Theories of Development: Interpreting the Lifespan

Theories of Development: Interpreting the Lifespan Chapter 2 This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The followin...
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Theories of Development: Interpreting the Lifespan Chapter 2

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Theories of Development I. II. III. IV. V.

Psychoanalytic Approach Psychosocial Crises and Development Cognitive Developmental Approach Behavioral Approach Cognitive Learning/Social Learning Theory

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I. The Psychodynamic Approach to Personality • Focuses on unconscious process The Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund Freud – Austrian psychiatrist in the late 19th century – Radical ideas at the time – Developed theory by treating people: • From the middle and upper classes • With emotional problems • Who were mostly married women • Who lived in a repressive society Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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The Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund Freud • Theory centered on early childhood experiences and fantasies – First believed in the seduction theory • Adults’ symptoms came from being sexually seduced in childhood by an older person – Later replaced with the Oedipus complex • Childhood sexual experiences due to fantasy, not actual behavior of other adults Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

The Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund Freud • Led to elaborate personality theory and approach to therapy: Psychoanalysis – Key assumptions • Three levels of consciousness • Three basic structures of the mind • Importance of early childhood experiences • Role of repressed sexual and aggressive impulses • Use of defense mechanisms Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

The Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund Freud Levels of Mental Life a. Conscious • Minor role in psychoanalytic theory • Those experiences we are aware b. Preconscious • Experiences of which a person is not currently conscious but may become so • Some easier to remember than others

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Levels of Mental Life c. Unconscious – Thoughts, urges and memories that are beyond the realm of awareness – Would cause too much anxiety if we were aware of them – May become preconscious or conscious in another form

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Levels of Mental Life c. Unconscious – Sometimes unconscious “slips” out • Mean to say, “Sally is the best friend ever!” • Actually say, “Sally is the best fiend ever!” • Freudian slip

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The Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund Freud The Structure of the Mind a. Id • Source of instinctual sexual or aggressive energy • Fully unconscious • Works according to the pleasure principle – Tries to maximize immediate gratification – No regard for reality or morality Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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The Structure of the Mind b. Ego – The rational part of personality that maintains contact with reality – Works according to the reality principle • Takes into account what is practical along with what is urged. • Delays gratification of the id • Mostly conscious

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The Structure of the Mind c. Superego – Moral branch of personality • Source of Ego ideal and conscience – Operates according to the Moral Principle – Develops during childhood – Like the id, not in touch with reality – Unlike the id, tells person not to do anything pleasurable Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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The Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund Freud Development of Personality – Core aspects of personality • Are established early • Remain relatively stable • Change only with great difficulty

– All people pass through 5 psychosexual stages of personality development • Conflict and issues are experienced that are associated with a specific erogenous zones – Areas of the body that produce pleasant erotic or sexual sensations when stimulated Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Psychosexual Stages of Development Oral Stage – Birth to age 1 – Mouth is the primary pleasure center • Feeding, sucking, biting – Adults who had problems during this stage would center around oral gratification – Oral Fixation: dependency, optimism, pessimism, alcohol, overeating, smoking, nail biting Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Anal Stage – Ages 2–3 – Pleasure is focused on the anus – Children become toilet trained – Become responsive to needs of society – Establishes basis for conflict between id and ego

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Anal Stage • Lasting personality characteristics related to control may develop (anal fixation) – Rebellion during this period leads to “anal expulsive” personality in adulthood • Exceedingly messy, sloppy, rebellious, careless, sadistic (pleasure from causing pain or humiliation) – Over-conformity leads to “anal retentive” personality in adulthood • Overly controlled, neat, stubborn, perfectionistic Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Phallic Stage – Ages 3 to 6 – Children become aware of genitals – Oedipus complex occurs • Unconscious wishes to have sex with one parent and kill the other • Boys: Oedipus Complex – Sexual love for mother – Rivalry with father – Leads to castration anxiety » Fear of father’s punishment Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Phallic Stage • Girls: Electra Complex – Sexual love for father, rivalry with mother – Penis envy • Can symbolically acquire one by identifying with her father

• Both boys and girls resolve conflict by identifying with same-gender parent (by age 5 or 6) • Conflict in this stage leads to vanity, promiscuity, worry about chastity in adulthood • Adults do tend to seek partners who are similar to their opposite-gender parents Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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Phallic Stage • Oedipus Conflict is controversial – Insulting to women • Reflects Freud’s views toward women – Most researchers • Reject idea of penis envy • Do not think Oedipus conflict explains family dynamics at this age very well

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Latency Stage – Ages 6 to 12 (puberty) – Sexual urges are inactive (latent) unconscious – Energy is channeled into social and intellectual activities (school work, genderrole behaviors, play with same gender) – Pre-genital fixation: homosexuality, masturbation- immature sexual conduct

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Genital Stage – Onset of puberty through adulthood – Sexuality reemerges- intercourse – Fears and repressed feelings from earlier stages also reemerge but are repressed by the Incest Taboo: Cultural prohibition against marrying or having sex with close blood relatives Concept: Girls are looking to marry someone like their father, boys like their mothers Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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The Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund Freud Defense Mechanisms – Unconscious attempts by the ego to reduce anxiety from unacceptable sexual and aggressive drives – Distort perceptions of reality – Normal and universal reactions – In extreme, may be unhealthy – Helpful and generally harmless – All have some element of repression Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Defense Mechanisms a. Rationalization – Reinterpreting feelings and behaviors to make them acceptable • “He was mean to me first, so it’s OK that I hit him.” b. Fixation – Excessive attachment to things or actions that were appropriate at earlier stages • Oral fixations

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Defense Mechanisms c. Regression – Moving backward to earlier developmental stages when anxious, stressed • Ten-year-old who sucks his thumb when scared d. Repression - Unconsciously pushing out anxiety provoking ideas from awareness.

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The Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund Freud Today – Initially outrageous and unpopular, Freud’s theory became extremely influential – Are some elements of truth • Children’s identification with parents • Defense mechanisms – However, theory is sharply criticized today • Overemphasis on sexual urges • Psychosexual stages rejected by many • Does not account for context and culture Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

II. Psychosocial Stages

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Erickson’s Psychosocial Stages 1. Basic Trust vs. Basic Mistrust Birth to 12–18 months If needs are met, child learns world is predictable and safe If needs are not met, distrust in the world develops

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 18 months to 3 years Success in tasks leads to autonomy Failure leads to fears and a sense of doubt Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages 3. Initiative vs. Guilt 3 to 6 years Sense of mastery develops if the child successfully exercises own drive Failure leads to dependence and regret 4. Industry vs. Inferiority 6 to 12 years The child gains a sense of confidence Failure leads to feelings of inferiority and incompetence A person at any age may have unresolved conflicts that may cause anxiety and discomfort Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Growth and turmoil of adolescence creates an “identity crisis” Crisis is resolved by forming an identity Failure to form an identity leads to confusion about adult roles and an inability to cope with demands of adulthood 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Young adults must commit to lasting intimate and caring relationships The alternative is isolation Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages 7.Generativity vs. Stagnation People become aware of their mortality Concern shifts to the next generation Midlife transition/ Midlife crisis Empty Nest syndrome Failure leads to stagnation and self-absorption

8. Integrity vs. Despair Integrity: No regrets Late adults conduct a life review Successful resolution leads to a feeling of fulfillment Failure leads to regret, inability to accept death leads to despair Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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III. Cognitive Development Jean Piaget – Swiss psychologist (1896 – 1980) – Devised ingenious ways to test children’s cognitive development – Focused on HOW people think, not WHAT people think – Emphasized biology • Believed development follows the same path in all social environments Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Believed order is invariant Believed all children go through same stages Four stages: 1. Sensorimotor stage 2. Preoperational stage 3. Concrete operational stage 4. Formal operational stage

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Sensorimotor Stage Birth to about age 2 Child begins to interact with environment Develops memory of past events Develops object permanence Realization that objects continue to exist when hidden Piaget believed developed by ~ 9 months Recent research shows may develop as early as 4 months Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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Sensorimotor Stage • • •

During second half of this stage, children begin to use language to represent the world By the end of the stage, children are thinking, walking, talking people The “terrible twos” represent normal development

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Preoperational Stage Ages 2 to 7 (preschool) Children begin to represent the world symbolically Can not think abstractly (logically) Egocentrism (self-centeredness) is prominent At the end of the stage, decentration begins A change from a self-oriented view to recognizing the view of others Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Concrete Operational Stage Ages 6 or 7 to 11 or 12 (Childhood) Children understand: Rules and reasons Difference between appearance & reality How to think ahead Hallmark of this stage is an understanding of conservation Ability to understand that changes in appearance do not alter fundamental properties of an object Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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Conservation Which has more liquid?

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Formal Operational Stage Begins about age 12 to adulthood Individual can: Think hypothetically Consider future possibilities Use deductive logic Engage in abstract thought New form of egocentrism develops

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Piaget’s Central Concepts Schemes A mental structure Organized patterns of thought and action Generalization a child makes Guides thoughts based on prior experiences Initially developed from motor behaviors

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IV. Behavioral Approach Skinner and Operant Conditioning: – Aka: Instrumental Conditioning – Learning in which the likelihood that a behavior will recur is affected by the delivery of reinforcement or punishment as a consequence of behavior – Focuses on the consequences of behavior – Sees the organism as actively operating on the environment Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Behavior can result in 1 of 3 possible consequences: Behavior is reinforced, which increases the probability of it’s recurrence Behavior punished, which decreases the probability of it’ recurrence Behavior is ignored, which has no effect

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Reinforcement A Consequence That Strengthens a Response A reinforcer is any event that increases the likelihood of a behavior Reinforcers vary: From person to person Between cultures In strength

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Positive Reinforcement Presentation of a stimulus after a behavior that increases the likelihood that response will recur Examples: • Giving a treat to a dog after it performs a trick Dog is more likely to perform the trick in the future •

Receiving a dollar for cleaning your room You’re more likely to clean your room in the future Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Negative Reinforcement •

Removal of a stimulus after a particular response to increase the likelihood the response will recur



The stimulus removed is usually unpleasant

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Punishment Any consequence of behavior that decreases the probability the behavior will recur

Positive Punishment: Undesirable stimulus is presented to an organism Example: Getting yelled at for hitting your sister

Negative Punishment: Desirable stimulus is removed Example: Losing your car after getting into a wreck Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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Limitations of Punishment Punishment only suppresses behavior Does not eliminate old behavior Does not teach new behaviors Social consequences Punishment may become associated with the punisher, not the behavior May not control behavior in the long run

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Limitations of Punishment Physical punishments can lead to aggression Children can also learn to imitate aggression from physical punishments Children may demonstrate aggression toward their punisher or, more generally, to others Physical punishment is related to delinquency

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Limitations of Punishment Ignoring maladaptive behaviors can be just as effective as punishment Disciplinary techniques that give a child a sense of control tend to be most effective Teach the child how to avoid punishment in the future Inconsistent punishment causes confusion about what behaviors are appropriate Can lead to learned helplessness (doing nothing) One explanation for depression Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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IV. Cognitive Learning Observational Learning Learning that occurs as a result of watching others Albert Bandura • Also known as social learning theory, modeling • New responses are learned by observing the behavior of a model • The behavior is then imitated

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Bandura Bandura showed that children played more aggressively after observing films with aggressive content Most aggressive children had seen an animated film Observational learning can occur without being reinforced

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Comparing Theories of Development Make sure you are able to compare the major theories! See page 53 of your text!

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