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include sea catfish, yellow-tailed emperor, striped mullet, bika, Madagascar round herring (Sauvagella madagascariensis, varilava), and Tsivakihini paste shrimp (Acetes erythraeus, tsivakia). A small amount of dried and smoked fish, and crabs, are sold in the village but most are sent to the large markets in Mahajanga. The dried products fetch prices of 600-800Ar per kilogram (19-26 pence), whereas fresh fish can be sold in Mahajamba Bay for as much as 1000Ar per kilogram. Craft production The craft products made by the women usually include mats and baskets created using Bismarckia palms (locally known as satrana) that are found on the expanses of savannah surrounding the villages. The products are mainly intended for sale in Mahajanga, the closest major town, although some are sold within the village or at local markets. Products are either sent with someone travelling from the village to Mahajanga, or the sellers in the town make a journey to the village for a bulk collection. Usual income from these products is 1000-1200 Ariary (35 pence) for a mat and Ar400-500 (about 13 pence) for a basket. During the wet season the prices often decrease as the palm used is damp and so the products are of lower quality. In Antanambao the raw material is extracted from the savannah in the north, south and west of the village area. The areas to the west and south of Ambenja are used, and in Mitsinjo it is only the area to the west that provides good satrana. Illegal extraction of forest resources This is a major source of livelihood in the Mahamavo region, with 20% of the population in each village studied relying on this as their main source of income. In Mariarano, the forest to the south east (west of Analabe, but excluding Ankatsabe) is exploited, with trucks used to transport the products to Mahajanga. In addition the mangroves are exploited, using pirogues, with material often taken for use in house building. The people who transport the goods are often those who have migrated to Mahajanga hoping to thrive. The trees taken from the forest are mainly Dalbergia baroni (palissandre or manary) and Foetidia asymmetrica (taimpapango) for use as rafters in construction, and nonprecious wood, known locally as kakazo. Most commonly it is the larger trees that are taken. Wood is also extracted from the mangroves (Ceriops tagal; honko). People from Mahajanga transport forest resources by oxcart to make charcoal, with help from the inhabitants of the village. Exploitation occurs in the forests not managed by the Vondron’Olona Ifotony (VOI; which means Local Basis Community); mainly in the south east part of Analabe forest, where „slash and burn‟ fires are also a common occurrence, and also on alluvial soil at the entrance to the mangroves. Antanambao currently has no VOI and so illegal exploitation of forest resources occurs more freely in this area, in the forests to the north and south of the village. Trucks and oxcarts transport the wood from here to Andimaka, from where it is transported to Mahajanga markets by sea. The trucks follow a circuit around Analabe to the north of Antanambao and the south of the forest. There are usually three trips per month by lakana (a small pirogue) on the sea route to Mahajanga. Illegal extraction of forest resources occurs throughout the year in Ambenja,, with rafters of palissandre sold for 1500Ar (about 50 pence) per piece on the black market. Crossbeams fetch between 3000Ar and 5000Ar according to size, and planks bring in 3000Ar. Around two journeys are made each month to transport the wood from Ambenja to Mahajanga, often by lakana, one of which can carry up to forty crossbeams. The fishers of Mitsinjo use wood from the forest to make their lakana. There is also a black market for illegally harvested wood, which is largely driven by the inhabitants themselves, with the main product being hazo fotsy, which literally means „white wood‟. Often it is the younger generation in the village who become traffickers, contacting the sellers in Mahajanga directly, or working through truck drivers who come to collect the wood. Similarly to Ambenja, on average two journeys are made each month. Trucks can carry up to thirty pieces of wood, or twice the capacity of a lakana. Outlets in the south and west of the area stock up in supplies of wood ready for these fortnightly collections.

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5.3.2.2.2 Economic indicators of household wealth In Ambenja, 10% of the population belong to the poor to medium class according to zebu ownership, with each having a maximum of 15 zebu. The remaining 90% are more well-off with up to four hundred zebu each, and with several sources of livelihood. One house in the village has a corrugated iron roof (the others are made from natural products collected from the forest), this belongs to a doctor who is now living in France. There are four houses with concrete floors, and these all belong to the chief of the fokotany. The poorest people in Mitsinjo own one or two zebu each, and the middle class own between five and twenty. These two classes represent seventy percent of the population; the remaining 30% of the population own on average eighty zebu each, with the exception of one elderly lady who owns three hundred. There appeared to be only one building with a corrugated iron roof and concrete floor – this was the building of the CSB I (health centre) owned by the State. Five percent of the population of Antanambao belong to the poor to medium class, with up to twenty heads of zebu each, and the other 95% of the households are wealthy and possess up to six hundred zebu each. According to the key informant, four houses have iron roofs and six have concrete floors. In Mariarano 15% of the population live in poor conditions, with a very small number of zebu each. The wealthy households, which form 40% of the population have up to 250 zebu, and the remaining 45% of the village belong to the middle class, with between 50 and 100 zebu each. Five houses in the village have iron roofs, and of these two have concrete floors as well.

5.3.2.2.3 Key issues for the villagers The issue that most concerned villagers in Ambenja was that of healthcare, as they have no access to a doctor or hospital. During the period that the team stayed there, several people approached and asked for medication after describing their aches and pains, thinking, or hoping, that the team were doctors. During an introduction to the regional queen, the team was told of the recent death of a young mother from complications whilst in labour, who was being helped by the traditional obstetrician, renin-jaza. The closest hospital is a CSB I (Basic Health Centre level 1) and has a midwife and a nurse (CSB II has a doctor as well). However this is located in Mitsinjo, which is a six hour walk from Ambenja. Consequently most people in Ambenja rely on the traditional medicine practitioner who uses natural items such as plants in methods passed down from ancestors. Another problem is the lack of infrastructure, effectively isolating the area with lack of communication and no access for cars. The problem of access is exacerbated in the wet season, when the conditions are too bad for motorised vehicles to attempt to traverse the roads, and the sea is violent. During these times it can take three to four days to reach Mahajanga by oxcart. There is no local market at which goods from other villages can be exchanged, and so no flow of products during this time. Mitsinjo has very limited access to water and the land is very dry. This means that cultivation conditions are very unfavourable and limit good production. This is the biggest problem in the opinion of the local people. They too highlighted a desire for better road infrastructure to aid with exchange of local products. This was the first issue mentioned by the people of Antanambao as well. Another concern was for starting the development of the alambondrombe, vast muddy areas in the west and north that require draining but could then provide very fertile land for agriculture. Antanambao has no doctor or hospital. If people are seriously ill then they make the journey to Mariarano to see a doctor in the CSB II there. Otherwise people with ailments seek treatment from the practitioners of traditional medicine. Most expectant mothers cannot make the journey to Mariarano (5 hours by 4x4) and so give birth with the help of the renin-jaza. The two main issues for Mariarano are the infrastructure, and education. There is a primary school in the village, where children can achieve the CEPE diploma – this is necessary to progress to secondary school – but most parents do not have the means to send their children through the next steps of schooling because the closest secondary school is in Mahajanga.

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There is a lack of agricultural tools such as ploughs and weeders, and a lack of agricultural technicians who have training in the use of these tools. In general the land in Mariarano commune is not very fertile, and in addition many crops are destroyed by parasites.

5.3.2.3 Incidental observations Rice is sold to a main recipient in the village, a daba, who sells many essential products to the villagers. Rice is measured in kapaoka, with one unit being equal to the volume of a concentrated milk tin (slightly smaller than a baked bean tin – three and a half kapaoka of rice weighs one kilogram). Rice is sold to the daba in quantities of 25 – 30 kapaoka for between 8000Ar and 10000Ar (up to around £3.39). Charcoal production In Mariarano a detailed explanation of a charcoal burner in use was given by a member of the village as he worked. The burner is constructed by digging a deep hole in the ground, across which is laid metal bars. The wood to be used to make charcoal is placed on the metal bars and covered with earth. The rest of the construction is sealed with satrana (local vernacular name for Bismarckia genus palms) leaves, with the exception of seven chimneys used to feed the fire. The man interviewed was using wood from already dead trees nearby to produce enough charcoal to last the rainy season for himself and the mayor of the village, on whose land the burner was located, a total of approximately forty bags. To ensure that the fire never gets out of the control, the operator will sleep by the fire for the day(s) of burning. Once the wood has been burnt enough, the chimneys are blocked and the earth tamped down; the fire is then left for three days to ensure all embers are extinguished before uncovering. Livestock diseases In the village of Mitsinjo there is a disease that regularly affects the livestock, locally known as beharika or besoroka, caused by the bacteria Clostridium chauvei. It is fatal and occurs each year in the dry season during June. It is possible to protect the animals by vaccination, but this must be applied in March. There is however a lack of veterinary care due to the large number of communes under the responsibility of one veterinarian. Also, the vaccination is usually applied too late, when the virus is already in the incubation stage, and so the animal dies anyway. This has led to locals refusing the vaccination as they believe that it accelerates or causes death rather than protecting from the disease. Practitioner of traditional medicine In Mitsinjo, the socioeconomic researchers met with an elder of the village who practises traditional medicine. He holds a book, written in Malagasy, which details all of his treatments and cures for ailments, made using natural resources from the forest such as various plants. Often when people in the village fall ill, they will consult him instead of, or as well as, the nurse at the CSB I health centre. The team have obtained a copy of each page in this book. Feedback from presentation and meeting held in Mariarano During the last week of research, a meeting was held in collaboration with the mayor of Mariarano to inform the locals of the purpose of the visit. It was an opportunity to share the views on the importance of their biodiversity and to open dialogue about development and the current situation in the area. A slideshow presentation of photographs of some of the species studied in the biodiversity part of the expedition was received well, with many attendees asking questions and showing interest. However some people were questioning the relevance of the biodiversity work to their socioeconomic development, claiming it did not concern them directly. They were much more keen to find out when they would hear if the research in this area would continue and when they would receive more input from foreign organisations. There were some difficulties in explaining the link between environmental protection and development, even after using visual aids to help clarification. It was explained that the higher the value of biodiversity in the area, the more people would be interested in the area, and this would allow for the possibility of economic investment in the area, through the monetary input of visitors for example. A certain level of scepticism was also evident; the villagers explained that they have been visited in the past by several organisations doing

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research in the area who had promised full involvement, and then pulled out. It was stressed that at this point in time the research was a feasibility study. The locals reminded the group that many of the animals present in the forest are impossible to find in the dry season, and so were keen to invite the group back in the wet season when a whole range of different species would be easily found. The law in Mariarano There are social charters, dina, concerning agriculture, education of children and livestock farming that are devised by the commune, fokotany, and chiefs from each sector. One of these state that from the age of 18 people must plant rice, cassava or maize to provide for themselves. Another aims to institute compulsory school from the age of 6 to 17 years old, to try to discourage parents who prefer not to send their children to school so they can instead help earn the family‟s livelihood. There is a dina that rules against animals damaging crops.

5.4

Discussions and conclusions

Species discovery curves The species discovery curves (Figure 5.2.1) for reptiles, birds and lemurs all level off towards the end of the expedition. Theoretically this means that most species present in the area have been discovered, and extended survey work would only reveal a few extra species at most. The last day of discovering a new species of lemur was day ten, and although new species of bird were still being discovered on the last day of surveying, the discovery rate had fallen, giving a line with small gradient. Although accepted as a method by which to investigate how well a survey has represented the species of the area, using species discovery curves does have limitations, particularly in this instance. The surveying was carried out completely during the middle of the dry season. During the months of December to April the Mahamavo region experiences great rainfall in their „wet season‟. Obviously there may be species that are present during these conditions but aestivate during the dry season. As a result, although it can be concluded that most of the dry season species have been discovered (or are unlikely to be discovered by further investigations using these methods), this cannot be extrapolated to the wet season. It is therefore important to undertake similar survey work during the wet season in order to give an accurate representation of all of the species reliant on the habitats that the Mahamavo region provides. Various local people felt it necessary to bring up the difference in species composition in these two seasons. However, during the wet season the whole study region is virtually cut off from the rest of Madagascar and as such poses serious logistical issues for expeditions hoping to work at this time. The roads are often impassable due to flooding, and the threat of cyclones makes sea transport a problem. Species diversity The species diversity values are given in Table 5.2.2.1. The Shannon-Wiener index was used to quantify species diversity in this case. A high score on the Shannon-Wiener index indicates the presence of a large number of species, all with similar abundance, whereas a low score indicates domination by a few species. As might be expected, birds displayed the highest species diversity. Interestingly lemurs had a very low Shannon-Wiener value. This could be expected just from looking at the raw data, as Coquerel‟s Sifaka, Propithecus coquereli was by far the most common lemur sighted, while most other species have only been recorded on less than ten separate occasions. So the species diversity value for lemurs demonstrates the dominance the group witnessed of Coquerel‟s Sifaka throughout the study area. A local guide in Mitsinjo informed the group that although lemurs are hunted heavily in the area, sifakas are not, due to local fady (superstition). It is possible that the human pressure of hunting could have affected the species composition, or the composition could be natural and coincidentally related to the hunting taboo. It is not possible to confirm this at all either way from this study.

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Wetlands protection criteria The Ramsar Biodiversity Convention (Ramsar Convention Bureau 2000) states, in Criterion 6, that “a wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of waterbird”. Delany and Scott (2006) provide the authoritative and approved source of up to date 1% thresholds for designation of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar sites). Table 5.4.1 lists species present in Mahamavo wetlands whose populations recorded during this study are close to the 1% threshold population level denoting international importance of the wetland (or in the case of Dendrocygna viduata exceed this level). Altogether, six species listed in Delany and Scott‟s publication were present in the wetlands at Mariarano. Many species observed were recorded as having individuals present that made between 10 – 30% of the necessary 1% threshold level. These include African Openbill Anastomus lamelligerus madagascariensis, African Darter Anhinga rufa vulsini and Madagascar White Ibis Threskiornis bernieri. Table 5.4.1: Selected species present in Mahamavo close to an abundance meeting criteria for an IBA, KBA or Ramsar site, population estimates and 1% threshold levels (Delany and Scott 2006). 1% Number of Species Scientific Species Common Population Threshold individuals Global Range Name Name Estimate [1] Population recorded in Level [1] Mahamavo Egretta dimorpha Dimorphic Egret Endemic to 6,000 - 20,000 130 27 Madagascar (declining) Anastomus African Openbill Breeding range < 1,000 10 3 lamelligerus limited to western (declining) madagascariensis Madagascar Anhinga rufa vulsini Threskiornis bernieri

African Darter

Endemic to Madagascar Endemic to Madagascar

500 - 1,500 (declining) 1,200 - 2,500 (declining)

10

2

20

6

Platalea alba

African Spoonbill

Madagascar subpopulation

1,000 - 5,000 (no information on trend)

30

3

Dendrocygna viduata

White-faced Whistling Duck

Madagascar subpopulation

20,000 - 50,000 (declining)

350

734

Madagascar White Ibis / Madagascar Sacred Ibis

Important Bird Areas (IBAs) are an internationally agreed priority for conservation action. Birdlife International (2010) state that IBAs may be designated if they fulfil one (or more) of four criteria regarding: globally threatened species, restricted range species, biome-restricted species and congregations. A site qualifies if known to hold a population of a species identified by the IUCN Red List (IUCN 2010) as Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically Endangered. For the latter two, regular presence irrespective of population size at the site may be enough to qualify. The Endangered Madagascar White Ibis was recorded in the wetlands, and there were anecdotal reports from locals of the presence of the Critically Endangered Madagascar Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vociferoides. Designation via congregations applies to waterbirds as defined by Delany and Scott (2006) and uses the criterion of Ramsar sites (1% population threshold level). Household wealth and land rights From the economic indicators used in this study, both socioeconomic reports place Mariarano and Ambenja as the wealthiest of the four villages. It is unsurprising that Mariarano is ranked highly, as it is the main settlement of the commune – much of the ruling of the commune is done from here and there are more amenities. It is not immediately clear why Ambenja in particular would also have high average household wealth. Although presence of land rights was used as an economic indicator, there were none in any of the villages. This is because currently there are no land rights in Madagascar. The land belongs to whoever is cultivating it.

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This means that if a farmer wants to extend his land into part of a forest, he is allowed to cut down the trees and begin cultivation to lay stake to the land. Obviously this is having a detrimental effect on the habitat available to the wide range of biodiversity found in the Mahamavo area. Authorities are trying to combat this to some extent through the organisation of bodies known as VOI (Vondron’Olana Ifotony; local basis community) who control the use of forest resources and attempt to reduce the „slash and burn‟ approaches of agriculture. Key issues for villagers The main issue consistently regarded highly throughout the villages studied is the need to improve the schools and their equipment. The schools can often be underfunded (Section 10.6) and after finishing primary school pupils must travel to the town of Mahajanga to continue their education. There is a secondary college currently under construction in Mariarano due to be finished soon, which should provide some local children with affordable education past the age of eleven. Ambenja and Antanambao are both without CSB health centres, yet the concern for the creation of one of these bases is second in Ambenja and fourth in Antanambao. This could be because there is easier access, with better roads, from Antanambao to either the CSB I at Mitsinjo or the CSB II at Mariarano, than there is from Ambenja, whose occupants could only easily reach the CSB I at Mitsinjo, and this after seven hours of walking (or a very bumpy oxcart ride!). There is a desire for more effort to be put into improving agricultural techniques, and this is a very important issue from the point of biodiversity conservation also. As mentioned earlier, one of the threats to the biodiversity in the area is the „slash and burn‟ approach to agriculture, whereby farmers use a plot of land until the soil is too infertile to raise crops. They then burn down an adjacent piece of forest and extend into this fertile land. Due to soil erosion amongst other factors, this area will not remain fertile for very long, and hence the cycle continues. This problem could to a certain extent be addressed by improving agricultural techniques and educating farmers on the best practice – and is more likely to be taken up by local people as they themselves will be benefitting in a real and measurable way. A major issue for the inhabitants of Mitsinjo, and to a certain extent Antanambao, is water supply. Mitsinjo in particular has limited access to water, and the land is very dry, making cultivation of crops difficult. Improved agricultural methods could also help with this problem. Threats to biodiversity The main approach to agricultural management is that of „slash and burn‟. As mentioned before, there are no land rights in Madagascar at present, so if a farmer can no longer grow crops on his land because the soil has become infertile, it is permitted for him to cut down an adjacent piece of forest and begin to farm here. In addition, when grazing for zebu runs low, livestock farmers will often burn patches of vegetation, to encourage new and succulent growth which is more palatable, and nutritious, for the zebu. This slash and burn approach causes direct habitat loss, and mortality for some individuals, particularly those species which are unable to outrun flames. It can also have knock-on effects of decreased land fertility over time, and soil erosion. Animals that threaten crops are seen as pests and are treated as such. Lemurs may eat fruit from trees owned by a farmer, although many uncultivated fruit trees are also present in the area. Most agriculture is performed just to feed the person‟s family, although a small amount may be sold at local markets. This means that there is a very small margin between having enough products and the family having to go without. This can mean that growers have an adverse opinion of any species that may eat their crops. Lemurs are hunted for meat throughout Mahamavo. Several lemur traps were encountered on transects; the guides claimed that none of these were active, though it was difficult for the team to tell if this was accurate. Some locals hunt lemurs when they have no other sources of food, though some people were encountered on a transect at Ambenja who said that they hunt lemurs if they „fancy a change‟ in their diet. There seem to be differing opinions between villages, as at Mitsinjo the team was assured that although lemurs were hunted, sifakas were safe, as it is fady to hunt them.

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Critically Endangered Madagascar Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vociferoides is hunted in Mariarano (and possibly other areas in Mahamavo – hunting was not reported by locals in any other village, but the species is present at least at Ambenja). Locals catch young birds and use them to lure the adults into a trap. The hunters readily offered all of this information without being asked any related questions, and claimed to be unaware of the protected status of the species. Limitations of bird point count data Due to a lack of clarification of the methods to be used in gathering bird species data, no distance estimation was recorded for any of the birds detected by sound (distance estimation was recorded for all birds seen). As a result there is only presence data available for these particular records. Consequently, any density estimations made are likely to be inaccurate due to the detection probability appearing to be lower than it actually was, and also due to the decreased number of observations available to contribute information in the calculations. In addition, this skew will be reflected differently in each species, depending on their usual behaviour. For example for a highly conspicuous and active species, most records are likely to have been made by sight, and the lacking data will have little effect. On the other hand, for species that are difficult to spot or live in dense vegetation, most records would be through sound and so the data would be heavily affected. Limitations of multi-taxa indicator usage For the purposes of this study, the taxa of primates, birds, amphibians and reptiles have been used to provide an indicator of the overall species richness and diversity of the area. This relies on the assumption that these taxa provide a good representation of these values across the area as a whole, when considering all biodiversity. This is not always the case, as identified by Prendergast et al. (1993). The use of four taxa increases the likelihood that this is a reasonable assumption to make, however the assumption must still be acknowledged as a limitation. Utilising local superstition There are many superstitions and taboos in Madagascar (known as fady), which vary from region to region (and sometimes between geographically close settlements). Some of these already indirectly benefit biodiversity; the forest to the north of Ambenja is sacred to the people living there, and it is forbidden for strangers to enter it or take anything from it, because a previous king is buried there, and in Mitsinjo it is fady to hunt sifakas, because they closely resemble humans. If fady are not adhered to, the person in violation is fined by their fokotany, or punished by society, for example by being given reduced access to goods and services from their fellow inhabitants. Due to the strict obedience of these rules, they provide a potential tool that could be utilised in gaining the support of local people for conservation initiatives, if supported and reinforced by the elders of the respective fokotany. A need for conservation education Many of the local guides employed by the team were very surprised to learn that lemurs are only found in Madagascar, and that lemurs, along with many other species found in Mahamavo, are threatened and of concern to people worldwide. This could in part explain the attitudes towards hunting various species, and habitat exploitation – the people lack an attitude of conservation because they are unaware of the plight of these animals. Many of the locals will not leave the Mahamavo region during their life, and so it is easy to see how one could imagine the whole world was the same as there – for example at most sites the team saw Coquerel‟s Sifaka EN every day, which could give the impression they are very common everywhere. If an education programme was introduced, then the locals would understand exactly why scientists find the species they are surrounded by every day so important. They could be instilled with a sense of pride in their native area, and this may encourage practices which are more sympathetic to the local wildlife. Also, many people do not realise that they are committing a crime when they hunt various threatened species – communication to these tiny villages is unlikely to contain information on these matters – so education may reduce the need for retribution.

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Further work This study has highlighted many opportunities for further work in the Mahamavo area – which was possibly an aim of the government when they identified this area as a priority for investigation. Now that the biodiversity survey has outlined some of the species present in the area, species- or taxon-specific studies can be conducted, in the knowledge that those particular species are found in Mahamavo. The expedition was conducted during the height of the dry season, and so displayed a potentially very different species composition to that found in the rainy season. Indeed many of the local people, particularly in Mariarano, urged the team to return during the rainy months to see the rest of their wildlife. As such, a survey conducted using similar methodology, in the wet season, would provide very useful data. There are however more difficulties associated with working in this season – Mahamavo is cut off from the rest of the country (including the nearest town Mahajanga) for many months due to roads made inaccessible by flooding – and researchers would need to be prepared for potentially remaining in the area for much longer than the duration of this particular study (seven weeks). Clearly there is a good opportunity for further work to better evaluate the species present in Mahamavo wetlands with relation to criteria for designating Ramsar sites or IBAs. This study only worked in the wetlands for four days, and so was unlikely to discover all of the populations of the various species of waterbirds. The fact that it did still uncover high levels of some birds (with respect to their 1% threshold – note Dendrocygna viduata seen in numbers double its 1% threshold) shows that a dedicated survey is needed, and is likely to provide more fulfilment of the criteria necessary to protect this area using internationally recognised guidelines. In the summer of 2010, Operation Wallacea will begin a programme of research in Mahamavo, running from a base in Mariarano. Some of the monitoring data collected will use similar methodology and formats as this study, and so will provide extra information, which can over time be combined with the results of this study. In addition it has the potential to further investigate some of the suggestions for further research arising from this expedition. Groups of volunteers will attend, as well as scientists, and this presence in Mariarano will contribute to the local economy and provide jobs for cooks and guides. An NGO based in Madagascar has been commissioned by the IUCN to undertake a study of populations of various reptile species, including chameleons of the Furcifer genus, to provide data for assessing these species for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Data from this expedition on various reptiles found in the Mahamavo area will be shared to aid this project. This will allow a better picture of reptile species populations throughout Madagascar as a whole, but will also help to further assess the value of the Mahamavo area with respect to biodiversity conservation. The copybook of the medical practitioner (Section 5.2.3.2) provides information on local knowledge about natural treatments for illnesses. There is an opportunity here to share the biocultural heritage of the local people of Mahamavo, by translating the copybook, and testing some of the treatments used to check their efficacy. If deemed effective, this could be a way for villagers in Mahamavo to earn an income, through the sharing of their knowledge. This would also promote sustainable use of plants and forest resources, particularly if those needed for treatment are only found in this area. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (United Nations 1993) states as one of its goals the “fair and equitable sharing of benefits” arising from biocultural knowledge exploitation. Furthermore, article 8j of the CBD states that traditional knowledge of indigenous and local communities embodying lifestyles relevant for the conservation of biodiversity should be preserved and promoted (with consent). A special project set up to study the local medical treatments of the villagers of Mahamavo could provide many advantageous findings to several stakeholders (but should only be undertaken with the permission of the local people concerned).

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6 6.1

Administration and Logistics

Destination area

Particularly in the villages of western Madagascar, people still have a very traditional attitude and there are numerous superstitions (fady) governing acceptable behaviour, and how things should be done. In order not to cause offence and so damage the chances of further research groups being welcomed into the same area, it is important to try and follow the fady as much as possible. Obviously the local people realise that foreigners will not necessarily know about the fady and so they are understanding in this respect, but if it is possible to take a Malagasy in the expedition group, even if only for interpretation, then this can be useful for communicating the most important fady to observe. For example it is fady to enter one of the forests outlined for study near Ambenja because it is a sacred burial site of the previous king of the village. Due to obtaining this knowledge on arrival at the village, no research was carried out there. As well as this helping to start a good relationship with the local people, it also built up a feeling of trust, so that when the team left Ambenja the queen said that if scientists returned next year she would seriously consider granting them access to the sacred forest. Another fady to note is that feet should not be near water pumped for drinking or cooking, and feet should not be washed in buckets used for other purposes. Although it is not necessary to follow this fady completely it is worth bearing in mind when using water pumps in local villages.

6.2

Research materials and information sources

This expedition would not have been possible without the invaluable help of Dr. Peter Long from University of Bath, who aided all the members of the team in the planning and data analysis stages. He also provided the links to our partner NGO Development and Biodiversity Conservation Action for Madagascar (DBCAM) and access to several of the resources listed below. During the planning stage, Madagascar – BRADT Travel Guide by Hilary Bradt was referred to for additional details on the host country. Throughout the planning, data analysis and reporting stages the RGS Expedition Handbook (Shane Winser) was very useful, as was Doing Development Research, written by Vandana Desai. Several maps were used whilst planning for the expedition, and these were taken into the field to aid with navigation and also to provide a basis for preliminary data analysis. Sheets LM38 and N38 of 1:100 000 FTM topographic maps were used. The whole area studied was covered by these sheets. In addition a LANDSAT 5 image from 2005 of the Mahamavo area was used, as was the Atlas of Vegetation of Madagascar (Du Puy and Moat 2007). All of the mapping materials were obtained through Dr. Long. Whilst in the field, several practical identification guides were used to aid with species identification:  Mammals of Madagascar, Nick Garbutt  Birds of Madagascar: A Photographic Guide, Morris & Hawkins  Amphibians and Reptiles of Madagascar, Frank Glaw & Miguel Vences  Lemurs of Madagascar, Russell Mittermeier et al. – this guide, although without photographs was particularly useful as it included the Malagasy names for each species of lemur (especially helpful when the guides had seen a lemur more clearly than us and gave their name for it as identification). For a full list of resources used refer to Bibliography (Section 12).

6.3

Training and equipment testing

Before leaving for the expedition, the UK team members met up to test the fieldwork data collection methodology. Frazer Higgins, as the team member with the most fieldwork experience, led this training –

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including skills such as accurately estimating distances and using the GPS handsets correctly. This also allowed for the GPS apparatus to be tested whilst any repairs needed could be made. This practice highlighted no problems with the methods of data collection and the team‟s abilities to carry out the research to a high standard. The field guides to be used were then shared out among the team members to allow everybody to begin to become familiar with the species likely to be found in the field. All other equipment was tested as it was obtained and then again shortly before leaving the UK.

6.4

Permission and permits

Research visas were applied for on behalf of UK team members by DBCAM, and were ready at the beginning of the expedition when the University of Bath team arrived in Madagascar. DBCAM were already in possession of a research permit to allow them and any collaborating partners to work in the Mahamavo region. This documentation was the result of DBCAM approaching the Ministry of Water and Forests in 2008 to identify priority areas in Madagascar outside the national parks network where baseline biodiversity and socio-economic surveys are needed (and no other NGOs or government agencies are working). Three areas were identified, of which Mahamavo was one, and DBCAM was issued with research permits to work at all three of the sites, with international partners.

6.5

Fund-raising

Much of the fund-raising was coordinated by Beth Rolfe, who although an original member of the expedition team unfortunately was unable to take part in the expedition. The rest of the team is immensely grateful for all the hard work that was put in by her to help fund this expedition. The majority of the funding came from organisations that specifically provide grants for undergraduate expeditions. Several searches on the internet, as well as referring to The Expedition Handbook (Winser 2004) provided a list of available grants, and once the research proposal was finalised several grants were applied for. The expedition was supported by grants from The Frederick Soddy Trust, Gilchrist Educational Trust, Royal Geographical Society with IBG, University of Bath Alumni Fund, and Zoological Society of London. In addition, a group was created on the social networking site Facebook, to inform friends and family of the expedition and its aims. This linked through to the expedition website which featured a PayPal system for online donations. Apart from the small charge taken off each donation by PayPal for use of the service, all of the money went straight towards the expedition. This was found to be a very effective way of raising money from interested family and friends, as it gave them a chance to be involved. Most of the donations were under £10, but the total amount raised through this medium was over £300 (see Finances Section 6.6 and Appendix 10.1). Olly Griffin, in charge of publicity and scientific communication, designed various posters and leaflets which were distributed in the local area. These contained information about the expedition, and its relevance to the overall situation in Madagascar, as well as contact details for all of the team members and the web address for the expedition homepage. Although distributed through much of Bath and in the expedition members‟ home towns, it appears that little interest was generated from this method, though it is impossible to rule out some of the online donations having come about due to this. Lastly, letters were sent to local businesses and schools asking for support in the form of donations of money or equipment, in return for something of use to the interested party – for example displaying company logos and acknowledging investment for businesses, and returning to schools to give presentations on the expedition or create displays. Approximately fifty letters were sent out, and replies were received from three businesses. Of these three, none were able to help as they had a policy of supporting one major charity each year. The costs for printing and postage of these leaflets and letters was covered by the University of Bath, so no loss was made to the team budget. This was, for this expedition, the least successful way of raising funds and sparking interest.

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6.6

Finances

Half of the expedition funds were taken into the country with UK members on their flights, in Euros as these are much easier to change than sterling. Money was changed into local currency on arrival, using recognised banks such as BFV-General. The other half of the money was transferred from the expedition account held at the University of Bath to one of the members of DBCAM, who then withdrew the money in local currency and brought it into the field. The following tables (Table 6.6.1 and 6.6.2) summarise income and expenditure respectively. A complete and detailed set of accounts can be found in the Appendix in Section 10.1. The cost of the flights for the UK team members was covered by each individual as a personal contribution, and was not subsidised with any amount from the expedition funds.

Table 6.6.1: Summary of expedition income indicating sources and total amounts (for a more detailed account of income refer to the Appendix in Section 10.1) Source

GBP 900 1500 1250 1000

ZSL Conservation grant RGS Geographical Fieldwork Grant University of Bath Alumni Fund Gilchrist Trust Educational Grant Offline donations The Frederick Soddy Trust Online donations from website

Amount Euros Ariary

387.79

Total Total in Euros Total in Ariary

750 321.42 5721.42

387.79 6967.423 19160413

Table 6.6.2: Summary of expedition expenditure indicating money spent on each category (for a more detailed account of income refer to the Appendix in Section 10.1) Expense Accommodation Food and drink Transport (excluding flights) Equipment Staff (DBCAM members, guides) Communication Miscellaneous Total

6.7

435.06 619.06 1310.98 916.84 1861.62 445.83 371.06

Amount Euros Ariary 1375900 1957780 4146000 2899530 5887400 1409960 1173500

5960.49

18850070

GBP

Insurance

All UK team members were insured with STA Travel on their Premier Annual Policy (the cheapest policy providing the highest level of cover). The insurance provided cover in the event of medical evacuation and repatriation – especially important due to the remote location of the study area. All standard aspects of insurance were also included, such as passport/money loss, delayed flights, lost baggage, kidnapping, death and some health and dental care.

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The insurance was obtained from the STA Travel branch at University of Bath, where the staff were very helpful and thorough, ensuring that the most suitable policy for the requirements of the expedition was purchased. Thankfully there was no need to make any claims on the insurance.

6.8

Travel, transport and freighting

Tim Osmond flew to Madagascar with British Airways, via Johannesburg. The rest of the team flew with Kenya Airways via Nairobi. The team carried all of the expedition equipment in their personal luggage – this was shared out in England to make sure that each person had an equal amount and so there was no need to exceed individual baggage allowances. For the duration of the expedition a four wheel drive car was hired from and driven by one of the members of DBCAM. As well as being an excellent driver with a good knowledge of local routes, the driver Mamisoa has extensive bird knowledge (he took part in Projet ZICOMA which surveyed Madagascar providing data for IBA classifications) and so was able to help out with bird identification when transect teams were short of expertise. Fuel was readily available in the towns and cities visited, and filling up on these occasions provided enough petrol to keep the car running whilst in the field. If there had been a problem with petrol supplies, more could easily have been obtained in the field, as some of the people in each village had petrol generators. Whilst travelling between Mitsinjo and Ambenja – an area not traversable by car – oxcarts were hired for luggage, and the team members walked behind carrying day sacks, guided by a local hired from Mitsinjo. This arrangement was repeated on the return to Mitsinjo. When travelling from Mitsinjo to Antanambao, to cut down on travel time, one group went via a longer more accessible route in the car, whilst the other group were transported by oxcart. Although transporting luggage by oxcart was very useful, on one particularly bumpy journey the car battery (used for charging electrical equipment when away from the 4x4) was damaged underneath by a metal rivet on the cart. Attempts were made to mend it in the field; these were subsequently abandoned as it was deemed not possible to fix without taking to a person with specialist equipment. The battery was donated to DBCAM after the expedition (Section 10.8), and they made arrangements for it to be repaired. Figure 6.8 shows a map detailing transport logistics between research sites. It was found that in all of the villages people were eager to help and it was always possible to locate good transport for a suitable price, sometimes with notice of only half an hour given. Two local guides were hired in each village to aid with transect location and navigation. They also helped by pointing out species relevant to the team completing the transect; in particular on herptile active searches where they seemed to know exactly which piece of bark to remove to find a lizard. In the wetlands near Mariarano, pirogues were hired for the team to use during the bird surveys. Each pirogue came with a driver who acted as guide. Although there was a problem with the pirogues on one day (due to an argument over a stolen boat, none of the piroguers turned up at the specified meeting point on time), overall they were reliable and essential for exploring the mangroves in detail.

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Figure 6.8: Map of Mahamavo area showing methods of transport used between expedition sites and length of time taken on each journey. Numbers in brackets give the order of steps.

6.9

Food and accommodation

A certain amount of food that was readily transportable by the methods used by the team was purchased in Mahajanga, both from markets and the local supermarket. Additional food required, as well as perishable items such as vegetables and meat, was bought from the villages visited. This was logistically the most suitable way to manage the food, and also had the added benefit of supporting the local economy. Cooks were hired in each of the villages where base camp was erected, allowing team members maximum time for data collection. The exception was the camp site set up outside Antanambao, where team members took it in turns to stay at camp during the day for security, and cooked food whilst completing camp chores or data analysis. The driver Mamisoa was also very helpful with cooking during his presence there. The food was of good quality, however sometimes there was a problem with obtaining vegetables for a few days at a time. The diet was still kept fairly healthy by eating beans, and fruit was always readily available on the way to and from transects. Part way through the time spent at Antanambao, two DBCAM members who had joined us needed to return to Mahajanga to travel on to another research site with a different team of scientists. They were taken in the 4x4 to Mahajanga, and whilst there, Mamisoa bought some additional supplies of products that were not so easy to obtain in the villages; Ibuprofen and Sur Eau (bleach) for example. Part of the expedition equipment were two Katadyn water filters, used for pumping any water (except salt water) to provide fresh clean drinking water. These filters were invaluable and highly effective. They are very simple to use, and just require cleaning every few days – or sometimes more often, depending on the cleanliness of the original water supply – under running water. Team members took it in turns to pump water in camp each night, to ensure that there was enough clean drinking water for the following day‟s work, for the whole team and the two local guides.

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Each village visited had a good water supply, closer to the location of base camp in some than others. At Ambenja the water was obtained from a stream ten minutes‟ walk from base camp, to where water was transported in jerry cans, each carried by two people with a stick threaded through the handle to facilitate this. In Mitsinjo a large pump was available to everybody in the village, and this was roughly five minutes away from base camp. It was also accessible by car, making transportation of large amounts of water easier. Again, team members took turns to collect water, in this instance combining it with using the shower facilities close to the pump. In Mariarano the water pump was located at the edge of base camp, so water was put directly into buckets and filtered from these. In Antanikofo forest the water supply was of slightly less good quality, from a partially stagnant pool. Water for drinking was filtered, and water for washing bodies, clothes and dishes had a small amount of Sur Eau added to kill any microbes that could be present and cause irritation to the skin. Iodine was also used as an extra water purification tool – there were two bottles included in the first aid kits, and a couple of UK team members brought their own bottles in addition. On arrival in Madagascar the UK team stayed in hotels whilst logistics were prepared for the field. The DBCAM team members then joined the group and the whole expedition team made its way to Mahajanga and stayed in a hotel. During this time, all meals were eaten at modest restaurants and roadside cafes. Once in the field, all accommodation was in the form of tents, with most of the team having a tent each. For those members who had to share, the option for swapping for a stint in a solo tent was given. In each village the locals were very accommodating, and donated a building for the team‟s use for the duration of the stay. These rooms were used for storing the team equipment and as a general meeting place; for eating meals, doing work after returning from transects and socialising in the evening.

6.10

Communications

Prior to the expedition, communication with host country partners was via email, and often through Dr. Peter Long (Biodiversity lab, University of Bath). Once in the field, a satellite phone was used to keep in contact with England, as there was no mobile telephone signal. This worked well, as instructions on how to contact the expedition team in this way were circulated before the expedition commenced. One of the members of the team also purchased a Malagasy mobile phone to aid communication when organising logistics and particularly for contact between the two teams sent shopping for equipment in Mahajanga (the DBCAM members had their own Malagasy phones, which were also used occasionally and the credit replaced). The internet was accessed in Mahajanga using internet cafes, although the connection is very slow and often pages will not load at all. After one internet café owner insisted that he was paid for ten minutes of the computer not loading a single page, it was decided to use some of the grant money to buy a Moov internet dongle for DBCAM to use on future expeditions (by the time the team was in a suitable place to buy such equipment, this expedition was over). The dongle has since been tested and works well in those areas with signal coverage, which unfortunately is still fairly limited in Madagascar. It works on a pre-pay basis; top-up vouchers are available from various shops and market stalls.

6.11

Specialist equipment

For his Masters‟ thesis at the University of Bath, Tim Osmond completed a design for a solar concentrator. The aim of the research project was to design a renewable energy solution for manufacture and use in a developing country. By utilising simple building techniques and readily available materials the design was completed, however there was insufficient time to make a prototype before leaving the UK. As such the first prototype was built in Madagascar whilst taking part in this expedition, during spare time and with the help of local workers.

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This proved both the difficulty of building such a machine and the communication problems which arise whilst working in a foreign environment, especially in a developing country where resources and money can be very scarce. The resulting prototype was not perfect however the design principle was proven; the overall design is manufacturable, however further work is needed to refine the manufacturing techniques to make them easily repeatable in rural settings. The most difficult aspects of making a solar concentrator are the shaping of the curve to provide the perfect reflector, which could be made far easier by producing templates whilst in an industrial centre prior to journeying into outlying villages. Also having built the initial prototype, the optimum materials needed for construction have been established and can now be purchased whilst in a city (in the target country), where they are more readily available. Overall, with experimentation the concept was proven as a success, although only moderate results were achieved; the final concentrator was capable of producing steam from cold water within approximately thirty minutes. This is far slower than the initial calculations showed, however due to lack of resources the reflective surface was very badly made, and as such by refining this manufacturing technique future results will be much better. Another promising result was the interest shown by local people in the technology. Many of the richer villagers spend a large amount of their money on petrol for small generators, which produce power equivalent to that of a fully operational concentrator but cost far more to obtain and run. With further work solar concentrators could be a viable alternative energy solution which is accessible to a much wider range of people. For more information on the solar concentrator equipment contact Tim Osmond at [email protected].

6.12

Risks and hazards

The team‟s home agent Peter Long has extensive experience of safety management on expeditions and so was able to advise during the planning stages and writing of the risk assessment. In addition he has worked in the study region, and with several of the DBCAM members. It was organised that in the event of an emergency he would liaise with the in-country agent, the team‟s insurers, the University of Bath and relatives of team members. Antoine Randriananantenaina was selected to be the team‟s emergency contact in Madagascar. He is based in Mahajanga, a major city featuring a hospital, airport, banks, well-stocked shops and reliable internet and phone access, approximately five hours drive from the field study area by 4x4. It was ensured that Antoine had a clear understanding of the expedition logistics and crisis management plan. He has also worked extensively with our home agent in the past – which was envisaged to promote good communication in the event of an emergency.

6.12.1 Original risk assessment Hazard

Control actions

Food Poisoning

Hygienic food preparation to reduce likelihood and treat symptoms. Scrupulous hand hygiene around camp using buckets of water with small quantities of bleach.

Drowning

Ensure team members can swim adequately and take necessary precautions when around water. Life jackets to be worn when boats are used

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Heatstroke/Heat Exhaustion

Everyone must always carry at least one litre of drinking water with them and wear a sunhat. Treat condition by rehydration and rest in the shade

Fall from/onto sharp rocks

Sensible, sturdy footwear should be worn when walking on rocks to reduce risk of fall and any wounds obtained should have antiseptic applied

Water-borne diseases

All drinking water must be filtered or boiled. Treatment of gastroenteritis by rehydration.

Infectious diseases

Prior to departure, team members will ensure that vaccinations for Polio, Hepatitis A, Meningitis, Diphtheria and Typhoid are up to date.

Wound infections

Any wounds will be cleaned and disinfected and kept covered.

Venomous arthropods (scorpions)

Clothes and boots to be checked carefully when dressing. Tents to be kept zipped up at all times.

Malaria

Although risk is relatively low, prophylactic drugs will be taken – Malarone is recommended. Bite prevention using long-sleeved clothes, socks and insect repellent in the evenings and sleeping under Permethrin treated bed nets.

Motor accident

Vehicles will be checked to ensure road-worthiness, and will be driven with the utmost care, taking account of road conditions

Getting lost

Fieldworkers to work in pairs at least, carry 2 way radios and use a sign-out system such that other group members know where team members have gone and approximate time expected back

Sexual harassment

Very unlikely. Team members will make all reasonable efforts to not invite inappropriate behaviour. Suitable clothing at all times in public.

Mugging/violent crime in towns

Very unlikely. No team members to go anywhere alone at night. Travel only by taxi at night in Antananarivo and Mahajanga.

6.12.2 Implementation of risk assessment in the field The risk assessment was implemented successfully in the field, with all team members fully aware of their responsibilities to ensure that correct steps were taken to protect the health and safety of themselves and others. As the risk assessment was outlined during the planning stages, it did not have an adverse effect on the plans made for the expedition; the two were made in tandem. There were no incidences of food poisoning, due to the control actions for this hazard being properly followed. In addition the Malagasy members of the team communicated the importance of food hygiene to the local cooks employed. As well as having a direct benefit to the health of the team, this also helped to ensure better hygiene standards when cooking in general, which could benefit the cooks themselves and their families. In Mariarano boats were used to study the wetlands, hired from local fishermen. Again the control actions were tightly followed, and the composition of the two teams following different transects each day was carefully thought out. All team members are able to swim at an adequate level, however some team members were stronger than others in this respect. As a result the teams were organised to comprise of one strong

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swimmer and one weaker one, so that in the event a weaker swimmer got into trouble there would be someone present perhaps more able to cope with the conditions. Water was pumped in camp every night, and each morning before leaving to follow transects it was ensured that everyone had adequate water with them for the day. The provisional requirement of one litre to be carried at all times was increased to two litres, after careful consideration of the weather conditions on arrival, the work to be done, and rates of acclimatisation. Care was taken when walking on uneven rocks and the pace of walking was kept to a comfortable pace for the slowest walker to make certain that nobody was forced to rush across difficult terrain and risk their safety. The only wounds sustained were occasional blisters on the feet from walking boots rubbing. These were treated appropriately and kept clean at all times. No scorpions were encountered throughout the whole expedition, although each team member had an ultraviolet light torch for use at night – this would effectively illuminate any scorpions in the vicinity. At the time of year of the expedition, scorpions are usually dormant. It was, however, thought best to err on the side of caution and have some form of detection equipment available in case necessary. In addition to prophylactic drugs being taken, team members also were careful to avoid bites, by keeping tents zipped up at all times, and wearing long sleeves in the evenings. Some members used insect repellents such as DEET (50%) and citronella oil. At Mariarano there was one location on the walk to the wetlands that had a large population of mosquitoes present, even during the day. On the first day that this walk was made, team members were not expecting the risk so did not have long-sleeved clothes with them; however someone had insect repellent which was shared out among the team. On subsequent days when this route was walked, each person ensured they had an extra layer with long-sleeves, and trousers, for passing through this section of the path. The 4x4 used in the field was road-worthy and driven with due care and attention by the DBCAM driver Mamisoa. When it was necessary for some team members to travel by taxi-brousse, tickets were booked in advance with the most reputable taxi-brousse firm. The people who travelled on these also took the satellite phone so that they could communicate with the other half of the team if necessary (those travelling in the car had four Malagasy mobile telephones between them). There was at least one Malagasy team member in each taxi-brousse group, to aid with translation during the journey. Team members never travelled anywhere in groups of less than two – this included walks taken from base camp during free-time, data collection, and travelling long-distance between sites or cities. All team members were sure to inform others of where they were going and for roughly how long before they left. This system worked very well, possibly as its importance was emphasised both in the UK before leaving and also in Madagascar at the start of the expedition. There were no problems with sexual harassment or violent crimes; however the control actions were followed very closely for the duration of the time in the host country.

6.13

Medical arrangements

All UK members of the team received basic first aid training prior to departure. In addition, Olly Griffin and Tim Osmond completed the „Wilderness Medical Training: Far from Help‟ course at the Royal Geographical Society, London, with Tim going on to complete the second half of the course „Wilderness Medical Training: Far from Help: Part 2 – Advanced Medicine Refresher‟ in Oxford. Two expedition first aid kits from Nomad were taken into the field and Tim Osmond also took an extended medical kit that included certain equipment and medication that he became licensed to administer after completing the set of Wilderness Medical Training courses. The two Nomad kits were carried around every day whilst working (one for each group) so that in the event of an accident there were adequate supplies available for administering immediate treatment.

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Each UK member of the team also took in their personal kit a basic supply of first aid equipment such as plasters, painkillers and charcoal. The charcoal was found to be an invaluable resource for those with stomach upsets, and it has been recommended that the Nomad first aid kits (one of which has been donated to DBCAM for use on further research expeditions – see Appendix, Section 10.8 for more details) were restocked with charcoal included. All team members were insured in order to provide medical evacuation to appropriate facilities and repatriation free of charge. At three of the research sites, the 4x4 car was always present in case needed for evacuation. The team also rented a satellite phone from Mobell, and all team members carried small laminated cards with the details of who to call (insurers, helicopters, in-country agent) in the event of evacuation being necessary. The UK team members took malaria prophylaxis drugs for the appropriate duration – including a set amount of days before and after the expedition – due to the risk of malaria present in Madagascar. Most took Doxycycline, with one team member taking Malarone. For those who had not taken these preventative drugs before, the tablets were obtained up to a week before departure to allow for the development and subsequent recognition of any side effects caused as a reaction to the drug. Should this have occurred, it would have given the individual in question enough time to switch to a different anti-malarial treatment. In the early planning stages of the expedition, it was the personal responsibility of all team members to ensure that they obtained the relevant immunisations recommended by doctors for extended travel to remote areas of Madagascar. These included polio, cholera, typhoid, hepatitis A and B, meningitis ACWY, tuberculosis and diphtheria. In addition a rabies vaccine was recommended. As no animals were to be handled it was decided that this was perhaps not a necessity, however all team members chose to have the vaccine anyway due to the remote location of the research sites and the potential for unforeseen contact with a rabid animal. Aside from a few instances of mild dehydration (treated with rehydration salts and water) and stomach upsets, the only incidence of accident or illness was a sprained wrist sustained by Harri Washington. This occurred at Mitsinjo when camping for one night on the way to the research site at Ambenja. Arrival at this site had been delayed so regrettably camp was set up in the dark, whilst food was also cooked. Harri tripped over a metal tripod whilst collecting new batteries for her head torch, falling on her wrist and spraining it. This injury was treated with support and immobilisation for a period of time, as well as anti-inflammatory drugs and painkillers administered by Tim Osmond.

6.14

Environmental and social impact assessment

6.14.1 Pre-expedition assessment Great care will be taken not to damage the environment of the study site. Food will mostly be purchased from local markets, products shall have minimal packaging, rubbish will be taken away from field sites and cooking fires and latrines will be constructed with the utmost care. The cultural and socio-economic status of the local people will be carefully considered. Great care will be taken on arrival in each village to seek out the President of the village association to formally seek permission to camp and research in the local area. Sam The Seing will brief the UK team members on appropriate standards of dress and behaviour. Malagasy team members will have the same insurance provision as UK team members and the risk assessment, safety management plan and crisis management plan will be translated into French. Power relations and the position of researchers in the social science component of our research programme have been considered. Only Malagasy team members will undertake social science research (mainly due to language barriers), and there is a male and female social scientist. Personally identifiable data will not be collected.

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6.14.2 Post-expedition evaluation The pre-expedition environmental and social impact assessment was very suitable and outlined actions able to be followed by the whole team. Most food, especially consumables, was bought from local markets – or from local households on the days between markets. Rubbish bags were erected at each site, and all team members were careful to put all rubbish in these bags ready to take away at the end of the time spent at each camp. In addition, once camp had been disassembled before leaving each site some team members would scour the area with a rubbish bag and pick up any pieces of waste that were remaining. Most of the rubbish was taken back to Mahajanga (the closest major town) for disposal there. However harmful waste, such as used batteries, was taken back to the UK for proper disposal. The President of each village was visited on arrival at each study area, to formally seek permission to camp and research in each place. The team was always welcomed and given permission to work, but the meetings were essential for building up a good relationship between the local people and the team. Some of the villages were very remote and so did not have much contact with foreigners – it was therefore important to try to assure any uncertainties the people may have had, in order that this expedition, and any in future to the same sites, could proceed effectively. Observation of local traditions and superstitions (fady) helped to ease relations between the team and the local community, and created an air of respect for the area in which the team worked and the people living there. The DBCAM members were very helpful with informing the UK team members about the various fady and how best to not cause offence in certain situations. All documents relating to health and safety were translated into French, and in a team meeting before going into the field these were discussed to ensure that all team members understood protocols and procedures, plus control actions. All social science was conducted by two of the DBCAM members. No other team members were present during interviews to increase privacy, and no identifiable data was taken.

6.15

Itinerary

2nd – 4th July: UK team travels to Madagascar 5th – 9th July: Transfer from Ivato airport to the field (stop in Mahajanga) 10th – 19th July: Ambenja study site 19th – 26th July: Mitsinjo study site 26th July – 3rd August: Antanikofo study site 3rd – 15th August: Mariarano study site 15th – 19th August: Transfer from field to Ivato airport (stop in Mahajanga) 20th August: UK team leaves Madagascar For comprehensive details of travel between sites and work completed on each day, see Diary (Section 7).

6.16

Photography and sound recordings

All team members took a camera with them to record personal memories of the expedition. Tim Osmond brought a Nikon D70s camera with various long lenses to capture professional photographs of the various species seen throughout the study area. Appendix 10.7 shows a selection of photographs from the expedition. Further photographs can be viewed on the expedition website (www.mahamavo.org) and copies can be obtained by contacting Tim Osmond at [email protected] The local people were happy for photographs to be taken, and they were especially interested in seeing the image on the display screens of the digital cameras. When photographing wildlife the guides were keen to help by holding back ill-placed branches, and they were happy to pose for shots of people at work.

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Whilst in the field the photographs were useful for species identification, and also for visual aids in the meetings held with local people in their villages. The photographs now provide a record of the species seen and to some extent the habitat in which they were found. They will be a useful aid in dissemination of results to clarify which species are being referenced – this can overcome any language barriers. Mamy Rabenoro also took several sound recordings of local traditions such as songs sung by local people while harvesting rice. These can also be viewed on the expedition website.

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7

Date 02/07/2009 03/07/2009 04/07/2009

Sites and localities London Heathrow London Heathrow/Ivato Airport Ivato Airport

05/07/2009 06/07/2009 07/07/2009 08/07/2009

Ivato – Mahajanga Mahajanga Mahajanga Mahajanga

09/07/2009

Mahajanga - Mitsinjo

10/07/2009

Mitsinjo - Ambenja

11/07/2009

Ambenja

12/07/2009 13/07/2009

Ambenja Ambenja

14/07/2009

Ambenja

15/07/2009

Ambenja

16/07/2009

Ambenja

17/07/2009 18/07/2009 19/07/2009

Ambenja Ambenja Ambenja - Mitsinjo

20/07/2009

Mitsinjo

21/07/2009

Mitsinjo

22/07/2009

Mitsinjo

23/07/2009

Mitsinjo

24/07/2009

Mitsinjo

25/07/2009

Mitsinjo

26/07/2009

Mitsinjo - Antanambao - Antanikofo

27/07/2009 28/07/2009

Antanikofo forest Antanikofo forest

Diary

Activities Tim Osmond to Madagascar via Johannesburg Tim arrives in Madagascar, rest of Bath team to Madagascar via Nairobi Rest of Bath team arrive in Madagascar Transfer from Ivato to Mahajanga: four team members by taxibrousse, four team members by 4x4. Day in hotel to meet DBCAM and discuss in-country logistics. Shopping for supplies Shopping for supplies Transfer from Mahajanga to Mitsinjo in two 4x4 cars. Camp overnight in Mitsinjo. One 4x4 car returns to Mahajanga, other stays in Mitsinjo with driver. Team transfer to Ambenja on foot, luggage on two oxcarts. Whole team investigates habitats surrounding Ambenja with two guides. Herptile/lemur team transect 2, bird team transect 1 (no data collected by bird team because of problems with route) Herptile/lemur team transect 1, bird team transect 2 Herptile/lemur team transect 3, bird team transect 1. Social science research in village by DBCAM. Herptile/lemur team transect 1, bird team transect 2. Social science research in village by DBCAM. Herptile/lemur team transect 2, bird team transect 1. Social science research in village by DBCAM. Herptile/lemur team no transect, bird team transect 1. Social science research in village by DBCAM. Whole team visit local sugar cane plantation Team transfer to Ambenja on foot, luggage on oxcarts. Herptile/lemur team transect 1, bird team transect 2. Social science research in village by DBCAM. Herptile/lemur team transect 2, bird team transect 1. Social science research in village by DBCAM members. Two extra members of DBCAM (Marc and Antoine) arrive. Herptile/lemur team transect 3, bird team transect 2. Social science research in village by DBCAM. Herptile/lemur team transect 1, bird team transect 3. Social science research in village by DBCAM. Herptile/lemur team transect 3, bird team transect 1.Social science research in village by DBCAM. Herptile/lemur team transect 2, bird team transect 3. Social science research in village by DBCAM. Team transfer to Antanambao: four members and some luggage by 4x4, four members and other luggage by three oxcarts. 4x4 and driver remain in village, rest of team walk to Antanikofo forest campsite with two guides, luggage on four oxcarts. Whole team investigates habitats surrounding campsite (2 guides). Herptile/lemur team transect 1, bird team transect 2

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29/07/2009

Antanikofo forest

Date

Sites and localities

30/07/2009 31/07/2009 01/08/2009 02/08/2009

03/08/2009

Antanikofo forest Antanikofo forest Antanikofo forest Antanikofo forest Antanikofo Antanambao Mariarano

04/08/2009

Mariarano

05/08/2009

Mariarano

06/08/2009

Mariarano

07/08/2009

Mariarano

08/08/2009

Mariarano

09/08/2009

Mariarano

10/08/2009

Mariarano

11/08/2009

Mariarano wetlands

12/08/2009

Mariarano

13/08/2009

Mariarano wetlands

14/08/2009 15/08/2009 16/08/2009

Mariarano wetlands Mariarano Mahajanga Mahajanga

17/08/2009

Mahajanga

18/08/2009

Mahajanga

19/08/2009

Mahajanga – Ivato

20/08/2009

Ivato Airport - London

Herptile/lemur team transect 2, bird team transect 1 Activities Herptile/lemur team transect 1, bird team transect 3. Marc and Antoine return to Antanambao for Mahajanga, 4x4 also goes to pick up additional supplies. Mamy to Antanambao village for social science research, to stay until rest of team returns from Antanikofo. Herptile/lemur team transect 2, bird team transect 3 Herptile/lemur team transect 3, bird team transect 1 Herptile/lemur team transect 3, bird team transect 2 Team transfer to Antanambao: walk with two guides, luggage on three oxcarts. Whole team transfer to Mariarano: two trips in 4x4. First group to arrive set up camp and meet mayor. Day off from transects for whole team - camp chores, blog writing, data input and analysis at base camp. Herptile/lemur team transect 2, bird team transect 1. Social science research in village by DBCAM. Herptile/lemur team transect 3, bird team transect 2. Social science research in village by DBCAM. Herptile/lemur team transect 2, bird team transect 3. Social science research in village by DBCAM. Herptile/lemur team transect 1, bird team transect 2. Social science research in village by DBCAM. Herptile/lemur team transect 3, bird team transect 1. Social science research in village by DBCAM. Herptile/lemur team transect 1, bird team transect 3. Social science research in village by DBCAM. Whole team investigates wetlands surrounding Mariarano in four pirogues hired from locals. Plans to visit wetlands again not possible due to disagreement between piroguers hired. Whole team bird point counts on additional transect 4, largely on land belonging to one of the guides. Tim visits wetlands to photograph birds. Disagreement between piroguers solved. Whole team splits in two to complete one bird transect each (transects 1 and 2). Tim remains in Mariarano village to work on solar energy converter. Whole team splits in two to complete one bird transect each (transects 3 and 4). Tim remains in Mariarano village to work on solar energy converter. Whole team transfer to Mahajanga in two 4x4 cars (one rented from mayor of Mariarano). Closing logistics of expedition, final accounts. Day of reporting at hotel - data input/analysis, blog writing. Organisation of equipment to be donated to DBCAM. Whole team debrief, equipment donation. Official end of expedition. Transfer from Mahajanga to Ivato: four team members by 4x4 leave in morning and arrive in evening, four team members by taxi-brousse in evening. Taxi-brousse team arrive early morning. Three of UK team fly back to London Heathrow via Paris. Other two UK members stay in Madagascar for personal travelling.

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8

Conclusion

Fulfilling objectives The objectives of the expedition were to: - visit four study sites - establish sixty sample sites in the forest to characterise habitat structure and as groundtruth locations - conduct ten minute bird point counts at 100 locations in the forest and wetlands, each repeated four times - complete four time-constrained active searches for herptiles on sixteen transects - complete four time-constrained active searches for lemurs on sixteen transects - gather base-line socioeconomic data on four base-villages Four study sites were visited (Ambenja, Mitsinjo, Antanambao/Antanikofo and Mariarano), with the wetland studies also performed from Mariarano. The team were only able to establish two sample sites in the forest to characterise habitat structure, due to insufficient manpower when considered together with the other objectives of the expedition. There were 114 ten minute bird point counts performed in the forest. These were all repeated at least once, except for fifteen points on an isolated transect in Mariarano. This is due to the transect being unplanned; it was undertaken after a day of wetland study had to be cancelled due to disagreements between the boat drivers meaning the team were unable to find transport into the mangroves. In the wetlands, data on birds was gathered using a transect method (similar to that applied to lemurs and herptiles) because the local boats used to traverse the mangroves did not have the manoeuvrability to remain in one position for ten minutes. It was therefore decided that more accurate results would be obtained using a line transect. This means that the data for wetland and forest counts cannot be grouped together for analysis, though it still provides the desired output of species lists for the habitats. Twelve transects were conducted to search for herptiles, and of these, eleven were repeated once. There was not enough time to repeat each transect to give a total of four surveys each. One of the transects (at Ambenja) was not repeated at all as the route was deemed unsuitable due to difficulties of access in very overgrown scrub and extremely limited visibility. Lemurs were also assessed on twelve transects, ten of which were repeated. Of the two unrepeated transects, one was due to the reasons given above, and the other was due to lack of time at one of the sites (Ambenja) so that all repeats could not be completed. Base-line socioeconomic data was collected from all of these study sites, as outlined in the objectives. The socioeconomic report however covers much more detail than originally envisaged, including photographs of daily life and activities, information about the commune of Mariarano as a whole, and reports on education and future issues to be addressed by the heads of fokotany. This additional information (Section 10.6) can provide a more in-depth reference for those concerned with making future management plans in the area. Envisaged and actual outputs The envisaged outputs of the expedition were species lists for reptiles, amphibians, lemurs and birds, and maps of forest cover change. The full species lists are located in Section 10.5. To summarise, the lists record eighteen species of reptile, two amphibian species (and another two unidentified), seven species of lemur, and 74 species of bird (27 of which were present in the wetlands at Mariarano). The maps of forest cover change were not produced, due to a lack of habitat survey data because of insufficient manpower. Threats to biodiversity Several threats to biodiversity were identified from this expedition. Lemurs are hunted for meat in many villages (Section 5.2.2.1), and of the seven lemur species recorded, six feature on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2010), with the seventh listed as data deficient. The Critically Endangered Madagascar Fish Eagle is also hunted (Section 5.2.2.1). Many birds are hunted using blow darts, though it was not discovered which species these were, and so the associated threat to them could not be identified.

45

Illegal logging occurs in at least the forest at Antanikofo, and is likely to occur throughout the region in forests not controlled by Vondron’Olona Ifotony (VOI; local basic community organisation). Mangroves are also illegally exploited. This is likely to cause damage to the habitat primarily by the removal of plants, but also by the secondary effect of non-standardised removals (with no controls, removals are more likely to be undertaken in a way harmful to the habitat). There is a „slash and burn‟ approach to agriculture, whereby farmers will burn down forest and savannah to provide new, more fertile agricultural land, or fresh growth palatable to zebu. This problem is exacerbated by the fact that there are no land rights at present in rural Madagascar, so in effect people can claim a piece of land as their own, if no one else has already, and do as they wish with it. Renewable energy side-project As a side-project, one member of the team tested the efficiency and practicality of a prototype solar concentrator, designed to heat water (Section 6.11). This was the culmination of a Masters thesis studying possible renewable energy solutions for developing countries, in order to reduce the biomass used (which would help to relieve some pressure on forests). The finished prototype was capable of producing steam from cold water in thirty minutes, but there is much room for improvement now that methods have been trialled. A future prototype could be built using materials bought from a local town – where higher quality and more suitable equipment could be obtained. Many of the villagers were very enthusiastic about the project, and keen to help in any way they could. It seems that there would be much interest from them if this idea were to be developed further. Mahamavo in the socioeconomic context The main occupations of the local people of Mahamavo are agriculture and livestock farming. Most of the adult female population support the household income by making craft products using raffia or Bismarckia palms collected from the savannah hinterlands. Rice, maize and cassava are the main crops, the former being very water-intensive but a staple of the Malagasy diet. Many people do not commit to only one source livelihood but instead may have several different sources of income. This allows for them to adapt, and remain able to support themselves and their family, in the event of adverse conditions. For example on a year of a bad harvest due to drought, a rice farmer may rely on a small herd of zebu to make money. The main issue in the opinion of the residents of Mahamavo, is the need for improvement of schools and their equipment. Young children can only complete an education up to primary level in their fokotany, and those wishing to remain in education have to be sent to the nearest town of Mahajanga (five hours‟ drive by 4x4) at considerable expense to their parents. There is now a college in construction in Mariarano, which is due to open late 2010 (Section 10.6). Many villagers feel that agricultural equipment ought to be developed, to better help their farming, and in some places, such as Mitsinjo, to help with the problem of very dry croplands (water supply is deemed a problem in Mitsinjo). Development of equipment and novel approaches to agriculture might also indirectly help to conserve habitat and biodiversity (see Threats to biodiversity). Most of the local people were very interested to find out what the team were doing during the expedition. Whilst out on transects, locals would often come over and report to the guide about certain wildlife that they knew lived close by. In the public meetings, held at Ambenja and Mariarano, villagers listened to the aims of the expedition and asked many questions about the work. There was overall a very positive response from all of the people encountered during the time in Mahamavo. Many local superstitions, fady, exist regarding all aspects of daily life. Some of these, such as not hunting sifakas due to their resemblance to humans (Section 5.2.2.1), help in part to conserve the biodiversity of the region. There is the potential to draw on this in the future and try to extend certain fady to cover other practices currently threatening biodiversity in the region. Fady are strictly adhered to within society, so this provides an alternative to the hard-line approach of passing laws.

46

There is a stark need for education on two issues in Mahamavo to increase the application of biodiversity conservation. Many people are unaware of the international plight of their local wildlife, so perhaps attitudes could be changed by informing them of the conservation status and importance of some of their most well known animals. Also, changes in national and international law rarely, if ever, filter through to these small villages. As a result, people are unaware that it is illegal to hunt certain animals or harvest certain plants. Without ensuring that people know of the laws, it is impossible for the protected status of a species to help in its conservation. Making a genuine contribution to biodiversity conservation It was intended that the outcome of this expedition would make a genuine contribution to biodiversity conservation, through collecting an evidence base that can be disseminated to stakeholders. A photographic record has been kept, of many of the individual species found during the expedition (Section 6.16). Though originally used as a tool to aid identification, these provide a lasting record of some of the morphology of these animals. Ten of the species found during this expedition are listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2010). These comprise one Vulnerable reptile species, three bird species listed as Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable respectively, and six species of lemur (three Endangered, two Vulnerable and one Near Threatened). Knowledge of the presence of these species means that further work can be undertaken to assess their populations and any threats, to ensure that they can be suitably protected. In addition, a Vulnerable species of bat was also recorded at two of the study sites. High values in the species diversity index (indicating a large number of species found in similar abundances) also draw attention to the importance and potential of Mahamavo as an important site for Madagascan biodiversity. According to the criteria for designating an Important Bird Area (Birdlife International 2010), Mahamavo, or parts of it, could qualify. The common presence of a Critically Endangered bird – in this case Madagascar Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vociferoides – is enough under normal circumstances, and this bird was sighted by the team at Ambenja and is also present in Mariarano according to reports from local people. The abundance of White-faced Whistling Duck Dendrocygna viduata was recorded to be over the 1% threshold level (Delany and Scott 2006) necessary for designation of a Wetland of International Importance (Ramsar Convention Bureau 1990). Additionally five other species of waterbird were recorded in numbers making a significant proportion of their respective 1% thresholds (Delany and Scott 2006), meaning that potentially Mahamavo may support important population levels of up to six species of waterbird. The IUCN has commissioned a Malagasy NGO to undertake a detailed survey of many species of reptile, including chameleons of the Furcifer genus, in order to assess their conservation status. Species records, GPS coordinate locations and photographs of individuals collected from this expedition will be shared in order to contribute to this important work. International conservation NGO Operation Wallacea begins a project in Mahamavo, based in Mariarano, in the summer of 2010. This will provide a much more detailed study of the species present and their abundance, as well as habitat information. Data from this expedition can be combined with any results obtained, providing a more expansive data set that spans an additional year. The results of this expedition have also helped to provide basic information on the area, to aid with the development of a detailed conservation and scientific study project. Opportunities for further work Many opportunities for further work have arisen from this expedition, including conducting a similar survey during the rainy season to identify additional species (though this does present additional logistical problems, see Section 5.4), studies aimed at particular species now known to be present in Mahamavo, and a detailed assessment to collect data to support a Ramsar/IBA designation. Also, a copybook was obtained from a local practitioner of traditional medicine, detailing all of the local plants and resources used to treat illnesses (Section 5.2.3.2). This provides the opportunity for a project to investigate the effectiveness of these treatments and assess the possibility of providing these to a wider market, in line with the Convention on Biological Diversity‟s aim to use traditional knowledge to promote biodiversity conservation and provide livelihoods for local people (United Nations 1993).

47

There were some limitations to this project; in the field, these fell into the categories of time, manpower and transport. Some of the envisaged data collection (such as habitat surveys) could not be undertaken due to insufficient time or manpower. Although this could have been solved by having a larger expedition team, this would have greatly increased costs due to additional flights, and another 4x4 being needed. As such it is felt that the team achieved the optimum practically possible in the field whilst staying within the budget available and producing a set of good results. The transport limitations were largely uncontrollable – the biggest problem was access to the sites due to the poor infrastructure, and the only other problem was a day of study in the wetlands was lost due to the local guides employed not showing up for work because of an argument they were having about a stolen boat. Despite these limitations, this expedition has provided the first extensive assessment of the Mahamavo region, fulfilling most of the outlined objectives and giving a vast amount of information that can make a genuine contribution to biodiversity conservation now and in the future. Mahamavo currently has no protection, but provides habitat for at least ten threatened species featured on the IUCN Red List (IUCN 2010), some of which are hunted. The government identified Mahamavo for preliminary research and results show it is of key importance in conserving Malagasy biodiversity. It is hoped that the opportunities for further work yielded from this study will be undertaken to further enhance the knowledge base on this important area of Madagascar.

48

9

Acknowledgements

The expedition would not have been possible without valued contributions from various organisations in the form of grants, for which the team is extremely grateful. This expedition was approved and supported by the Royal Geographical Society with the Institute of British Geographers (RGS-IBG), and also received funding from (in alphabetical order) The Frederick Soddy Trust, Gilchrist Education Trust, the University of Bath Alumni Fund and the Zoological Society of London (ZSL). For quantitative information on the various grants received refer to the Summary of Finances appendix (Section 10.1). In addition the team would like to thank those individuals who made personal donations to the expedition fund through the website (www.mahamavo.org) or offline (in alphabetical order): Hely Adam, Julia Adam, Jonathan Bawcombe, Aaron Berg, Stella Berg, Will Bradshaw, Karen Champs, James Claverly, Dr. & Mrs. J. S. Dearden, Laura Edwards, Ricardo Grammatica, Aisling Green, Hamish Keene, Peter Long, William Mirams, Christopher Moore, Izzy Morley, Susan Morley, Kenan Mustafa, Nicola Richardson, Michelle Saunders, Edward Sells, Daniel Stephens, Bill Washington, Caroline Washington, Sarah Washington, Andrew Woolliscroft, Monika Zapryanova. Thanks are also due to the business First Aid Kit Simple who helped the expedition by giving nationally recognised first aid courses free of charge to three of the UK team members. The team, and especially their leader Harri Washington, would like to thank Dr. Peter Long of the Biodiversity Lab at the University of Bath for providing the inspiration for this expedition, his dedicated contribution to the planning of this expedition, and for his advice compiling the database, and analysing results.

49

10 10.1

Appendices

Summary of finances

Table 10.1.1: Full account of expedition income, indicating source, date received and amount. There is an outstanding amount of £100 due from ZSL upon completion of the report. This value is not included in the table. This will be used to fund the printing and dissemination of results in UK and particularly to relevant bodies in Madagascar. Amount Date Source GBP Euros Ariary 07/05/2009 ZSL Erasmus Darwin Barlow Conservation Expedition grant 900 21/05/2009 RGS Geographical Fieldwork Grant 1500 28/05/2009 University of Bath Alumni Fund 1250 16/08/2009 Gilchrist Trust Educational Grant 1000 07/07/2009 Offline donations 387.79 17/08/2009 The Frederick Soddy Trust expedition grant 750 28/07/2009 Online donations from website 321.42 Total 5721.42 387.79 6967.42 Total in Euros 19160413 Total in Ariary

Table 10.1.2: Full account of expedition income, with each product/service described in detail and showing cost in the currency used to purchase the product/service. Receipt numbers refer to the catalogue of receipts, available on request. Cost Receipt Date Number Product/Service GBP Euros Ariary 24/06/2009 * Satellite phone hire from Mobell 299.00 26/06/2009 # Insurance for UK members (4 @ £45) 180.00

04/07/2009 05/07/2009

1 2

06/07/2009

3

06/07/2009

4

06/07/2009

5

06/07/2009 06/07/2009 06/07/2009 06/07/2009 06/07/2009 06/07/2009 06/07/2009 06/07/2009

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

06/07/2009 06/07/2009

Taxi for DBCAM members from meeting at hotel to home Photocopying data sheets for use in field Jacaranda hotel room and food for two people for two nights Jacaranda hotel room and food for one person for two nights Jacaranda hotel room and food for one person for two nights Jacaranda hotel room and food for one person for three nights Insurance for 4x4 hired for expedition Petrol for 4x4 Four Free-time tents Lunch for 5 people on road to Mahajanga (4x4) Coffee at roadside on road to Mahajanga (4x4) Dinner for 5 people on road to Mahajanga (4x4) Taxi-brousse for 4 people to Mahajanga Lunch for 4 people on road to Mahajanga (taxibrousse) Toilet access on road to Mahajanga (taxibrousse)

50

18000 54360 63.00 27.00 30.00 50.00 50000 170000 1195000 9400 400 8600 100000 10000 300

06/07/2009 06/07/2009 06/07/2009

17 18

07/07/2009 07/07/2009 07/07/2009 07/07/2009 07/07/2009

19 20 21 22 23

08/07/2009 08/07/2009

24 25

08/07/2009 08/07/2009

26 27

08/07/2009 08/07/2009 08/07/2009 08/07/2009 08/07/2009

28 29 30 31 32

08/07/2009 08/07/2009 08/07/2009 08/07/2009 08/07/2009 08/07/2009 08/07/2009 08/07/2009 08/07/2009 08/07/2009

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

09/07/2009 09/07/2009 09/07/2009 09/07/2009 09/07/2009 09/07/2009 09/07/2009 10/07/2009 10/07/2009 10/07/2009 10/07/2009 10/07/2009 10/07/2009 10/07/2009 11/07/2009 12/07/2009 13/07/2009 15/07/2009 15/07/2009 18/07/2009

43 44 45 46 47

50 51 52

57

61

Taxi from taxi-brousse station to 5/5 hotel for 4 people Dinner for 4 people in Mahajanga (taxi-brousse) 5/5 hotel in Mahajanga for 8 people for 1 night Breakfast in Mahajanga for whole team (9 people) Advance for Mamisoa (4x4 driver) Lunch in Mahajanga for whole team Dinner in Mahajanga for 7 people 5/5 hotel in Mahajanga for 8 people for 1 night Breakfast in Mahajanga for whole team (9 people) Photocopying expedition programme Torches and batteries for DBCAM team and guides 10 metres of tarpaulin Cooking equipment (1 cook pot, 4 cups, 2 serving spoons, 6 spoons) Vegetables for in the field Vegetables for in the field 3 15 litre buckets 5 pieces of rope (3 big, 2 small) Supermarket for field supplies (food, toilet rolls etc.) Tools (spade, shovel, 2 handles, 2 machetes) Beans for in the field 6 plates and 12 small spoons Lunch in Mahajanga for whole team Internet connection and printing Internet connection and printing Dinner in Mahajanga for 7 people 5/5 hotel in Mahajanga for 8 people for 1 night Zain phone credit for Nirina's phone Breakfast in Mahajanga for whole team and packed lunch for 10 Car battery Zain phone credit for Mamy's phone Cooking tripods and charcoal barbecues Petrol for Mamisoa's 4x4 and the rented 4x4 Charcoal in Mitsinjo (one night stopover) Water in Mitsinjo (one night stopover) 2 oxcarts and 2 guides from Mitsinjo to Ambenja Drink offerings to the queen of Ambenja 4x4 rented to drive from Mahajanga to Mitsinjo Monetary offering to the queen of Ambenja Water in Ambenja Drinks for team Turkey for dinner Bread for lunch in the field Food, laundry and charcoal 28 mokary (rice flour rolls) for lunch Petrol for lamp Tuna for dinner Food while staying in Ambenja

51

2700 13500 122000 56500 80000 28300 26700 122000 51000 1200 32800 40000 35600 31800 29700 9000 7600 548810 11000 20000 9600 31600 1400 1300 23600 122000 20000 87400 313000 40000 12000 276800 1000 1200 64000 16400 330000 10000 1200 12000 14000 2800 25000 2800 500 8000 57600

18/07/2009

62

18/07/2009

63

18/07/2009 19/07/2009 21/07/2009 22/07/2009 23/07/2009 26/07/2009

64 65 66 67 68 69

26/07/2009 26/07/2009 26/07/2009

70 71 72

26/07/2009

73

26/07/2009 26/07/2009 26/07/2009 26/07/2009 29/07/2009 29/07/2009 01/08/2009 01/08/2009

74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81

01/08/2009 01/08/2009

82 83

03/08/2009 03/08/2009

84 85

03/08/2009 05/08/2009 05/08/2009 07/08/2009 09/08/2009 10/08/2009 11/08/2009 14/08/2009 14/08/2009

86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94

14/08/2009

95

14/08/2009 14/08/2009 14/08/2009

96 97 98

15/08/2009 15/08/2009 15/08/2009 15/08/2009

99 100 101 102

2 cooks for 9 days in Ambenja (6000Ar each per day) Turkey for dinner and mokary for lunch in the field 2 guides for 8 days in Ambenja (Fidele and Molimo) (6000Ar each per day) 2 oxcarts and 1 guide from Ambenja to Mitsinjo 12 kapuks of beans Payment to Mamisoa (driver) 2 guides for 1 and 3 days respectively in Mitsinjo 1 guide for 6 days in Mitsinjo Food and two cooks whilst staying in Mitsinjo (extra days for Mamisoa) Charcoal and food in Mitsinjo Charcoal for Antanambao forest camp site 2 oxcart trips (Mitsinjo-Antanambao-forest) and guide for 3 days 2 oxcart trips (Mitsinjo-Antanambao-forest) and guide for 2 days 2 oxcart trips (Mitsinjo-Antanambao-forest) 1 oxcart trip (Antanambao-forest) Food supplies for forest camp site Cook for 3 days (Antoine) Cook for 3 days (Mamisoa) Supermarket supplies from Mahajanga Ibuprofen Guide for Mamisoa's return from Mahajanga to Antanambao and car battery repairs Petrol for 4x4 Living expenses for Mamy whilst performing social science research in Antanambao 3 oxcart trips (forest-Antanambao) 2 guides for 7 days in the forest and meat for dinner 24 mokary for lunch in the field at Mariarano Petrol for generator and chicken for dinner Final payment to Mamisoa (4x4 driver) Duck for dinner Guide for 6 days in Mariarano forest Small fish for dinner Fish for dinner Boat hire for 2 days in Mariarano wetlands Boat hire and guides for various days in Mariarano wetlands Food and other supplies from shop in Mariarano for duration of visit Laundry and potatoes Mokary and dumplings for lunch in the field 1 day guiding and a hand-drawn map of the area from Fidele 1 guide for 6 days in Mariarano 2 cooks for 12 days in Mariarano Food supplies in Mariarano

52

108000 22200 96000 50000 7200 20000 24000 36000 294000 12000 3000 48000 40000 30000 10000 223100 18000 18000 27650 5500 17000 100000 65000 30000 108000 2400 23750 1684000 8000 36000 3000 4800 12000 102000 162050 11700 17100 20000 36000 144000 13500

15/08/2009

103

15/08/2009

104

18/07/2009

105

18/07/2009 15/08/2009 15/08/2009

106 107 108

16/08/2009

109

16/08/2009 16/08/2009 16/08/2009 16/08/2009 17/08/2009

110 111 112 113 114

17/08/2009 17/08/2009

115 116

17/08/2009

117

17/08/2009

118

17/08/2009 17/08/2009 18/08/2009 18/08/2009 18/08/2009

119 120 121 122 123

17/08/2009

124

17/08/2009

125

17/08/2009

126

17/08/2009

127

17/08/2009

128

18/08/2009 18/08/2009 19/08/2009

129 130 131

18/08/2009 19/08/2009 04/07/2009

132 133

Food and other supplies from Mahajanga Lunch in Mahajanga for whole team plus an extra 4x4 driver (10 people) Fish and bananas in Ambenja (paid back to a DBCAM member) Crab, tomatoes and oil (paid back to a DBCAM member) Dinner for 10 people in Mahajanga Car wash for the 4x4 Buying food for lunch for whole team at Antoine's house in Mahajanga 2 cooks for 1 day in Mahajanga and mokary for breakfast for the team Potatoes and oil for dinner Petrol for 4x4 for drive south Internet credit for DBCAM dongle Hotel in Mahajanga for 9 people for 2 nights Lunch for 3 people on road from Mahajanga (taxi-brousse) Taxi-brousse for 3 people from Mahajanga Dinner for 3 people on the road from Mahajanga (taxi-brousse) Lunch for 5 people on road from Mahajanga (4x4) Coffee at roadside on road from Mahajanga (4x4) Advance for Mamy Orange phone credit for flight confirmations Food for Bath team for rest of stay Food for Bath team for rest of stay Taxi-brousse from Mahajanga for 1 person (Virginie) Taxi from hotel in Mahajanga to taxi-brousse station (Virginie) Lunch for 1 person on the road from Mahajanga (Virginie) Dinner for 1 person on the road from Mahajanga (Virginie) Taxi from taxi-brousse station to home for Virginie Taxi for 3 people (taxi-brousse station-HotelNirina's house) (taxi-brousse) Zain credit for Nirina Taxi for DBCAM members to meeting at hotel Accommodation and food for Bath members (1-2 nights) Breakfast for 5 people at hotel Visas for Bath team (5 @ 80000 each) TOTALS TOTAL IN Ariary

26000 79800 2000 2900 97000 16000 45400 18000 10000 168000 15000 220000 13000 75000 8500 17000 1400 25000 5000 23020 37380 25000 3000 3000 4000 5000 8000 2000 5000

479.00

170.00

203600 34000 400000 9662420 11644757.5

Marc's Expenditures 03/07/2009

134

Telma phone credit for Marc

53

5000

03/07/2009

135

04/07/2009

136

04/07/2009 07/07/2009 10/07/2009 10/07/2009

137 138 139 140

11/07/2009 14/07/2009 15/07/2009 15/07/2009 15/07/2009 15/07/2009 15/07/2009

141 142 143 144 145 146 147

16/07/2009

148

17/07/2009 17/07/2009 17/07/2009 17/07/2009 17/07/2009 17/07/2009 17/07/2009 17/07/2009 18/07/2009

149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157

20/07/2009 20/07/2009 20/07/2009 20/07/2009

158 159 160 161

20/07/2009 20/07/2009

162 163

20/07/2009

164

20/07/2009 20/07/2009 21/07/2009 29/07/2009 29/07/2009

165 166 167 168 169

29/07/2009 30/07/2009

170 171

30/07/2009 30/07/2009 30/07/2009 31/07/2009

172 173 174 175

Taxi for Tim and Marc from Ivato airport to hotel Petrol for 4x4 (to transport rest of Bath team from airport to hotel) Telma phone credit for Marc and Moov internet connection Orange phone credit for Marc Air Madagascar penalty for flight amendment Orange phone credit for Marc Rechargeable batteries, charger, SD memory card and rope Tent and sleeping mats Aeroplane luggage excess 4kg Taxi for Marc from Ivato airport to home Taxi for Marc from home to taxi-brousse station Taxi-brousse from Antananarivo to Mahajanga Telma phone credit for Marc Taxi for Marc from taxi-brousse station in Mahajanga to hotel via several locations Taxi for Marc from hotel to various locations in Mahajanga Food supplies for in the field from Mahajanga Cooking gas canister Insect repellent spray New Telma phone for Marc Telma phone credit for Marc Moov 3G+ internet access dongle for DBCAM Insect repellent spray and rubbish bags Moov credit for internet access Petrol for motorized pirogue (transport from Mahajanga to field site) Oil for motorized pirogue Boat taxi from dock to motorized pirogue Hotel accommodation in Mahajanga for Marc Per diems for Marc and Antoine (6 days @ 24000Ar each) 10 standard alkaline batteries Motorized pirogue transport (MahajangaAntanambao) (2 days @ 50000Ar each) Taxi for Marc from hotel to dock via various locations in Mahajanga 1 oxcart trip (Antanambao-Mariarano) 1 oxcart trip (Mariarano-Mitsinjo) 1 oxcart trip (Analabe forest-Antanambao) Advance for Mamy Dinner for 2 people in Mahajanga (Marc and Mamisoa) Breakfast for 2 people in Mahajanga Lunch for 3 people in Mahajanga (Marc, Mamisoa and Antoine) Dinner for 2 people in Mahajanga Advance for Antoine Breakfast for 2 people in Mahajanga

54

35000 25000 10000 5.00 47.00 10.00 167.40 33.40 20.00 35000 7000 25000 5000 12500 22500 15130 42500 5200 29000 32000 298000 19620 20000 107200 5000 11000 127400 144000 48600 100000 25000 15000 15000 10000 35000 14400 13700 20700 18800 224000 14200

31/07/2009

176

31/07/2009 31/07/2009

177 178

31/07/2009

179

31/07/2009 31/07/2009

180 181

31/07/2009

182

01/08/2009 05/08/2009

183 184

07/08/2009

185

20/08/2009

186

tbc

Lunch for 3 people in Mahajanga Dinner for Marc before departure to Antananarivo Advance for Mamisoa (driver) Hotel accommodation in Mahajanga for Marc (1 night) Hotel accommodation in Mahajanga for Mamisoa (1 night) Advance for Marc Taxi-brousse from Mahajanga to Antananarivo for 1 person Taxi from taxi-brousse station in Antananarivo to home for Marc A4 paper for printing accounts Petrol for Mayor of Mariarano's 4x4 (team transport to Mahajanga) Donation of remaining money to DBCAM for running costs and salaries for members TOTALS TOTAL IN Ariary Donation of remaining grant money to DBCAM for salaries

OVERALL TOTAL

25000 11500 105000 63400 50000 400000 35000 8000 7200 130000

282.80

1560400 3987950 4765650

1000

2750000

19160407.5

55

10.2

Design of data collection sheets

56

57

58

59

10.3

Raw field data

Due to the sheer volume of data generated during this expedition, and its format, the data is not provided within this report. It can however be obtained free of charge from the expedition website www.mahamavo.org, either in database format or as summary spreadsheets. All of the summary statistics provided within the main body of the report are drawn from this data.

10.4

Database

The data collected on the data collection sheets were entered into the database periodically in the field, when power was available. A full copy of the database complete with all collected data and some associated queries for analysis can be accessed on the expedition website www.mahamavo.org – this section only gives brief details of the format and building of the database itself. Tables The database comprises two main tables; an occasions table, filled with occasion specific covariates entered using a form, and a records table which was used to collect the data related to the individuals seen on an occasion. These two tables were bound together using a query, which created a table containing all of the information collected, including data from other tables such as those storing weather codes and observer names. These were separated to avoid unnecessary repetition when each data sheet was entered, as well as allowing validation of the information being added, so as to avoid problems arising from typing errors. Forms A variety of forms were made to allow simple, validated data entry. In the main forms for each taxon, the fields are mirrored by those on the data collection sheets. Another set of forms allowed the entry of opportunistic observations.

Relationships

Figure 10.4: Screenshot showing the relevant relationships in the herptile taxon portion of the database (similar relationships set up for birds and lemurs). A table was produced that listed all of the species likely to be found in the area. When the records were entered in forms, the species record was validated by look-up to the species table. This ensured that typing errors did not arise, causing the same species to be separated into two different ones during analysis by queries.

60

10.5

Complete species lists

Table 10.5.1: Checklist of bird species present in Mahamavo, including status (and classification details) on IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2010)

Species Scientific Name Accipiter francesii Actitis hypoleucos Agapornis canus Alcedo vintsioides Anastomus lamelligerus Anhinga rufa Ardea cinerea Ardea purpurea Artamella viridis Bubulcus ibis Buteo brachypterus Butorides striatus Calicalicus madagascariensis Calidris alba Calidris ferruginea Calidris minuta Caprimulgus madagascariensis Centropus toulou Charadrius hiaticula Charadrius marginatus Cisticola cherina Copsychus albospecularis Coracina cinerea Coracopsis nigra Coracopsis vasa Corvus albus Coua coquereli Coua cristata Coua ruficeps Cypsiurus parvus Dendrocygna viduata Dicrurus forficatus Dromas ardeola Dryolimnas cuvieri Egretta alba Egretta dimorpha Falco newtoni Falco zoniventris Falculea palliata Foudia madagascariensis Gallinula chloropus Haliaeetus vociferoides Hypsipetes madagascariensis Leptopterus chabert

Species Common Name Frances's Sparrowhawk Common Sandpiper Grey-headed Lovebird Madagascar Malachite Kingfisher African Openbill African Darter Grey Heron Purple Heron White-headed Vanga Cattle Egret Madagascar Buzzard Green-backed Heron Red-tailed Vanga Sanderling Curlew Sandpiper Little Stint Madagascar Nightjar Madagascar Coucal Ringed Plover White-fronted Plover Madagascar Cisticola Madagascar Magpie-Robin Ashy Cuckoo-shrike Lesser Vasa Parrot Greater Vasa Parrot Pied Crow Coquerel's Coua Crested Coua Red-capped Coua African Palm Swift White-faced Whistling Duck Crested Drongo Crab Plover White-throated Rail Great Egret Dimorphic Egret Madagascar Kestrel Banded Kestrel Sickle-billed Vanga Madagascar Red Fody Common Moorhen Madagascar Fish Eagle Madagascar Bulbul Chabert's Vanga

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IUCN Conservation Status Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Critically endangered Least concern Least concern

Notes

C2a(ii)

Species Scientific Name Leptosomus discolor Lonchura nana Lophotibis cristata Macheiramphus alcinus Merops superciliosus Milvus aegyptius Mirafra hova Motacilla flaviventris Nectarinia notata Nectarinia souimanga Neomixis tenella Nesillas typica Newtonia brunneicauda Numenius phaeopus Numida meleagris Oena capensis Phedina borbonica Phyllastrephus madagascariensis Platalea alba Ploceus sakalava Polyboroides radiatus Terpsiphone mutata Threskiornis bernieri Treron australis Turnix nigricollis Upupa marginata Vanga curvirostris Xenus cinereus Zosterops maderaspatanus

Species Common Name Cuckoo-Roller Madagascar Mannikin Madagascar Crested Ibis Bat Hawk Madagascar Bee-eater Yellow-billed Kite Madagascar Bush Lark Madagascar Wagtail Long-billed Green Sunbird Souimanga Sunbird Common Jery Madagascar Brush Warbler Common Newtonia Whimbrel Helmeted Guineafowl Namaqua Dove Mascarene Martin Long-billed Greenbul African Spoonbill Sakalava Weaver Madagascar Harrier-Hawk Madagascar Paradise Flycatcher Madagascar White Ibis Madagascar Green Pigeon Madagascar Buttonquail Madagascar Hoopoe Hook-billed Vanga Terek Sandpiper Madagascar White-eye

IUCN Conservation Status Least concern Least concern Near threatened Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Endangered Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern Least concern

Notes

C1

Table 10.5.2: Checklist of lemur species present in Mahamavo, including status (and classification details) on IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2010)

Species Scientific Name Avahi occidentalis Eulemur fulvus Eulemur mongoz Eulemur rufus Lepilemur edwardsi Microcebus ravelobensis Propithecus coquereli

Species Common Name Western Avahi Common Brown Lemur Mongoose Lemur Red-fronted Brown Lemur Milne-Edwards's Sportive Lemur Golden-brown Mouse Lemur Coquerel's Sifaka

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IUCN Conservation Status Endangered Near threatened Vulnerable Data deficient Vulnerable Endangered Endangered

Notes B1ab(iii) B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) Range extended B1ab(iii,v) B1ab(iii). Range extended A2cd

Table 10.5.3: Checklist of reptile species present in Mahamavo, including status (and classification details) on IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2010)

Species Scientific Name

Species Common Name

IUCN Conservation Status

Acrantophis madagascariensis

Malagasy Ground Boa

Vulnerable

Dromicodryas bernieri Dromicodryas quadrilineatus Furcifer angeli Furcifer pardalis Geckolepis typica Hemidactylus mercatorius Leioheterodon madagascariensis Lygodactylus tolampyae Mimophis mahfalensis Oplurus cuvieri Phelsuma abbotti Phelsuma guttata Phelsuma madagascariensis Trachylepis dumasi Trachylepis elegans Trachylepis gravenhorstii Zonosaurus laticaudatus

Bernier's Striped Snake Four-striped Snake Angel's Chameleon Panther Chameleon Grandidier's Gecko House Gecko Malagasy Giant Hognose Snake Grandidier's Dwarf Gecko Big-eyed Snake Cuvier's Madagascar Swift Abbott‟s Day Gecko Speckled Day Gecko Madagascar Day Gecko Smart Mabuya Madagascar Jungle Skink Western Girdled Lizard

Not listed Not listed Not listed Not listed Not listed Not listed

Notes A1cd. Red List status needs updating

Not listed Not listed Not listed Not listed Least concern Not listed Not listed Not listed Not listed Not listed Not listed

Table 10.5.4: Checklist of amphibian species present in Mahamavo, including status (and classification details) on IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2010) Species Scientific Name

Species Common Name

IUCN Conservation Status

Hoplobatrachus tigerinus

Indian Bullfrog

Least concern

Ptychadena mascareniensis

Mascarene Ridged Frog

Least concern

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Notes Introduced species. Range extended

10.6

Full socioeconomic report

Socioeconomic study AMBENJA/MITSINJO/ANTANAMBAO/MARIARANO MAHAJANGA II, BOENY Region

MAMY RABENORO / DBCAM MADAGASIKARA JULY- AUGUST 2009

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SUMMARY:-Research methods -Introduction -I/AMBENJA / MITSINJO / ANTANAMBAO / MARIARANO -I.A/ AMBENJA -I.B/ MITSINJO -I.C/ ANTANAMBAO -I.D/ MARIARANO - II/ THE COMMUNE OF MARIARANO -II.A/ Historical background -II.B/Population and distribution by fokotany -II.C /Location of each fokotany -II.D/ Habitats in the commune -II.E/ Education and social services -II.F / The schools in Mariarano commune -II.G/ Inadequate infrastructure -II.H/ Socio-cultural -II.I / Youth, sports and leisure -II.J/ Socio-economics -II.K/Biodiversity -II.L/Technology and energy -II.M/Potential activities -II.N/ Weaknesses -II.O/ Problems of the commune (PCD 2007) -II.P/ Priorities of the commune -II.Q/Constraints -II.R / Possible development strategies for the rural commune of Mariarano

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RESEARCH METHODS: Direct observations: it is necessary to verify some of the information given by the population, by direct observation of the land. Group discussion: with women, teenagers, children and men, Meetings were organised with each of these groups. Holding discussions with groups is sound as a method of inquiry because the groups know exactly what they want/need. The discussions are held in a participatory way; each individual can speak and express their wishes aloud in these brainstorming sessions. Discussion with significant members of the population : with the ombiasy – practitioner of traditional medicine; chief of the fokotany and the school headmaster. These discussions are also useful because these people have knowledge of the historical and socioeconomic development of their society. Household surveys : Household surveys allow collection of information of real living conditions and attitudes. It is important to interview the dwellers with and without their respective leaders, to gather all opinions of the household. Discussions with the heads of families provides good information on the socioeconomic situation. Documentation, bibliographies and map reading: Since the duration of the study is fairly short, and some essential contacts may not be present during the research, these additional sources of information are vital – see for example the Municipal Development Plan (Plan Communal de Développement, PCD).

INTRODUCTION GEOGRAPHICAL DELIMITATION OF MARIARANO COMMUNE Situated between 15°16‟ ; 15°36‟ South and 46°22‟ ; 46°48‟ East, the rural commune of Mariarano is found in the north west of Madagascar, 83 kilometres north east of Mahajanga. It is bordered: - in the north west by Mahajamba Bay, - in the south west by the rural commune of Betsako and Ambalakida, - in the east by Andranoboaka rural commune and - in the west by the Mozambique Channel On a map of Madagascar, it is the part found between Mahajamba Bay and Bombetoka Bay. With an area of 1700 kilometres squared, and 136 kilometres of coastline, it is the biggest rural commune in Mahajanga II District. Mariarano rural commune consists of eleven fokotany (the smallest administrative unit in Madagascar comprised of one, or a couple of villages). The main part of the study is to focus on the four villages in which the team stayed (Ambenja, Mitsinjo, Antanambao and Mariarano), however the rural commune of Mariarano in general is also covered.

I/AMBENJA / MITSINJO / ANTANAMBAO / MARIARANO I.A/ AMBENJA (TSINJORANO / MAHABO) I.A.1/POPULATION MEN WOMEN ADULTS (ABOVE 18 YEARS) TOTAL RGPH Projection 2009 0 to 5 years according to RGPH

NUMBER 360 455

Percentage of total population 44% 56%

320

39%

815 893

100%

49

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I.A.2/OCCUPATIONS OF THE POPULATION Occupation Agriculture Farming Fishing Artisans Extracting forest resources

PRODUCTS Rice, maize, cassava Zebu Fresh, smoked and salted fish Baskets, mats Various types of wood, raffia

Percentage of the total population 80% 15% 80% of the female population 5%

I.A.3/MAP

I.A.4/ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF WEALTH Indicator

Number

Zebu

2000

Land titles Houses with corrugated iron roofs Houses with concrete floors Houses built Houses in ruins Houses in the construction process

00 02 11 189 20 22

Observations Unofficial information – an estimation of all zebu; native, registered and stray.

I.A.5/Choices and opinions of Ambenja fokotany for their actions for future development : during this study the community was asked what their wishes were for the development of their village in the future. The questions were asked to a sample of each of the different groups in the population (such as men, women,

67

adults, children) so that a total of one hundred individuals were interviewed. The results, in order of priority, are listed below, given a score of how many of the one hundred interviewees found each issue most important : Theme Improvement of the school and equipment Creation of a Centre de Santé de Base (CSB ; a health centre) Improvement of paths and roads Development of agricultural equipment Total

Score 44 28 21 07 100

I.A.6/INFORMATION ABOUT THE SCHOOL LEVEL

Multi-grade class

PUPILS CLASSROOMS

NUMBER T1, T2, T3 119 registered 01

TEACHERS OFFICIALS 01 EMPLOYED FRAM SUBSIDISED* 01 PROBLEMS * FRAM is a small group formed of parents of pupils

OBSERVATIONS An additional class, T4, will begin this year Age of students: 5 to 15 years old An additional classroom will be created this year. Headmaster always absent Wage is insufficient Insufficient classrooms

I.B/ MITSINJO (FENOARIVO / ANTSANIFERA) I.B.1/POPULATION MEN WOMEN ADULTS (OVER 18 YEARS) TOTAL RGPH Projection 2009 0 to 5 years according to RGPH

NUMBER 321 347 280 668 712 39

Percentage of the total population 48% 52% 42% 100%

I.B.2/OCCUPATIONS OF THE POPULATION Occupation Agriculture Farming Fishing Artisans Extracting forest resources

PRODUCTS Rice, maize, cassava Zebu Fresh, smoked, and salted fish Baskets, mats Various types of wood, raffia

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Percentage of the total population 60% 30% 70% of the female population 10%

I.B.3/MAP

I.B.4/ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF WEALTH Indicator Zebu

Number 1500

Land titles Houses with corrugated iron roofs Houses with concrete floors Houses built Houses in ruins

00 02 04 101 06

Houses in the construction process

10

Observations Unofficial information – an estimation of all zebu ; native, registered and stray

I.B.5/ Choices and opinions of Mitsinjo fokotany for future development : a similar approach as used in Ambenja, with the same methodology, was conducted in Mitsinjo. The results, in order of priority, are listed below, scored in the same way as the results for Ambenja: Theme Improvement of the school and equipment Development of agricultural equipment Improvement of paths and roads Creation of a Centre de Santé de Base (CSB; a health centre) TOTAL

Score 56 26 16 00 100

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I.B.6/INFORMATION ABOUT THE SCHOOL LEVEL

Two multi-grade classes

PUPILS CLASSROOMS TEACHERS EMPLOYED PROBLEMS

NUMBER T1, T2, T3, T4

46, 20, 10, 17 02 OFFICIALS FRAM SUBSIDISED

01 01

OBSERVATIONS Class T5 will start this year, with a strong focus on science for pupils wishing to study this subject. Age of pupils: 5 to 15 years Both rooms are being improved this year. The headmaster is always absent Insufficient wage Insufficient classrooms

I.C/ ANTANAMBAO I.C.1/POPULATION MEN WOMEN ADULTS (ABOVE 18 YEARS) TOTAL RGPH Projection 2009 0 to 5 years according to RGPH

NUMBER 497 486 431

Percentage of total population 50% 50% 43%

983 939 136

100%

I.C.2/OCCUPATIONS OF THE POPULATION Occupation Agriculture Farming Fishing Artisans Extracting forest resources

PRODUCTS Rice, maize, cassava Zebu Fresh, smoked and salted fish Baskets, mats Various types of wood, raffia

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Percentage of the total population 90% 0% 80% of the female population 10%

I.C.3/MAP

I.C.4/ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF WEALTH Indicator Zebu

Number 1500

Land titles Houses with corrugated iron roofs Houses with concrete floors Houses built Houses in ruins Houses in the construction process

00 08 08 120 18 05

Observations Unofficial information – an estimation of all zebu ; native, registered and stray.

I.C.5/Choices and opinions of Antanambao fokotany for their future development. Theme Improvement of the school and equipment Development of agricultural equipment Improvement of paths and roads Creation of a Centre de Santé de Base TOTAL

Score 52 30 11 07 100

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I.C.6/INFORMATION ABOUT THE SCHOOL LEVEL PUPILS

Multi-grade classes

CLASSROOMS

TEACHERS EMPLOYED PROBLEMS

OFFICIALS FRAM SUBSIDISED

NUMBER T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 Information not supplied 03

02 01

OBSERVATIONS There are many pupils but not enough classroom space. One room has been provided for secondary level education (T6), which will begin in 2010 Headmaster often absent Insufficient wage Following primary school, parents would rather keep children at home to help out with chores than send them to secondary school (in Mahajanga). Also, it is often too expensive for parents to afford.

As the study was conducted wholly during the school holidays it was not possible to interview any of the responsible people of the school, such as the headmaster.

I.D/ MARIARANO I.D.1/POPULATION MEN WOMEN ADULTS (OVER 18 YEARS) TOTAL RGPH Projection 2009 0 to 5 years according to RGPH

NUMBER 1066 1086 714 2152 2765 402

Percentage of total population 50% 50% 36% 100%

I.D.2/OCCUPATIONS OF THE POPULATION Occupation Agriculture Farming Fishing Artisans Extracting forest resources

PRODUCTS Rice, maize, cassava Zebu Fresh, smoked and salted fish Baskets, mats Various types of wood, raffia

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Percentage of the total population 75% 15% 80% of the female population 10%

I.D.3/MAP

I.D.4/ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF WEALTH Indicator Zebu

Number 2500

Land titles Houses with corrugated iron roofs Houses with concrete floors Houses built Houses in ruins Houses in the construction process

00 10 15 500 30 25

Observations Unofficial information – an estimation of all zebu; native, registered and stray.

I.D.5/ Similarly to the other three sites, one hundred people in Mariarano were interviewed about local issues. For this purpose Mariarano was considered only as a fokotany rather than as the capital of the municipality as well. The results of this survey in order of priority : Theme Improvement of the school and equipment Development of agricultural equipment Improvement of paths and roads Creation of a Centre de Santé de Base health centre TOTAL

Score 47 42 11 00 100

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I.D.6/INFORMATION ABOUT THE SCHOOL

LEVEL

Multi-grade classes

PUPILS

Information not supplied 02

CLASSROOMS

TEACHERS EMPLOYED PROBLEMS

NUMBER T1, T2, T3, T4, T5

OFFICIALS FRAM SUBSIDISED

02 02

OBSERVATIONS Pupils are often absent as it is fady to work on a Tuesday and Thursday. There are many pupils but not enough classrooms. There had been no improvements to the school since 1953 but now the Fond d’Intervention pour le Développement has plans to create a new large classroom for the new class T6, due to open in 2010. Headmaster often absent Insufficient wage Following primary school, parents would rather keep children at home to help out with chores than send them to secondary school (in Mahajanga). Also, it is often too expensive for parents to afford.

As the study was conducted wholly during the school holidays it was not possible to interview any of the responsible people of the school, such as the headmaster.

II/ THE COMMUNE OF MARIARANO II.A/Historical background: According to traditional stories passed down through generations, there are two versions of the history of Mariarano commune:

First version: Originally, the village was situated on a plain near the river Ambanja. During the rainy season, the village was flooded and the crops destroyed. Consequently the population decided to move to the highest point in the area. The new village was surrounded by trees, giving shade throughout the day. This gave the village its new name of Agnalobe, which literally means „where there is a lot of shade‟. Later, the village took the name of the river that passed nearby; Mariarano.

Second version: The village known as Ambanja was attacked by criminals, dahalo, who stole everything in their path. Faced with this situation, the deans (olobe) gathered to find a solution. They eventually decided to move their families to somewhere else where they would be free from the dahalo and where they could feel safe. They found a clearing in the forest, and settled there. The forest was so dense that it was dark within, and so the villagers named the new village Agnalobe. To reach the agricultural land the villagers had to cross a river. In the rainy season the flow of this river was very strong, which gave the river its name: Mariarano is composed of two words – maria meaning „powerful‟ and rano which means „water‟. The village then took the name of the river that ran close to it.

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At the time of colonisation, Mariarano was a chief town in Canton, an administrative district encompassing several areas. During the second republic (II) Mariarano became a firaisam-pokotany (a kind of administration group including a number of fokotany), but it now takes the name of rural commune.

II.B/POPULATION AND DISTRIBUTION BY FOKOTANY According to the last census, taken in 2007, the population of Mariarano commune is 7294 (note: a more up to date estimation of population will soon be possible from the SDSAS/RGPH/INSTAT projections for 2009). The population density is four people per kilometre squared, with each household having an average of six to seven inhabitants. The active population (aged 18 years and over) comprises 38% of the total population. Several ethnic groups make up the population : Sakalava, Tsimihety, Betsileo, Antaisaka, Sihanaka, Merina and Antandroy. The majority of the population belong to the Sakalava or Tsimihety groups.

N°

Fokotany

01

Mariarano

02

Total population

RGPH /INSTAT 2009 2152

2765

Antanambao

983

939

03

Ambondrobe

450

579

04

Ampasimaleotra

300

294

05

Mitsinjo

668

712

06

Mataibory

279

199

07

Ambenja

815

893

08

Tsianinkira

427

546

09 10

Marosakoa Komany

544 500

939 337

11

Pont ciment (Ambavan‟i Mariarano)

176

855

7294

8948

Total

Source : PCD workshop, Chefs des fokotany de Mariarano 2007 et Recensement SDSAS/INSTAT Mahajanga II ,2009

Mariarano fokotany is the most populated, with 2152 inhabitants it provides 30% of the total population of the commune. This can be explained by its location: Mariarano is situated on low-lying ground, between the two forests Ankatsabe and Analabe. It is a good area for agriculture – the irrigation system is less complicated here than in other places, because the area is crisscrossed by several rivers (the longest of which is Mariarano river). This fokotany is also the capital of Mariarano rural commune, where the mayor of the area lives, and has most of the basic infrastructure locally , including a school, a Centre de Santé de Base (CSB ; a health centre), and a Birao Ifotonn’ny Fananantany (BIF ; the office charged with managing land administration).

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II.C/ LOCATION OF EACH FOKOTANY (with respect to Mariarano as the capital of the commune): N° 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11

FOKONTANY Mariarano Antanambao Ambondrobe Ampasimaleotra Mitsinjo Mataibory Ambenja Tsianikira Marosakoa Komany Pont ciment

Distance from Mariarano (km) 0 15 37 42 55 70 84 144 14 18 16

Location E E E N-E N N N W S-W S

Source : Mariarano Rural Commune 2009

II.D/ HABITATS IN THE COMMUNE: Habitat Dense primary forest Degraded forest Savannah Mangroves Gallery forest Bare soil Total

Area in hectares 25 556 20 895 99 563 5597 12380 7271 17162

Source : PCD 2007

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Percentage of the total area 14.9 12.2 58.2 3.3 7.2 4.2 100

Figure 1: Map showing the location of the rural commune of Mariarano.

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Figure 2: Distribution of the population of Mariarano rural commune

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II.E/EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SERVICES: Enrolment in schools: N°

ESTABLISHMENT

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11

EPP Mariarano EPP Antanambao EPP Ambondrobe EPP Mitsinjo EPP Ambenja EPP Komany EC Anjiamanjoro EC Andimaka EC Antanamarina EC Mankaheva EC Ampasimaleotra (Madirovalo)

12 13

EC Tsianikira EC Namakia

NUMBER OF TEACHERS 03 02 02 02 02 00 01 01 01 01 01

TOTAL

BOYS

01 01 17

PUPILS GIRLS

CLASS ROOMS

Total

75 89 34 38 55 35 21 27 23 32 51

74 84 46 28 59 32 23 37 37 30 52

149 173 80 66 114 67 44 64 60 62 103

26 33 539

29 23 554

55 56 1093

NOTES

2 3

Functional Functional

1 1 1

Functional Functional

Closed due to damage to the facilities

Source : Chief Administrator PEDAGOGIQUE, 2007

EPP is a primary school that uses teachers provided and paid for by the government. In addition some of the teachers are paid in symbolic goods such as rice, by the parents of the pupils. EC is another type of primary school where the teachers are provided privately or are volunteers.

II.F/Schools in the rural commune of Mariarano: Fokotany Mariarano Antanambao Komany Mitsinjo Ambondrobe Ampasimaleotra Ambenja

State of the building Ceiling damaged Quite good Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor

Number of classrooms 2 3 1 1 1 -

Year of opening 1953 1969 1977 1977 1977 1976 1976

Source : PCD, 2007

These schools are all very old, and so far restorations and improvements are very few or often absent. This has led to the closure of some schools, such as those in Ampasimaleotra and Ambenja. The truly functional schools are those located in Mariarano and Antanambao. Most of these schools are public primary schools. The commune has a Collège d’Enseignement Général (a College of General Education) in Antanambao, which is currently not functional. However, according to the local people, it will begin to operate from the next academic year (2010). Within these few functional schools the buildings and classrooms are in poor condition, and struggle to cope with the large numbers of students attending. In order to reach school, most children (other than those who live in Mariarano) must travel an average of four kilometres. During the rainy season the schools are closed due to flooding; these closures can disturb the curriculum teaching.

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In order to continue their studies past the diploma gained at the end of primary school (class 7), children must travel to a school in Mahajanga. In general, parents prefer for their children to work with them rather than travelling to Mahajanga to study. As well as schools, the commune of Mariarano has an office in similarly bad condition, and a market built with funding from Fond D’Intervention pour le Développement (FID).

II.G/ INADEQUATE INFRASTRUCTURE: Schools : In Mariarano there are six public primary schools and seven functioning community schools. Of all the school age children in the commune, only 22% attend these schools. Even with this low attendance rate, the school facilities are still not sufficient. Also, in the rainy season the schools must close because flooding makes access to the schools impossible. The only secondary school of the commune is found in Antanambao and this should open this year. After primary school, students continue their studies in the closest town, in this case Mahajanga, which is 83 kilometres from Mariarano. The number of students in each grade level of education decreases from primary school. However, education is not a concern of the population.

Other infrastructure : With regards to healthcare, the commune has a Centre de Santé de Base niveau II (CSBII ; a level two healthcare centre) in Mariarano and a CSBI in Mitsinjo. This is insufficient for a population of over 7000 people. In the case of surgery or serious illness, people must attend the hospital in Mahajanga – difficult enough in a sick/injured state but exacerbated by the bad condition of the roads (only passable by 4x4) and often uncertain sailing conditions. In a good car, it takes at least three hours to reach Mahajanga from Mariarano. During the rainy season Mariarano commune is unreachable, and so cut off from the rest of Madagascar.

II.H/SOCIO-CULTURAL : RELIGION/ Andriamisara worship is practised by the majority of the population, a religion that is very attached to tradition. Christianity is a very recent addition to the religions of the commune – a few churches are found in the area. Islam has been present in this region for much longer, and is far more widespread than Christianity. Ombiasa (practitioners of traditional medicine/healers) assist the villagers in everyday life and in the organisation of major events such as funerals. They are also at „the right hand‟ of the leaders (e.g. Queen Juliette of Ambenja-Mahabo).

HABITS AND CUSTOMS/ Most people respect the traditional customs and practices (fady), for example circumcision, sacrifice (Joro) and taboos such as the prohibition of eating pork and Muscovy duck. Some examples of fady (prohibitions) : -Fadin-drazana: family members must not work on for example, Tuesday, Thursday or Saturday. -Fadin’ody : rules for each person depending on the advice of their ombiasa. -Fadin-tany : a collective prohibition for the village or region, banning work in the fields on Tuesday and Thursday and the raising and eating of pork or lamb. Some families perform famadihana (exhumation of the dead). Each caste has a head Tangalamena or Ampanjaka, traditionally a descendant of the king, who is generally respected by the people and leaders of the commune.

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During the expedition itself, a meeting was arranged with the Ampanjaka Juliette who rules in AmbenjaMahabo. She is responsible for guarding the Mahabo forest, which is sacred as it is the burial site of the previous kings. It is fady to enter this forest. There are some fady that also impose rules on the use of water sources and bodies of water.

II.I/ YOUTH, SPORTS AND LEISURE: Some youth football associations have organised teams in Mariarano, Mitsinjo, Ambenja and Marosakoa. Competitions between these teams are organised with the help of the commune of Mariarano. They also hold occasional dances and moraingy (a chance to challenge others to bare-fist fights). On market day there is usually a film or television programme shown on a large projector for all those in the village that day. Recently, these events have been occurring even when it is not market day.

II.J/ SOCIO-ECONOMICS : II.J.1/ SUBSISTENCE ECONOMY: Rice: the staple crop 95% of the population of Mariarano commune practise agriculture. The crops are usually located on low-lying ground. As well as it being easier to work the land in the low-lying regions, the other benefits are the availability of water and the addition of compounds to increase fertility during the rainy season. Rice remains the main crop. Rice cultivation uses 90% of all of the ground surface given over to cultivation. The size of each farm is small, on average one hectare, however some immigrants use up to ten hectares each. The techniques used to grow the rice are basic and produce a yield of one tonne per hectare – with more sophisticated techniques the yield could potentially be increased to 12.83 tonnes per hectare (Jean-Luc 1995). In Mariarano commune there are three types of rice cultivation: a/VARY JEBY („rice that irrigates itself‟) : To grow this type of rice, water is diverted from natural streams through a piping system. Culture begins in March and the harvest is in October. According to the farmers, this is the most advantageous way of growing rice. b/VARY HAITRAITRA or VARY ALOHA („rice irrigated in the first season‟ or „intermediate rice‟) : Each year, after the rainy season and flood period rain accumulates in large quantities, and can be used to irrigate paddy fields. Few farmers practice this form of agriculture; it is most likely to be used if the normal harvest has not been enough to feed the family (due to the passage of a natural disaster such as a hurricane or flood). This rice is grown from November to March. c/ VARY ASARA („rainy season rice‟): As its name implies, rain plays a fundamental role in this culture system. Rainfall contributes directly to the water supply for the rice. So production of this rice coincides with the rainy period. It is practised by all rice farmers. The harvest may suffice a household of four people – 2% of the population (a household contains on average seven or eight people) – for a year. Cultivation occurs from November to mid-April or May. According to these schedules it can be seen that people are making money from the sale of vary jeby just before the new year. Generally most of this money is used in the celebration of the end of one year and the beginning of the next, leaving little money to last into the next year. By mid-January, the asara (lean season) has started, and this crisis lasts until the first harvest of the year. In the meantime, the diet is supplemented with kabija or mality (a sort of flour extracted from satrana or roots like yams).

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II.J.2/ UNDERDEVELOPED MARKET ECONOMY: SUGAR CANE : Sugar cane is the second most grown crop, after rice. It is grown mainly on the edge of paddy fields. The sugar cane of Mariarano is not transformed into sugar, but is used in the manufacture of local rum: betsabetsa. This is very popular with the locals of Mariarano and the surrounding villages. The processing is done on site with traditional techniques; the work is done manually so does not require a large investment. The sale of betsabetsa is an important source of income. It is sold for 400Ar (13 pence) per litre, and each producer will make on average four to five hundred litres each harvest. In addition, the product sells quickly at market, and can be all sold after half a day (not including the time taken for the seller to reach the market). Apart from rice and sugar cane, the other crops of maize, cassava and sweet potatoes are grown on the edge of the forest and at the bottom of slopes. These crops complement the two main ones. Cassava and maize are eaten with rice. During the „lean period‟ they may even replace rice. Some of these crops are sold locally, but by bags of fifty kilograms, at just 450Ar per kilogram. Agriculture and livestock keeping are the main activities of the population.

LIVESTOCK FARMING: CATTLE: The zebu is at the pinnacle of rural society, and represents the wealth of a farmer, as in each Malagasy agropastoral society. Apart from its use in rituals such as joro, the beef is part of daily life throughout Madagascar. The Sakalava people are traditionally breeders of zebu. In the commune there are 6653 zebu (Mariarano PCD workshop 2007). But in reality, each family owns at least one hundred zebu. The zebu are used as draft animals; for ploughing the rice fields, and pulling carts. Additionally, according to custom the zebu is a sacrificial animal. Each market day in Mariarano (every Thursday) a zebu market is held. This market brings together local people from other fokotany and communes. A zebu is sold on average for 600,000Ar (around £200). During the team‟s stay in Mariarano, a kilogram of beef from the market cost 3,000Ar (£1). There are families who sell their livestock only in particular situations and during difficult times, such as to fund the journey to Mahajanga for a serious illness requiring surgery. It can be said that zebu, and therefore beef, is a crucial part of the culture and everyday life. A veterinarian sometimes visits the commune twice a year to immunise the zebu – pulmonary anthrax and scabies are commonly occurring diseases.

BEEKEEPING: This is an activity that is easy to undertake and that generates income. According to the surveys conducted, all that is necessary is to make a hive, though the person must know the area well in order to succeed. The bee has many natural enemies, the main one being the wild boar. A hive can produce on average six litres of honey, and a family has an average of three hives. The honey is sold locally in the village, or in Mahajanga, for 2,500Ar per litre (retail price) or 2,000Ar (67 pence) per litre for a purchase of over ten litres.

II.J.3/ OTHER REVENUE GENERATING ACTIVITIES: CRAFTS: 95% of the female population in the commune of Mariarano practise basketry. This activity is done all year round, except during the periods of intense work in the fields. The raw material used is satrana (Bismarckia spp.), which is very abundant – one hundred leaves can be bought in Mariarano village for 3,000Ar. The satrana leaves are carefully dried and made into all kinds of mats and baskets. One woman can make an average of two mats each day and after working in the fields (during the intense periods) can still produce two mats a week. The mats are sold primarily in Mahajanga for 1000Ar (around 30 pence) each. Some rich men in the area exploit this.

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FOREST EXPLOITATION: RAFFIA: During the expedition, it was noted that raffia is exploited in the area, especially in Ambenja and Antanambao. The people sell one kilogram of raffia fibre for 600Ar (18 pence). One raffia plant can be harvested twice a year, and each extraction provides two to three kilograms. Preparation of raffia takes a long time. There was not enough time within the study to confirm rumours that grounds that had grown raffia were being transformed into rice fields. Tim Osmond, who specialises in renewable energy use, offered to test and further research recovery and utilisation of waste from raffia (similarly to the process for sugar cane waste).

CHARCOAL: Making charcoal is an activity practised by almost all households. Each house has two furnaces, each of which can produce five bags of charcoal (Le Bourdiec 1997). The production of charcoal is very intense during periods preceding important events such as the National Day in June. In these periods, all the young people want to make some money for the festival, and as a result 70% of young people become involved in the manufacture of charcoal. Charcoal is easy to sell, and the market is only 83 kilometres away in the town of Mahajanga.

TIMBER: The dry forest of Mariarano is rich in wood that gives good timber. As well as the dry forest, the mangroves are a good source of wood. The population benefits, because the demand for the wood is certain, but much of the exploitation is illegal. Timber is a source of considerable income. The price varies depending on the form, size and type of wood. The wood is used locally for building houses, oxcarts and fences. If the wood is transported to Mahajanga, it is mainly used to make furniture.

FISHING: Fishing is practised by people who live near the sea, and it feeds a great number of families. The products are transported by sea to Mahajanga; though some are sold locally on market day. One man can catch between four and five kilograms of fish in a day (all species combined). The price varies depending on the type and size of the fish, but it is usually around 3,000Ar per kilogram. In addition to fish, crabs (drakaka) are caught from the mangroves.

Marketing of products: The transportation of these products to market is done by land or sea. Sometimes producers sell their products directly in Mahajanga. Otherwise, collectors from Mahajanga and other areas arrive in Mariarano commune to obtain the goods. They buy in bulk for a low price, and then take the products away to sell them on. Timber is sold directly or converted into furniture to be sold at high prices (for example a rosewood bed sells for 300,000Ar (£100)). The price of charcoal doubles – a sack sold for 1000Ar in Mariarano will fetch 2000Ar in Mahajanga. In general, people prefer to transport their products by sea, so that they can avoid various tax charges on their products that they would have to pay if travelling by land.

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II.K/ BIODIVERSITY: NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE ENVIRONMENT The climate: warm and tropical; the permanent heat offers a climate that ensures good plant growth and development of faunal species. The culture also benefits from the continuing heat. Hydrology: the rural commune of Mariarano has a good water supply. The main river has many tributaries, so there are many streams and rivers in the region. This provides good irrigation for the crops. Lakes are also numerous, and these and marshes provide ecosystems that are home to many different species of fish. The warm water of the Mozambique Channel is ideal for fish, and as a coastal region, Mariarano can feed many families of fishermen living along the coast. Vegetation: this is dominated by dry forest of exceptional biodiversity. This forest, rich in wood products or not, provides the local people with the species they need. A study conducted in part of the forest has helped to identify some of the species present, and their uses in everyday Malagasy life, displayed in the following table. Potential non-wood products and their uses : Family Scientific name Passifloraceae Adenia firingalavensis Apocynaceae Ancylobotris petersiana Menispermaceae Anisocyclea grandideri Leguminoseae Baphia capparidifolia Orchidaceae Vanilla madagascariensis Flageralliaceae Flagerallia indica

Vernacular name Unknown Vahimpira Vahilava Ind Vahimaintso Viky

Use Medicinal Rope Rope Medicinal Medicinal Rope

Source : Tiré du Plan d‟aménagement du périmètre forestier de Mariarano 2001.

The dry forest is also inhabited by many species of fauna that are a great asset to the launch of ecotourism in the region. The population eats certain species as well, such as wild boar and tenrecs. The following table shows an inventory of the mammal species recorded. A list of the other species found is in the Appendix (Section 10.5). During the study in Mitsinjo, a meeting was held with the village elder (ombiasy), who is 84 years old. He is the traditional pharmacist of the village, and allowed for his book containing recipes for using plants for natural healing to be photographed by the team, in order to produce a record. BIRDS: some species present in the region were not detected during this study, as many are only found during the wet season. BATS: Ampandriampanihy (S 15 25 57.3 E 046 40 08.3) is an island at the mouth of Mariarano river, where it flows into the Mozambique Channel. Pteropus rufus, Madagascar Flying Fox, uses this island for roosting.

MAMMALS: Family

Type / Scientific name

Lemuridae Indriidae

Eulemur fulvus fulvus Propithecus verreauxi coquereli Cheirogalus medius Microcebus murinus Hapalemur griseus Rattus rattus Tenrec ecaudatus Setifer setosus Viverricula indica Galidia elegans

Cheirogaleidae Cheirogaleidae Lemuridae Muridae Tenrecinae Tenrecinae Viverrinae Galidiinae

Vernacular name Unknown Sifaka

Category

Observations

Diurnal Diurnal

+++ ++

Unknown Ahaka Unknown Voalavo Trandraka Sokona Jaboady Vontsira

Nocturnal Nocturnal Diurnal Diurnal Diurnal Diurnal Diurnal Diurnal

+ + ++ +++ + + + +

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Suinae Potamochoerus larvatus Lambo +++ : very abundant ++ : abundant + : rare

Diurnal

+++

Source : Plan d‟aménagement du périmètre forestier de Mariarano

The mangroves complete the dry forest habitat. Mangroves are a source of food – fish, crabs and shrimp. It is also a place where wood can be gathered, such as poles, for the construction of huts and fences, amongst other things.

II.L/TECHNOLOGY AND ENERGY : Like all countries in the developing world, there is not enough information available to accurately identify use of technology and energy. On the other hand, the member of the team specialising in energy use (Tim Osmond) thinks that there are many viable options when considering the control of existing renewable sources, such as wind power, rivers and biodegradable waste. Lately, mining of oil and limestone in Mariarano began to shift. This requires extensive research in the future.

II.M/POTENTIAL ACTIVITIES: II.M.1/HYDROGRAPHIC NETWORK: The hydrographical network in Mariarano is composed of five rivers: Mariarano 25km, Antsena 20km, Ambondro 23km, Mahamavo 12km, and Vavankomany 25km. The flow of these rivers varies depending on the amount of rain that falls in the season. The rivers also provide drinking water for domestic use by the population. Maliolio lake, with an area of five hectares, is a reservoir of freshwater fish. Most lakes dry up during the dry season, except for a few found within the forest. The remaining lakes are used for watering livestock. Mariarano commune has 136 kilometres of coastline; an area conducive to saltwater fishing, and for tourist seaside resorts. The fokotany along the coast are: Komany, Marosakoa, Tsianikira, Ambenja, Mataibory, Mitsinjo, Ampasimaleotra, and Ambondrobe ; which is eight out of the eleven fokotany in Mariarano commune.

II.M.2/ABUNDANT DEVELOPABLE LAND With an area of 1,700km2 and a low population density of four people per km2, the commune offers an extensive area suitable for conversion to development. In terms of tourism, the commune has a cave at Anjohibe. In proximity of the cave is found the waterfall of Mahafanina and close to this is a natural swimming pool. This area of 20km, just below the village, is well suited to ecotourism. The cave of Anjohibe and Mahafanina waterfall, both found in Ambondrobe fokotany, are the main tourist attractions for the area (PCD 2004). In economic terms: a vast savannah of 99,563 hectares, which constitutes 58.2% of the total surface area of the commune, may be arranged for various kinds of economic activity such as grazing or production of charcoal. We can say that the rural commune of Mariarano is rich in natural resources. Its potential is exceptional and worthy of development. But what are the constraints that hinder this development ?

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II.N/WEAKNESSES: Apart from the socio-cultural problems arising, Mariarano is currently providing reserve timber for the city of Mahajanga. In Mariarano, the timber is used for the construction of hedges, fences and houses – 98% of people build their own wooden house. On the other hand, the wood in Mahajanga is destined mostly for carpentry work. The wood sold in Mahajanga comes largely from rural communes near the city, like Mariarano. The people of Mariarano do not sell their wood directly in Mahajanga, but to a collector who arrives in Mariarano and buys wood in bulk to sell on at a high price. In most cases, transport of the wood is by sea. After being cut down, the wood is dried and chopped inside the forest. Then, all of the wood is gathered together on the coast for collection. Immediately afterwards the wood is transported to Mahajanga, from where it is distributed to other parts of the island. Transport by sea is very usual, in order to escape paying certain taxes. Illegal exploitation is very common – this is not beneficial to the commune both economically, and more importantly ecologically. “For every one foot of tree removed, ten feet of tree must be planted as a replacement”. This is certainly not the case in Mariarano, and the wood is not fully replaced by natural regeneration either. Natural regeneration may not cover the amount of wood taken, so that the forest will not be repopulated with trees.

The prices of timber: Type of wood

Dimensions

Rafter Rafter of palissandre Crossbeam of palissandre Plank Pole (mangrove wood)

0.1 x 0.2 x 4m 0.1 X 0.2 X 4m 0.2 x 0.2 x 2.5m 0.2 x 0.03 x 3m _

Price in Mariarano (in Ariary) 600 800 3500 1500 100 to 140

Price in Mahajanga (in Ariary) 2500 4000 8000 3000 300 to 400

Source : Tiré d‟Ackerman 2000.

The type of wood and evolution of quantity produced in the district of Mahajanga II: District

Year

Species

Wood not sawn

Sawn wood

Fire wood

Charcoal

Mahajanga II

2001

Dalbergia baroni (Palissandre)

30 m3

600 m 3

3800 steres

58 T

Third cat. timber Fourth and fifth cat. timber D. baroni Labramia boivinii (sohihy) Canarium madagascariensis (ramy) Minongo Homalium axillare (hazoambo) Sapotaceae spp. (nanto) Sakoankomba Sonneratia alba

150 m3 220 m3

1070 m3 816 m3

250 m3

5700 m3 1060 m3

370 m3

600 m3

2002

300 m3 45 m3 18 m3 30 m3 10 m3

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557320

Poles and gaulettes (3cm to 10cm diameter at breast height) 7160 pieces

2003

2004

(farafaka) Avicennia marina (afiafy) Ceriops tagal (honko), Mangifera spp. (manga), Sclerocarya birrea caffra (sakoa), Ziziphus jujuba (mokonazy) LC, Tamarindus indica (madiro), Cordia subcordata (tsimiranga) LC D. baroni L. boivinii C. madagascariensis Minongo H. axillare Miranga Sapotaceae spp. Sakoankomba C. tagal D. baroni L. boivinii C. madagascariensis Minongo Sapotaceae spp. Sakoankomba Zanthoxylum tsihanimposa (fahavalonkazo) C. tagal Kitata, Mangifera spp., adabo, Ormocarpopsis calcicola (tapiaka) EN, Z. jujuba, C. subcordata

steres 870 000 pieces 2 880 T

15 m3 20 m3 123 m3

980 m3 340 m3 189 m3

Poles : 859 884 pieces

10 m3

98 m3 90 m3

Gaulettes : 42 pieces 770 pieces

48 m3 25 m3 57 m3 103 m3 111 m3 43 m3 94 m3

47 208 steres

2T

446 m3 1600 m3 1152m3 43 m3 87 m3 108 m3 35 m3

2 133 pieces 1 463 T

33 607 pieces.

Source : ONE, 2006.

Cat.: Category

T: tonne

EN: Endangered (IUCN 2010)

LC: Least concern (IUCN 2010)

The quantity of official wood products varies from year to year. Timber, in particular Dalbergia baroni (palissandre) which is premium quality timber, plays an important part in production. Average production of wood recorded between 2001 and 2004 reached 1931.5 m3. In general, the wood is cut into planks, crossbeams or other sizes of timber. The amount of cut timber always exceeds the non-cut wood.

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The production of timber is closely followed by charcoal production, which increases from one year to the next. As these statistics are official, they do not include illegal logging, yet from the table the dominance of illegal logging can be perceived.

Mariarano sustains Mahajanga‟s charcoal demands In Madagascar, wood, as firewood or converted to charcoal, remains the main source of energy for households. The manufacture of charcoal is an almost permanent activity in Mariarano, performed at the expense of the forest. Some of the charcoal produced is used locally, but most of it is destined to be sold in Mahajanga.

Development of the need for charcoal in the city of Mahajanga, and the area of forest needed to meet these needs : Year Population Charcoal needed (tonnes) Area of natural forest required to cover needs (hectares)

2000 122,305 17,055

2001 125,729 17,532

2002 129,249 18,023

2003 132,896 18,528

2004 136,588 19,230

5,685

5,844

6,008

6,176

6,410

Source: Brosbeck and Andriambahoaka in Ackermann 2004

Demand for charcoal in Mahajanga is directly correlated to population size. Consequently, the forest area used for charcoal manufacture also increases with population, which contributes to decline in forest cover. All kinds of wood, from both the dry forest and the mangroves, are used to make charcoal. By law, wood from mangroves should not be used to make charcoal. Also, charcoal made from this wood is often of poor quality. Third or fourth category wood, such as Labramia boivinii, Ziziphus jujuba (jujube) and Tamarindus indica (tamarind), are the recommended species for charcoal manufacture. These species do not have significant value. They are easy to cultivate and grow rapidly near rivers, and produce high quality charcoal.

II.O/ PROBLEMS OF THE COMMUNE, AS LISTED IN THE PCD REPORT 2007 : Education :



Absence of a CEG (Collège d’Enseignement Général ; College of General Education)



Insufficient classrooms



School buildings in poor condition



Not enough school equipment, for example benches, books and paper



For some children, the school is very far away



Few public teachers



The population is unable to pay the salaries of the FRAM teachers



Many children do not attend school



Due to the floods of the rainy season, children miss up to six months of school



Many adults are illiterate

Sport and leisure :

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Health:



Materials available are inadequate and unsuitable



No technicians, coaches or advisors



Some fokotany do not have appropriate areas for leisure and playing sports



Little variety of leisure activities



Flooding prevents access to hospital



Physicians are often absent from the region



Medication is insufficient



Lack of water in the dry season



Existing wells are not sufficient



Clean water is not maintained



Damaged wells have not been repaired



Insufficient awareness of health issues

PRODUCTION Agriculture :  Absence of leaders and partners in agriculture 

Insufficient agricultural equipment, such as ploughs and harrows



Land at a high altitude is not very fertile



Seeds are weak and degenerate

Livestock breeding:  Cattle and wild boars destroy crops

Crafts:



Insects harm crops



Thieves are also common



The town has no veterinarian



No trainers, or livestock consultants



Vaccinations are not working



There are cattle thieves



There are many animal diseases present



Cattle have nothing to eat because of bush fires



A „passport‟ for a zebu is expensive



Water troughs for cattle are in poor condition



The tools used are insufficient

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

The cost of handicrafts is too low



There exists no trainer or sponsor

Natural resources:  There are bush fires (motro) 

People come from outside the area to exploit the forest



Control from VOI (Vondron’Olona Ifotony; local basis community)



Training in environmental protection is insufficient



Land is not secured



Expansion of agriculture onto uncultivated land is not possible because of the supposed owners



People from the outside exploit fish in lakes



The commune has no service technician for Water and Forestry

Roads and transport:  Marine travel is more difficult in the rainy season, so the commune is effectively isolated 

There is no boat



All roads are in bad condition



Rivers cross the roads



All communication channels are cut in the rainy season



Means of transport are not sufficient

Communication :  The commune has no electricity 

Communication between Mariarano, as the capital of the commune, and other fokotany is completely impossible in the rainy season due to flooding

Good governance:  Mobilisation and participation of the population is difficult 

There is a lack of communication between the commune Council, the mayor and the heads of the fokotany



There are insufficient reports of progress to the population

Public safety: 

Theft still occurs



In some fokotany, people passing through are not reported



The villagers work with bandits (dahalo)



Existing fokotany social charters (dina) are not applied for fear of revenge



There is no dina that covers the entire commune

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

Corruption is still in practice in some locations, particularly involving issuing of „passports‟ for zebu



Farmers from outside the commune bypass the local authorities and go directly to district level in the case of violations

Communal revenue :  Inadequate budget caused by limited resources 

Lack of transparency in the management of the commune budget



Heads of fokotany are not kept informed on budget management



Some people are still unaware of the fight against corruption



Heads of fokotany do not receive their full budget allocation, as they are not employees



The town does not gain advantage in its wealth

II.P/ PRIORITIES OF THE COMMUNE: 

A survey using the “pair method” was conducted in the commune of Mariarano, and the priorities are listed below :

RANK 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

SCORE 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 

PROJECTS SCHOOL CSB I (basic health centre) AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENT OFFICE EQUIPMENT FOR THE COMMUNE LITERACY PATHS WELLS DRINKING TROUGHS

See the table in PCD of Mariarano Rural Commune 2007, page 42.

II.Q/CONSTRAINTS: II.Q.1/ ISOLATION Like many rural communes in Madagascar, isolation is part of the region‟s problems. The only road to reach Mahajanga is in a very poor condition. This route is almost impassable, the journey is 83km (Pierre 1970) and takes at least three hours. It is also seasonal, as it is completely cut off during the rainy season. With regards to sea transport, this is also seasonal, and impassable during a cyclone. It also depends on the tides and other movements of the sea. There is therefore a part of the year, at least two months, when the commune is deprived of all external communications and relations. This isolation makes the flow of local products difficult. It also limits the relationship that the commune has with other regions. Construction and reconstruction of the road should be first in the list of the commune‟s priorities. In other words, the town should rebuild the existing road, and build new roads within the villages in order to connect the commune to places other than just Mahajanga.

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Apart from the isolation of the commune, the infrastructure still remains inadequate.

II.Q.2/ WEAKNESSES OF THE INFRASTRUCTURE Basic infrastructure : - Health infrastructure: the commune does not have a hospital. Instead it has two health centres (CSBs), one level I CSB found 55km from the capital of the commune, in Mitsinjo, and a level II CSB in Mariarano. The first is constructed from local material, and works as a dispensary and maternity centre. The second is constructed of durable material and has six rooms: a consultation room, a delivery room, a treatment room, a pharmacy, a store room and accommodation. The CSB deals with general diseases, and injuries that are easy to treat. They cannot perform surgical procedures. Other medical professionals such as a dentist are not found here, and the doctor in charge is sometimes absent.

Public infrastructure: - Water and electricity: The population survives on ground water. The water from wells is not treated; it is drunk immediately. The wells are inadequate and poorly distributed. Mariarano has two wells, whilst some other fokotany have none. During the dry season, it is common to find that the wells are drying up. It seems contradictory to say that a commune rich in water resources cannot provide drinking water for the population. Electricity is absent, however some people form groups and buy generators that run on petrol. Infrastructure for communication, such as telephone networks, is also absent.

II.Q.3/THE LAND: persistence of customary law In Mariarano, no inhabitant is declared as an owner of land. Only 2% of the land is titled. The titles date from the colonisation and this fraction is listed as belonging to colonial settlers. Under customary law, land belongs to whoever uses it. In order to extend a plot, all that is needed is the formation of a visible boundary. To do this, the head of the family first burns the vegetation found in the desired area. After this, they begin to work the land, or grow fruit trees for example, so that no one else claims the plot of land; so this plot of land now belongs to the family head. On the other hand there is a custom that land belongs to the descendants of certain lineages. Currently, with the launch of the Programme National Foncier (PNF; national land program) which focuses on land reform, a Birao Ifotonn’ny Fananantany (BIF) has been formed in Mariarano. It is responsible for issuing certificates of land ownership. Everyone wants to have a land title to „legalise customary law‟, but the certificate does not replace any land titles.

II.Q.4/ HABITS AND CUSTOMS: In this era of new technology, the existence of rituals and taboos are useless habits and prevent the development of the region. An example that illustrates this view: the village of Antanambao categorically denies the establishment of a maternity service because it is forbidden by fady for a mother to give birth in the village. If these are the potentials and constraints of the rural commune of Mariarano, how can this commune be developed?

II.R/ Possible development strategies for the rural commune of Mariarano :

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The activities of the population have a direct effect on the development of the area. This can be seen most clearly with agriculture – the principal activity of the population – for example, 95% of the people cultivate rice. Rice plants require a large amount of water in order to grow. As a result, the paddy fields are found particularly in low-lying land along the course of Mariarano river, the main source of water available. Apart from the low lying land, rice cultivation also occurs on higher ground, known as tanety (deforested hills which often have poor soil). Unlike the rice cultivation on the low-lying ground, growing on tanety is not permanent; it depends on the fertility of the soil and the availability of water. It is only used when it is possible to irrigate or accumulate rain water, which is usually just after the rainy season. This method of rice cultivation is devastating to the environment because one area of land is only used for one or two years before the farmer moves to another piece of tanety. The residences of the rice growers are also affected by the temporary nature of tanety farming – all growers using this higher ground have two houses: one permanent residence in the village, and another temporary house next to the paddy fields they own. The secondary homes are used a lot during the period of intensive activity on the paddy fields. Firstly, at the time of planting the rice (fanetsana), the family lives in these small huts and they do not return to the main home until the planting is finished. Then, in the period before the harvest, when the rice is ripening, the entire family stays in the secondary home again to keep watch over the rice and guard it from predators. The main predators are Foudia madagascariensis, Madagascar Red Fody; Agapornis canus, Greyheaded Lovebird; wild boar (they risk damaging the crops during the night when they search for food); and zebu can trample the crops as they try to reach the savannah for grazing. As well as rice, sugar cane is cultivated in the low-lying land, at the edges of the paddy fields. The other crops, such as maize and cassava can be found at slightly higher altitudes. These are situated on the forest edge as they do not require as much water, and are frequently grown in people‟s gardens. Maize and cassava crops are usually grown only to feed the family, not to be sold at the market as a source of income. Livestock farming also plays an important role in shaping the landscape, as it often occurs at the expense of the forest. It can take place on the top of hills, on slopes or in valleys. In general fire is used to clear the dry forest to create pasture on which the animals can feed. Livestock farming uses a lot of space – according to Ackemann (2003), an area of 209 hectares has the capability to support seven to ten zebu, giving an average area of 25.35 hectares per zebu. According to the farmers however, this capacity is regularly exceeded due to practicality and the pressures on the pasture, so the same area would be more likely to support 65 zebu. In a rural commune where each family owns on average ten zebu, livestock farming takes an important place in the organisation of available space and drives dynamic evolution of the countryside. The fires for creating pastures damage the forest each year; a part of the forest disappears in the fire, another part is transformed into secondary forest, and another to savannah. With these issues taken into consideration, it can be a little difficult to locate a suitable area for pasture. Obviously compared to the land for cultivation, the location of pastures is further from the houses. A zebu travels miles to graze. Small flocks of ducks are kept in a simple backyard near the house. Unlike livestock, these small farms occupy very little space. Timber: the extraction of timber occurs within the dry forest and the mangroves. Spatially, the surface area exploited forms a transverse band from the dry forest to the mangroves. The parts of the forest most exploited are the area closest to the village, and that closest to the mangroves. As Ackermann (2003) writes, “modes of logging by the coastal population depend both on the distance from residential areas and the type of product sought”. Wood as a source of energy: the edge of the marsh is an excellent place for making charcoal as it contains many suitable species of tree, such as Labramia boivinii (sohihy). This is a large tree that can reach over ten metres in height and gives good quality charcoal. Apart from the edge of swamps, during the expedition the

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team also encountered charcoal kilns within the dry forest and around the mangroves. The kiln is placed in an accessible place to facilitate transport of the finished product, which is done by oxcart. One hectare of dry forest is exploited to produce approximately 3,400 kilograms of charcoal. Fishing : This activity is unique to the area from the coastal mangroves to the sea, and lies along the coast. The area occupied by fishing is not bounded in space, but in time – fishing is largely dependent on the patterns of the tide and sea level.

ACTIVITIES THAT COULD GENERATE INCOME: In the short term

Activities - backyard poultry breeding - beekeeping - collecting medicinal plants

- gardening

In the medium term

- development of weaving (making mats, baskets etc.) - development of ecotourism - development of aquaculture in the mangroves

In the long term

- sale of coal

- development of artisanal fisheries

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Remarks - thrives because of the climate - promoted by establishing a processing plant to produce essential oil - sells well in the city of Mahajanga

- raw materials are abundant - the commune has potential tourist sites (dry forest, cave, waterfall, natural swimming pool) - the mangroves should be exploited - sales to industrialised countries should encourage the flow of currency - the 136km of coast are teeming with fish

10.7

Photographs

Figure 10.6.1: Expedition team at Mitsinjo, ready to leave for Ambenja. Left to right: Harri Washington, Rabenoro Mamy, Frazer Higgins, Olly Griffin, Tim Osmond, Punit Shah, Nirina Andriambololona, Virginie Marie Clementine. Photograph by Mamisoa.

Figure 10.6.2:Harri Washington speaking at a meeting held in the school at Mariarano in the last week of the expedition to explain to the locals the purpose of the expedition and some preliminary findings. Photograph by Tim Osmond.

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Figure 10.6.3: Virginie Marie Clementine looking for birds in Mariarano wetlands. Photograph by Rabenoro Mamy.

Figure 10.6.4: Madagascar White Ibis Threskiornis bernieri in flight – an incidental observation made during a herptile transect in Ambenja. Photograph by Tim Osmond.

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Figure 10.6.5: Recording a Coquerel‟s Sifaka Propithecus coquereli on a lemur transect at Mitsinjo, using data collection sheets and photographic records. Left to right: Harri Washington, Tim Osmond. Photograph by Olly Griffin.

10.8

Equipment donated to partner NGO

After the expedition, all of the equipment obtained from grants and donations, as well as some extra resources sent out with the team from Dr. Long, was donated to DBCAM to aid them in future expeditions. In addition some of the team members made individual donations of personal expedition kit. The full list of items donated by the team as a whole is as follows: 1 Katadyn water filter 2 Etrex GPS units 1 software CD and upload cables for Etrex GPS units 1 Nomad medical kit 1 Jessop‟s camera tripod 1 box of mosquito coils 1 bottle of iodine 1 pair of binoculars 2 one metre tape measures 1 Dell Inspiron 6000 laptop with charger

1 spare battery for Dell laptop 1 Madagascar to UK adaptor plug 1 laptop bag 1 USB mouse 2 silver-oxide button batteries 1 microphone 1 pair of earphones 1 CD of additional resources (journal papers etc.) 1 cat5 cable Sheets LM38 and N38 of 1:100 000 FTM topographic maps

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1 2005 LANDSAT 5 image of Mahamavo region 1 map of Madagascar 4 Freetime two to three person tents 3 hand held torches 10 metres of tarpaulin 6 metal mugs 6 metal plates 4 metal serving spoons 6 metal dessert spoons 3 plastic fifteen litre buckets 1 metal cooking pot 5 lengths of rope

1 car battery 1 inverter 2 cables for inverter 2 cans of spray paint 2 machetes 2 spades 1 Moov internet USB dongle 1 hand drawn map of Mahamavo region 3 cooking tripods 2 charcoal barbecues

Books                            

Doing Development Research by Vandana Desai and Robert B. Potter (2006) Generic Tree Flora of Madagascar by George E. Schatz (2005) Mammals of Madagascar by Nick Garbutt (2007) A Field Guide to the Amphibians and Reptiles of Madagascar by Frank Glaw and Miguel Vences (2007) Forest Ecology and Conservation: A Handbook of Techniques by Adrian Newton (2007) Ecological Census Techniques: A Handbook by William J. Sutherland (2006) Expedition Field Techniques: Small Mammals by A. Barnett and J. Dutton (1995) Expedition Field Techniques: People Oriented Research by S. Kapila and Frank Lyon (2006) Expedition Field Techniques: Fishes by B.W. Coad (1998) Expedition Field Techniques: Education Projects edited by Jen Hurst (1998) Expedition Field Techniques: Reptiles and Amphibians by D. Bennett (1999) Expedition Field Techniques: Primates by A. Barnett (1995) Expedition Field Techniques: Bird Surveys by Colin Bibby et al. (1998) Expedition Field Techniques: Bats by K. Barlow (1999) Expedition Field Techniques: Insects and other terrestrial arthropods by G.C. McGavin (2007) Classification Methods for Remotely Sensed Data by Brandt Tso and P.M. Mather (2001) Guide to the Birds of Madagascar by Olivier Langrand (1990) Biodiversity Assessment A Guide to Good Practice: Field Manual I Data and Specimen Collection of Plants, Fungi and Microorganisms by N. Stork et al. (1996) Biodiversity Assessment A Guide to Good Practice: Field Manual II Data and Specimen Collection of Animals by Jon Davies and Nick Stork (1996) Atlas of the Vegetation of Madagascar by Justin Moat and Paul Smith (2007) Madagascar – The BRADT Travel Guide by Hilary Bradt Ninth edition (2007) and seventh edition (2002) The Royal Geographical Society Expedition Handbook edited by Shane Winser (2004) A Dictionary of Plant Sciences by Michael Allaby (2006) Birds of Madagascar: A Photographic Guide by P. Morris and F. Hawkins (1998) Two copies of Field Techniques: GIS, GPS and Remote Sensing by R. Teeuw et al (2005) First Aid at Work by Seb Sevett (2008) IDRISI Guide to GIS and Image Processing Volume 2 by J. Ronald Eastman (2001) Species‟ Distribution Modelling for Conservation Educators and Practitioners by Richard G. Pearson (2007)

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Address List and Weblinks

Useful internet pages: Mahamavo Expedition 2009 website: http://www.mahamavo.org/ Royal Geographical Society expedition homepage: http://www.rgs.org/SpecialInterests/fieldworkandexpeditions/Fieldwork+and+Expeditions.htm The Frederick Soddy Trust website: http://www.soddy.org/ University of Bath Development & Alumni Relations Office: https://alumni.bath.ac.uk/NetCommunity/SSLPage.aspx?pid=459 Zoological Society of London Conservation Expeditions: http://www.zsl.org/conservation/expeditions/ Development and Biodiversity Action for Madagascar homepage: http://www.dbcam.org/ www.google.com : Geysers of the world. www.pnae.mg : The national parks of Madagascar. www.arsie.mg : Forest management under contract

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Bibliography

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Neuvy G. (1979) Aménagement régional à Madagascar ; la cuvette d’Andapa. Madagascar, revue de géographie n° 35. Newton, A. C. (2007) Forest Ecology and Conservation: A Handbook of Techniques. Oxford University Press, Oxford ONE and CNRE (2000) Etude pour l’élaboration des plans d’aménagement et de gestion de la forêt de Mikea. 75 pages. Pearson, R.G. (2007) Species’ Distribution Modelling for Conservation Educators and Practitioners. Synthesis. American Museum of Natural History. Available at http://ncep.amnh.org Pierre G (1970) Dictionnaire de la géographie. Presse Universitaire de France, 512 pages. Plan d’aménagement du périmètre forestier de Mariarano, 2001. Plan Communal de Développement, 2004. PNUD, Ministère de l‟économie et du plan (2001) Région et développement : Faritany Mahajanga. Prendergast J.R., Quinn R.M., Lawton J.H., Eversham B.C., Gibbons D.W. (1993) Rare species, the coincidence of diversity hotspots and conservation strategies. Nature 365: 335-337 Rafanomezantiana H. (2006) Plan de développement de la commune rurale de Morarano, Ambatolampy : absence de synergie et nécessité d’un schéma d’aménagement. 120 pages. Ramsar Convention Bureau (1990) Convention on wetlands of international importance especially as waterfowl habitat: Proceedings of the fourth meeting of the conference of contracting parties. Vol. 1. Montreaux, Switzerland, Ramsar Convention Bureau, Gland Roget B, Ferras R., Thierry H. (1993) Les mots de la géographie. Ed La documentation française, Paris. SAGE (2004) : Manuel de gestion locale des pâturages. Serpantié G., Rasolofoharinoro, Carrière S. (2007) Transitions agraires, dynamiques écologiques et conservation. Coédition CITE-IRD, 128 pages Sevett, S. (2008) First Aid at Work. Seventh edition. Highfield.co.uk Ltd. Schatz, G. E. (2005) Generic Tree Flora of Madagascar. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Stork, N., Davies, J., Curds, C., Walker, C., and Jeremy, C. (1996) Biodiversity Assessment A Guide to Good Practice: Field Manual I Data and Specimen Collection of Plants, Fungi and Microorganisms. HMSO, London Sutherland, W.J. (2000) The Conservation Handbook: research, management and policy. Blackwell Science, Oxford Sutherland, W. J. (2006) Ecological Census Techniques: A Handbook. Second edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Teeuw, R., Whiteside, M., McWilliam, N. and Zukowskyj (2005) Field Techniques: GIS, GPS and Remote Sensing. Expedition Advisory Centre, Royal Geographical Society with IBG Tso, B. and Mather, P.M. (2001) Classification Methods for Remotely Sensed Data. Taylor & Francis, London UN symposium 15-16th January (1999) Les nations Unis et la protection de l’environnement : la promotion d’un développement durable. Seventh international meeting in Aix Provence edited by Dubois S.M. and Medhi R. Edition A Pedone, Paris, 207 pages. United Nations (1993) Convention on Biological Diversity. Concluded at Rio de Janeiro on 5th June 1992. United Nations Treaty Series Winser, S. (Ed.) (2004) The Royal Geographical Society Expedition Handbook. Profile Books Workshop report (1998) Aménagement et gestion participative des forêts. Report of the workshop on 14th, 15th, and 16th October, Antananarivo, Madagascar. WWF (2008) Paysages naturelles et biodiversité de Madagascar. publication scientifique du Museum de Paris, 696 pages.

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Distribution list

This report has been distributed to the organisations who supported the expedition, namely Royal Geographical Society with IBG, Zoological Society of London, The Frederick Soddy Trust and Gilchrist Educational Trust. In addition, RGS-IBG will keep a copy lodged in their library for future reference to those people who plan an expedition of a similar nature or to a similar area. Development and Biodiversity Action for Madagascar (DBCAM) have several copies of the report, to keep as reference and to disseminate to local stakeholders such as the government. The full report, along with the raw data from the expedition, will be available in its entirety on the expedition website www.mahamavo.org for reference. For more information contact the expedition leader Harri Washington ([email protected]).

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