Saturn production was terminated beginning in 1968, just as the first manned Apollo missions began
Skylab (Apollo Applications) • Goals • To prove that humans could live and work in space for extended periods • To expand our knowledge of solar astronomy well beyond Earth-based observations • It was the site of nearly 300 scientific and technical experiments: • medical experiments on humans' adaptability to zero gravity • solar observations • detailed Earth resources experiments Originally Skylab was going to be assembled in orbit in a spent second stage from A smaller Saturn 1b rocket. But the logistics and difficulties required to configure An ‘empty stage’, still contaminated by remnant hydrogen and oxygen, would Have provien too time consuming, so it was decided to modify the last Saturn V And completely build and configure a workshop inside of the empty and unused 3rd stage.
Science training in the 1G trainer at JSC
Inside the 1G trainer Multiple Docking Adapter
Airlock module
Multiple Docking Adapter
JSC 1G Trainer
First Skylab crew At the Apollo Telescope Mount console trainer
Training at the Apollo Telescope Mount console trainer
3rd Skylab Crew At the Apollo Telescope Mount console trainer
2nd crew at the Wardroom Table
P.J. Weitz of the 1st crew placing an experiment into the scientific Airlock of the workshop. In the actual mission the airlock was used for deploying the first umbrella like sunshade
Bill Pogue of the last crew working on the Earth Resources Experiment Package
What did we learn in Skylab training? • Could train crews in a simulator that did not look exactly like the vehicle (part task training) • Realized that only time critical events needed repetitive training, other tasks could be trained in a more relaxed environment • Timelines need to allow the crew to set their own pace and have “job jars” for tasks that they might do when they have time
Apollo Soyuz in 1975 was the last use of an Apollo spacecraft and the first international US/Soviet mission
Crews inspect the specially designed androgynous docking mechanism
US Apollo crew inspects stowed food in Apollo CM procedures trainer
Soviet Soyuz crew inside a Soyuz trainer at Star City
Soviet and US crerwmembers inside the Soyuz orbital compartmenr
Apollo crew at the Apollo Command Module Simulator console
US and Soviet crews at an Apollo CM mock-up
US and Soviet crews inspect Soyuz Sokol launch/entry suits during a visit to Baikonur
What did we learn during Apollo-Soyuz ? • Space rescue should be possible for all flights and all countries • Training with - two languages - two training philosophies - two sets of training hardware is difficult and the time required expands •How to pick out the KGB agents from the real scientists and engineers
Space Shuttle New Systems • Five digital computers forming a primary set and a single backup set of software • Three fuel cells and environmental control that evolved over time to the best system that had flown up to that time • Hydraulics required to operate the control systems (rudders, elevons, engine actuators) • Advanced Hydrogen/Oxygen main engines • Reusable heat resistant tiles rather than single use heat shields to save money
First Shuttle crew, STS-1, in Shuttle Mission Simulator configured in the original cockpit configuration
STS-95 crew in Shuttle Mission Simulator
Crew ground escape originally was through a cockpit overhead window. After Congressman returned too sick to exit vehicle on his own, an emergency escape slide was added to the side hatch
Crew ground escape originally was through a cockpit overhead window
Jettisonable side hatch was added after Challenger accident in 1986.
Crew emergency egress training at JSC
Emergency egress through overhead hatch training at JSC
Crewman prepares to deploy emergency egress pole for parachuting
Emergency egress training for case of sea ditching
Parachute training
Sonny Carter underwater training facility is used for a wide variety of training and engineering assessments
Mock-ups used for Space Station EVA training
What did we learn in Shuttle training? • Over 30 years of training (since 1977), evolved to highly effective system • Complex vehicle and experiments increase training time • Long training periods, typically two years, increases per flight costs and crew and flight controller family problems • Flight delays of a complex and temperamental vehicle increases costs since the meter runs all the time as you wait to fly, the training continues
Shuttle-Mir 1993-1998
What did we learn? • • • • •
Training in two countries, two languages is still very difficult More complex systems increases the total training time Procedures in two languages in two countries is difficult A large body of medical data was obtained and is still being analyzed On-orbit stowage and location tracking is central to success –Critical items can be lost, depleted, or discarded • Well trained crews will react well even to problems unanticipated (e.g., fire and Progress collision/depress)
International Space Station Training • The ISS used distributed operations and training. There are 6 control centers and 7 training sites scattered around the globe • The training flow that used in the first years lasted over 4.5 years for a crew--longer than it takes to start and finish most undergraduate programs • Significant progress was made to shorten this template to 2.5 years, with the ultimate goal of reducing the flow to 18 months
Complexity of Russian and International involvement • • • • • •
Russian equipment and systems added Russian language abilities needed ISS laboratories increased from 3 to 5 Two entirely different vehicles joined together Different procedures and training philosophies Travel time and costs between JSC and Russia
What are we learning? • Multinational programs have awesome implication in globalization and cross-cultural impacts • Training in multi languages and countries is extremely difficult on the crews • Stowage and tracking of items is more critical than ever –the ISS is as bad as Mir ever was in this area • We have to design programs with family life in mind, long separations during training period amplifies the problems that will normally occur during long flights
The Future • Defining the next program has been a challenge • Systems to leave the earth require maturing • Human systems are inadequate – crew training - food systems - medical systems - psychological support - stowage
What do we need to learn? • • • • • • •
Control the number of hours in training Start earlier in the training cycle (university?) Use just in time training Concentrate on the most time critical skills and learn the rest during the mission Design with control harmony in mind Design for repair and maintenance in flight Design to minimize stowage problems and maximize automated inventory tracking
