Transitions and Crises Women's Lives Rosow, I . "What i s a c o h o r t and why?"

Hitman Development, 1978, 2 1 ,

65-75. Shanas, E.

"The f a m i l y as a s o c i a l s u p p o r t system i n o l d age." Ger-

ontologist, 1979, 1 9 , ( 2 ) , 169-174. Shanas, E., Townsend, P., Wedderburn, D., F r i i a , H., M i l h h o j , R. and Stehouver, J . Older People in three Industrial Societies, New York: A t h e r t o n P r e s s , 1968. Weiss, L. and L o w e n t h a l , M. F. " L i f e c o u r s e p e r s p e c t i v e s o n f r i e n d ship." I n M, F. L o w e n t h a l , M. T h u r n k e r and D. Chinnoga (Eds.), Four Stages of Life. San F r a n c i s c o : Jossey-Bass, 1975, 48-61.

SOCIAL SUPPORT FOR WOMEN IN TRANSITION: SOME DATA

Werner, H. "The concept o f development from a c o m p a r a t i v e and organi s m i c p o i n t o f view." I n D. H a r r i s ( E d . ) , Tbe Concept of Deuelopment: An Issue in the Study of Human Behavior. U. o f Minnes o t a P r e s s , 1957, 125-148.

Jan Beals and T o n i A n t o n u c c i

The purpose o f t h i s r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t , "Attachment i n t h e Aging Process: A L i f e s p a n Approach"* i s t o extend t h e concept o f a t t a c h oent from t h e m o t h e r - c h i l d bonding r e l a t i o n s h i p t o a l i f e s p a n concept. Surveys Used. For t h i s paper, t h r e e d a t a s e t s were used, two o f which were n a t i o n a l s u r v e y s , t h e o t h e r a r e g i o n a l D e t r o i t Area Study, a l l t h r e e surveys were conducted by t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r S o c i a l Research These t h r e e — A m e r i c a n s View t h e i r M e n t a l H e a l t h 1976 (AVMH), Q u a l i t y of American L i f e 1971 (QAL) and t h e D e t r o i t F a m i l y Growth Study 1962 (FG)—were chosen because t o g e t h e r t h e y covered some major t r a n s i tions i n women's l i v e s . AVMH, i n i t i a l l y conducted i n 1957 and r e p l i c a t e d i n 1976, was designed t o assess people's own e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e i r m e n t a l h e a l t h and the way they handled t h e i r problems. To t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e f o cussing on v a r i o u s areas o f l i f e — i n c l u d i n g m a r r i a g e , p a r e n t h o o d , Che work s i t u a t i o n and t h e g e n e r a l s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s — w e r e added in 1976 measures o f s e l f esteem, d e p r e s s i o n and s e l f e f f i c a c y . The national p r o b a b i l i t y sample o f 2,300 r e s p o n d e n t s i n c l u d e d 1,304 wonen. For t h i s paper, o n l y t h e 1976 d a t a were used. The QAL Survey (1971) was designed t o measure r e s p o n d e n t s ' p e r ceptions o f t h e i r s o c i o - p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n , t h e i r needs and expectations f r o m l i f e and t h e degree t o w h i c h rhese needs a r e s a t i s ied. Data were c o l l e c t e d from a n a t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y sample o£ ;

*This p r o j e c t i s funded by t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f Aging and ts d i r e c t e d by T o n i A n t o n u c c i . 228

229

Transit-Long and Crises

Women'a Lives 2,164

persons aged 18 years and o l d e r , o f whom 1,259 were women.

The sample f o r t h e Family Growth s t u d y (1962) c o n s i s t e d o f 1,311 m a r r i e d w h i t e women i n the D e t r o i t m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a who had r e c e n t l y g i v e n b i r t h t o e i t h e r t h e i r f i r s t , second o r f o u r t h c h i l d . D u r i n g t h i s f i r s t i n t e r v i e w , e x t e n s i v e i n f o r m a t i o n was c o l l e c t e d about a t t i t u d e s toward c h i l d b e a r i n g , o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e f a m i l y , as ' w e l l as t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v i o r o f b o t h husband and w i f e . Measuring S o c i a l S u p p o r t s . Kahn and Quinn (1976) d e f i n e soci a l support as an i n t e r p e r s o n a l t r a n s a c t i o n c o n s i s t i n g o f express i o n s of p o s i t i v e a f f e c t , a f f i r m a t i o n and t h e p r o v i s i o n o f a i d . The i n i t i a l step i n our a n a l y s i s was t o s i f t t h r o u g h t h e t h r e e d a t a seta, choose any items t h a t seemed t o measure s o c i a l s u p p o r t s and items t h a t c o u l d be e a s i l y used i n t h e a n a l y s i s . I n t h e AVMH and QAL d a t a s e t s t h e i t e m s chosen as dependent v a r i a b l e s d e a l t w i t h t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ' r e l a t i o n s h i p s and s a t i s f a c t i o n s w i t h f r i e n d s , n e i g h b o r s , r e l a t i v e s , w i t h t h e i r m a r r i a g e s and children. I n t h e Family Growth s t u d y , t h e dependent v a r i a b l e s f o cussed on s u p p o r t s a v a i l a b l e t o t h e new mother; f o r example, having r e l a t i v e s nearby, whether h e r mother h e l p e d w i t h t h e baby, whether she v i s i t e d f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s more o r l e s s a f t e r t h e baby's a r r i v a l , and what a i d h e r r e l a t i v e s had g i v e n . Transitions. I n i t i a l l y we o b t a i n e d f r e q u e n c i e s of any v a r i a b l e s t h a t might mark t r a n s i t i o n s i n women's l i v e s , f o r example, marr i a g e , t e r m i n a t i o n o f m a r r i a g e , p a r e n t h o o d , changes i n work s t a t u s , l e n g t h i n the community and e d u c a t i o n . From t h e s e f r e q u e n c i e s we chose t h r e e t r a n s i t i o n s t h a t were measured by a t l e a s t two of t h e data sets: 1. B i r t h o f a f i r s t c h i l d w i t h i n t h e past y e a r and a h a l f ; 2. D i v o r c e , s e p a r a t i o n o r widowhood i n t h e p a s t y e a r and a half; 3. T r a n s i t i o n o r planned t r a n s i t i o n o f a h o u s e w i f e from home t o work. ^ These t h r e e t r a n s i t i o n s were e x p l o r e d i n a s e r i e s o f b i v a r i a t e tables w i t h each o f t h e s o c i a l s u p p o r t dependent v a r i a b l e s . Where t h e c h i square p o i n t e d t o a s t r o n g s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e t a b l e was examined. This v e r y s i m p l e a n a l y s i s y i e l d e d some s t r o n g and theoreti c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s . I n Tables 1 t o 3 t h e f i n d i n g s a r e d i s p l a y e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d a t a s e t i n w h i c h they were found. I n the f o l l o w i n g paragraphs these r e s u l t s a r e summarized. Recently h a v i n g f i r s t c h i l d ( T a b l e 1 ) • I t seems o b v i o u s t h a t h a v i n g her f i r s t c h i l d i s a d r a m a t i c t r a n s i t i o n f o r n e a r l y every woman. Suddenly she i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a n o t h e r p e r s o n , and one who i s i n i t i a l l y h e l p l e s s and i n need o f c o n s t a n t a t t e n t i o n . She f e e l s unp r e p a r e d and seeks h e l p and a d v i c e from o t h e r s . For many women t h i s p e r i o d s i g n a l s a change from t h e r o l e o f d a u g h t e r t o t h a t o f mother. O f t e n t h e p a t t e r n o f i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h h e r husband changes. I f t h e mother i s a w o r k i n g woman, h e r c a r e e r i s i n t e r r u p t e d a t l e a s t b r i e f 230

jy i f n o t p u t a s i d e a l t o g e t h e r . (

Our r e s u l t s s u p p o r t many o f t h e s e i n t u i t i o n s . Women who have ijst had t h e i r f i r s t c h i l d a r e more l i k e l y t h a n o t h e r mothers t o r e ceive h e l p i n c a r i n g f o r t h e house and f a m i l y j u s t a f t e r t h e baby i s fcorn» h e l p most f r e q u e n t l y g i v e n b y t h e woman's mother. The new 0>ther r e p o r t s r e l y i n g on h e r r e l a t i v e s more t h a n on h e r f r i e n d s , i these r e l a t i v e s g i v e a i d m o s t l y i n t h e f o r m o f b a b y s i t t i n g and related a c t i v i t i e s . t0

The new mother a l s o f e e l s t h a t she has a good many f r i e n d s ; she is more l i k e l y t h a n o t h e r women t o v i s i t w i t h h e r f r i e n d s d a i l y , using these f r i e n d s as a sounding board i n t a l k i n g over h e r problems. Yet even though h e r r e l a t i v e s and f r i e n d s r a l l y around t h e new mother, she o f t e n — p a r a d o x i c a l l y — f e e l s i s o l a t e d . She r e p o r t s t h a t she met w i t h her f r i e n d s more o f t e n b e f o r e t h e baby was b o r n . She doesn't know h e r n e i g h b o r s w e l l and g e n e r a l l y doesn't have as many friends as she would l i k e . The new mother i s more l i k e l y t h a n o t h e r women t o f e e l i n a d e quate as a spouse. I t seems p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e c h i l d takes so much of her time t h a t she cannot spend t h e t i m e she would l i k e t o spend with her husband. R e c e n t l y Divorced/Separated/Widowed ( T a b l e 2 ) . The t e r m i n a t i o n of a woman's m a r r i a g e , whether because o f d e a t h or d i v o r c e , i s s u r e l y a difficult transition. Not o n l y does t h e woman l o s e h e r husband b u t her r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h o t h e r s change as w e l l . Suddenly she i s t h e only parent t o h e r c h i l d r e n . I f she has been a h o u s e w i f e , she may suddenly be faced w i t h t h e p r o s p e c t o f e n t e r i n g t h e j o b market. Obviously t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o widowhood i s n o t i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t of a d i v o r c e d person. When one's spouse d i e s , one i s more l i k e l y t o feel h e l p l e s s ; one may a l s o r e c e i v e more sympathy from o t h e r s f o r this reason, A d i v o r c e i s more l i k e l y t o produce b i t t e r n e s s and anger, as w e l l as a sense o f f a i l u r e . Our a n a l y s i s w i l l a l l o w us t o contrast what d i v o r c e d and widowed women r e p o r t . Women who had r e c e n t l y been d i v o r c e d o r s e p a r a t e d were more likely than o t h e r women t o r e p o r t t h a t m a r r i a g e i s n o t t o o i m p o r t a n t to them. Newly d i v o r c e d women a r e more l i k e l y t o meet w i t h t h e i r friends d a i l y t h a n a r e women who have been d i v o r c e d l o n g e r ; a t t h e same time they f e e l they c a n ' t c o u n t on people and t h a t no one c a r e s about them. On t h e o t h e r hand, t d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e emerges when we l o o k a t "onen who have been r e c e n t l y widowed. These women a r e l e s s happy o»erall than a r e e i t h e r non-widows o r those who have been widowed f o r * longer t i m e . L i k e r e c e n t l y d i v o r c e d women, t h e y f e e l t h a t marriage i s n o t t o o i m p o r t a n t t o them. They seem t o f e e l i s o l a t e d ; they are less l i k e l y t o f e e l t h a t l i f e i s f r i e n d l y . Yet although they r e port h a v i n g fewer good f r i e n d s , n e v e r t h e l e s s widows say they a r e more 231

Women's Lives

Transitions and Crises

l i k e l y t o d i s c u s s t h e i r problems w i t h t h e i r f r i e n d s . They t h i n k t h a t b o t h h a v i n g good f r i e n d s and b e l o n g i n g t o o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e important. Perhaps they see these o r g a n i z a t i o n s as a p l a c e t o meet new people. One p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g f i n d i n g i s t h a t r e c e n t l y widowed women r e p o r t e n j o y i n g parenthood more t h a n o t h e r s i n t h e s t u d y , arid t h e y a r e more l i k e l y t h a n o t h e r women t o say t h a t t h e i r c h i l d r e n are v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o them.

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Housewives who want t o w o r k a r e d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e f r i e n d s h i p s t h e y have, a r e more l i k e l y t h a n o t h e r housewives t o f e e l t h a t l i f e i s u n f r i e n d l y , and a r e v e r y i n t e r e s t e d i n m e e t i n g new people. They w i s h t h a t people l i s t e n e d t o them more. Housewives who want t o work seem t o have some problems i n t h e i r marriages: t h e y a r e more l i k e l y t o f e e l a l i e n a t e d from t h e i r spouses; they a r e a l s o more l i k e l y t o say t h a t t h e i r husbands do not u n d e r s t a n d them and t h a t t h e y do n o t understand t h e i r husbands. Simi l a r l y , they a r e more l i k e l y t o f e e l f r e q u e n t l y i r r i t a t e d w i t h t h e i r husbands. These housewives a r e l e s s s a t i s f i e d w i t h parenthood t o o . They r e p o r t t h a t they d o n ' t always e n j o y b e i n g a p a r e n t , and t h e y f e e l t h a t t h e i r c h i l d r e n p r e v e n t them from d o i n g some o f t h e t h i n g s they would l i k e t o do. Conclusion. T h i s s t u d y r e p r e s e n t s a p r e l i m i n a r y s t e p i n our analysis. I n t h e f u t u r e we hope t o compare these women w i t h various r e f e r e n c e groups; f o r i n s t a n c e , we p l a n t o compare t h e housewives who want t o work n o t o n l y w i t h o t h e r housewives b u t a l s o w i t h w o r k i n g women. These analyses s h o u l d a l s o be t a k e n a s t e p f u r t h e r t o determine how i m p o r t a n t t h e presence o r absence o f s o c i a l s u p p o r t i s t o t h e g e n e r a l l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n and happiness o f t h e women i n t r a n s i t i o n . I n surveying t h e r e s u l t s i t i s encouraging t h a t the p a r a l l e l a n a l y s e s o f d i f f e r e n t d a t a s e t s d i d n o t produce c o n f l i c t i n g r e s u l t s . A l t h o u g h we d i d n o t d i s t i n g u i s h between d a t a s e t s i n o u r d i s c u s s i o n , T a b l e 1 d i s p l a y s t h e r e s u l t s by d a t a s e t . Given t h e congruence o f t h e r e s u l t s p l u s t h e f a c t t h a t we were c o n s e r v a t i v e i n o u r acceptance o f t h e r e s u l t s , we can be r e l a t i v e l y c e r t a i n t h a t t h e f i n d i n g s are i n d i c a t i v e o f how these women f e e l . Some o f t h e r e s u l t s a r e t h o u g h t p r o v o k i n g . Even though t h e t h r e e t r a n s i t i o n s a r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t i n n a t u r e , t h e r e a r e some common p o i n t s . The women's husbands do n o t seem t o be s t r o n g sources of 233

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Housewives who want t o o r p l a n t o work ( T a b l e 3 ) • F i n a l l y , we l o o k e d a t a group o f women who m i g h t n o t be i n a p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t i o n b u t who a n t i c i p a t e such a t r a n s i t i o n i n t h e f u t u r e : housewives who want t o work and/or p l a n t o work i n t h e f u t u r e . One m i g h t guess that t h e s e women a r e d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i r r o l e s as housewives and perhaps w i t h t h e i r l i v e s i n g e n e r a l .

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Women's Lives

Transitions and Crises TABLE 2

TABLE 1 Differences Differences

i n S o c i a l Support Measures:

R e c e n t l y Having F i r s t

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Divorced/Separated/Widowed Women

Child

AVMH Survey Women who r e c e n t l y had t h e i r f i r s t

i n S o c i a l Support Measures

Women r e c e n t l y d i v o r c e d o r s e p a r a t e d child—

A r e l e s s l i k e l y t o s a y t h a t t h e y f r e q u e n t l y do t h i n g s f o r others; A r e l e s s l i k e l y t o say t h a t t h e y know many o f t h e i r f r i e n d s well; A r e more l i k e l y t o s a y t h a t t h e y have a good many f r i e n d s and relatives; Report a higher frequency o f p h y s i c a l a f f e c t i o n ; Say t h e y t a l k over t h e i r problems w i t h f r i e n d s more; R e p o r t i n c r e a s i n g i r r i t a t i o n w i t h spouse as t h e l e n g t h o f par en thood i n c r ea ses; A r e most l i k e l y t o say t h e y have c o n f i d e n c e I n t h e i r own lives; A r e more l i k e l y t o say t h a t i t i s " n o t v e r y t r u e " t h a t they wished people l i k e d them more.

Are more l i k e l y t o say t h a t they meet w i t h t h e i r f r i e n d s d a i l y ; 2, Report t h a t t h e y d o n o t know whom t h e y can count on, and t h i s f e e l i n g increases with length o f separations; 3, Report t h a t t h e f e e l i n g t h a t no one cares decreases w i t h l e n g t h of s e p a r a t i o n . SAL

Women r e c e n t l y d i v o r c e d o r s e p a r a t e d — 1.

Are l e s s l i k e l y t h a n m a r r i e d p e o p l e t o say t h a t m a r r i a g e i s extremely important.

AVMH

Recently widowed women— 1.

D e t r o i t F a m i l y Growth S t u d y Women who have r e c e n t l y had t h e i r f i r s t 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

child—

A r e more l i k e l y t o have had someone h e l p t h e m — e s p e c i a l l y t h e i r mothers; A r e l e s s l i k e l y t o have marr.ied s i b l i n g s i n D e t r o i t ; A r e more l i k e l y t o see t h e i r m o t h e r s d a i l y and t o see her a t l e a s t weekly; Are more l i k e l y t o have mothers l i v i n g i n D e t r o i t ; A r e l e s s l i k e l y t o spend t h e i r f r e e t i m e w i t h t h e i r f a m i l y ; A r e more l i k e l y t o g e t t o g e t h e r w i t h r e l a t i v e s a t l e a s t weekly; Always t a k e t h e c h i l d w i t h them when v i s i t i n g r e l a t i v e s ; Are more l i k e l y t o v i s i t w i t h o t h e r s a t l e a s t weekly; Are more l i k e l y t o see f r i e n d s l e s s f r e q u e n t l y than a f t e r the baby a r r i v e d ; A r e more l i k e l y t o r e l y on r e l a t i v e s f o r h e l p and s e r v i c e s .

234

Are more l i k e l y t o say t h a t they v e r y f r e q u e n t l y problems w i t h t h e i r f r i e n d s .

t a l k over t h e i r

QAL

Recently widowed women— 1. Are l e s s l i k e l y t o r e p o r t l i f e as b e i n g f r i e n d l y ; 2. Are l e s s l i k e l y t o say t h a t t h e y spend t h e i r s p a r e t i m e w i t h people; 3. Are l e s s l i k e l y t o say t h a t t h e y a r e c o m p l e t e l y s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i r spare time; 4. Report t h a t t h e number o f good f r i e n d s i n c r e a s e s w i t h l e n g t h o f widowhood; 5. Report t h a t i n t e r e s t i n m e e t i n g new people decreases w i t h l e n g t h o f widowhood; 6. Report t h a t s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h f r i e n d s h i p s i n c r e a s e s w i t h t i m e ; 7. Are much l e s s l i k e l y t o say t h a t t h e y w i s h they were f r e e o f parental r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; 8. Are more l i k e l y t o b e l i e v e i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o belong t o o r g a n i zations; 9. Are l e s s l i k e l y t o b e l i e v e t h a t m a r r i a g e i s i m p o r t a n t t h a n women who have been widowed f o r a l o n g e r p e r i o d ; Are more l i k e l y t o say t h a t h a v i n g good f r i e n d s i s i m p o r t a n t ; I I . Are l e a s t l i k e l y t o b e l o n g t o c l u b s . 235

Women's Lives

Transitions and Crises

TABLE 3 BIBLIOGRAPHY Differences

i nSocial

Support

Measures:

Women Who Want t o Work a n d / o r P l a n

illau,

Lo Work

can

AVMH S u r v e y Women who e v e r w a n t e d 1. 2. 3.

7..

^ " • ^

a career—

"Structura] Sociological

Old A e S

C o n s t r a i n t s nn F r i Review

in a Ch^i*

1961. S

A r e more l i k e l y t o b e l o n g t o a g r o u p ; A r e l e s s l i k e l y t o be s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i r number o f f r i e n d s ; A r e more l i k e l y t o f e e l t h a t c h i l d r e n s o m e t i m e s p r e v e n t them from doing things.

Women who p l a n t o w o r k i n t h e f u t u r e —

4. 5. 6. 7.

A r e l e s s l i k e l y t o h a v e a "good many" f r i e n d s ; A r e l e s s l i k e l y t o be s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i r number o f f r i e n d s ; More o f t e n s a y t h a t t h e y a r e s o m e t i m e s i r r i t a t e d w i t h t h e i r spouse; A r e more l i k e l y t o s a y t h e y a r e u p s e t a b o u t s e x ; A r e more l i k e l y t o s a y t h a t c h i l d r e n s o m e t i m e s p r e v e n t them from doing things; Are l e s s l i k e l y to s a y that i t ' s v e r y true that they a r e c o n f i d e n t i n t h e i r own l i v e s ; A r e more l i k e l y t o s a y t h a t i t ' s n o t v e r y t r u e t h a t t h e y w i s h p e o p l e l i k e d them more, a n d a r e l e s s l i k e l y t o s a y i t ' s n o t at a l l true.

QAL Women who w o u l d w o r k i f t h e y h a d t h e 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Areless l i k e l y to A r e l e s s l i k e l y to A r e l e s s l i k e l y to A r e more l i k e l y t o people; A r e l e s s l i k e l y to friendships; A r e l e s s a p t t os a y another; A r e l e s s l i k e l y to

chance—

be s a t i s f i e d with neighbors; sayl i f e i s friendly; report complete s a t i s f a c t i o n with spare s a y t h e y a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n m e e t i n g new s a y they a r e c o m p l e t e l y that

they and t h e i r

s a y that

they always

236

satisfied

spouse

with

time;

their

u n d e r s t a n d one

enjoy being

JM •

» a

U

l

t

y

,

„

Ke

Y

o

r

k

n

:

°

l

d

^

A

s

e

-"

*"»•*-

v l e u p o l

„

t S i

QSO~

AVMH S u r v e y

1. 2. 3.

o

a n

a parent.

237