University of Iowa

Iowa Research Online Theses and Dissertations

Summer 2015

Moving toward a better understanding of job satisfaction of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments: test of integrative job satisfaction model in social cognitive career theory Ki Hyun Kim University of Iowa

Copyright 2015 Ki Hyun Kim This dissertation is available at Iowa Research Online: http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/1861 Recommended Citation Kim, Ki Hyun. "Moving toward a better understanding of job satisfaction of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments: test of integrative job satisfaction model in social cognitive career theory." PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) thesis, University of Iowa, 2015. http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/1861.

Follow this and additional works at: http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd Part of the Vocational Rehabilitation Counseling Commons

MOVING TOWARD A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF JOB SATISFACTION OF SOUTH KOREAN MASSEURS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS: TEST OF INTEGRATIVE JOB SATISFACTION MODEL IN SOCIAL COGNITIVE CAREER THEORY

By Ki Hyun Kim

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in Rehabilitation and Counselor Education in the Graduate College of The University of Iowa

August 2015

Thesis Supervisor: Associate Professor Noel Estrada Hernandez

Graduate College The University of Iowa Iowa City, Iowa

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL ______________________________ PH.D THESIS __________________

This is to certify that the Ph.D. thesis of Ki Hyun Kim has been approved by the Examining Committee for the thesis requirement for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in Rehabilitation and Counselor Education at the August 2015 graduation.

Thesis Committee:

_____________________________________ Noel Estrada Hernandez, Thesis Supervisor

_____________________________________ David K. Duys

_____________________________________ John S. Wadsworth

_____________________________________ Jodi L. Saunders _____________________________________ Timothy N. Ansley

ABSTRACT

The research regarding employees’ job satisfaction is one of the most important indicators of their vocational adjustment or outcome. In addition, understanding the level of job satisfaction of employees’ with disabilities is important to understand the predictors of success. This knowledge contributes to the qualitative and the quantitative improvement of vocational rehabilitation outcomes for individuals with disabilities. The purpose of this dissertation was to explore the job satisfaction of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments, utilizing the Social Cognitive Career Theory framework. A total of 221 South Korean masseurs with visual impairment responded to a survey, Including a demographic questionnaire and five instruments: Index of Job Satisfaction(IJS), The International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule short form

(I-PANAS-SF),

the

Personal

Efficacy Beliefs

Scale

(PEBS),

Subjective

Fit

Perception(SFP), and the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support(MSPSS). Multiple regression analysis indicated that as masseurs in this study considered that they have a better fit with their job, as they experienced being more efficacious with their massage skills, and as they felt more positive, their level of job satisfaction was higher. Moreover, as masseurs in this study experience having a better fit with their job regarding their monetary aspects, as they feel efficacious with their massage skills, as they feel more positive, and as they consider their job duties fit their education or skills they learned, their level of job satisfaction also was higher. However, in this model (when these social cognitive career variables were accounted for altogether), no matter how masseurs with visual impairments consider how their personal values fit with their organizational values or how much social support they received from their family, friends, or significant others did not appear to contribute to overall their job satisfaction. In ii

addition, the analysis supported the existence of a moderating effect of positive affect on the relationship between subjective fit and job satisfaction, in addition to the moderating effect of social support on the relationship between work related self-efficacy and job satisfaction among masseurs in this study. In conclusion, the integrative model of work satisfaction (Lent & Brown, 2006, 2008) provided a good overall fit to the data. Discussion of the results of the analyses of this study and limitations were demonstrated.

Finally, implications for policy makers,

researchers, and career counselors were also provided.

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PUBLIC ABSTRACT

The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the level of job satisfaction of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments and what variables predict to this. The work satisfaction model of Social Cognitive Career Theory was grounded. There were 221 participants and Descriptive statistics and a hierarchical regression were used for analysis. In conclusion, the integrative model of work satisfaction (Lent & Brown, 2006, 2008) provided a good overall fit to the data.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LISTS OF TABLES

vii

LISTS OF IMAGES

viii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1

Overview of the Problem Purpose Statement Theoretical Framework Research Questions Rationale and Need for Study Definition of Terms Summary

2 8 8 10 11 13 17

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

19

History of Masseurs with Visual Impairments in South Korea Economic Activities of South Koreans with Visual Impairments Understanding of Work Satisfaction Previous Studies on Job Satisfaction of Employees with Visual Impairments In North America Integrative Work Satisfaction Model in Social Cognitive Career Theory Restating Research Purposes and Rationales for Variables Summary CHAPTER III METHODS

19 21 23 26 36 42 49 50

Participants Research Procedures Research Instruments Research Questions Data Analysis Summary

50 51 52 60 60 62

CHAPTER IV RESULTS

63

Participant Characteristics Results of Research Question 1 Results of Research Question 2 (A and B) Results of Research Questions 3 and 4 Summary v

64 66 68 74 78

CHAPTER V DISCUSSION

84

Restatement of the Problem Discussion of Findings Limitations of the Study Implications Suggestions for Future Research Conclusion

84 86 100 101 104 105

APPENDIX A ENGLISH QUESTIONAIRE

107

APPENDIX B KOREAN QUESTIONAIRE

116

REFERENCES

127

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LISTS OF TABLES

Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of Participants

65

Table 2 Mean and Standard Deviation of five Scales of Study Participants

67

Table 3 The Pearson Correlation Analysis (PCA) between independent and dependent variables

70

Table 4-A Multiple Regression of Positive Affect, Work-related Self Efficacy, Subjective Fit and Social Support

72

Table 4-B Multiple Regression of Positive Affect, Work-related Self Efficacy, P/O Fit, N/S Fit, D/A Fit and Social Support

73

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LISTS OF IMAGES

Image 1: Lent and Brown’s (2006) Model of Work Satisfaction

39

Image 2: Aspect of Moderating effect on subjective fit over job satisfaction

76

Image 3: Aspect of Moderating effect of social support on work related self-efficacy over job satisfaction

77

Image 4: Distribution of Participants’ Positive Affect

79

Image 5: Distribution of Participants’ Work-related Self Efficacy

80

Image 6: Distribution of Participants’ composite of Subjective Fit

80

Image 7: Distribution of participants’ Person/Organization Fit

81

Image 8: Distribution of Participants’ Needs/Supply Fit

81

Image 9: Distribution of Participants’ Demand/Ability Fit

82

Image 10: Distribution of Participants’ Social Support

82

Image 11: Distribution of Participants’ Job Satisfaction

83

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

People work not only for the purpose of earning a living, but also for self-actualization. Based on Maslow’s Need Theory, Lent and Brown (2013b) addressed the question that people are motivated to work to meet their basic needs (e.g., food or safety), but once these needs were satisfied, people worked to meet higher social and psychological needs, such as intimacy, social belonging, self-esteem, and personal growth. Individuals use work as a means to define themselves in society; specifically in capitalistic societies, whether an individual has an occupation or not, or how prestige accompanies that job is a criterion that indicates an individual’s independence, economic success, and capability. Despite multiple research studies conducted in the area of career development, little research exists on the topic of job satisfaction of employees with disabilities, including visual impairments (K.-J. Kim, 2011; J.-S. Lee & Oh, 2012; O’Brien, 1988). Several research studies were conducted to ascertain the vocational outcomes of people with visual impairments; the variable of job satisfaction was measured as one of the indicators. Most of them are not based on solid theory, but simply attempted to determine what demographic factors differentiate research participants’ job satisfaction. Hence the purpose of this study is to measure the job satisfaction of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments, based on the framework of the Social Cognitive Career Theory. More specifically, the proposed study will explore how South Korean masseurs’ with visual impairments positive affect, work-related self-efficacy, work conditions, and the level of social supports predict their overall job satisfaction. 1

Chapter I presents the description of the problem that will be studied. Specifically, it will present an overview of the current employment status of employees with visual impairments across cultures. The barriers in employment for people with visual impairments, statistics of employment rates, and income levels of this group in the U.S. as well as South Korea, will be demonstrated. The findings or deficiencies of relevant previous literature on this topic and the importance of research on job satisfaction as a vocational outcome for people with disabilities (including people with visual impairments) will also be discussed. A synopsis of the integrative job satisfaction model in Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) that grounds the current investigation and how this theory is related to the job satisfaction of South Korean masseurs’ with visual impairments will also be presented. The chapter concludes with the purpose statement, guiding research questions, significance of the study, and definitions of terms relevant to this investigation. Overview of the Problem For minority or multi-culturally diverse groups, including people with disabilities, having a job is essential because it indicates economic independence, improvement in quality of life, and inclusion in society. Strauss, Harding, Silverman, Eichler, and Lieberman (1988) noted that, in acquiring a job, people with disabilities could develop self-identity and affirmation of self-worth by interaction with others and the environment. Additionally, S. Kim (1994, 1995) emphasized the importance of employment of people with disabilities not only for their livelihood, but also for their participation in society and self-realization of their potential. Compared to people without disabilities, and even among diverse disability groups, people with visual impairments have been significantly underrepresented in the labor market (Crudden & Hanye, 1999; Crudden, McBroom, Skinner, & Moore, 1998; Y.-I. Kim, Lee, Jang & 2

Choi, 2004; J.-S. Lee & Oh, 2012; Rumrill, Schuyler & Longden, 1997). According to Disability Statistics Online Resource for U.S. Disability Statistics, the employment rate in 2008 for individuals with visual impairment was approximately 43% (e.g., having serious difficulty seeing even when wearing glasses). This includes all individuals with visual impairments between 18-64 years of age, all genders, races, ethnicities, and education levels. This was significantly lower than the 77.8% employment rate of their counterparts without disabilities (Cornell University, Employment and Disability Institute, 2010, Disability and disability types (ACS, 2008, para. 3). In addition to these low employment rates, the data revealed the low level of income of this group. Rumrill et al. (1997) pointed out that employees with visual impairments in America were paid an unreasonable salary, an average weekly income of only $130. Online statistical data also indicated that the annual average income of Americans with visual impairments was $32,600, whereas the annual average income of Americans without disabilities was $40,700 (Erickson, Lee, & von Schrader, 2010). Similar phenomena can also be found in South Korea. According to A Research on the Actual Conditions of People with Disabilities of 2011, published by The Korea Institute for Health and Social Affairs (KIHASA, 2012), the employment rate among people with visual impairments over 15 years old was 38.5%, which was also less than that of people without disabilities, 81.8%. Nevertheless, these employed individuals with visual impairments also reported low income and insecure employment conditions (Y.-I. Kim et al., 2004; J.-S. Lee & Oh, 2012; A Research on the Actual Conditions of People with Disabilities of 2011, 2012). Traditionally, people with visual impairments have been understood as a disadvantaged group in the employment sector across cultures. Scholars (Crudden et al., 1998; Y.-I. Kim et al., 2004; J.-S. Lee & Oh,2012) have pointed out multiple barriers that people with visual 3

impairments face in regards to employment, such as limitations of mobility and various work accessibility issues originating from their visual impairments, lack of skills and education, and employers’ unfavorable attitudes toward hiring them. The influence of vision or general health conditions, influence of economic stagnation, and problems of support systems were pointed out as additional factors impeding the employment of people with visual impairments (Y.-I. Kim et al., 2004; J.-S. Lee & Oh, 2012). For these reasons, many countries have enacted multiple legislations to promote and protect the employment of people with visual impairments. The Randolph Sheppard Act of 1936 allowed persons with visual impairments to operate as vendors on federal property, and the Wagner-O'Day Act of 1938 established the nonprofit National Industries for the Blind (NIB), which mandated government purchase of products made by blind individuals. These are good examples of such legislations in the United States (Perlman & Kirk, 1991; Peterson & Aguiar, 2004). Similarly, the South Korean government has rules and regulations dealing with employment of people with visual impairments. For example, the South Korean government allows that only this group of people (people with visual impairments) to obtain a masseur’s license. Currently, it is calculated that approximately 5,000 South Koreans with visual impairments have a masseur license, and 4,500 are working as registered masseurs in South Korea (Y.-I. Kim et al., 2004). Such numerous legislative protections have helped increase the employment rate of people with visual impairments today (Y.-I. Kim et al., 2004; Perlman & Kirk, 1991; Peterson & Aguiar, 2004); still, not much is known about their qualitative vocational adjustment process, especially how satisfied they are with their job or what predictors can enhance their job satisfaction. This is equally important as increasing the employment rate of individuals in this group.

4

Specter (1997) defines job satisfaction “as a global feeling about the job or as a related constellation of attitudes about various aspects or facets of the job” (p.3). Briefly speaking, it is how much an individual likes or dislikes his or her job. The subject of causes and consequences of employees’ job satisfaction has been of universal interest in various fields including individual psychology, industrial-organizational psychology, organizational behavior, and even economics and medicine (Axelrod, 1999; Fischer & Sousa-Ponza, 2009; Lent & Brown, 2013a, 2013b; Specter, 1997). Employees’ job satisfaction is keenly connected with their psychological as well as physical health and overall well-being in terms of permeable boundaries between work and other life domains (Axelrod, 1999; Fischer & Sousa-Ponza, 2009; S. Kim, 1994; Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2006a; 2013a; Specter, 1997). In addition, the assessment of job satisfaction also indicates organizational functioning. That is, negative feelings toward a job is highly related to a lack of work productivity and intention to turn over (Axelrod, 1999; Fischer & Sousa-Ponza, 2009; S. Kim, 1994; Lent & Brown, 2006a, 2013a; Spector, 1997). Despite many valuable implications, relatively little research exists on the subject of the job satisfaction of employees with disabilities, including visual impairments (O’Brien, 1988). Several research studies were conducted to ascertain the vocational outcomes of people with visual impairments; the variable of job satisfaction was measured as one of the indicators. Most of them, however, attempted to simply determine how research participants’ demographics influence their vocational outcomes, including job satisfaction. For example, employees’ with visual impairments vocational adjustment (or job satisfaction) was related to such variables as age of onset of vision loss (Crudden & Hanye, 1999; Mann, 1967; Morrison, 1979), level of visual impairment (Mann,1967; Morrison, 1979), level of acceptance of disability (Morrison, 1979), pre-and post-disability occupational characteristics (O’Brien, 1988), employment setting 5

(e.g., supported employment or competitive employment; Crudden, Moore, & Giesen, 1996; Fireison, 1998; National Industries for the Blind [NIB], 1983,1987; Rumrill et al. , 1997), and school settings that employees previously attended (e.g., segregation-based special education, inclusion or mixed education; Fireison, 1998). For these inquiries, however, researchers found that participants’ demographics did not influence their overall job satisfaction. Specifically, the variables of age of onset of vision (e.g., congenital and adventitious vision loss), the level of visual impairment, and acceptance of disability did not contribute to any difference in job satisfaction of employees with visual impairments (Crudden, 1998; Crudden & Hanye, 1999; Mann, 1967; Morrison, 1979). However, employees who experienced positive changes in their job characteristics in terms of internal reinforcers or an increased rating level of their occupational prestige in their post-disability jobs expressed enhancement of their job satisfaction (O’Brien, 1988). Employees with visual impairments in both supported and competitive work settings expressed their general level of job satisfaction (Crudden et al., 1996; Fireison, 1998; Rumrill et al., 1997). Those employees with visual impairments who worked at the competitive work setting, however, indicated dissatisfaction in regards to low salary compared to others, few opportunities for work advancement, lack of training offered by their employers, and little recognition (Rumrill et al., 1997). Finally, no significant difference in the level of job satisfaction was found among employees of the NIB regarding educational settings where research participants graduated from (Fireison, 1998). The deficiencies of existing literature also include the fact that they are outdated (conducted between 1960s and 1990s). Thus, many of the results are no longer applicable to recent populations and the number of research studies itself is also sparse. More research is 6

needed, especially reflecting the recent social or technological influences in the lives of people with visual impairments, such as increased participation in higher education, expansion of newly developed assistive technologies facilitating work, or social environmental changes from various social movements in legislation, education, and mass media. Moreover, these tendencies were heavily dependent on the demographics of the participants instead of being solidly grounded in theory. Among the many studies reviewed above, only a couple were based on the Minnesota vocational adjustment theory. Also some of these studies did not specify the operational definition of job satisfaction or even rationales for selecting their instrument of measurement. The role of theory or a model requires organizing, interpreting, and stating facts and knowledge in an area or field in the form of laws and principles (Arokiasamy, 1993). Since theory or a specific model directs the way researchers state definitions, hypothesis, and even determine the measuring approach, a study needs to be grounded in theory. It has been pointed out that the existing career development or adjustment theories have limitations in shedding light on various unique and diverse issues regarding the career development process of multicultural groups including people with disabilities (Miller & Miller, 2005; Strauser, Wong, & O'Sullivan, 2012; Szymanski, Enright, Hershenson, & Ettinger, 2003). This is because those existing career theories were usually developed based on middle-class White males, with the assumption that individuals’ career development process was systemic and continual or individuals were relatively free to choose their job (Strauser et al.,2012; Szymanski et al., 2003). But these premises are often not applicable to many people with disabilities, whose job related education, experiences or options are often highly limited (Strauser et al., 2012; Szymanski et al., 2003). 7

When it comes to expanding employment opportunities for minorities all over the world, it is necessary to develop a new, comprehensive career development theory, which describes, predicts, plans, and implements career behaviors, development, and outcome of multicultural groups (Flores et al., 2006; Hershenson, 2005; Strauser et al., 2012; Szymanski et al., 2003; Young, Marshall & Valach, 2007). In addition, more research is needed to understand the career development process as well as effective career education and counseling interventions for multiculturally diverse groups (Flores et al., 2006; Hershenson, 2005; Strauser et al., 2012; Young et al., 2007). Purpose Statement Given the problems described above, this study aims to measure the job satisfaction of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments, based on the framework of Social Cognitive Career Theory. More specifically, the proposed study will explore how South Korean masseurs’ with visual impairments positive affect, work-related self-efficacy, work conditions, and the level of social supports predict their overall job satisfaction. Aside from separate ascertainment of each predictor, two moderating relationships will be tested. They are moderating effects of research participants’ positive affect and general social support level over all other variables. The former represents individualistic cultural values while the latter is a collectivist cultural value (Sheu & Lent, 2009). Overall, this study will measure not only the job satisfaction of this specific group but also test the cross-cultural applicability and transformability of the Social Cognitive Career Theory. Theoretical Framework The integrative job satisfaction model proposed in the Social Cognitive Career Theory will ground this study. This theory has been developed fairly recently after being derived from 8

Bandura’s general Social Cognitive Theory (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994, 2000). The Social Cognitive Career Theory explains multiple career behaviors (e.g., career interest development, career choice making, performance, and adjustment) through reciprocal interplay between core cognitive-personal variables (self-efficacy, outcome, goal) and various contextual factors (e.g., gender, culture, disability, or family socio-economic status; Lent et al., 1994, 2000). Due to its emphasis on environmental and contextual influences in construction of self-efficacy and outcome expectations, this theory has been considered applicable in understanding various career processes of a wide range of multi-culturally diverse individuals including minorities and people with disabilities (Flores et al., 2006; Szymanski et al., 2003). For example, Lapan, Boggs, & Morrill (1989) examined how gender differences play a role in developing self-efficacy beliefs in scientific/technical field interest and performance. In terms of ethnicity, scholars (Fouad & Smith, 1996; Gainor & Lent, 1998; Hackett & Byars, 1996; Lent, Brown, Nota, & Soresi, 2003; Tang, Fouad, & Smith, 1999) explored how culturally unique circumstances may differentiate career self-efficacy beliefs and career development of African American women, Hispanic, European and Asian American populations. In addition, Morrow, Gore, and Campbell (1996) examined career development of lesbian women and gay men based on the SCCT framework. Scholars (Ali & Saunders, 2006; Ali, McWhirter, & Chronister, 2005) also explored the relationship between vocational or educational self-efficacy and outcome expectations and contextual variables of students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds of rural Appalachia. While there have been recent studies exploring the utility of SCCT to explain vocational outcomes for individuals with mental illness (Fabian, 2000), at present, there is no research on these constructs for individuals with visual impairments despite its potential as a useful framework. 9

The model of work satisfaction in SCCT integrates cognitive, behavioral, social, and personality variables hypothesized to promote positive adjustment to career pursuits. This combines components of relevant traditional job satisfaction theories (e.g., work related fit, or personal trait) into framework of social cognitive career theory (Lent & Brown, 2006a). Thus, compared to other models of Social Cognitive Career Theory, the integrative job satisfaction model in SCCT modifies the definition of outcome expectations including work conditions (e.g., person-organization fit, needs-supplies fit, or perceived organization support; Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2006a, 2006b). The integrative job satisfaction model posits that work satisfaction is predicted by five classes of variables: 1) affective traits; 2) goals or goal-directed activities; 3) work related self-efficacy; 4 work condition; and finally 5) goal and efficacy relevant environmental supports or obstacles. By employing variables that are relatively modifiable, this model helps to inform counseling interventions aimed at work adjustment concerns (Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2006a). There is a dearth of studies that ground Social Cognitive Career Theory of work satisfaction model into multicultural groups. The examples include Lent, do Céu Taveira, Sheu, & Singley (2009) and Lent et al. (2011), who tested the (academic) work and life satisfaction of Italian teachers and Portuguese college students. Research Questions The following research questions guide the present investigation: Research Question 1. “What are the positive affect, work-related self-efficacy, subjective fit (P/O, N/S, and D/A Fit), perceived level of social support, and job satisfaction of a group of South Korean masseurs’ with visual impairments?”

10

Research Question 2. “How do variables such as positive affect, work-related self-efficacy, subjective fit (P/O, N/S, D/A Fit) and perceived level of social support predict overall job satisfaction of a group of South Korean masseurs’ with visual impairments?” Research Question 3. “Does positive affect moderate on the relationship between the workrelated self-efficacy, subjective fit, social support, and overall job satisfaction of a group of South Korean masseurs’ with visual impairments?” Research Question 4. “Does level of social support moderate on the relationship between workrelated self-efficacy, subjective fit, and overall job satisfaction of a group of South Korean masseurs’ with visual impairments?” Rationale and Need for Study Investigating the level or predictors of job satisfaction of employees with disabilities has many valuable implications. First, study of job satisfaction of this group will contribute to the qualitative and the quantitative improvement of vocational rehabilitation outcomes for groups with disabilities. Scholars (Crudden, 1998; S. Kim, 1994; Mann, 1967) addressed that understanding the level and predictors of job satisfaction of employees with disabilities can be basic and the most important measure of the success of the vocational rehabilitation program. This study will also provide important information to develop strategies to maximize productivity and minimize societal and individual loss caused by the job turnover of employees with disabilities (Fischer & Sousa-Ponza, 2009; S. Kim, 1994). Generally, the rate of turnover of employees with disabilities is higher than that of employees without disabilities, and this seems to be one of the reasons why employers tend to avoid hiring employees with disabilities (S. Kim, 1994). In addition, this study will provide evidence based information for career and rehabilitation professionals who work with people with disabilities in developing individualized 11

rehabilitation plans as well as job placements. Aside from those benefits from industrial perspectives, this study will contribute to design intervention for the physical and psychological health of employees with disabilities as well as improve their overall life satisfaction. In addition, testing the applicability of the Social Cognitive Career Theory on South Korean masseurs has several significant implications. First, through this empirical study, the cross cultural applicability of this theory can be tested using populations that have never been studied with this specific model before. When a new model or theory is tested, it is useful to employ relatively homogeneous samples. Because the masseur group is the largest employed group among the visually impaired in South Korea, testing a fairly new model with this group of people will be helpful in checking for the theory’s transformability. Second, through this study, vocational adjustment or satisfaction predictors of employees with disabilities under the reserved employment system can be explored, thereby generating suggestions for future implementation of such laws. Last, the findings of this study will contribute toward the multicultural competency of counselors. The connotations of disability and meaning or importance of wellbeing or job satisfaction may be interpreted differently under each culture (Sheu & Lent, 2009). Spector (1997) also revealed that expressed level of job satisfaction is different across countries (e.g., Asians, Hispanics, and Americans) under the same job conditions and when the same instrument is used. He concluded that this is not only due to the different expectations regarding facets of job satisfaction (e.g., reward, promotion, or supervision), but also due to cultural/attitudinal differences. For instance, the Dominican participants could have been more fearful about expressing dissatisfaction toward their job (Spector, 1997). Likewise, this type of culturally focused research will provide counselors multi-cultural sensitivities and knowledge

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regarding career behaviors of multi-culturally diverse group, thereby helping them develop culturally competent counseling strategies (Heppner, 2006; Spector, 1997; Sue, 1996). Overall, the exploration of job satisfaction of South Koreans with visual impairments and its predictors using the Social Cognitive perspective will be beneficial for vocational rehabilitation professionals, career counselors, teachers in transition from school to work, researchers as well as policy makers in expanding their knowledge of job adjustment and future service of employees with visual impairments. Definition of Terms Several terms central to this study are defined below. They are: Visual Impairment The American Foundation for the Blind defines legal blindness as individuals with central visual acuities of 20/200 or less in the better eye with the best possible correction, or with visual fields of 20 degrees or less (Bell & Siller, 2002). Blindness is a more general term used to describe a person with significant loss of vision, or an individual with very little or no functional use of vision (Bell & Siller, 2002). Job Satisfaction Locke’s (1976) classic definition referred to “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences” (p. 1300). Spector (1997) defined job satisfaction as the extent to which people like their jobs. Affect Affect refers to observable behavior or self-reports that express a subjectively experienced feeling or emotion (Mathison, 2005, p. 15). Work-Related Self-efficacy 13

Bandura (1986) defined self-efficacy beliefs as “people’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances” ( p.391). Bandura (1986) addressed that self-efficacy beliefs should be task-specific, and in this study, masseurs’ confidence regarding massage tasks will be measured. Work Conditions Work conditions refer to a person's job environment, encompassing aspects such as hours, safety, benefits, and advancement possibilities (Radin & Sehic, 2008). In this study, the concept of subjective fit between person and environment (Cable & DeRue, 2002a) will be measured as a salient component of work conditions. Cable and DeRue (2002a) organized person and environmental fit into three categories. They are: (a) person/organization fit, referring to the judgments of congruence between an employee’s and organizational values or culture; (b) workers’ perceptions of needs/supplies fit, pertaining to congruence between an employee’s needs and the rewards provided by his or her work; and (c) demand/ ability fit, referring to congruence between an employee’s skills and the demands of a job (Cable & DeRue, 2002a). Social Support Cohen and Wills (1985) organized the meaning of social support into two categories: practical and emotional support. Practical support includes informational support, which includes any information provided by people to define, understand, solve or cope with problematic events, as well as the provision of tangible resources, such as physical aids and transportation (Cohen & Wills, 1985). On the other hand, emotional support means the affective support, includes feelings of being accepted, respected, included, and having one’s emotions acknowledged throughout such activities as listening, caring, and discussing problems (Cohen & Wills, 1985). This study focused on measuring research participants’ perceived general social 14

support, merging practical and emotional support from their significant others, family, and friends in the work-related context. Massage Massage is a therapy to stimulate the surface of body mechanically and provoke a reaction to adjust imbalance or mismatch of body ( http://www.anmaup.or.kr). This is basically conducted with manual techniques but sometimes, masseurs use special electric devices (http://www.anmaup.or.kr). Manual techniques for massage include eight basic techniques (e.g., pushing, rubbing, trembling, tapping, or stretching) and these can be accordingly applied for anatomic features or patients’ symptoms (http://www.anmaup.or.kr). Massage usually is known for being efficient in preventing fatigue, improving circulation or digestion, and/or relieving muscle pains (http://www.anmaup.or.kr). Massage Parlor A massage parlor business in South Korea began in 1968 to complement former massage services in which a masseur had to mobile despite difficulties, and provide a massage service at a location selected by the client (K.-C. Kim, 2004; M.-J. Kim, 2013; Park, 2014). A massage parlor is a facility equipped with a sauna bath and massage services where clients come to receive massage (M.-J. Kim, 2013; Park, 2014). Masseurs in massage parlors usually eat and stay at their work places, and it is known that they earn more money compared to other masseurs in different types of massage businesses (K.-C. Kim, 2004) however, since 1980, this type of business was also subject to regulations as an extravagant sanitary facility by the South Korean government (K.-C. Kim, 2004; M.-J. Kim, 2013; Park, 2014). Massage Center

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A massage center is another type of massage business, where clients visit to receive massage service usually during day time (M.-J. Kim, 2013). Unlike a massage parlor, it is not allowed to install any type of bath or shower facility in a massage center and the maximum number of masseurs is limited to under 4, whereas 10 masseurs in a massage parlor (M.-J. Kim, 2013). Health Keeper Health Keeper is a kind of healthcare system that companies (usually large enterprises) install massage facilities and hire licensed masseurs (with visual impairments) to provide massage services to their employees for the prevention of fatigue and disease from work (H.-S. Lee, Hong, Jin, Hyun, & Choi, 2006). Disability Registering System Since 1989, the South Korean government has executed the Disability Registering System based on the Welfare of Disabled Persons Act (Nah, 2008). The purpose of this system is to provide proper rehabilitation services for them by identifying numbers and severities of disabilities they have, and utilize this information to establish future rehabilitation policies (Nah, 2008). The registering process includes: 1) people who have physical and/or mental malfunction visit the designated medical institutions to examine whether his or her malfunction meets the criteria of disabilities and how severe it is; 2) medical professionals determine the level of disability according to standards of the disability level system (severity); 3) people with disabilities should register his or her level of disabilities into the national welfare system (Nah, 2008). Level of Disability

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The level of disability is a kind of classification to determine its severity. In case of visual impairments, designated licensed ophthalmologists in designated medical institutions can determine the level of visual disabilities, according to function of sight, including visual field defects (Nah, 2008). In addition, when determining the level of visual impairment, it should be carried out after symptoms are thoroughly treated or the symptom(s) continue six months after medical treatment or surgery (Nah, 2008). The criteria of level of visual impairments based on the Amendment to the Welfare of Disabled Persons Act of 2011 are as follows (The Amendment of the Welfare of Disabled Persons Act, 2011) : Level 1: better eye’s sight of under 0.02 Level 2: better eye’s sight of under 0.04 Level 3: No.1) better eye’s sight of under 0.06 Or No.2) visual fields of both eyes under five degrees in each direction Level 4: No.1) better eye’s sight of under 0.1 Or No.2) visual fields of both eyes under ten degrees 10 in each direction Level 5: No.1) better eye’s sight of under 0.2 Or No.2) visual field of both eyes has remained approximately50% of normal visual field Level 6: worse eye’s sight of under 0.02 Summary This chapter provided an overview of the importance of further developing the area of job satisfaction as a valuable area for individuals with visual impairments. The Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) was presented as the theoretical framework for the present study. This 17

chapter concluded with the purpose statement, statement of the research questions, rationale, and definition of terms. Chapter II will provide a review of the literature providing support for the need and rationale for the present study.

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter begins by reviewing literature pertaining to South Korean history of masseurs with visual impairments and the current employment situation of South Koreans with visual impairments. Next, the importance of job satisfaction and reviews of previous studies regarding the job satisfaction of employees with visual impairments will be demonstrated. Finally, a conceptual framework for this study, adapted from Lent and Brown’s (2006a) model of work satisfaction in Social Cognitive Career Theory, is presented, followed by rationales and variables explored in this study. History of Masseurs with Visual Impairments in South Korea Since 1913, under Japanese colonization, massage has been taught as a vocation for people with visual impairments in South Korea, and lately it has operated as the only reserved job in South Korea (K.-C. Kim, 2004; Y.-I. Kim et al., 2004; H.-S. Lee et al., 2006; Park, 2014). Reserved employment is a system that allows for certain kinds of people with disabilities to receive priority employment in certain types of occupations, aiming to protect the employment rights of people with relatively severe disabilities; otherwise, they may face unreasonable competition for their employment (Y.-I. Kim et al., 2004; H.-S. Lee et al., 2006). For example, the vending lottery occupation has been protected for people with visual impairments in Spain, and masseur jobs have been exclusively occupied or prorated for people with visual impairments in Taiwan, China, and Japan, as in South Korea (Y.-I. Kim et al., 2004; H.-S. Lee et al., 2006). 19

Thanks to the reserved employment system in South Korea, people with visual impairments are able to have stable employment compared to other kinds of disabilities (K.-C. Kim, 2004; Y.-I. Kim et al., 2004; H.-S. Lee et al., 2006; Park, 2014); however, experts (H.-S. Lee et al., 2006) also pointed out the side effects of this system, namely that the South Korean government and policymakers may have made relatively passive efforts to create new job opportunities for people with visual impairments, considering their physical limitations, various vocational needs, and capabilities. In addition, since the 2000’s, a number of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments have experienced serious economic crises (M.-J. Kim, 2013; H.-S. Lee et al., 2006; Park, 2014), due to the decline or closing of massage parlors and massage centers under the economic recession. Moreover, South Korean masseurs with visual impairments have had to overcome the crisis of losing their jobs due to a constitutional lawsuit proposed by a non-blind masseur group, named Sports-masseur in November 2003 (M.-J. Kim, 2013; Y.-I. Kim et al., 2004; Park, 2014). This group insisted that to allow only people with visual impairments to be licensed masseurs in South Korea is against the spirit of the South Korean Constitution, which clearly states, “Every South Korean is free to choose his or her job” (M.-J. Kim, 2013; H.-S. Lee et al., 2006; Park, 2014). Throughout this period, fierce strikes occurred at the cost of several masseurs’ lives; however, in September 2008, the Amendment of Medical Act went through Congress approbated that only people with visual impairments can exclusively be licensed masseurs in South Korea (M.-J. Kim, 2013; H.-S. Lee et al., 2006; Park, 2014). Moreover, in October, 2008, the entire Department of Justice of the Constitutional Court of South Korea judged that to allow only people with visual impairments to be licensed masseurs in South Korea is not against the spirit of the South Korean Constitution (M.-J. Kim, 2013; Park, 2014). The 20

sentence elucidated that this decision was made for two reasons. First, work as a masseur is virtually the only profession available for people with visual impairments in South Korea; in addition, alternative vocational choices and welfare policies for them are relatively insufficient. Second, as minorities, people with visual impairments in South Korea have experienced substantial inequalities in their education, employment and/or daily lives. Therefore, preferential treatment is needed to protect their profession as masseurs. Despite these complications, the masseur profession is still held exclusively by people with visual impairments in South Korea; however, there is still an urgent need to increase or create new occupational opportunities for South Koreans with visual impairments under recent economic or social changes. In 2008, the Constitutional Court of South Korea asked policy makers and the South Korean government to come up with an effective counterplan to harmonize the basic rights of people with visual impairments and the freedom to choose a profession, stipulating that the preferential treatment for them (protecting their profession as masseurs) cannot be forced continuously until future social and economic conditions are advanced. Moreover, Y.-I. Kim et al (2004) reported an increasing number of younger students with visual impairments desire to pursue postsecondary education, rather than becoming masseurs after graduating high school, and over 60% of working masseurs reported that social perceptions toward the masseur profession is negative, which is in line with the finding of K.-C. Kim (2004). Economic Activities of South Koreans with Visual Impairments A study of the actual conditions of people with disabilities in 2011 calculated that the number of registered people with visual impairments in South Korea was 249,259. They comprise 9.55% of the total 2,457,312 registered individuals with all types of disabilities. In 2012, a Panel Survey of Employment for the Disabled (PSED) found that the employment rate of 21

people with visual impairments in South Korea was 46.1%, which is less than that of the general disabled group in South Korea, 48.9%. In addition, in the case of employed blind people, the total number of working hours per week was 41, which is similar to that of other general populations. However, the average monthly income of employees with visual impairments is 1,360,000 Won (around U.S $1,360), which is less than that of groups with other disabilities, 1,420,000 Won (around U.S $1,420), and it is only 52% of regular employees’ average monthly income of 2,600, 000 Won (around U.S. $2,600; Research on the Actual, 2012). Numerous experts (Y.-I. Kim et al., 2004; H.-S. Lee et al., 2006) indicated that the reason for the significant employment rate of people with visual impairments in South Korea is the reserved employment system as masseurs. A Study of the Actual Conditions of the Disabled in 2011 also revealed that 12.3% of employees with visual impairments work as masseurs and 7.1% work in massage-related fields, like teachers for massage schools or other massage-related organizations. The study (Research on the Actual, 2012) noted that employment of people with visual impairments in South Korea seems facilitated by the reserved employment profession, masseur, but it also appears very difficult for them to find employment in non-massage-related jobs. South Korea is one of the countries to execute an obligatory employment system. According to current law, the Employment Promotion and Vocational Rehabilitation for Disabled Persons Act, and regulations of enforcement of the ordinance Article 24 of the same law, a business owner who hires over 50 regular employees is an obligated to hire employees with disabilities who represent 2% of the total employees (H.-S. Lee et al., 2006). In December 2005, the number of companies that followed the mandatory quota of employment was 17,414, and the number of employees with disabilities under this quota system was 55,009, which 22

accounted for approximately 1.49% of all employees (H.-S. Lee et al., 2006). Among them, however, the number of employees with visual impairments was 3,918, and 7.8% of total employees with disabilities (H.-S. Lee et al., 2006). Moreover, the number of employees with visual impairments represented less than 2% of the total number of employees with disabilities in the private sector, with the exception of private schools or welfare centers for the blind (H.-S. Lee et al., 2006). This indicated that people with visual impairments have great difficulties in acquiring general employment. Fundamental causes are negative awareness about productive performance of the blind and owners’ evasion of employment (Y.-I. Kim et al., 2004; H.-S. Lee et al., 2006). Understanding of Work Satisfaction The topic of how people feel at and about their work has long fascinated industrialorganizational and vocational psychologists. Most people spend a significant amount of hours engaged in work, and it is typically assumed that how they feel about their work is of considerable consequence to themselves, their organizations, and their significant others (Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2013a). Under the assumption that happy workers are more productive and responsible in their attendance (Brief, 1988; S. Kim, 1994; Lent & Brown, 2013a; Spector, 1997), this topic of research is of interest to many researchers. Job satisfaction is defined as a person’s perceived enjoyment or liking of his or her work, either in a global or facet aspect of work (e.g., pay or environment), involving a combination of cognitive and affective elements (Lent, 2008). Job satisfaction is also assumed to have the potential to spill over into people’s non-working lives such as overall life satisfaction or marriage satisfaction (Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2006a, 2008, 2013a; Specter, 1997). In addition, scholars (Axelrod, 1999; Fischer & Sousa-Ponza, 2009; S. Kim, 1994; Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown 2013a; Specter, 1997; Swanson & 23

Schneider, 2013) believe that job satisfaction may be indices of an integral part of work adjustment and overall mental health, physical health and even longevity. In response to the importance of job satisfaction, various theories that construct job satisfaction were developed. For example, the Theory of Work Adjustment explains that when employees identify work environments that appear to correspond with their major work-related needs, values, and abilities, they feel satisfied (Swanson & Schneider, 2013). Holland's personality theory explains that congruence, or fit between an individual's personality and her or his job selection, has been shown to be positively correlated to job satisfaction (Nauta, 2013). In addition, Super's life space theory explains that the work role varies in its centrality for different people; therefore, work satisfaction is more likely to be especially meaningful for those who view work as among their most significant life roles than for those who are more psychologically invested in other roles, such as family members or community volunteers (Hartung, 2013). Measuring Job Satisfaction Brief (1998) stated that job satisfaction is commonly conceived as an attitudinal construct containing both affective and cognitive components. Locke’s (1976) classic definition referred to “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences” (p. 1300). Spector (1997) defined job satisfaction as the extent to which people like their jobs. Job satisfaction is typically assessed by self-report. In other words, satisfaction is an idiographic appraisal because individuals are typically assumed to provide the best source of information about their own job satisfaction (Lent, 2008). There are two distinctive measurements of job satisfaction: global satisfaction and facet satisfaction. These are presented in the next sections. Global versus Facet Job Satisfaction 24

Global measures reflect general or overall feelings about one’s job (Ironson, Smith, Brannick, Gibson, & Paul, 1989; Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2013a). Examples include the Index of Job Satisfaction (Brayfield & Rothe, 1951) and the Job in General Scale (Ironson et al., 1989). The latter asks respondents to rate their job, using a variety of feeling-oriented and evaluative (e.g., “enjoyable,” “good”) terms (Ironson et al., 1989). Such global scales are relatively short, asking about the respondent’s reactions to various aspects of the job in an integrated response (Ironson et al., 1989). In contrast, facet satisfaction measures specific aspects of one's job satisfaction, intended to separately cover the principal areas within a more general domain (Ironson et al., 1989; Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2013a), such as the Job Descriptive Index (Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969), the Quality of Employment Survey (Quinn & Staines, 1979), and the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ; Weiss, Dawis, England & Lofquist, 1967). They naturally tend to be a bit longer because they cover more content areas (Ironson et al., 1989; Lent, 2008). For example, the Job Descriptive Index (Smith et al., 1969) measures five facets (e.g., Work, Pay, Promotions, Supervision, and Coworkers) and the Quality of Employment Survey (Quinn & Staines, 1979) covers six features of the job (e.g., Comfort, Challenge, Financial Rewards, Relations with Coworkers, Resource Adequacy, and Promotions) (Ironson et al.,1989; Lent, 2008). The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) provides scores for 20 aspects of job satisfaction, but a briefer form has also been developed (Ironson et al., 1989; Lent, 2008). Lent (2008) pointed out that “work satisfaction may be considered the more inclusive term because it can include satisfaction with one's job globally, the specific facets or conditions of one’s work, or the larger work environment in which one’s job is embedded” (p. 483), but he also stated that most of the literature pertaining this area involves job satisfaction over a general 25

or nonspecific time frame of enjoyment in work. Therefore, in this study, job and work satisfaction will be used synonymously, according to Lent’s (2008) research. He states that overall job satisfaction can be defined as a person’s perceived enjoyment or liking of his or her work, either in a global or facet aspect of work (e.g., pay or environment), involving a combination of cognitive and affective elements (Lent, 2008). Previous Studies on Job Satisfaction of Employees with Visual Impairments in North America Compared to studies on the job satisfaction of employees without disabilities, research of the job satisfaction of employees with disabilities is sparse. This body of research is even more limited within cultural contexts. However, this topic cannot be overlooked for its various important implications. Aside from the general benefits of job satisfaction studies described above, studying the job satisfaction of employees with disabilities can provide a measure of the success of a vocational rehabilitation program (Crudden, 1998; S. Kim, 1994; Mann, 1967). As such, it can provide valuable information for career and rehabilitation professionals employed in vocational rehabilitation programs. Specifically, this information can then be used to predict successful employment of this population and to further develop individualized rehabilitation plans, as well as job placement. In addition, it can provide important information to develop strategies to minimize societal and individual loss caused by job turnover by employees with disabilities. Indeed, job dissatisfaction of employees can be the most important factor for job turnover (Fischer & Sousa-Ponza, 2009; S. Kim, 1994; Lent & Brown, 2006a; Spector, 1997). Generally, the rate of turnover of employees with disabilities is higher than that of employees without disabilities, and this seems to be one of the reasons why employers tend to avoid hiring employees with disabilities (S. Kim, 1994). Overall, the study of job satisfaction of people with 26

disabilities will contribute to improve not only their overall life satisfaction, but also the qualitative and quantitative improvement of vocational rehabilitation outcomes. Among various categories of disabilities, this study will explore the job satisfaction of employees with visual impairments. Most previous studies on the subject of job satisfaction of employees with visual impairments were related to employees’ various demographic characteristics. Variables included age of onset of vision loss, the level of vision loss, and the work (e.g., supported or competitive employment) and education settings they graduated from (e.g., special or exclusive education). Aside from these variables, variables such as the level of acceptance of their disability and work environmental changes of their post-disability job were also studied. A presentation and critique of available research regarding the job satisfaction of employees with visual impairments will be presented in the next section. Age of Onset of Vision Loss Researchers (Carroll, 1961; Crudden & Hanye, 1999; Mann, 1967) pointed to the significant differences between persons who are born blind and those who lose their vision later in life, and addressed the necessities of these differences when developing educational or rehabilitation plans for them. Several researchers (Crudden,1998; Crudden & Hanye, 1999; Mann, 1967; Morrison, 1979) investigated the impact that age of onset of vision loss had on job satisfaction. Mann (1967) investigated the relationship between the age of onset of vision loss and employees’ vocational adjustment, including present job satisfaction with 235 participants who were vocationally rehabilitated at the Florida Council for the Blind of the Georgia Division of Vocational Rehabilitation during the 1961-1962 fiscal year. Mann (1967) divided these participants into three categories based on the age of onset of vision loss: blind from birth, 0-44, 27

and 45 and older. Mann (1967) hypothesized that vision loss at the age of 45 and older may directly influence vocational adjustment. The result showed, however, that present job satisfaction was found not to be related to the age of onset of visual loss for this group of rehabilitants, which conflicted with the researcher’s hypothesis (Mann, 1967). Crudden (1998) and Crudden and Hanye (1999) also examined the impact of congenital and adventitious vision loss on vocational outcomes (e.g., working hours, hourly wage, job satisfaction, and job tenure) of 431 legally blind individuals employed in an industrial setting associated with the National Industries of the Blind (NIB). In this study, researchers defined congenital blindness as blindness occurring before the age of two and adventitious blindness as blindness occurring after the age of five. The reason for this division is that the capacity to retain visual imagery develops before the age of three or four, which may influence career development (Crudden, 1998). Therefore, persons who experienced the onset of visual disability between the ages of two and five were eliminated from their study. The result, however, indicated no significant differences between NIB employees’ job satisfaction and congenital and adventitious vision loss, as well as other postemployment outcomes (Crudden, 1998; Crudden & Hanye, 1999). Morrison (1979) found a similar result as the abovementioned three researchers; congenital and adventitious visual impairment did not make any difference in the level of job satisfaction among 97 successfully rehabilitated people with visual impairments, randomly recruited by the Division of Blind Services during the fiscal year 1975-1976 (Morrison, 1979). The Level of Visual Impairment How much residual vision an individual has is one of the decisive factors influencing one’s adjustment to blindness and rehabilitation service and is as important as the age of onset of 28

vision loss (Carroll, 1961; Morrison, 1979). Mann’s (1967) study stratified research participants into three groups based on the degree of visual impairment: the totally blind, the low vision, and the high vision (Mann, 1967). Mann (1967) explained that totally blind included rehabilitants who had visual acuity not exceeding light perception; he rationalized this because it includes only consumers who have no vocationally useful vision. Low and high vision were defined by the conventional Snellen Measurement notations, such as “counts fingers" and "hand movements" (Mann, 1967, p.16). However, the results showed that there was no significant relationship between job satisfaction and the level of vision loss, which contrasted with the researcher’s hypothesis (Mann, 1967). Morrison (1979) also measured the relationship between degree of blindness (e.g., partially sighted and totally blind) and level of job satisfaction. Again, in this study, Morrison (1979) failed to find any significant difference in the general level of job satisfaction related to level of vision loss. The Level of Acceptance of Disability Several researchers examined the relationship between how much an individual accepted his or her disability as being part of the person and how much this impacted his or her success of rehabilitation services. Morrison (1979) noted that one of the rehabilitation counselor’s roles includes helping blind persons recognize and accept their disability as being part of their lives. Morrison (1979) defined acceptance of disability as based on Dembo, Leviton, and Wright's concept of acceptance of loss, "a perceptual process whereby the individual undergoes a series of value changes, including enlargement of scope values, subordination of physique, containment of disability effects, and transformation from comparative values to asset values” (p. 18). Morrison (1979) hypothesized that the more an individual accepts his/her disability, the more likely he/ she 29

is to experience a higher level of job satisfaction. Throughout this study, Morrison (1979) found a positive linear correlation between acceptance of disability and general level of job satisfaction, although it was not statistically significant. Pre-and Post-Disability Occupational Characteristics Since the rate of adventitious visual impairments resulting from accidents or diseases is higher than that of congenital visual impairments, and since it can be also assumed that the possibilities of changing occupations after the loss of vision can be high, it is reasonable to study the relationship between pre-and post-disability occupational characteristics and their vocational outcomes. O’Brien (1988) recruited 41 persons with visual impairments who had changed their occupations after their vision loss, and explored the relationship between their changed occupational characteristics (as measured on the Minnesota Occupational Classification System) and their current overall job satisfaction. O’Brien (1988) found that individuals who had experienced a positive change in internal reinforcers (e.g., creativity, responsibility, advancement, recognition or authority) felt higher satisfaction. People who changed in social reinforcers (e.g., co-workers, social service and moral values), however, showed no significant difference in satisfaction, but the changes in environmental reinforcers (e.g., company policies, supervisionhuman relations, safety, activity, independence, variety, compensation, security, and working conditions) showed a negative correlation with satisfaction (O’Brien, 1988). Regarding change in perceptual and motor ability requirements, there was no relationship to satisfaction, whereas change in cognitive ability requirements showed a correlation with satisfaction (O’Brien, 1988). Last, increases in occupational prestige ratings showed higher satisfaction, but the occupational flexibility rating was not related to job satisfaction (O’Brien, 1988). Working in industries associated with the National Industry for the Blind 30

There have been differing points of view regarding the value of and need for specialized industries for persons with visual impairment; these points of view vary among professionals and consumers (Crudden, et al., 1996). For example, Murphy and Rogan (1995) addressed that sheltered industries are suitable for employment of people with visual impairments, especially those who are teenagers or elderly with visual impairments or general blind populations who are transitioning to competitive employment. Crudden et al. (1996), however, pointed out that there have been few reports regarding whether employees with visual impairments working in sheltered workshops are satisfied with their job. Currently, over 6,000 persons who are blind or severely visually impaired work in the NIB, a community rehabilitation program employment setting (Fireison, 1998). Community rehabilitation programs are one of the transition services designed to facilitate young adults with disabilities to move from school to work (Fireison, 1998). Several studies were conducted to explore the level of job satisfaction of employees with visual impairments in the NIB. In 1983 and 1987, the NIB conducted studies of the satisfaction levels of direct-labor employees with visual impairments at affiliated industries with the NIB; both studies demonstrated that the majority of direct-labor employees were satisfied or very satisfied. Crudden et al. (1996) also examined 502 NIB workers with visual impairments and found that 21% and 40% of respondents were very satisfied or satisfied, whereas 10% and 4% of respondents indicated that they were dissatisfied or very dissatisfied, respectively. In Fireison’s (1998) study, which examined 270 surveys from NIB employees with visual impairments, 18.6% and 37.5% were very satisfied or satisfied, while 10.8% and 3.7% were dissatisfied or very dissatisfied. Based on these four surveys, it can be found that the rate of dissatisfaction seems relatively low but is slightly increasing as studies continue. In addition, the proportion of 31

employees who were satisfied or very satisfied decreased from 73% in 1983 to 66% in 1987 and to 61% in 1996; finally, it was only 56 % in 1998. Furthermore, the responses of neutral also increased from 25% to 29% in two recent studies. Competitive Employment Rumrill et al. (1997) conducted five individual case studies of employees with visual impairments in competitive job positions, describing their work experiences, including job satisfaction. Participants’ demographic characteristics were as follows: three were congenitally blind; three had master’s degrees; one was male; one was totally blind; and all were Caucasian. Respondents expressed general satisfaction with their jobs, including one highly satisfied. Commonly expressed instances of job dissatisfaction, however, included lower income compared to sighted workers, few opportunities for advancement, little recognition received for the work, and insufficient training opportunities offered by their employers. Aside from these areas, some participants expressed their dissatisfaction with company policies which were not always administered fairly, with the supervisor who did not train the workers well enough, and with few opportunities for creative work. School Settings Where Employees Attended Fireison (1998) explored whether the type of secondary school that employees with visual impairments graduated from (e.g., specialized schools for the blind, public schools or a combination setting) would influence their postemployment factors, including job satisfaction. There were 270 participants who were employed in an industry affiliated with the NIB in this study. Results indicated that neither job satisfaction nor work preference was found to be significantly different among persons who attended each of the three school settings (Fireison, 1998). However, persons who attended a public school were found to make a significantly higher 32

salary than those who attended a school for the blind. Another significant result was the relationship between the ability to read Braille and school types; people who attended a school for the blind and both school settings were more likely to be able to read Braille than were persons who attended only a public school (Fireison, 1998). South Korean Research on the Job Satisfaction of Employees with Visual Impairments Like other published American studies on the subject of job satisfaction of employees with disabilities, the purpose of most South Korean studies examining this topic was also to investigate the efficiency of vocational rehabilitation programs or specified job opportunities for people with disabilities (Hwang & Jung, 2011; J.-S. Lee & Oh,2012). In addition, overall, there was scant South Korean research that investigated the job satisfaction of people with disabilities (Joo & Han, 2010; K.-J. Kim, 2011; H.-Y. Lee, 2008), especially the job satisfaction of people with visual impairments. In her study, M.-J. Kim (2013) examined 95 masseurs with visual impairments working at individual massage centers, in relation to their work conditions (e.g., salary, weekly work hours, the number of holidays, and how they commute). In this study, M.-J. Kim (2013) found that variables such as salary, weekly work hours and work days of masseurs with visual impairments working at massage centers significantly correlated to the level of their job satisfaction. In addition, J.-S. Lee and Oh (2012) examined the relationship between the demographic characteristics of aptitude, motivation of job selection, and the social skills of 100 South Koreans with visual impairments who work as fortune tellers. In this study, J.-S. Lee and Oh (2012) found no significant relationship between study participants’ demographic factors (e.g., age, gender, education, and marital status) and their job satisfaction, but their occupational aptitude and interpersonal social skills were found to be positively related or mediated to their job satisfaction. In addition, participants who chose his or her job hastily indicated that they 33

were rarely satisfied with their job (J.-S. Lee and Oh, 2012). Finally, H.-Y. Lee (2008) conducted a second analysis study in a Research on the Actual Condition for the Disabled of 2005 that investigated which factors of employees with disabilities may contribute to their job maintenance period. By analyzing 6,588 employees with visual impairments, H.-Y. Lee (2008) found that if their vocational training was consistent with their current job duties, employees were satisfied with their salary level and medical benefits; in addition, their overall job maintenance period appeared to be longer. Taken altogether, the available research seems to suggest that the demographic characteristics (e.g. age, gender, education, age of onset of visual loss, the level of visual impairment, marital status, the school settings research participants graduated from) of research participants with visual impairments did not seem to make significant differences in their job satisfaction. Rather, such variables as: 1) individual factors (e.g., how much they accepted their disabilities or how well they socialized with others); 2) work condition factors (e.g., what work characteristics changed after their visual loss, how much salary they earn, how they like their medical benefits, how long they work or how they commute); 3) vocational training factors (e.g., how their current job fits with their aptitude or vocational training received or how they selected their current job made a significant difference in their overall job satisfaction. From these findings, one can infer the importance of the role of rehabilitation counselors (including career counselors or placement specialists) in promoting job satisfaction in employees with visual impairments. Namely, counseling interventions are important for helping people with visual impairments accept their disabilities and in helping them get along with others.

Likewise,

careful job placement plays an integral role when considering their clients’ pre-and postdisability occupational characteristics, how that job fits with vocational training received, in 34

addition to aptitude. Information regarding level of salary, medical benefits, work hours and commuting methods should also be thoroughly discussed with their clients. In addition, regardless of work format (i.e. competitive vs. specialized job opportunities or reserved job), the level of job satisfaction of employees with visual impairments appeared to be moderate to high. However, it is worthy to note that year by year, the job satisfaction of employees with visual impairments in NIB (specialized job opportunities) has decreased. Moreover, through research on job satisfaction in the competitive job setting, the fact that a feeling of inequality of employees with visual impairments is a source of dissatisfaction, can be inferred. Limitations of Available Research The most apparent limitation of the extant literature regarding job satisfaction of employees with visual impairments is that most of the available or accessible literature is limited and outdated. Thus, new studies are needed, which reflect recent social or political trends or the demographic changes of populations with visual impairments. Those changes can include peoples’ with visual impairments increasing rate of attending postsecondary education, the impact of various vocational rehabilitation legislations (e.g., the Americans with Disabilities Act), development of assistive technology, and improving public attitudes toward people with visual impairments. Second, there seems to be a need for diversifying the research methodology. For instance, the matter of how much individuals are satisfied with their job is more related to personal experiences and feelings or attitudes, which are somewhat vague matters to be measured in scales. Moreover, job satisfaction or job experiences should be approached or interpreted in a

35

specific personal (disability) or environmental (cultural) context. Based on this, research of individuals’ job satisfaction can be explored in qualitative methods. Third, except for Morrison’s (1979) and O’Brien’s (1988) studies, most of the studies did not provide or clarify the definition of job satisfaction, nor were they theory-based. This may result in poor rationale for research questions and an arbitrary choice of measurements. More seriously, an absence of a theory-based study may result in a lack of meaningful implications. In other words, some demonstrated extant literature on the job satisfaction of employees with visual impairments described simply research participants’ level of job satisfaction, without providing important interventional strategies, or any predictors to promote their job satisfaction. For example, four NIB studies did not provide the specific reasons for the recent tendencies of a decrease in job satisfaction of employees with visual impairments. Similarly, the study of Rumrill et al. (1997) did not provide any suggestions for counselors to help promote job satisfaction in employees with visual impairments in competitive work settings. Through specific exploration based on solid, empirically-evidenced based theories, it would be possible to provide valuable interventions for rehabilitation counselors to meet the needs of employees with visual impairments in various work settings. Finally, to test diverse theories related to job satisfaction, comparing how many similarities or gaps between its applicability for people with or without disabilities in different contexts can be suggested in order to understand the unique features of job satisfaction of employees with visual impairments. The next section will provide more information about the theoretical framework chosen for this study. Integrative Work Satisfaction Model in Social Cognitive Career Theory

36

Lent and Brown (2006a) pointed out the limitations of various earlier job satisfaction models, which generally focused on single classes of predictors. These single-source job satisfaction models, however, tended to describe job satisfaction in a partial manner as in “either of the top-down (e.g., satisfaction is preordained by dispositional components) or bottom -up (e.g., satisfaction is constructed by exposure to favorable situations)” (Lent, 2008, p.471). But because of the phenomenological nature of satisfaction judgments, many findings of research indicate that satisfaction is not merely a reflection of personality or function of situation but rather a combination of them (Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2006a). Reflecting on this viewpoint of work satisfaction, Lent and Brown (2006a) proposed using the integrative work satisfaction model in the framework of Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT). The Social Cognitive Career Theory (Lent et al., 1994, 2000) was first developed to aid understanding of the processes by which people (1) develop interests; (2) make choices; and (3) achieve performances in their career and academic endeavors. Anchored in Bandura’s (1986) general social cognitive theory, SCCT focuses on the triadic interaction among person, environmental, and behavioral influences in career development (Lent, 2013a). Among its person variables, SCCT’s emphasizes the central role of self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and goals in enabling people to assert personal control on behalf of their own career efforts (exercise of agency; Bandura, 1986, 1989; Lent, 2013a; Lent et al., 1994, 2000). Bandura defined self-efficacy beliefs as “people’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances” (1986, p.391). Briefly demonstrating, SCCT views self-efficacy as a dynamic set of self-beliefs that are specific to particular performance domains and activities (Lent, 2013a). According to SCCT, self-beliefs can be obtained or modified by four primary learning experiences: 1) 37

Personal performance accomplishments; 2) Vicarious learning; 3) Social persuasion; and 4) Physiological and affective states (Bandura, 1986, 1989). Outcome expectations can be defined as “beliefs about the consequences or outcomes of performing particular behaviors” (Lent, 2013, p. 125). Outcome expectations involves anticipated consequences of their courses of actions. Both self-efficacy and outcome expectations are determinants of human behavior because people ultimately make choices according to their belief of self-efficacy and outcome expectation (Lent, 2013). Lastly, Bandura (1986, 1989) defined personal goals as an individual’s intention to engage in a particular activity or produce a particular outcome. Goals are important means by which individuals exercise agency in their career pursuits; that is, by setting goals, people help direct their own behavior. Moreover, goals are impacted by their self-efficacy and outcome expectations (Bandura, 1986, 1989; Lent, 2013a). Aside from those three core personal variables (e.g., self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and goals), SCCT is equally concerned with other causal paths by which additional environmental inputs (e.g., different socialization processes or different life roles expected caused by race/ethnicity, culture, gender, or disability) may either facilitate or impede the exercise of personal control (Lent, 2013a; Lent et al., 1994, 2000). Therefore, this theory has been used to explain diverse groups’ career development process. For example, researchers (Betz & Hackett, 1981; Lapan et al., 1989) explored the topic of why women may be less inclined to pursue certain types of careers. Likewise, Fabian (2000) stated that social cognitive variables and environmental attributes may provide “a framework for designing strategic interventions based on explanation for people with disabilities” (p.263). For example, environmental factors can include employment discrimination or highly limited job opportunities for people with disabilities. 38

Image 1: Lent and Brown’s(2006) Model of Work Satisfaction

The integrative work satisfaction model, the fourth model of Social Cognitive Career Theory, provides a unified understanding of work satisfaction. This model adapts many of the theory’s central personal and contextual variables of job satisfaction in the framework of SCCT (Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2006a, 2006b). In other words, the integrative work satisfaction model incorporates the core personal variables of Social Cognitive Career Theory, and ties them to relevant research on work satisfaction (e.g., trait or person/environmental fit model), to tailor them to function together or what may be the nature of the relations among these variables in job satisfaction (Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2006a). The key classes of variables that compose the integrative work satisfaction model include: (1) personality and affective traits; (2) self-efficacy; (3) goals and goal-directed activity; (4) work conditions or outcomes; and (5) goal-relevant environmental supports, resources, and obstacles (Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2006a, 2013a). 39

In conclusion, the model posits that people are generally likely to experience work satisfaction when they feel self-efficacious with their work task, achieve their work goals (or perceive that they are making progress at personally-relevant work goals), have favorable working conditions and reinforcers, receive support for their goals and self-efficacy, and possess predisposed traits of positive affect in most life situations (Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2006a). In addition to their direct links between such variables, the model posits that satisfaction can be produced by reciprocal interrelationships with such variables. For example, when people have high levels of self-efficacy and environmental support in relation to their goals, they tend to progress at their work goals, and again this goal progress may produce their job satisfaction (Lent, 2008). The importance of the work satisfaction model is that is not only unifies numerous variables of job satisfaction; it also provides more accessible targets for counseling interventions to promote job satisfaction for its domain-specific forms (Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2006a, 2006b). Traditionally, the domain of job satisfaction has been approached as potential organizational consequences, relating employees’ productivity, role engagement or withdrawal, or turnover behaviors by the field of industrial or organizational psychology, whereas the field of vocational counseling psychology has dealt with job satisfaction as personal vocational outcomes or matter of job adjustment (Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2006a, 2013a; Spector, 1997). By merging these two perspectives, the integrative job satisfaction model provides comprehensive understanding of what individuals and organizations can do to promote employees’ and employers’ mutual satisfaction (Lent & Brown, 2006a, 2013a). Second, this model assumes job satisfaction to be one of the most important factors consisting of life satisfaction or well-being (Lent & Brown, 2006a, 2008). By incorporating two 40

different philosophical concepts of well-being (e.g., hedonic and eudemonic perspectives of well-being), the integrative satisfaction model explains satisfaction (or happiness with the point of view in hedonic well-being) can be achieved or sustained by self-actualization, purpose in life, environmental mastery, or positive social relations, which are emphasized in eudemonic perspectives of well-being (Lent & Brown, 2008). By suggesting these relatively modifiable variables, the integrative work satisfaction model helps to inform counseling interventions aimed at work adjustment concerns as well as help clients feel both perspectives of well-being (Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2006a, 2008). Lent (2008) stated that there is as yet limited research testing the entire model or subsets of it. Most tests of the integrative model of satisfaction to this point have focused on the academic and social satisfaction of college students (Lent, 2008; Sheu & Lent, 2009). To test the normative well-being model, Lent, Singley, Sheu, Gainor et al. (2005) conducted two crosssectional studies using two different measurement approaches (nomothetic, and idiographic) with 539 U.S. college students. Lent, Singley, Sheu, Schmidt, and Schmidt (2007) also tested the satisfaction model using nomethetic procedures with college students. All three studies found good overall model- data fit, though not all individual paths were supported. In addition, two longitudinal studies have been done. Lent, Sheu, et al. (2008) collected data from 769 U.S. college students at two time points (8 weeks apart), during an academic semester. Lent, do Ceu Taveira et al., (2009) also recruited 252 Portuguese college students who completed measures at each of two assessments (16 weeks apart), in the same academic semester. Both studies included a similar set of variables and reported that the data fit well overall in both longitudinal studies, but not all specific paths were consistent with expectations.

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Recently, two studies were conducted to test the integrative satisfaction model in work contexts with adult populations. Duffy and Lent (2009) tested this model in a sample of 366 U.S. teachers, which resulted in good overall model-data fit. Lent, Nota et al. (2011) also tested this model with a sample of 235 Italian school teachers and found that three of the five predictors (favorable work conditions, efficacy-relevant supports, and positive affectivity) produced a significant coefficient with job satisfaction. Work related self-efficacy was indirectly related to job satisfaction via work conditions (Lent, Nota et al., 2011). Restating Research Purposes and Rationales for Variables Taking into account the results of the research critique presented earlier in this chapter and the need to include more theory-driven research into this area, this study aims to test subsets of the integrative job satisfaction model in Social Cognitive Career Theory (Lent & Brown, 2006a, 2008), with South Korean masseurs with visual impairments. This is very meaningful in terms that it is the first time to empirically test this fairly new developed model with Asian populations, as well as with people with disabilities. The specific variables to be tested in this study are as follows: Personality and Affective Traits Lent and Brown (2006a) and Lent (2008) stated that several meta-analyses have shown the relations of affective (positive and negative affect) and personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness) to work and life satisfaction. For example, Judge, Heller, and Mount (2002) reported scores of extraversion, neuroticism, and conscientiousness to job satisfaction, correlated respectively, of .25, .29, and .26; and as a set these three Big Five traits explained 17% of the variance in job satisfaction. In addition, Connolly and Viswesvaran (2000) found correlations of positive and negative affect 42

to job satisfaction of .49 and .33, respectively; and Thoresen, Kaplan, Barsky, Warren, and de Chermon (2003) reported the correlation .34 in positive affect and job satisfaction. Ilies and Judge (2003) also addressed that 29% of the variance in job satisfaction may be due to genetic factors. In this study, affect will be tested among trait factors. Ilies and Judge (2003) concluded that genetic influences on job satisfaction are mediated primarily by affective traits rather than by the broad personality factors, stating that positive-negative affect accounts for nearly half of this genetic influence, while the Big Five factors explain only around 25 % of the variance. In addition, considering the simpler manner of the assessment of affect, this variable will be tested among dispositional group. Self-Efficacy Lent (2008) defined self-efficacy as “personal beliefs about one’s capability to perform particular behaviors necessary to achieve valued work-related goals” (p.470). Although the role of self-efficacy beliefs have been primarily explored in the contexts of educational-vocational interest, choice, and performance, these beliefs are also assumed to have important implications for the experience of satisfaction and other affective states (Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2006a). More specifically, Lent (2008) explained that if an individual perceives oneself as efficacious at key work behaviors, this may be satisfying to himself or herself as a source of pride and feeling competent ,which may enable one to interpret setbacks as less threatening or stressful. According to scholars (Caprara, Barbaranelli, Borgogni, & Steca, 2003; Chen, Goddard, & Casper, 2004), self-efficacy has been found to be moderately to strongly predictive of job satisfaction in employed workers. Bandura (1986) addressed that self-efficacy beliefs should be task-specific, and in this study, masseurs’ confidence regarding massage tasks will be measured. 43

Work Conditions and Outcomes According to Spector (1997), for many years, the job satisfaction literature was dominated by relationships and environmental fit, including work characteristics, conditions, and outcomes. Lent (2008) categorized the two most representative variables in this construct as environmental fit and perceived organizational support. The degree to which employees feel supported by their work organization is one of the most important aspects of work conditions (Lent, 2008). Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) found that perceived organizational support (POS) related strongly (.59) to job satisfaction in a metaanalysis of 21 studies. In addition, the concept of fit is a familiar one for most people in organizations (Cable & DeRue, 2002a). Applicants choose between organizations on the basis of their perceived fit with jobs and recruiters make hiring decisions on the basis of their perceptions of applicants’ fit in an organization (Cable & Judge, 1996; Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005). Moreover, this subjective fit perception is vital not only for its correlation to ones’ job satisfaction, but also for the way it affects their turnover decisions (Cable & Derue, 2002a; Cable & Judge, 1996). Cable and Derue (2002a) subdivided the subjective fit perception into three categories: (a) person/organization fit, referring to the judgments of congruence between an employee’s value and an organization’s culture, (b) needs/supplies fit, pertaining to perceptions of congruence between an employee’s needs and the rewards (including pay or benefits) that he or she receives in return for his or her job contribution, and (c) demand/ ability fit, referring to the congruence between an employee’s skills and the demands of a job. Through confirmatory factor analyses of data from two different samples, Cable and DeRue (2002a) found that employees’ different attitudes toward vocational outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction or intention of turning over) correlate with these three types of fit, and therefore suggested refined 44

measures. Based on this suggestion, in this study, these three kinds of subjective fit (person/organization, need/supply, and demand/ability fit), and its composite will be investigated within the proposed model. Supports or Obstacles that are Relevant to Goal and Efficacy The next component of work satisfaction model in SCCT concerns the degree to which an individual receives support or barriers related to work goals and self-efficacy (Lent & Brown, 2006a). Like other models in SCCT, a variety of contextual supports and constraints can be important sources of job satisfaction (Lent & Brown, 2006a). Scholars (Babin & Boles, 1996; Baruch-Feldman, Brondolo, Ben-Dayan, & Schwartz, 2002) reported general work support received from co-workers, supervisors, family members, and friends to level of job satisfaction, with correlations ranging from .17 to .41. Lent, Singley, Sheu, Schmidt et al. (2007) and Lent, Singley, Sheu, Gainor et al. (2005) also found that goal support was strongly related to satisfaction in academic or social satisfaction. At the same time, Lent and Brown (2006a) addressed that the absence of supports, or the presence of environmental obstacles that impede goal progress, may diminish satisfaction. However, Duffy and Lent (2009) stated that this variable of the work satisfaction model has received the least amount of research. The Goals and Goal-Directed Behavior is one of the variables of the work satisfaction model proposed by Lent and Brown (2006a). But in this study, this variable will be excluded. Goals are seen as playing a key role in motivating choice and performance behavior in Social Cognitive Career Theory, as well as satisfaction and well-being outcomes (Lent, 2008; Lent & Brown, 2006a). For example, scholars (Ryan & Deci, 2001) reported that the perception of an individual is making progress toward personally valued goals represent key ways in which people contribute to their own well-being. Therefore, Lent and Brown (2006a) and Lent (2008) 45

concluded that goal-directed behavior enables the personal agency exercise in domain and life satisfaction. However, the variable of goal directed behavior in the integrative work satisfaction model will be excluded to measure in this study because Lent, Singley, Sheu, Gainor et al. (2005) suggested that self-efficacy may be related to domain satisfaction directly as well as indirectly, through its relation to perceived goal progress, as well as to the needs for creating simpler and shorter facilitating survey completion of research participants with visual impairments. Moderating Effects on Positive Affect and Social Support In addition to a separate ascertainment of these four variables (e.g., affect, self-efficacy, work condition, and social support) with job satisfaction of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments, two clusters of moderating variables will be examined. The first moderating variable, how research participants’ positive (or negative) affect moderates over all other variables will be measured. The influence of personality traits on job satisfaction or well-being is typically assumed to be universal, but Suh, Diener, Oishi, and Triandis (1998) found that positive and negative affect were more strongly associated with satisfaction in individualistic cultures. Therefore, more empirical studies are necessary to examine how differently these traits predictors manifest on the job satisfaction or well-being relative to particular culture (Sheu & Lent, 2009). Two previous studies, testing the integrative work satisfaction model in individualistic cultures, also found a moderating effect of dispositional factor’s over other predictors on job satisfaction (Duffy & Lent, 2009; Lent, Nota et al., 2011). This study, therefore, would be valuable to measure how the effect of a moderating effect would operate in the collectivistic culture. Second, the moderating effect of social support over other predictors on job satisfaction of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments will be explored. Sheu and Lent (2009) 46

hypothesized that, in groups that put greater importance on interpersonal relationships, there would be stronger causal paths from social support to self-efficacy, goal progress, and life (including job) satisfaction. But the extant literature that tested the integrative satisfaction model did not focus on this moderating effect much (Sheu & Lent, 2009). South Korean culture is known as one of the most representative collectivist cultures, consisting of closely linked individuals who see themselves as a part of a group, emphasizing their connectedness to members (Triandis & Gelfand, 1998). Therefore, examining how social support could moderate other variables on individuals’ job satisfaction appears meaningful in this cultural context. There is another rationale to examine the moderating effect of social support over job satisfaction of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments. Social support has been known to play an important role in the lives of people with visual impairments. Hutto and Hare (1997) addressed the function of social support as it can assist an individual with visual impairments to feel connected, cared for, and understood within their family as well as in society.

When

individuals with visual impairments have supportive relationships in their life, they are more capable of dealing with constraints in the social environments, and to develop self-esteem, selfconfidence, self-acceptance, and self-identity, which are closely linked to their career development processes (Hutto & Hare, 1997). In addition, Papakonstantinou and Papadopoulos (2009) and Naraine and Fels (2013) demonstrated the importance of social support for employees with visual impairments at work, as tools for integrating them, through which they build relationships and assimilate into the company’s culture. Social support can also be used as a tool for resolving problems at work by providing various practical proper information that raises the awareness of the employers or supervisors and colleagues of people with visual impairments (Naraine & Fels, 2013; Papakonstantinou & Papadopoulos, 2009). Overall, the aim 47

of this study is to measure not only the level of job satisfaction of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments, but also to test how fairly the new developed theory of job satisfaction (integrative work satisfaction model in Social Cognitive Career Theory) can be applied to populations from a collectivistic culture as well as with disabilities. Demographic Factors In addition, in this study, study participants’ demographic factors will be controlled, based on the fact that findings of previous studies regarding these factors vary. For example, K.J. Kim (2011) and Joo and Han (2010) found that female employees with disabilities experience a higher level of job satisfaction than their male counterparts, whereas J.-S. Lee and Oh (2012) found no gender difference. Regarding salary, numerous studies (Hwang & Jung,2011; Joo & Han, 2010; M.-J. Kim, 2013; H.-Y. Lee, 2008; Ok, 2007) found that employees with disabilities who have higher salaries tend to experience higher job satisfaction. In addition, for the variable of age, J.-S. Lee and Oh (2012) did not find any relationship with job satisfaction, but Hwang and Jung (2011), in addition to S. Kim (1994) found that the number of years of work correlated with the level of job satisfaction of employees with disabilities. Finally, Joo and Han (2010) noted a relationship between job satisfaction and the level of education and severity of disability, but J.-S. Lee and Oh (2012) did not find a relationship with job satisfaction and such variables. There is no report regarding the relationship between job satisfaction and the work place of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments. However, scholars (H.-S. Lee et al., 2006; Park, 2014) addressed that masseurs’ with visual impairments self-perceptions toward their job vary according to the place of their work. For example, masseurs with visual impairments, working at health keeping systems may pride themselves on being members of usually one of a large enterprise (where they are hired); however, at the same time, they feel complications and/or 48

would like to avoid being hired at this type of employment due to difficulties such as socializing, transportation, and adjustment to the cultures of a specific company (H.-S. Lee et al., 2006) In addition, while masseurs working at massage parlors may feel confident and safe in terms of working in more familiar places and have no further need to commute every day, they might be influencing public unfavorable attitudes toward massage parlors (K.-C,. Kim, 2004; Park, 2014). Moreover, it can be assumed that most visiting masseurs may have better eyesight in order to remain independently mobile; thus, the variable of work place can interact with other variables (e.g., level of vision loss). Therefore, in this study, the variable of the work place will also be controlled. Last, the variable of previous job experience (other than masseur) will also be controlled because this variable may also interact with other variables (e.g., congenital and adventitious vision loss), which can also influence the results of this study. Summary Chapter II provided an overall review of research in the area of job satisfaction in individuals with visual impairments. This chapter also presented a historic and a more detailed overview of studies that focused on different aspects of job satisfaction and presented the limitations of such literature. Chapter III will describe the methods and research design used, as well as the procedures employed, to conduct the present study, in exploring the job satisfaction of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments in the framework of the integrative work satisfaction model in the Social Cognitive Career Theory.

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CHAPTER III

METHODS

Chapter III describes the methods and procedures that were used to execute the present study. In more detail, this chapter describes the participants of this study, the instruments used to collect information about the dependent and independent measures, the method and procedures of collecting the data, and the statistical analysis of the data. The purpose of this study is to explore the application of SCCT theory to a sample of individuals with visual impairments. More specifically, this study will look at the job satisfaction of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments. Participants This study was conducted in South Korea during the summer of 2014. Participants were recruited from five different Korean associations that represent the interests of people with visual impairments in South Korea. These were: 1) The Seoul National School for the Blind; 2) The Hanbit School for the Blind; 3) The South Korean Masseur’s Association; 4) The South Korean Blind Christian Church; and 5) The Central Love and Power Church for the Blind. The Seoul National School for the Blind and the Hanbit School for the Blind are two representative separated-based educational organizations for the blind. They educate K-12 level students with visual impairments as well as train blind adults in massage skills. The South Korean Masseur’s Association is the most representative massage training organization for people who have lost vision during their lives. The South Korean Blind Christian Church and the Central Love and

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Power Christian Church for the Blind are also two Christian churches, whose members are mostly masseurs with visual impairments and their families. The inclusion criteria for participants in this study was South Koreans with visual impairments who were working as full time masseurs during the period of study. People who have cognitive disabilities were excluded from this study. Research Procedures Prior to conducting the study, approval was received from the University of Iowa Institutional Review Board (IRB) for the ethical protection of all human subjects. In order to get consent from organizations, the researcher made phone calls to representatives of six organizations related to South Korean masseurs, explaining the details of the current study. Then the researcher sent e-mails to representatives who showed interest in this study, including a description of the study and confirmed their willingness to cooperate in this study. Once the organizations confirmed their cooperation, they announced specifics related to this research opportunity to their masseur members through a voice recorded news line. Specifically in regards to the two blind churches, the pastors shared information about this research opportunity based on the script to their members before the worship service. A detailed description in sequential order of the study procedures following the consent process are as follows: The survey was distributed in an envelope to South Korean masseurs with visual impairments members from five different organizations when they visited their organizations during summer 2014. Because the first page of the survey was a letter of consent, members had the choice of whether to participate in the study, if he/she did not consent. If they wanted to participate, they could immediately begin filling out the survey at the organization, but were prohibited from bringing it to his or her home or conversing about their responses, which 51

could have influenced other members’ responses. After filling out the survey, study participants were required to place his or her answers in the envelope and hand it to the staff member, who initially distributed the survey to him or her. If study participants had any questions regarding the survey, they were allowed to make a phone call to the researcher right away; the contact information of the researcher was given in the consent letter. Additionally, study participants were allowed to skip any questions they preferred not to answer. In addition, if the study participants wanted to stop participating the survey at any time, they could do so. It was estimated that taking the survey took approximately 20 minutes to complete 46 questions. There were not any follow-up studies; in addition, no control groups were used in this study. A total of 249 responses were collected, but 28 were excluded, which included at least one unanswered item. Therefore, the remaining 221 were used for the final analysis. Research Instruments The survey packet included a demographic sheet and five scales intended to answer the research questions posed in the present study. They were 1) five item- Index of Job Satisfaction (Brayfield & Rothe, 1951); 2) the International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Thompson, 2007); 3) the Modified Personal Efficacy Beliefs Scale (PEBS; Riggs, Warka, Babasa, Betancourt, & Hooker, 1995); 4) the Subjective Fit (Cable & DeRue, 2002a); and finally; 5) the modified Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS; Zimet, Dahlem, Zimet & Farley, 1988). A total of 46 questions will be included in the final survey packet. The surveys were created in two formats but included the same content: Korean Braille and large print (about 20-22 font size), which distributed according to research participants’ possible preference or accessibility. The specific instruments’ psychometric information follows:

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Index of Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction was assessed with the five-item version of the Brayfield and Rothe (1951) Index of Job Satisfaction (Judge, Locke, Durham, & Kluger, 1998). These five items include: “I feel fairly well satisfied with my present job,” “Most days I am enthusiastic about my work,” “Each day of work seems like it will never end, “I find real enjoyment in my work,” and “I consider my job rather unpleasant.” This is on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). In terms of validity, Judge, Locke et al. (1998) found strong correlation of this scale (average .89) on Job Descriptive Index (Smith et al., 1969) with participants, composed of 183 physicians (51% psychiatrists and 49% general practitioners) and 158 business school graduates. Prior studies revealed adequate internal consistency reliability coefficients of this scale. For example, the internal consistency reliability estimate was .88 in a sample of 222 university employees (Judge, Locke et al., 1998), .81 with a sample of 366 teachers (Duffy & Lent, 2009), and .80 with 235 Italian teachers (Lent, Nota et al., 2011). In addition, E.-S. Kim (1994) found that the internal consistency reliability of the original 18 items of the Index of Job Satisfaction (Brayfield & Rothe,1951) with 169 South Korean nurses were estimated .88, but there was no record that the short version (five item scale) were tested with South Korean populations. Although there was a member check, because E.-S. Kim (1994) translated the Korean version of the Index of Job Satisfaction without professional translators’ help, no translated items were used for this study. For this study, a Korean-language version of the Index of Job Satisfaction was developed through a backward translation. To test the translation equivalence, the original Index of Job Satisfaction was first translated from English into Korean by a professional translator, and then a different professional translator translated the Korean version of the Index of Job satisfaction back to English. Then, two 53

professionals (Kim, Young-Il, a professor in the field of rehabilitation at Chosun University of Korea and Park, Hee Chan, a professor in the field of rehabilitation at the Catholic University of Korea) compared these two translated versions of the Index of Job Satisfaction (Korean and English) with the original version of it. Coefficient alpha for the current study was .86. Positive and Negative Affect The International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule short form (I-PANAS-SF; Thompson, 2007) will be used to measure research participants’ level of positive and negative affect. This scale was developed for complementing several drawbacks of the original 20-item version of Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen’s, 1988). Scholars (Crawford & Henry, 2004; Thompson, 2007) pointed out that despite being highly validated and cited in more than 2,000 papers, the original PANAS contained some ambiguous words for non-English speakers, or colloquial words to North Americans because of its emic development in the United States. For example, Thompson (2007) indicated that one PANAS item, “jittery,” might be little known to nonnative English speakers. Moreover, Mackinnon et al. (1999) found that the item “excited” can be interpreted with dual meanings, correlating with both positive and negative affect for an Australian sample. Additionally, even though the PANAS is relatively short, it has been criticized for being lengthy when used in a study where many other variables also evolved (Thompson, 2007). The I-PANAS-SF was developed from the original 20-item PANAS throughout four different types of studies. A qualitative study (N=18) was first used to determine the clarity, ease of understanding, and uniqueness in meaning of each of the original 20 items from the PANAS, thereby identifying which items could possibly be poor (Thompson, 2007). After conducting an exploratory quantitative study (N=407), which aimed to determine which items could possibly be 54

removed or retained, retest study (N=163) was conducted to examine the psychometric properties of the new 10 items and assess the correlation with the full 20-item PANAS (Thompson, 2007). Then, a series of additional validation studies (N=1,789) including crosssample stability, internal reliability, temporal stability, cross-cultural factorial invariance and convergent, and criterion-related validities of the I-PANAS-SF were tested. This 10-item version of international PANAS is composed of five positive affects (e.g., Alert, Inspired, Determined, Attentive, Active), and five negative affects (e.g., Upset, Hostile, Ashamed, Nervous, Afraid; Thompson, 2007). This is a 5-point Likert scale, indicating 1 (never) to 5 (always). The overall reliability for the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule were .78 and .76, indicating satisfactory reliability (Thompson, 2007). Test-retest reliability for Positive Affect and Negative Affect were .84. Validation coefficients for both Negative Affect and Positive Affect ranged from .72 – .78 (Thompson, 2007). There is a Korean translated version of the 20 item PANAS. H.-H. Lee, Kim and M.-K. Lee (2003) found that the internal consistency reliability Korean version of PANAS with 237 college students was .84 (positive) and .87(negative). But there was no research that used IPANAS with the South Korean populations so far. The Korean-language version of the IPANAS were taken from the Korean -language version of PANAS (H.-H. Lee, Kim & M.-K. Lee, 2003). Coefficient alpha of positive affect for the current study was .56. Work related Self-efficacy A revised version of the Personal Efficacy Beliefs Scale (PEBS; Riggs et al., 1994) was used to measure masseurs’ confidence regarding work tasks. Because Bandura's (1986) theory proposed that self-efficacy beliefs were task-specific, a general version of the PEBS was revised by replacing the phrase “general work” with the word “masseur” or “to massage”. For example, 55

the item, “I have confidence in my ability to do my job” was revised as “I have confidence in my ability to give massage”. Other sample items include “I have all the skills needed to massage very well”. But two items were deleted in this study for their potential misinterpretation of meanings. The deleted items included, “I feel threatened when others watch me while I work” and “I am very proud of my job skills and abilities.” This elimination is due to the facts that participants may feel tense or uncomfortable for other attributions (e.g., due to their disability or their own attitudes toward their job) regardless of their perceived level of massage skill or confidence. Likewise, even though some participants may highly evaluate their skills or knowledge of massage, he or she may not feel proud of it for another reason (e.g., cultural attitudes toward their job or family’s non-supportive manner). Thus, the self-efficacy as a masseur was revised to assess an individual's object confidence level of working as a masseur, rather their attitudes. This is a 9-item, 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). According to Riggs and Knight (1994), an individual was deemed to have personal selfefficacy when the individual scored above 40 on the Personal Efficacy Beliefs Scale. Personal efficacy beliefs correlate significantly with job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and coworker ratings of individual performance (Riggs & Knight, 1994). Riggs and Knight, 1994) reported reliability coefficients ranging .85 to .88. A Korean-language version of the Personal Efficacy Beliefs Scale (PEBS; Riggs et al., 1995) was developed through a backward translation. To test the translation equivalence, the original PEBS was first translated from English into Korean by a professional translator, and then a different professional translator translated the Korean version of PEBS back to English.

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Then, two South Korean professionals compared these two translated versions of PEBS for the member check. Coefficient alpha for the current study was .81. Subjective Fit Perception Subjective Fit Perception (Cable & DeRue, 2002a) was used to measure the extent to which employees perceive their fit with their work environment. This scale consists of three three-item subscales, which are person/organization (P/O) fit, needs/supplies (N/S) fit, and demand/ability (D/A) fit. This is a 7-point scale with higher scores reflecting better fit. More specifically, the person/organization (P/O) fit refers to the judgements of congruence between an employee’s personal values and an organization’s culture (Cable & DeRue, 2002b). The P/O fit consists of three items, including “The things that I value in life are very similar to the things that my organization values,” “My personal values match my organization’s values and culture,” and “My organization’s values and culture provide a good fit with the things that I value in life” (Cable & DeRue, 2002a, 2000b). Cable and DeRue (2002a) insisted that high P/O fit is positively related to identification with (members in) organization’s and to a high involvement in organization’s broader mission. The reliability of the scale was .91 in the single-firm sample and .92 in the multiple-firm sample (Cable & DeRue, 2002b). Second, need/supply (N/S) fit pertains to perceptions of congruence between an employee’s needs and the rewards (including pay or benefits) that he or she receives in return for his or her contributions on the job, and this fit can be basic motivation for people to enter the labor market (Cable

& DeRue, 2002b). N/S fit measure includes, “There is a good fit between what my job

offers me and what I am looking for in a job,” “The attributes that I look for in a job are fulfilled very well by my present job,” and “The job that I currently hold gives me just about everything that I want from a job (Cable & DeRue, 2002a, 2002b).” Cable and DeRue (2002b) stated that 57

N-S fit is more positively related to the employee’s job and career satisfaction than other subfactors of subjective fit. Whereas P/O fit addresses the perception of fit between general values of both an individual and an organization (e.g., gender equality). N/S fit concerns an employee’s basic economic needs (e.g., income, job security, or benefits). Cable and DeRue (2002b) found that the reliability of the scale was .89 in the single-firm sample and .93 in the multiple-firm sample. Lastly, demand/ability measures an individual’s fit between his or her skills and their job’s demands, and although this measure does not seem to directly relate to job satisfaction, it is related to occupational commitment, job performance, and future pay raises (Cable & DeRue, 2002b). The items included are: “The match is very good between the demands of my job and my personal skills,” “My abilities and training are a good fit with the requirements of my job,” and “My personal abilities and education provide a good match with the demands that my job places on me” (Cable & DeRue,2002a, 2002b). The reliability of the scale was .89 in the singlefirm sample and .84 in the multiple-firm sample (Cable & DeRue, 2002b). Choi, Jang, and Kwon (2011) used this scale with 223 South Korean employees who worked less than 3 years from 13 companies. In their study Choi et al. (2011) reported person/organization (P/O) fit, needs/supplies (N/S) fit, and demand/ability (D/A) fit were correlated each. 85, .86, and .84 with their research participants’ job satisfaction. Because Choi at al. (2011) translated the Korean version of the Subjective Fit Perception (Cable & DeRue, 2002a) without expert translator’s help, no translated items were utilized for this study. For this study, a Korean-language version of the Subjective Fit Perception was developed through backward translation and professional member checking. Coefficient alpha for the current study was .94. 58

Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support The Modified Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS; Zimet et al., 1988) was used to measure perceived support from three sources: family, friends, and significant others, and is composed of 12 items. Items are scored on 7-point scale ranging from 1 (very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree). The higher score indicates the higher level of PSS. Examples of scale items include statements such as” There is a special person who is around when I am in need.” and “I can count on my friends when things go wrong (Zimet et al, 1988).” Higher score implicates higher level of perceived social support. Zimet et al. (1988) have reported Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the family, friends, and significant other subscales of .87, .85, and .91, respectively. Internal reliability for the total scale was .88. Test-retest reliability (2-3 months) was found to be .85, .75, and .72, respectively, for the subscales. Testretest reliability for the total scale was reported as .85 (Zimet, Powell, Farley, Werkman, & Berkoff, 1990). For this study, however, 12 original items were modified into 6 items, by merging three subscales (a significant other, family, and friends into one support source. In addition, the items were modified in accordance with the work related context. For example, the original item, “There is a special person who is around when I am in need.” was modified to “There is a special person (or family or friends who is around when I am in need for pursuing my job.)” Another example of modification was “I can count on my friends when things go wrong” was modified to “I have a special person (or family or friends) whom I can count on when things go wrong in my job.” A Korean-language version of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS; Zimet et al., 1988) was developed through a backward translation and professionals’ expert member check. Coefficient alpha for the current study was .93. 59

Research Questions The research questions that guided the present study were the following: Research Question 1. “What are the positive affect, work-related self-efficacy, subjective fit (P/O, N/S, and D/A Fit), perceived level of social support, and job satisfaction of a group of South Korean masseurs’ with visual impairments?” Research Question 2. “How do variables such as positive affect, work-related self-efficacy, subjective fit (P/O, N/S, D/A Fit) and perceived level of social support predict overall job satisfaction of a group of South Korean masseurs’ with visual impairments?” Research Question 3. “Does positive affect moderate on the relationship between the workrelated self-efficacy, subjective fit, social support, and overall job satisfaction of a group of South Korean masseurs’ with visual impairments?” Research Question 4. “Does level of social support moderate on the relationship between workrelated self-efficacy, subjective fit, and overall job satisfaction of a group of South Korean masseurs’ with visual impairments?”

Data Analysis The purpose of this study is to explore the application of the work satisfaction model in Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) to South Korean masseurs with visual impairments. The work satisfaction model in SCCT predicts the overall job satisfaction under the reciprocal interactions of personal or environmental variables. Therefore, in this study, job satisfaction is the only targeted variable (or dependent variable) to measure. In addition, there are a total of 11 independent variables, including 5 moderating relations. Positive affect, work- related selfefficacy, subjective fit (person/organization fit; needs/ supply fit; demand/ability fit) and the 60

level of social support will be measured as independent variables. Moderating variables include how affect moderates on the relationship between other cognitive or environmental variables over job satisfaction; and how level of support moderates on the relationship between other cognitive and environmental variables over job satisfaction. The detailed data analysis procedures are as follows: The first step was that the raw scores of 221 responding surveys were manually coded into the SPSS student version 21.0. version, including reverse coding of items number 9, 10, 12, 14, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24,26,29, and 31. The second step was that the descriptive statistics and frequency distribution were calculated for answering question 1. The third step was that the raw scores ( from all various inventories) were converted into Z scores to ensure accurate comparison. The fourth step was that the Pearson Correlation Analysis (PCA) was conducted to assess the linear relationship between dependent and independent variables. The fifth step was that the two sets of hierarchical regression analysis were conducted to inquiry research question 2. First, all demographic variables were entered. Then, all predictor variables were entered. Third, each of the four primary variables of interest were considered after accounting for the demographic variables, but without the other predictors in the model. Fourth, the model with all demographic and predictor variables was considered. The final step was that, to answer research questions 3 and 4, a hierarchical regression was used. First, all demographic variables were entered. Then, all predictor variables were entered. 61

Finally, the effects of moderation on the dependent variables were determined by entering terms for the interaction terms for the potential moderators of interest. When a moderator was significant, post hoc ANOVA analyses were conducted to explain the moderator’s effect on job satisfaction. Summary Chapter III presented an overview of the research methods that structured the present study. This chapter provided a description of the research participants, instruments utilized for data collection, research design and procedures, and the statistical analysis that was used to test the research questions. Chapter IV will present the results of the data collection process of this study.

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CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

This chapter presents the results of the statistical analyses that were conducted to address the four major research questions of this study. This chapter begins by describing the characteristics of the sample, and the mean and standard deviations on five instruments: Index of Job Satisfaction (IJS), the International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule short form (IPANAS-SF), the Personal Efficacy Beliefs Scale (PEBS), Subjective Fit Perception (SFP), and the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS).Correlation analyses and multiple regression (hierarchical regression) were conducted to answer the research questions. These statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS student version 21.0. This study aims to measure the job satisfaction of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments using the framework of Social Cognitive Career Theory. More specifically, the present study explored how visually impaired South Korean masseurs’ positive affect, work related self-efficacy, work conditions (subjective fit), and the level of social support predict their overall job satisfaction. Aside from separate ascertainment of each predictor, two moderating relationships will be tested. They are moderating effects of research participants’ positive affect and general social support level over all other variables. The specific research questions guiding this study are: 1. What are the positive affect, work related self-efficacy, subjective fit, perceived level of general social support, and job satisfaction of a group of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments? 63

2. How do work-related variables such as positive affect, work related self-efficacy, subjective fit (P/O, N/S, and D/A fit), and perceived level of general social support predict the overall job satisfaction of a group of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments? 3. Does positive affect moderate on the relationship between work-related self-efficacy, perception of work conditions, social support, and overall job satisfaction of a group of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments? 4. Does level of social support moderate on the relationship between work related selfefficacy, work condition, and overall job satisfaction of a group of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments? Participant Characteristics The sample in this study consisted of 221 participants who are visually impaired and are currently working as masseurs in South Korea. Of the 221 participants in the final sample, 58.8% of participants self-identified as male (n=130) and 41.2% of participant self-identified as female (n=91). In terms of visual loss, the majority of participants, 78.7% (n=174) indicated that they belong to level 1 (most significant visual loss), and the remaining 22.3% (n=47) indicated that they belong to level 2 to level 6. In terms of their past job experiences other than masseur, 41.6% of participants (n=92) reported that they had other job experience before their current jobs, whereas 58.4%of participants (n=129) indicated that they had no previous job experience. For work places, 44.3% (n=98) of participants indicated that they were working in massage parlors, 30.3% (n=67) indicated that they worked in individual (therapy oriented ) massage centers, and the remaining 26.4 % (n=56) indicated that they are working as Health Keepers or visiting masseurs. For educational level, 67.9% (n=150) indicated that they were high school graduates. For the monthly average income level, the majority of respondents, 41.6% (N=92) of study 64

participants indicated that their monthly average income was over 2,000,000 Won to under 3,000,000 Won (over 2,000 to under 3,000USD), next, 33.0% (N=73) was indicated between over 1,000,000 Won to 2,000,000 Won (over 1,000 to 2,000 USD), and the third frequent response(10.4% N=23) was indicated their monthly average income as under 1,000,000 Won (under U.S. $ 1,000). The age of participants were ranged from 24 to 75 and mean was 46.8 (SD=11.5) years old. Lastly, the work years of participants were ranged from one to 49 years and mean was 17.23 (SD=11.78) years. Table 1 provides a summary of the demographic characteristics of the research participants.

Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Participants. Variables Age

M

SD

Count (%) / Total: 221 (100%)

46.84

11.51

20’s: 9(4.1), 30’s: 53(24.0), 40’s: 71(32.1), 50’s: 48(21.7), 60’s: 33(14.9), 70’s: 7(3.2)

Gender

male: 130(58.8), female: 91(41.2)

Visual level

Level 1: 174(78.7), level 2: 26(11.8), level 3: 17(7.7), level 4: 2(0.9), Level 5: 0 (0) level 6: 2(0.9)

Past work exp

yes: 92(41.6), no: 129(58.4)

Work year

17.23

11.78

Work place

Massage parlor: 98(44.3), massage center: 67(30.3), health keeping: 34(15.commuting massage ), 4: 22(10.0)

Education

junior-high school degree: 17(7.7), high school degree: 150(67.9), undergraduate degree: 39(17.6), graduate degree: 15(6.8)

Income

Under 1000,000 Won : 23(10.4), over 1000,000 to under 2000,000 Won: 73(33.0), over 2000,000 to under 3000,000 Won : 92(41.6), over 3000,000 to under 4000,000 Won : 20(9.0), over 4000,000 Won: 13(5.9) 65

Results of Research Question 1 What are the positive affect, work related self-efficacy, work condition (subjective fit), perceived level of general social support, and job satisfaction of a group of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments? To inquiry this question, descriptive statistics were used. The table 2 provides means and standard deviations for all five measures of study participants. First, for measuring study participants’ positive affect, the International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Short Form (I-PANAS-SF), was used. This scale was composed of 10 questions with the five-point Likert scale. In this scale, the score of positive affect of study participants’ was ranged from 20 to 50, and mean was 35.43 with SD was 5.31. This indicates that participant’s positive affect is between “moderately” and “a quite bit” positive level (3.54 out of 5). In terms of work related self-efficacy, a revised version of the Personal Efficacy Beliefs Scale (PEBS) was used. This was composed of 8 questions with the 7-point Likert scale. The score of study participants ranged from 17 to 56, and their mean was 41.74 with SD=8.52. This indicates that masseurs “in this study “somewhat agree” to “agree” (5.22 out of 7) with their self-perception of being efficacious with working as a masseur. In relation to the Subjective Fit Perception, composed of 9 questions with the 7-point Likert scale, the score of study participants ranged from 13 to 63, and the mean was 43.44 with a SD of 13.10. This indicates that masseurs in this study think that they are “neutral” to “somewhat agree” (4.83 out of 7) with the perception that they fit with their job. More specifically, the score of person/organization (P/O) fit ranged from 3 to 21, with a mean of 13.51 and a SD of 4.85. It indicates that masseurs in this study think that they are “between neutral” and “somewhat agree” with that they fit with their job values or cultures (4.5 out of 7). For score of needs/supply (N/S) 66

fit was ranged from 3 to 21, mean was 14.16 and SD was 4.95. It indicates that masseurs in this study also think that they are between “neutral” and “somewhat agree” with that they fit with their job regarding its monetary aspects (4.72 out of 7). Lastly, score of demand/ability (D/A) fit was ranged from 3 to 21 and mean was 15.77 with an SD of 4.68. It indicates that masseurs in this study think that they “somewhat agree” with that their job duties fit with their education or skills learned (5.26 out of 7). Among these three subscales, overall, masseurs in this study pointed out that their D/A fit most, followed by N/S fit and P/O fit was last. This could be interpreted as that they consider that they fit with their job in terms of between their job duties and their received education or vocational training (5.26 out of 7), then fit between their monetary or reward aspects from their job (4.72 out of 7), and fit between their personal value and that of their job pursues (4.5 out of 7).

Table 2 Mean and Standard Deviation of five Scales of Study Participants Variables

M

SD

I-PANAS-SF

35.43

5.31

PEBS

41.74

8.52

SFP

43.44

13.10

SFP-P/O fit

13.51

4.85

SFP-N/S fit

14.16

4.95

SFP-D/A fit

15.77

4.68

MSPSS

31.89

8.97

IJS

26.67

6.64

67

For measuring study participants’ level of perceived social support, a modified Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support was used. This scale was composed of 6 questions with the 7-point Likert scale. The score of study participants in this scale was ranged from 8 to 42, and mean was 31.89 and SD was 8.97. It indicates that masseurs in this study “somewhat agree” to “agree” (5.32 out of 7) that they receive social support from their family, friends, or significant others. Lastly, for measuring study participants’ job satisfaction, a revised Index of Job Satisfaction was used, composed of 5 questions with the 7-point Likert scale. In this scale, the score of job satisfaction of masseurs in this study was ranged from 10 to 35 and mean was 26.67 with SD was 6.64. It indicates that study masseurs in this study “somewhat agree” to “agree” (5.33 out of 7) with that they are satisfied with their current job, masseur. See images 1 through 8 at the end of this chapter for more details. Results of Research Question 2 (A and B) How do work-related variables such as positive affect, work related self-efficacy, subjective fit (P/O, N/S, and D/A fit), and perceived level of general social support predict overall job satisfaction of a group of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments? To investigate research questions 2, 3, and 4, all variables were converted into Z score to remove scale effects. Then, the Pearson Correlation Analysis (PCA) was conducted to assess the linear relationship between core social cognitive variables (e.g., positive affect, work related selfefficacy, subjective fit [P/O, N/S, D/A fit] and social support) and dependent variable (job satisfaction) of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments in this study. Then, multiple regression analysis was conducted, which is appropriate to evaluate the relationship between two or more predicator variables measured on various scales and a criterion variable. For the purpose of investigating which independent variables in social cognitive career satisfaction theory were 68

best predictors of job satisfaction of South Korean masseurs with visual impairments, multiple regression was most appropriate. The results of the Pearson Correlation Analysis (PCA) between independent (e.g., positive affect, work-related self-efficacy, subjective fit (P/O, N/S, D/A fit [and social support] and dependent variables (e.g., job satisfaction) of this study are presented in Table 3. The result of analysis found that there were significant linear correlations between all variables. More specifically, the Variable of job satisfaction, the dependent variable of the study, was found to have significant positive correlations with all other independent variables: positive affect (r=.466, p