Unit 1: Should YOU Have the Right to Vote? Overview Since 1971, when the Twenty-sixth Amendment was ratified, the minimum voting age in the United States has been 18, an age qualification that many other countries also use. Is there a good reason for drawing the line at 18, or should younger citizens also have the vote? That question is being debated not only around the United States, but around the world as well. In this unit, you will have the opportunity to explore a proposed federal law extending the right to vote to persons 16 years of age and older. Throughout U.S. history, changes in voting rights have come about through constitutional amendment, litigation, and state and federal law. Because lowering the voting age by two years does not represent a fundamental structural change in voting rights, this unit focuses on passing a federal law. This is a straightforward approach that would ensure equal treatment for people in all states. In Katzenbach v. Morgan (1966), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that Congress had the constitutional authority to pass legislation related to voting if necessary to “secure Fourteenth Amendment guarantees” (equal protection).

Focus Question 

Should Congress pass a law to extend the right to vote to persons 16 years of age and older?

Objectives    

Identify reasons for using certain criteria to define the right to vote. Describe examples of the evolution of voting rights in U.S. history. Present arguments for and against a federal law extending the right to vote to persons 16 years of age and older. Develop a plan for influencing public opinion and policymakers on behalf of their own ideas regarding lowering the voting age to 16.

Materials 1A: Activity: Considering Restrictions on Voting 1B: Handout: What Restrictions on Voting Would You Support? 1C: Activity: Examining Historical Case Studies 1D: Handout: Case Studies 1E: Activity: Analyzing Arguments for and against Lowering the Voting Age 1F: Reading: What Should the Minimum Voting Age Be? 1G: Activity: Planning a Campaign on the Focus Question 1H: Handout: Advocacy Campaign Guidelines 1I: Handout: Tips for Creating an Advocacy Campaign Lowering the Voting Age: Selected Resources

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1A: Activity: Considering Restrictions on Voting Objective Working in small groups, students consider what restrictions they would place on voting; during discussion of the restrictions they support, the unit focus question is presented.

Procedures 

Ask students: Did you vote in the 2012 election? For students who answer “no,” ask them to explain why. Some students will likely say their age or citizenship status prevented them from voting (Note: You may wish to clarify that students need not “out” themselves as unauthorized immigrants; they can simply share that they are not citizens.) Some students who are 18 and citizens might say they were not registered to vote or chose not to vote for a variety of reasons. Record the answers given on the board.

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Point out that some of the reasons students give illustrate restrictions on the right to vote. Over the course of U.S. history, there have been many different restrictions placed on the right. In this activity, students are going to have the chance to decide what restrictions they would place on voting if they were in charge of deciding who can vote and who can’t.

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Organize students into groups of three or four. Give each group a copy of Handout 1B. Explain that they are to discuss each of the categories and decide if they would restrict voting based on that category. If so, they should specify how they would restrict voting; for example, if they would restrict voting by age, what would they set as the minimum voting age? For each restriction they decide to place on voting, they should give at least one reason.

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Poll the class to see which categories a majority of the groups would use as the basis for restricting voting. Discuss the results of the poll, focusing on why some categories are good reasons for restrictions and others are suspect. Discuss the age category last, drawing out students’ ideas about why age restrictions are a good idea and what they see as the appropriate minimum age for voting.

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Explain to students that, while the minimum voting age is currently 18, it has not always been the case and will not necessarily be the case in the future. In this unit, students are going to have the opportunity to consider whether it is time for a change. Introduce the focus question: Should Congress pass a law to extend the right to vote to persons 16 years of age and older? Take a quick poll of students’ initial opinions on the question and record the results on the board.

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1B: Handout: What Restrictions on Voting Would You Support? Directions: With the members of your group, consider whether voting should be restricted based on the categories listed below. If you support restriction, give a reason for your decision and describe the restriction you would place on voting. One example is provided.

Category

Restrict Voting? Yes/No

Explain Your Reason

Restriction You Would Place

No

Race has nothing to do with your ability to vote

None

Example: Race

Age Citizenship Criminal status (felon or ex-felon) Education Mental competence Registration Sex Wealth

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1C: Activity: Examining Historical Case Studies Objective Having identified their initial views on the unit focus question, students examine two historical case studies: (1) women’s suffrage, which was first granted in selected states and then, under intense pressure from activists, was guaranteed nationwide through an amendment to the U.S. Constitution and (2) the Voting Rights Act, which the federal government enacted, again under pressure from activists, to enforce voting rights of African Americans in states that were preventing them from voting.

Procedure Point out that, while today most Americans see votes for women and other groups once banned from voting as basic justice, at the time these groups gained the vote, many people felt differently. Supporters of expanding the vote have worked incredibly hard to achieve change. They have also used different approaches to achieving change. Today, students will look at two different approaches to expanding voting rights, one used to gain the vote for women, the other to ensure that voting rights for African Americans would not be blocked by state and local officials.  Organize students into four groups. Two groups will examine the women’s suffrage case study, while two consider the case study on the Voting Rights Act. Distribute Handout 1D to each group, along with the appropriate case study (1D:1 for women’s suffrage, 1D:2 for the Voting Rights Act). Go over the directions with students, noting that there are two reporting tasks for each case study: (1) presenting a timeline of key events related to your case study and (2) explaining what the case study illustrates about the process of expanding voting rights. Each group will do just one of these tasks. You may wish to make the reporting assignments at this point or wait until after students have read and discussed the case study before making the assignments. 

When students have finished their preparation, have the groups present their findings.

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Use the following questions to debrief the activity: o How are the two cases similar? (Both efforts took a long time and required extraordinary effort on the part of activists. Both involved state and federal governments, and both eventually involved a solution at the federal level.) o How are the two cases different? (The issue of women’s suffrage was settled with a constitutional amendment, while several constitutional amendments were insufficient to ensure that African Americans would enjoy the right to vote. Federal legislation was also required. In the case of women’s suffrage, some states led the way in granting women the right to vote. In the case of the Voting Rights Act, states were lagging behind in terms of ensuring African Americans’ right to vote.) o What can we apply from the case studies to our examination of the focus question? (The process of extending the vote to 16- and 17-year-olds may take time and require extraordinary effort. Federal action, whether a law or a constitutional amendment, may be the best way to ensure that all young people in this age category win the right to vote.)

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1D: Handout: Case Studies Directions: Read the case study assigned to your group. Then discuss the case study questions. After you have discussed the case study, prepare for the reporting task assigned to your group. Case Study Questions: 

At what level of government did this effort begin?

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What roles did state and federal government play in this case study?

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What tools (laws, constitutional amendments, court cases) were used to extend the vote in this case study?

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How important were activists in this case study?

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Both case studies involve advocacy over a long period of time. Why do you think the process of extending the vote in your case study took so long?

Reporting Tasks: Your teacher will ask you to prepare for one of these tasks: 

Present a timeline of key events related to your case study.



Explain what the case study illustrates about the process of expanding voting rights.





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1D:1: Case Study: Women’s Suffrage in the United States Some people say the fight for women’s suffrage began when Abigail Adams wrote the following in a letter to her husband in March 1776: . . . in the new Code of Laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make I desire you would Remember the Ladies and be more generous and favourable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands. Remember all Men would be tyrants if they could. If perticuliar care and attention is not paid to the Laidies we are determined to foment a Rebelion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice, or Representation. The Framers did not respond favorably, and it was not until 1848 that the first women’s rights convention was held. That convention, held in Seneca Falls, New York, included the right to vote in its list of resolutions. The idea was controversial, however, as some people at the convention argued that it should be removed. After the Civil War, several organizations devoted to suffrage were formed. In 1869, women were given the vote in the new territory of Wyoming; when Wyoming became a state in 1890, it became the first state in which women could vote. Meanwhile, women were going to court, claiming that the Fourteenth Amendment gave women the right to vote. They lost their cases. So, too, did Susan B. Anthony, who was charged and convicted of a crime for voting in the election of 1872. The first constitutional amendment giving women the right to vote was introduced in the U.S. Congress in 1878. It was unsuccessful. The advocates for women’s suffrage focused mostly on changing state and local law. They achieved some successes. Their greatest victory came in 1917, when New York gave women the right to vote. While most of the Western states allowed women to vote, east of the Mississippi, only New York and Michigan gave women

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full suffrage. The rest of the country was a patchwork. Some states did not allow women to vote under any circumstances. Some allowed women to vote in primaries. In some states, women could vote only in selected cities. Other states allowed women to vote in primaries or presidential elections—but not other elections. In 1913, two young activists, Alice Paul and Lucy Burns, organized the Congressional Union. Their goal was to get a constitutional amendment passed to gain the vote for women all over the United States. They borrowed strategies from British women’s groups who also were working to gain the vote in their country. They organized parades, lobbied, members of Congress, and picketed the White House. Women who took part in protests were sometimes attacked by members of watching crowds. Some were arrested and spent time in jail. Imprisoned activists who went on hunger strikes were force fed.

Protest in Chicago (1916) Courtesy Library of Congress Manuscript

The public had sympathy for the women, and President Woodrow Wilson felt compelled to endorse the women’s suffrage amendment in 1918. Congress passed the amendment in 1919, and the states ratified the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920.

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1D:2: Case Study: Voting Rights Act of 1965 In 1865, Frederick Douglass, a leading abolitionist and former slave, made a passionate speech advocating voting rights for African Americans. In this speech, he said: I am for the “immediate, unconditional, and universal” enfranchisement of the black man, in every state in the Union. Without this, his liberty is a mockery; without this, you might as well almost retain the old name of slavery for his condition; for, in fact, if he is not the slave of the individual master, he is the slave of society, and holds his liberty as a privilege, not as a right. In the aftermath of the Civil War, the Fourteenth (ratified in 1868) and Fifteenth (ratified in 1870) Amendments seemed to answer Douglass’s call. The Fourteenth Amendment states that any person born or naturalized in the United States is a citizen of the nation, as well as the state in which he lives. Thus, for the first time, the federal government, as well as the states, became the source of citizenship. States could no longer limit or deny the rights and privileges of national citizenship. The Fifteenth Amendment provides that the right of citizens to vote cannot be denied or limited because of race, color, or “previous condition of servitude.” As a result, many African American men were able to vote in the Reconstruction Era. Many were elected to state and federal offices. However, when Reconstruction ended, states began taking action to make it difficult if not impossible for African Americans to vote. This included intimidation and violence as well as laws aimed at preventing African Americans from voting. These laws included requiring voters to pass a literacy test, which was made more difficult for black voters than white voters, or charging a tax to vote. This tax was called a poll tax. The Supreme Court upheld both literacy tests and poll taxes as constitutional. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People was formed in 1909. Its goal was to gain civil rights, including the right to vote, for African Americans. The organization and others concerned with voting rights had some successes in legislatures and in the courts.

John Lewis being beaten by state troopers during

the Selma to Montgomery voting rights march. With the rise of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s and 1960s, voting rights became a Courtesy National Archives major issue. Thousands of people traveled into Southern towns to conduct voter registration drives. Marches were held to draw attention to the issue. In 1962, Congress passed the Twenty-fourth Amendment banning poll taxes. The states ratified the amendment early in 1964, a major step. Yet Southern states were still preventing many African Americans from voting.

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The Democratic Party won a huge victory in the 1964 election. Civil rights groups and political leaders decided the time was right to push for legislation. President Lyndon B. Johnson presented the Voting Rights Act to Congress in March 1965. The bill was passed and signed into law on August 3. In essence, the Voting Rights Act banned discrimination in voting practices. It provided for the federal government to oversee elections in states with a history of discrimination. In addition, to make any changes in voting practices, those states had to clear the changes with the U.S. Department of Justice. The Voting Rights Act has been renewed four times, most recently in 2006. In late 2012, the U.S. Supreme Court agreed to hear a case calling the 2006 reauthorization of the bill into question. Supporters of the act say that there are still problems with voter suppression in the historically suspect areas. But opponents say that times have changed and evidence of current discrimination should be provided, rather than enforcing the law based on things that happened 50 years ago.

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1E: Activity: Analyzing Arguments for and against Lowering the Voting Age Objective In this activity, students complete a reading that lays out arguments for and against lowering the minimum voting age to 16. They create a class chart of the arguments pro and con and identify the arguments they find most persuasive.

Procedures 1. Remind students of the unit focus question: Should Congress pass a law to extend the right to vote to persons 16 years of age and older? If students raise the issue of whether extending the right to vote should be done through a constitutional amendment, confirm that an amendment would be one approach, but that a law is simpler option that the Supreme Court’s ruling in Katzenbach v. Morgan (1966) has suggested would be constitutional. 2. Distribute Reading 1F. Have students read the handout, highlighting arguments for and against lowering the voting age with two different colors of highlighters. 3. Guide students in a discussion of the arguments, creating a classroom chart of the arguments on both sides of the issue: Arguments for Lowering the Voting Age to 16

Arguments against Lowering the Voting Age to 16

Allow time for students to add arguments that were not included in the reading.   

Next, ask students to work with a partner and to identify the most persuasive argument on each side of the focus question. Poll the students regarding their views on the most persuasive arguments, allowing time for students to explain why they found particular arguments persuasive. Take a poll of where students stand on the focus question: Should Congress pass a law to extend the right to vote to persons 16 years of age and older? Compare the results with the poll you took at the beginning of the unit. Have any students changed their minds? If so, what persuaded them to do so? For those students whose opinions’ have not changed, are they better able to support their position now? What do they understand about the opposing viewpoint that they didn’t understand before?

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1F: Reading: What Should the Minimum Voting Age Be? Should Congress pass a law to extend the right to vote to persons 16 years of age and older? More than 40 years ago, U.S. President Richard Nixon signed into law the 26th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. That amendment lowered the minimum voting age in the United States from 21 to 18. As he signed the amendment, he said, “…[T]he reason I believe that your generation, the 11 million new voters, will do so much for America at home, is that you will infuse into this country some idealism, some courage, some stamina, some high moral purpose that this Nation always needs….” Today, most democratic nations in the world give the franchise, or the right to vote, to persons at least 18 years of age. A few nations have higher minimum voting ages, while a few have lowered the voting age to 16 or 17. Beginning with Nicaragua in 1984, several nations gave the franchise to people as young as 16. These include Austria, Brazil, Cuba, and Ecuador. The minimum voting age is 17 in East Timor, Indonesia, North Korea, South Sudan, and Sudan. In Bosnia, Serbia, and Montenegro, 16- and 17-year-olds can vote if they have jobs. Some U.S. states have also considered a lower minimum voting age, but none have yet enacted it. Is lowering the voting age a good idea? Those who support the idea argue that it will involve more people in voting and strengthen democracy. Those who oppose the idea argue that it will not increase involvement and may actually harm democratic practice. Lowering the Voting Age to 16: Supporters and Opponents When the 26th Amendment was passed, one of the persuasive arguments used to support lowering the voting age was that, since 18- to 20-year-olds were being drafted into the military, they should also have the right to vote. But a similar argument is made regarding paying taxes. It is argued that making teens pay billions of dollars in sales and other taxes without a say in how those taxes are spent is unfair. In fact, some call it “taxation without representation.” But opponents point out that 16- and 17-year-olds generally require parental consent for most major life-decisions. In the United States, teens can enter the military at age 17, but only with parental consent. Under U.S. laws, minors are not considered to have the capacity to enter contracts. With some exceptions, such as buying retail goods, contracts they have signed may be voided — just because they are minors. Regardless of these limits, supporters of lowering the voting age say it is morally wrong to treat young people unequally to adults when it comes to voting. The arguments used against the youth vote are the same as those once used to keep women, racial minorities, or poor people from voting. Opponents point out that minors are different from these other categories of people. The condition that keeps minors from voting is temporary. They will eventually be able to legally vote. Supporters argue that engaging young people in elections will decrease long-term voter apathy. Research has shown that people who turn 18 in an election year are more likely to vote in future elections than those who turn 18 immediately after an election year. The idea behind this “birth effect” is that the longer an eligible voter must wait to vote in an election, the less 

Adapted from a reading developed for Deliberating in a Democracy in the Americas, a collaborative project of the Constitutional Rights Foundation Chicago, Street Law, and the Constitutional Rights Foundation.

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enthusiastic and less likely he or she will be to vote. In the first five years after Austria lowered the voting age to 16, many seem to remain engaged in the electoral process. Voters in lower age groups do not show up to the polls in large numbers. The U.S. Federal Election Commission has stated that not even one in five adults aged 18-25 votes at all. Thus, the idea that lowering the voting age will decrease apathy is not well-founded. Furthermore, opponents say, the teenage brain is less capable of making rational decisions than is the adult brain. Research by the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health reveals that the prefrontal cortex of the human brain does not fully mature until a person is about 25 years old. The prefrontal cortex controls decision-making, judgment, and impulse control. Because of this lack of full mental maturity, opponents say that minors can be easily manipulated. Politicians of the ruling party will be able to unduly influence teen voters more easily than adults. Or teen voters will just vote in line with their parents. Teen voters may not be committed enough to become well-informed. Surely, opponents argue, we do not need more voters who do not understand the issues. Supporters say that even if the brains of teenagers are not fully developed, the choice of 18 as the voting age is arbitrary. Young people aged 16 and 17 are capable of understanding the choices offered at the ballot box. Since they study history, government, and current events in school, they may be better informed than older Americans. Furthermore, supporters say, politicians now take young people for granted. Many laws affect teenagers as much as they affect voting adults. Teenagers ought, therefore, to have a voice in the political system. What do you think: Should Congress pass a law to extend the right to vote to persons 16 years of age and older?

Glossary of Highlighted Terms Franchise – the right to vote, especially to elect representatives to a national legislature or a parliament. Minors – people younger than the legal age of adulthood Capacity – the legal ability or qualification to do something such as make an arrest or a will or enter into a legal contract Electoral – relating to or involving elections, electors, or voters

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1G: Activity: Planning a Campaign on the Focus Question Objective The vote is, of course, not the only way in which U.S. citizens can make their voices heard in the political process. Indeed, other avenues are open not only to citizens but to noncitizens as well. Students wrap up their study of the minimum voting age by planning a campaign to sway public opinion and policymakers to their position on this issue. This plan can serve as the basis for students’ service project.

Procedures 1. Ask students: Most of you are not currently eligible to vote. Does this mean you have no voice in the policymaking process? In what other ways could you make your voice heard? Students should be able to list a variety of methods, from writing to Members of Congress to distributing information about the issue to members of the public and starting a petition on the White House “We the People” site. 2. Tell students that they are going to be planning a campaign to advance their position on the focus question: Should Congress pass a law to extend the right to vote to persons 16 years of age and older? Students will be able to work with a group of like-minded students to plan how they would influence policy and public opinion on the question. Allow time for students to form groups with three or four other students who have similar opinions on the focus question. 3. Distribute Handouts 1H and 1I and go over the instructions with students. The task asks students, acting as the Communications Department of a nonprofit advocacy group, to develop a plan for influencing both policymakers and the public. They are also to complete at least one advocacy product called for in their plan. Depending on the time available and your plans for the service project (see Unit 5), you may want to have students more fully implement their plans (i.e., complete and distribute other products called for in their plans).

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1H: Handout: Advocacy Campaign Guidelines Imagine this scenario. Your group is the Communications Team for a national nonprofit with headquarters in Chicago. Your organization has taken a strong position on extending the right to vote to 16- and 17-year-olds. Your position is:

The Communications Team has been asked to develop a plan to advocate for your position. The plan must include four components: 1. A description of what you will do and the products you will create to influence public opinion. 2. A description of what you will do and the products you will create to influence policymakers. 3. A sample product called for in your plan. This sample can be used to show your nonprofit’s board the direction you will be taking. The sample product should include a tagline around which your campaign will be built (e.g., “It gets better” or “Think texting and driving is NBD? RIP”). Handout 1I provides tips and suggestions that may be useful in creating your plan and product. Influencing Public Opinion Describe the steps you will take to influence public opinion and list the products that will be used in implementing those steps.

Influencing Policymakers Describe the steps you will take to influence policymakers and list the products that will be used in implementing those steps.

Sample Product/Tagline Attach your sample product. Explain the thinking behind the tagline included in the product.

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1I: Handout: Tips for Creating an Advocacy Campaign Persuasion Persuasion is at the heart of advocacy. You are trying to persuade others that your viewpoint is right. A few skills are key to being persuasive:    

Clearly state your message. Carefully craft a description of the issue. Tell why it is important to society. Write a concise statement of your position on the issue. Pull together the arguments for your position. Gather evidence, quotations, anecdotes, and visuals to support your view. Stories can pack an emotional punch. But you need sound reasoning too! Refute the opposition’s position. Demonstrate that you can counter the opposition’s arguments. But be brief and fair. Know your audience. Understand to whom you are talking. Tailor your message to the interests and concerns of the audience. But don’t “sell out” your message to attract an audience.

Influencing Public Opinion Whose opinion will you try to influence? Here are some possibilities: Individuals: Sometimes it is easiest to start close to home. Try persuading friends, family members, fellow students, teachers. To influence policy, however, you will have to reach out to other members of the community. Businesses: Public policy often affects businesses. Consider whether a particular business or the business community might support your efforts. Nonprofits: These include advocacy and interest groups. Neighborhood associations, unions, political organizations, and environmental groups are examples. Other examples are service, volunteer, and charitable groups such as the United Way or groups that focus on helping one particular problem. Religious groups are also part of this category. Influencing Policymakers What policymakers will you try to influence? A key is identifying what policymaking bodies will be acting on the proposal you are supporting or opposing. Targeting the wrong level of government is ineffective. It is also embarrassing. Advocacy Tools The strategies and tools available are nearly limitless. Here are a few:  Letters, emails, or telephone calls to public officials.  Letter-writing campaigns, designed to get many people to send letters or emails to officials. In designing a campaign, you will need to create sample letters or emails. You will also need to think about how you will involve people in the campaign.  Petitions. A petition is like a letter with many signatures. It is easier to get people to sign a petition than write a letter. The White House even has a page for creating petitions Adapted, in part, from the Civic Action Project, Constitutional Rights Foundation Los Angeles.

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 





(www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2011/09/01/we-people-announcing-white-house-petitions-how-theywork). You will need to draft the petition and consider how you will get people to sign it. Social media campaigns. Tools like Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, blogs/vlogs, and wikis can be used to promote ideas. Public service announcements and other educational products. Public service announcements on the Internet, television, or radio can influence public opinion. Ads in print media, as well as posters, brochures, and similar tools, can also be useful. Careful analysis of whom to target and how to reach them is key to making these tools effective. Demonstrations. Another approach to affecting public policy and opinion is by demonstrating. A demonstration can include marching, picketing, and walkouts. Demonstrations draw attention to an issue. But they can also create a backlash. This is especially likely if the demonstration disrupts people’s lives or results in violence. Using the media. You can do this by getting the media to report on your issue or even creating your own media project. Think about what is most appropriate for your purposes. You can write articles for your school paper or website. You can send letters to the editor or press releases to local newspapers. You can have a press conference.

Be creative in developing your plan. Let this list inspire you. But don't let it limit your thinking!

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Lowering the Voting Age: Selected Resources Sources Cheng, Jenny Diamond, “Leave the Voting Age Alone,” The New York Times (May 28, 2012), www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2012/05/28/do-we-need-to-redefine-adulthood/leave-the-voting-agealone. CIRCLE Staff with Haley Pero and Laura Nelson, Voting Laws, Education, and Youth Civic Engagement: A Literature Review, CIRCLE Working Paper #75 (Boston: Tufts University, Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement, November 2012), www.civicyouth.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/WP_75_CIRCLEStaff.pdf. CRF Staff, “Should the Voting Age Be Lowered to 16?” CRF Forum (Los Angeles: Constitutional Rights Foundation, n.d.), www.crfforum.org/topics/?topicid=23&catid=12&view=document&id=15. James, Geoffrey, “The Teen Ticket: Are Teenagers Old Enough to Vote?” Edutopia (September 14, 2004), www.edutopia.org/teen-ticket. Levinson, Ellie, “The Voting Age Should Be Raised, Not Lowered,” The Independent (April 19, 2004), www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/ellie-levenson-the-voting-age-should-be-raisednot-lowered-560411.html. Maas, Susan, “It’s Time to Extend Voting Rights to 16- and 17-Year-Olds,” MPR News (Minneapolis: Minnesota Public Radio, October 16, 2012), http://minnesota.publicradio.org/display/web/2012/10/16/maas. Nixon, Richard, “Remarks at a Ceremony Marking the Certification of the 26th Amendment to the Constitution,” The American Presidency Project (July 5, 1971), www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=3068. “Top Ten Reasons to Lower the Voting Age” (Rockville, MD: National Youth Rights Association, n.d.), www.youthrights.org/vote10.html.

Court Cases Katzenbach v. Morgan, 384 U.S. 641 (1966) Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S. 162 (1874) U.S. v. Reese, 92 U.S. 214 (1875)

Information and Analysis Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement, www.civicyouth.org Civic Action Project, Constitutional Rights Foundation, www.crfcap.org/ National Youth Rights Association, www.youthrights.org/ Voting Rights Act of 1965, 42 U.S.C. §§ 1973–1973aa-6

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