Transactions Between Consultants and Clients: A Taxonomy WILLIAM H. BARBER WALTER NORD

rudimentary contingency model for analyzing transactions between clients and consultants is presented. Independent variables are "healer roles" taken by consultants, influence orientation and cognitive style of clients, and type of change problem. Predictions about fit among these variables suggest differential outcomes in terms of tension and stability in the working relationships between clients and consultants.

A

INTRODUCTION What factors account for success in establishing some consulting relationships and not others? This question has intrigued behavioral scientists analyzing the initial period in the consultation process. For example, Glidewell (1959) conceptualized entry issues as one aspect of a more general problem: the temporary attachment of an individual to an ongoing system. Aram and Stoner (1972) found congruent clientconsultant expectations to be significant in successful beginning phases, and Sashkin, Morris, and Horst (1973) suggested a framework for research linking client problems to existing knowledge. Still, knowledge about the client-consultant relationship lacks an integrative theoretical framework from which testable hypotheses can be devised and comparative studies conducted. Existing knowledge is the result of case studies and anecdotal evidence. A theoretically integrative framework would facilitate empirical inquiry and provide a basis for managing the relationship between practitioner and client.

K.

The authors acknowledge with appreciation the help of Peter Frost, Franz Schneider, and Ron Taylor, who commented on earlier drafts of this paper.

198

Group & Organization Studies, June 1977, 2 (2), Copynghtm 1977 by International Authors, B.V.

198-2155

This paper outlines one way of understanding the linking process between client and consultant. A taxonomy of the linking process is offered, as well as a conceptual framework for diagnosis and management of the client-consultant relationship. We suggest that four variables-one related to the consultant and three related to the client-are potentially useful in predicting early outcomes in establishment or non-establishment of the relationship.i The variables are the consultant’s style or role, the client’s motivation and cognitive style, and the nature of the change problem. In this paper, consultant roles are illustrated as healer roles in primitive cultures; client motivation and cognitive style are analyzed along with the type of change problem that precipitates the consultation. How these variables interact to affect the relationship between parties and influence task accomplishment is explored. Optimal conditions for collaboration are outlined, along with the tensions that are likely to occur when optimal conditions are not established. HEALER ROLES OF CONSULTANTS In early human societies, the shaman, priest or sage created and transmitted the prevailing ideas and belief systems ... and they stood side by side with the power holders in their society. (Chesler & Worden, 1974) As they analyzed consultant roles in action research aimed at social

change, Chesler and Worden illustrated how the healer role in primitive cultures has been understood by observers of social intervention processes. For example, Adelson (1961), in portraying teachers’ roles, drew on Jackson’s research on primitive healing-shamanism, magic, religion, mysticism, and naturalism. And in Kopp’s (1972) metaphorical tales of psychotherapy, patients are helped along their pilgrimages by priests, magicians,

gurus, and other healer role takers.

applying these role images to behavioral science consultants as social-change agents, four &dquo;modal roles&dquo; emerge.2Briefly, they include In

In most cases the consultant’s client is a group of people or a larger social 1 system. In this paper, we will refer to both the client and the consultant as single individuals. Because the dyad is the least complex social relationship, it is useful in achieving our major goal of explicating some dimensions that characterize the consulting situation. Although larger groups will have more combinations of factors that can change the nature of the social interaction substantially, we believe that it is likely that the set of dimensions we apply to the dyad will also apply to larger groups.

We are focusing on the consultant’s style as it would appear to an "objec2 tive" observer and are assuming a high correlation between what the objective observer would report and what the client—or even the consultant—would perceive. We recognize that a more refined version of the model would deal more specifically with client perceptions. However, for the present we will ignore the effects of such perceptual differences. 199

the priest, who achieves his capacity to heal as an emissary of allpowerful authority; the shaman, who heals through his own charismatic personality; the mystic healer, who is quiet and wise and helps the sick person to cure himself; and the naturalistic healer, who is impersonal, empirical, and task oriented.

The Consultant as Priest man

In primitive societies the role of the priest is to mediate between and awesome deities. The behavioral science consultant also

mediates. Acting as priest, the consultant presents himself primarily as an agent of a profession or organization, a powerful collectivity (or &dquo;awesome deity&dquo;) that has the great knowledge the client needs. Power and influence come from two sources: the knowledge itself (e.g., behavioral science technology, management theory), and the profession, the organization, or the discipline (e.g., a particular consulting firm or institute). The consultant is not hired primarily because of personal competence; he or she represents the profession, the institute, or the agency and offers expertise as an agent of the group. The knowledge and skill is &dquo;out there.&dquo; The task of the consultant as priest is: (1) to provide access to the concepts and technology by prescribing the process, and (2) to help the client through the steps of application. Experiences that tend to occur in such consulting include programs for changing people (selection techniques, human relations groups, most &dquo;traditional&dquo; training), for changing technology (job design, operations research, job enrichment), and for changing organizational processes and structures such as roles and relationships (Friedlander, 1974). The emphasis here is on program; the consultant as priest deals in established experiences and activities that have been tested in other situations. The consultant as priest can have great power. He offers the client part ownership in knowledge and technology not previously available to him. He offers the promise of change and growth, not only for the organization but also for the members. The client is given a clear, unambiguous program to follow. Often he is given a &dquo;doctrine&dquo; by which he is invited to interpret his experience and a specialized vocabulary by which to describe it.

The Consultant

as

Shaman

The consultant as shaman is described by Adelson (1961) in his application of Jackson’s healer typology to teachers’ organizations. The shaman is seen as narcissistic; attention is focused on him. He seems to be magical; he combines intellectual creativity and personal power with deep concern for the client and commitment to their work together. He is charismatic-though not necessarily flamboyant-in that

200

disciples tend to follow and often imitate his values, ideas, and even his interpersonal style, including language, manner, and dress. The shaman offers experiences aimed at changing processes, relationships, and problem-solving skills. &dquo;How work is done&dquo; is emphasized, rather than &dquo;what work&dquo; or &dquo;who does it.&dquo; Priority is placed on improving relationships; the assumption is that the functioning and productivity of an organization will improve as a result. &dquo;Learning how to learn&dquo; is a phrase that illustrates the values of this system. The work of the shaman frequently varies in impact. If the task involves changing work systems such as task structures, procedures, and reward systems, the shaman is likely to have limited impact. In face-to-face contact he is admired, and clients wish they could imitate him; but afterward the spell is gone, and the client and the system often remain unchanged. If, however, the task is to help persons to develop their own personal resources, the impact of the consultant as shaman is significant. He has substantial influence when the purpose of consultation is to change the client’s own awareness, attitudes about self and others,

and competence in handling interpersonal relations. Thus, the consultant as shaman is frequently viewed as highly effective by clients whose purpose is personal growth and development. On the other hand, clients who seek organizational development and change may find his impact memorable, but the effect is frequently limited.

The Consultant as Mystic Healer The consultant as mystic healer is difficult to describe since he offers neither external expertise such as the authority of the priest, nor himself as charismatic model, as does the shaman. The consultant as mystic healer says: &dquo;I will help you to become, to realize your hidden strength, to unfold the resources within you.&dquo; He helps the client find and develop what is best and most essential within the client; he keeps his own personality and his professional expertise secondary. It is also hard to describe his activities, since he does not draw from a standard repertoire or &dquo;bag of tricks&dquo;; instead, he tailors special, often unique, activities for each client. This role requires unusual talent, sensitivity, and authenticity and sometimes involves personal sacrifice. The mystic healer is selfless; he sets aside his own needs and wishes to devote himself to the needs of the client. If the caring is not genuine, but is expedient or adaptive for the consultant’s own needs, this motivation is somehow transmitted, and successful consulting relationships tend not to develop. The consultant as mystic healer is an astute diagnostician, able to design client-centered activities that are likely to have high payoffs. He also has a wide range of skills and knowledge with which he involves

201

himself in whatever specialized activities are most appropriate for each client. He may be seen by some as a gadfly because of his range of interests and experiences.

The Consultant as Naturalistic Healer The fourth modal role is the consultant as naturalistic healer. Relative to the other three types, the naturalistic healer corresponds more closely to the modern medical doctor. His power derives from his

ability to bring concepts and techniques from existing knowledge to the client’s problems. A major characteristic of the naturalistic healer is his empirical emphasis. He accepts the knowledge he uses because he believes it to have been empirically derived and validated. Moreover, he evaluates his own work on an empirical basis. In fact, the naturalistic healer is inclined to collect data on the results of his interventions in a systematic and often rigorous way. These data provide a basis for assessing what body of knowledge to apply as well as for modifying the existing body of knowledge. The method and knowledge of the naturalistic healer is made available to others through publication. Thus, clients need not be dependent on a particular (naturalistic) healer, but can choose any one of a number of consultants or learn to do what the healer does. Thus, four consultant modal roles are characterized. Although the cluster of traits for illustrative purposes suggests relatively pure types, this is not the case. As one moves from the abstraction of the role toward actual role performance, one finds that consultants choose and blend parts of each modal healer role and change over time. What emerges is a person who integrates traits from several healer roles. Choices are determined by the interaction of intrapersonal characteristics such as those discussed above and by situational and task variables. One implication is that if clients and consultants perceive the consultant according to clusters of traits, the behavior of both parties is likely to be affected by these role perceptions. Some healer styles are more compatible with certain clients and more useful in dealing with certain problems than are the other healer styles. Yet, as with other aspects of leadership, there are contingencies; no one style fits best in all situations. As Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) and Vroom and Yetton (1973) have shown, situational factors and the characteristics of the problem influence the outcomes of any given leadership style. We suggest that a similar contingency viewpoint is applicable to the role of consultant or to a particular intervention. Since research on the client-consultant relationship is in its early stages, our hypotheses are not empirically supported as are hypotheses about leadership style. Our ideas are derived from our own and our colleagues’ experiences, from case materials, and from theoretical ideas describing general aspects of social behavior and organizational 202

Information from these sources points toward three factors that combine to influence the &dquo;fit&dquo; between consultant and client during the initial phase of the consulting relationship. These factors are: (1) the client’s motivations; (2) the client’s cognitive style, and (3) the nature of change problem(s).

processes.

HOW CLIENTS ARE INFLUENCED Variations in client receptivity to alternate consultant styles can be understood in terms of sources of social influence (Kelman, 1958,1961). These sources are compliance, identification, and internalization, in ascending order of differentiation. In compliance transactions, an individual (Person) accepts influence from someone else (Other) because he hopes to receive a favorable reaction from Other. In identification, Person accepts the influence of Other because this behavior is perceived to lead to a satisfying self-defining relationship for Person with Other. As Kelman observed, identification and compliance are similar in that Person does not adopt the new behavior or attitude as intrinsically satisfying; however, in identification, but not in compliance, the individual does believe in opinions he adopts. The third process, internalization, occurs only when Person accepts Other’s influence because that behavior is consistent with Person’s value system. Based on Kelman’s typology, we suggest that differences in client receptivity to various consultant styles occur for one or more of three sets of reasons. Each of these reasons has an &dquo;as if’ quality. Although social influence is not expressed in overt behavior, there are stable differences in what is asked for under different conditions. Some clients seek and follow the consultant’s advice without really believing or perhaps even understanding why. Such clients seem to seek &dquo;compliance&dquo; experiences, i.e., they seek dependent, prescriptive relationships (Harrison, 1969; Kelman, 1958, 1961); they seem to want the consultant to provide help and to do so in explicit steps. Compliance consultations are most successful when clients experience a high degree of need and have few resources of their own and few alternatives to what the consultant offers. Alternatively, other clients may ask the consultant to be more of a role model with whom &dquo;identification&dquo; may occur. These clients seem to seek relationships with consultants out of needs for self-definition rather than out of compliance needs.3 Transactions involve activities whereby consultants are observed and emulated as models. Values and attitudes are learned, as well as skills and

techniques. We are making the assumption that the client’s needs are at a moderate 3 level. If the client has very strong needs, he is apt to be immobilized. If he has very weak needs, he is apt to be unmotivated even to seek the help of a consultant, much less to invest time, resources, and energy in changing.

203

Finally, some clients seem inner-directed in their influence orienown &dquo;internalized&dquo; values and standards. Such persons are unresponsive to coercive pressures or identification processes and see the influence realtionship with the consultant as collaborative and reciprocal. The reality is that &dquo;pure types&dquo; exist neither in influence orientation of clients nor in healer roles of consultants. Yet transactions involving interpersonal exchange are experienced dynamically as &dquo;What do you want from me?&dquo; on the part of the consultant and &dquo;What will you offer me?&dquo; on the part of the client. Examining influence orientations of clients and client groups may offer a perspective on these questions by providing valuable diagnostic information and suggesting leverage points for action. By way of illustration, one author was a consultant to a firm of attorneys whose verbal requests were for assistance in &dquo;role clarification&dquo; among their members. Initial interviews requested &dquo;structured,&dquo; &dquo;professionally directed,&dquo; &dquo;programmed&dquo; activities aimed at developing a set of prescriptive &dquo;role profiles&dquo; by which firm members could be held &dquo;accountable&dquo; to one another. The request seemed to be for a &dquo;compliant&dquo; type of client-consultant relationship. Further diagnostic data gathering revealed underlying anxiety about the high degree of competition between members in the way their clients were managed and in the way financial and other rewards were allocated. Furthermore, the overall level of organizational productivity and individual member satisfaction was quite high. Yet the firm was structurally organized in a way that called forth competitive, secretive, and trade-off behavior. Planning involved integrating these data with the original request for role clarification. The result was that members of the firm, the client group, saw their initial request as a way to defend against the group’s anxiety about the need to examine personal values and goals of members, and to relate these personal issues to organizational structure and reward system. This awareness moved the client-consultant transactions toward collaborative, problem-oriented, data-based planning planning suggesting an &dquo;internalization&dquo; source of influence.

tation and seek transactions that meet their

-

CLIENT COGNITIVE STYLE The central factor determining whether a manager will use a model to reach a decision is the extent to which it fits his style of thinking. (McKenney & Keen, 1974, p. 80) Research indicates that a client’s cognitive style can affect reaction to and use of a consultant’s resources (Huysmans, 1970; Doktor & Hamilton, 1973). In the latter case, analytic or nonanalytic cognitive

styles of clients interacted differentially with analytic or general cognistyles of consultants. Clients with low analytic cognitive styles

tive

204

responsive to high analytical consultant behavior, and, clients with high analytic cognitive styles were more influconversely, enced by &dquo;general&dquo; kinds of input from consultants. In studying the utilization of management-science techniques, McKenney and Keen (1974) have shown how cognitive styles of managers affect their approach to problem solving and their responses to the demands of different tasks. Zajonc (1969) also noted ways in which commonality of cognitive structures may influence interpersonal interaction. It seems reasonable to assume that persons with cognitive styles that use influence, information, and resources typically offered by consultants will behave differently in problem-solving and decisionmaking tasks from those who do not. McKenney and Keen (1974) analyzed problem solving and decision making in terms of &dquo;information gathering&dquo; and &dquo;information evaluation.&dquo; With respect to information gathering, they suggest there are two types of thinkers-preceptive thinkers and receptive thinkers. According to McKenney and Keen, preceptive individuals.

were more

bring to bear concepts to fit their data; they focus on relationships between items and look for deviations from

Their precepts find. (p. 80)

act

as cues

or

for both

conformities with their expectations.

gathering and cataloging the data they

In contrast, receptive thinkers are more sensitive to the stimulus itself. They focus on detail rather than relationships and try to derive the attributes of the information from direct examination of it instead of fitting it to their precepts. (p. 81)

Information evaluation involves processes that are often referred to problem solving. According to McKenney and Keen, systematic individuals tend terms

tion.

to

approach

a

as

problem by structuring it in to a likely solu-

of some method which, if followed through, leads

(p. 81)

On the other

hand,

intuitive thinkers tend to follow

a more

solution-

testing and trial-and-error strategy. They are much more willing to jump from

one method to another, to discard information, and to be sensitive to views that they may not be able

to

identify verbally. (p. 81)

McKenney and Keen presented evidence showing that these cog-

styles are consistent with how managers approach problems and they relate to demands imposed by different tasks. Figure 1 summarizes the two dimensions. As McKenney and Keen (1974) observed in their experiments, &dquo;the individual maps himself onto the problem, rather than matching his behavior to the constraints and demands of the particular task&dquo; (p. 84). We suggest that a client’s cognitive style is apt to nitive

how

influence the way in which he reacts to the consultation process. Following McKenney and Keen’s lead, we will focus on the systematic

205

Figure 1. Model of Cognitive Style (From McKenney & Keen, 1974. p. 81.)

the intuitive approaches. We predict that &dquo;systematic&dquo; clients will respond differently to consultant interventions than will &dquo;intuitive&dquo; clients. For example, a client whose cognitive style might be termed intuitive might be expected to accept and use more consultant influence in both substantive and process aspects of problem solving and decision making early in the relationship (i.e., at a time when he might be more open to scanning, observing, experimenting). The systematic client might be more logical, direct, and result-oriented in the initial period. Such examples are difficult to defend operationally, and research is needed to refine and specify outcomes. versus

206

It seems that cognitive

style is a promising variable-although one

widely used by consultants-for predicting early articulation or &dquo;meshing&dquo; between parties in the consultation process. Refinement of the contingencies, especially relating cognitive style and intervention not

alternatives to outcomes, is needed. In terms of practice, it seems that an appropriate entry task for the consultant may be to help generate data on the cognitive styles of client groups and on intervention alternatives.

CONGRUENT AND INCONGRUENT RELATIONSHIPS So far, we have characterized three variables that seem to affect the establishment of the consultation relationship at its early stages. Our hope is to describe the consequences of congruence and incongruence among alternative healer roles of consultants and the influence orientations and cognitive styles of clients. The framework for this analysis is shown in Table 1. Consultant style and client orientation toward influence and cognitive styles are assumed to be the independent variables influencing the dependent variable: the amount of tension in the client-consultant relationship. Specifically, we postulate the existence of a state of tension in the realtionship as a dependent variable because it describes an affective state that is epistemologically related to the dimension &dquo;establishednot established&dquo; that characterizes the linkage or &dquo;fit.&dquo; By &dquo;tension&dquo; is meant an internal psychological state of awareness characterized by disequilibrium and dissonance between conflicting cognitions. Other things being equal, stability is assumed to be more likely when there is less tension than when there is more. Table 1 describes outcomes in terms of tension or stability depending on the &dquo;fit&dquo; between variables. Examination of the interaction among the variables in Table 1 suggests that in mostcases there is some congruence between consultant and client. That is, for all types of clients (with one exception), there is at least one compatible consultant role; moreover, for each type of consultant, there is at least one type of client who will respond to the consultant’s style. For example, inspection of the upper third of Table 1 suggests that a client whose influence orientation is &dquo;compliance&dquo; and whose cognitive style is systematic may be predicted to &dquo;fit&dquo; better with the priest and naturalistic healer consultant style (cells 1 and 4). A complianceoriented client whose cognitive style is intuitive may &dquo;fit&dquo; better with the shaman and mystic healer (cells 6 and 7). &dquo;Tension&dquo; is hypothesized in the relationships where compatibility is lacking between (1) influence orientation and consultant role, (2) cognitive style and consultant role, (3) influence orientation and cognitive style, or (4) multiple combinations. For example, cells 2 and 3

207

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suggest multiple conflicts or sources of tension due to the interaction between both influence orientation and cognitive style with consultant role. Cells 5 through 8 suggest tension due to the improbability of persons or groups becoming clients whose influence orientation is compliance and whose cognitive style is intuitive. Consider next the client whose influence orientation is primarily at the identification level. According to Kelman (1958), identification differs from compliance in that through identification, the individual actually comes to believe in the opinions and actions that he adopts. As is also the case with the compliance orientation, one does not adopt opinions and behavior because they are intrinsically satisfying, but because the opinions and ideas are associated with a satisfying, selfdefining relationship to some other person or group. Clearly, the consultant style, as perceived by the client, will be a major factor. However, we suggest that the client’s cognitive style mediates the effect of the interaction between consultant style and client influence orientation. In other words, the reactions of clients operating in the identification mode will vary as a function of their cognitive styles. Neither type of cognitive style is compatible with the input provided by the mystic healer, since the mystic healer relies on the client to discover the problems and resources within himself. On the other hand, the systematic client finds it easy to accept both the priest and the natural scientist, who provide relatively clear-cut courses of action. The intuitive client is apt to find the process model provided by the shaman more fitting. In fact, the relationship between the shaman and the intuitive client who

operating at the identification level may be one of the most stable. The shaman offers a process-oriented, charismatic model that may be close to what his client is psychologically predisposed to accept. The danger is that the relationship may become a closed system; parties may not be oriented to collect data and to &dquo;reality test&dquo; their interventions. In the popular phrase of several years ago, they may prefer to &dquo;groove on each other.&dquo; Finally, consider the client whose acceptance of influence is due primarily to internalization. This client accepts or rejects interventions as a function of his perception of their validity and is, therefore, apt to be much more reality oriented than either the compliance-oriented or the identification-oriented client. Consequently, it is unlikely that either the priest, who relies on his position relative to some body of authority, or the shaman, who depends on charisma for influence, is apt to be compatible with the demands of such a client. The relationship of the other two consultant types with the client who is most susceptible to influence by internalization will be mediated by cognitive style. The systematic client will find the style of naturalistic healer compatible with his cognitive orientation. By contrast, the intuitive individual is apt to be more comfortable with the is

209

mystic healer. Finally, cell 24 deserves special attention. Here, the client may be uncomfortable with the naturalistic healer consultant, because the client finds the consultant’s interventions too simplistic; the client may go beyond the &dquo;wisdom&dquo; of the naturalistic healer toward new questions and solutions. It is this type of client who may offer the behavioral scientist new ideas. Under such conditions, both the consultant and the client learn from each other. Our analysis has lead us to postulate seven congruent clientconsultant relationships. These are congruent types; they are not necessarily the most productive state for a relationship; a certain level of tension or incongruity may be a force for increased learning or insight. Nevertheless, it seems that a reasonable degree of congruence between client and consultant is a necessary condition for the relationship to begin and to endure long enough to study and confront real problems. Some conditions of congruence are apt to yield more positive effects than others; a major factor influencing the consequences-the outcome in terms of solving probllems-is the nature of the change problem being studied. CONTENT OF THE INTERVENTION TASK When people come together to work on a task, two sets’of issues need attention: process or &dquo;how&dquo; issues, such as the client and consultant relationships that we have considered, and content or &dquo;what&dquo; issues, such as the properties of the work tasks. Clearly, the nature of the organizational tasks-the change problems-impose constraints on process alternatives. Common sense and everyday experience suggest that different consultants will be more useful in dealing with some problems than with others. While it would be premature to expect the rudimentary framework we have presented to predict, in a precise manner, success on different types of problems, it does seem reasonable to speculate as to what some of the outcomes might be. Thus, it seems logical to consider the different characteristics of problems that a client might face in terms of the outcomes that may be generated by different client-consultant relationships. In this analysis, we will consider the seven congruent types of relationships. The work of Thompson (1967), Perrow (1970), Vroom and Yetton (1973), Jurkovich (1974), and Lawrence and Lorsch (1969), makes it clear that there are a number of categories available by which to describe sources of variation in organizational problems. For example, from Perrow’s study of routinization of problem solutions we can conclude that some problems permit highly routine solutions; an organization faces few different stimuli and search processes to deal with a

210

given problem. On the other hand, other organizations confront problems that do not permit the search process to be analyzed. Other writers, especially Jurkovich and Lawrence and Lorsch, have noted that some organizations have rapidly changing environments, whereas others have relatively stable environments. While there are other relevant dimensions along which problems are known to vary, we wish to consider two dimensions that seem fundamental (1) to the degree to which routinization is possible and (2) to the amount of change to which an

organization must respond.

If the dimensions of routinization and degree of change are dichotomized into high routinization/low routinization and slow change/rapid change, and the two dimensions are plotted against each other, four possible types of problems are generated. These are summarized in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Content of Organizational Problems According to Interaction of Rate of Change and Degree of Routinization

In cell 1 the rate of change is slow and the degree of routinization is high. It seems likely that five of the seven congruent types (all but type V and type VII) will be successful in dealing with such problems. First of all, it makes little difference why the client accepts a particular

suggestion. In this case, it is important that the client have a clear-cut program that is technically valid for dealing with the particular problem. Also, since the problem permits routine solutions, some systematic approach is in order. Thus, the systematic orientation of the client combined with the prescriptions of either the priest or the naturalistic healer (which are characteristic of the congruent types I through IV and

211

seem well suited to deal with this type of problem. In contrast, congruent type V and congruent type VII, which are compatible with the other two consultant styles, are apt to be of little value. The shaman’s emphasis on improving relationships and his ability to have an impact on attitude and self-awareness are apt to have little value. Similarly, the interest in developing client resources, which is characteristic of the mystic healer, is apt to generate more problems than it is worth for dealing with these routine, static problems. Cell two of Figure 2 concerns problems that permit routine solutions, yet are constantly changing. The tools of the naturalistic healer are apt to be far more relevant here, because the &dquo;scientific approach&dquo; of the naturalistic healer includes provision for feedback and readjustment. Thus, for routine, dynamic problems, congruent types II, IV, and VI are most apt to be successful. Cells 3 and 4 in Figure 2 describe problems that do not have routine solutions. The two cells differ in that change in cell 4 is slower than change in cell 3. In cell 3, knowledge and skills of the persons involved need to be developed to prepare the organization to confront rapidly changing, nonroutine problems. Cell 4 also requires skilled persons, but these skills need less continuous updating since the individuals are more likely to confront similar problems over time than are persons represented by cell 3. Solutions to less routine problems will require more intuitive cognitive styles. Consequently, we would predict that congruent types V and VII are apt to be more useful in dealing with the type of nonroutine problems that characterize cells 3 and 4. However, we would also predict that, while both may be useful in cell 4, the dynamic nature of the environment might reduce the effectiveness of the shaman. The shaman might offer a static model that the members of the organization may find less useful in dealing with rapidly changing circumstances. Consequently, the congruent type VII may be most useful in dealing with the nonroutine, dynamic problems faced in cell 3. In summary, we have attempted to illustrate one way of describing &dquo;goodness of fit&dquo; in establishing client-consultant relationships, taking into consideration the nature of the change problem. As with all of the variables considered in this paper, the specific predictions are highly speculative and open to challenge. They are by no means offered in lieu of data describing differential outcomes according to specified consultant and client variables and types of change problems.

VI)

CONCLUSION We believe this model

provides a guide for both research and included in the framework have all been The dimensions practice. established as useful to students of social science. The framework can

212

serve as a convenient basis for a number of testable hypotheses that can guide inquiry into the client-consultant relationship. For example, our predictions about tension and stability were generated by this framework and are readily testable. We believe that empirical work guided by this model could be a major addition to the current knowledge. In addition, we believe that this framework can help to orient clients and consultants to key aspects of their roles and their problems at an early stage in their relationship, and this may help to increase chances of achieving successful outcomes. Our speculations are offered tentatively. They are based on a method of study in which complex dimensions are condensed into categories and the probable relationships between these categories are determined. Clearly, this is apt to be very complex, since most situations are mixed types involving combinations of all these variables interacting with each other. Nevertheless, we believe we have provided a start in thinking about how a number of important personal and organizational variables might influence the effectiveness of consult-

ant-client interactions. At least, such analysis should serve to caution us against our tendency to advocate one particular style of consultation and against the danger of assuming that the mystic healer or the naturalistic healer provide the &dquo;best&dquo; styles for consulting. We believe that the implications of our model are much broader. Our analysis of problem types suggests to us that behavioral scientists have overestimated the frequency with which they encounter nonroutine, dynamic problems. Although creative, spontaneously derived interventions often may be needed, a large number of problems that organizations confront do have very routine solutions. Moreover, in many cases the nature of the problems may be very slow to change. In such cases, highly engineered solutions may be appropriate. Finally, clients may demand alternatives to the styles that behavioral science consultants typically offer. Only two of our seven congruent types were characterized by intuitive cognitive styles. While we have no information with which to estimate the frequency with which these two sets occur, McKenney and Keen did report data suggesting that &dquo;intuitive&dquo; persons tend to be more attracted to careers in psychology, teaching, the arts, and advertising, while &dquo;systematic&dquo; persons are more attracted to careers involving administration, planning, control, and supervision. While it is hazardous to generalize from their limited data alone, their observations and our contacts with managers and behavioral scientists lead us to postulate that many clients seeking behavioral science consultants desire and need relatively systematic

approaches.

213

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William H. Barber is professor of psychology, Eastern Washington State College, Spokane, Washington, where he also practices organizational psychology. He earned a Ph.D. from Saint Louis University and did postdoctoral work at Tufts University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Western Behavioral Sciences Institute. Dr. Barber has published numerous articles and papers on a wide range of subjects. He is a diplomate in industrial and organizational psychology of the American Board of Professional Psychology and is a member of

NTL, APA, IAASS, and the A. K. Rice Institute.

Walter Nord is professor of organizational psychology and director of academic programs at the School of

Business, Washington University, Saint Louis, Missouri. His major research interests are in social exchange

theory

as a

vehicle

for understanding organizational

processes and sociocultural factors that impinge on organizational processes. He has recently published the second edition of Concepts and Controversy in Organizational Behavior and is currently working on a book concerning blind spots in organizational behavior. Dr. Nord received his Ph.D. in social psychology.

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