Special Feature: Renewable Energy Technologies

The status of development of rural renewable energy in China Xiaoying Liu, Guangqing Liu and Xiaofu Chen

There are about 900 million people living in China’s in rural areas. Rural renewable energy is a very important part of the energy system and influences the environment, economics and social development of China. This paper discusses the energy structure, energy resources and application situation of different renewable energy technologies. It also reports the development of CDM project for renewable energy and the related policies.

Renewable energy resources in China

Xiaoying Liu Ph.D. candidate Beijing University of Chemical Technology Beijing, 100029, China Dr. Guangqing Liu * Assistant Professor Beijing University of Chemical Technology Beijing, 100029, China Tel: +86 (10) 6443 4843, Ext. 813 E-mail: [email protected] Xiaofu Chen Senior Engineer China Association of Rural Renewable Energy Industry Beijing, 100121, China * Corresponding author

T

he renewable energy resources – including biomass, solar, wind and hydro – are in abundance in rural China. For example, in 2008, the total available biomass equalled 700 million tonnes of standard coal. Every year, about 700 million tonnes of crop residues are produced, and 35 per cent of which can be utilized for renewable energy. Livestock farming produces more than 20 million tonnes of waste. China’s hydropower resources are about 400 million kW, of which 128 million kW is in small hydropower below 50,000 kW. The total wind power is more than 3.226 billion kW within 10 m height and the actual amount that can be developed is about 253 million kW, while the potential offshore wind power is more than 750 million kW. About 66 per cent

of land area in China is rich in solar energy resources. The solar radiation received by the country’s land surface is equivalent to 1.7 trillion tonnes of standard coal, and the total annual solar radiation is more than 4,190 MJ/m2. On the other hand, energy development in rural areas of China faces new challenges. China has 900 million people living in rural areas, where economic and social development is lagging behind. The excessive use of firewood as a fuel is causing serious ecological damage. Therefore, development and utilization of renewable energy resources available in the rural areas are important for building equitable socio-economic conditions. The efforts at building a prosperous society in rural areas also will play a positive role in encouraging as well as supporting the promotion of renewable energy.

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Special Feature: Renewable Energy Technologies Figure 1: Household energy consumption pattern in rural China Solar, 1%

Biogas, 1%

LPG, 22%

Straw, 26%

Industrial energy consumption pattern

Refined oil, 6% Firewood, 15%

Electricity, 2% Coal, 27%

Table 1: Share of energy sources in household consumption in rural China (percentage points) Year

Straw

Firewood

Coal

2000

0.33

0.22

0.32

0.09

0.02

0.01

0.00

0.00

2001

0.31

0.23

0.33

0.07

0.03

0.01

0.01

0.01

2002

0.31

0.25

0.34

0.05

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.01

2003

0.31

0.25

0.33

0.06

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.01

2004

0.30

0.25

0.34

0.06

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.01

2005

0.32

0.21

0.34

0.07

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.01

2006

0.35

0.19

0.35

0.02

0.03

0.03

0.01

0.01

2007

0.31

0.18

0.32

0.02

0.03

0.12

0.01

0.01

2008

0.26

0.15

0.27

0.02

0.06

0.22

0.01

0.01

Electri- Refined city oil

LPG

Biogas

Solar

Energy consumption pattern in rural China

Household energy consumption pattern

China’s rural energy consumption has shown an upward trend year after year from 672 million tonnes of standard coal equivalent in 2000 to 925 million tonnes of standard coal equivalent in 2008. The household energy usage also increased from 371.78 million tonnes of coal equivalent in 2000 to 585.65 million tonnes of coal equivalent in 2007. During 2000-2007, the household energy consumption was 54-58 per cent of the total rural energy consumption, and it reached 63 per cent in 2008. The industrial energy consumption increased from 300.47 million tonnes of standard coal equivalent in 2002 to 415.26 million tonnes of standard coal equivalent in 2006, but gradually decreased to 339.38 million tonnes of standard coal equivalent during 2007-2008.

The pattern of household energy use in rural China is still very traditional, with straw, firewood and coal being the main sources of energy used for cooking and heating. China’s rural energy consumption reached 925 million tonnes of standard coal in 2008, of which 63 per cent was accounted for by household energy use. Straw and firewood account for about 41 per cent of the total household energy consumption in rural China, while coal supplies 27 per cent; the proportion of biogas, solar and other new energy sources in this is very small (Figure 1). Changes in the pattern of energy consumption in rural areas are shown in Table 1. The share of straw, coal and firewood in the total energy consumption in rural areas has shown a downward trend from 87 per cent

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in 2000 to 68 per cent in 2008, while the share of commercialized energy sources like liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and refined oil has shown an upward trend. This is very evident in the case of LPG, which increased its share by 21 percentage points.

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As shown in Table 2, industrial energy sources in rural China include mainly firewood, electricity, coal, coke and Refined oil, the consumption of which increased from 300.47 million tonnes of standard coal to 415.26 million tonnes of standard coal in 2006, but a slight decreasing during 20072008. Hebei, Jiangsu, Henan, Inner Mongolia, Shandong, Sichuan and Shanxi as the major consumers. Overall, the industrial energy consumed in rural China is mostly from nonrenewable energy sources. Coal has maintained its share at above 50 per cent, followed by electricity and refined oil accounting for about 20 per cent, and the shares of coke and firewood consumption were below 10 per cent.

Status of using rural renewable resources Following development that spanned several years, China has achieved great progress in the exploration and usage of many renewable resources. However, in terms of development scale and technical level, biogas and solar energy have taken the lead.

Biogas Biogas technology development in China started in the 1950s, with further development taking place in the 1970s and 1980s. Biogas was used mainly for meeting the energy needs of rural households. During the 10th Five-Year Plan, the harnessing of rural biogas moved into a rapid yet stable phase (Table 3). Following many years of research, the technology of household biogas utilization in China’s rural areas has matured, even reaching a leading position internationally, with various models formed for the optimized utilization of rural biogas, such as the

Special Feature: Renewable Energy Technologies that are using firewood-saving stoves increased to 146.47 million, energysaving kang (heated sleeping platform) to 20.5 million and energysaving stoves to 33.41 million, saving per year about 50 million tonnes of standard coal. The thermal efficiency of firewood-saving and energy-saving stoves has increased from 14-18 per cent in the past to 25-35 per cent at present. The overall thermal efficiency of kangs and stoves has increased from 45 per cent in the past to over 70 per cent at present.

Figure 2: Industrial energy consumption pattern in rural China 70 60

Percentage

50 40

Coal

Electricity

Firewood

Refined oil

Coke

30 20 10

Coal

Coke

Refined oil

Total

2000

1496.36

6468.73

16037.28

1490.49

4555.04

30047.90

By 2008, there were 856 straw gasification plants, 102 straw fuel moulding plants and 52 straw carbonization plants. The straw curing technology can convert agricultural and forestry waste into moulded fuel, with their volumes reduced by 6-8 times and density reaching 1.1-1.4 tonnes/m3, which is equal to that of mesophyll soft coal.

2001

1667.46

6478.62

16096.84

1484.87

5447.43

31175.22

Solar energy

2002

2430.28

5114.50

18064.15

1517.71

5805.93

32932.57

2003

3159.94

6051.05

18966.13

1816.47

5044.04

35037.63

2004

3276.27

5622.88

19128.56

1522.04

6415.05

35964.80

2005

3287.28

6601.30

19970.12

1605.84

6820.85

38285.39

2006

3770.54

1790.21

27275.67

2329.57

6360.44

41526.44

2007

3451.60

2047.28

23788.23

2229.90

6581.16

38098.16

2008

2913.81

2256.77

17119.12

2358.27

9290.43

33938.40

Solar energy could be utilized in rural areas in the form of solar water heater, solar house, solar school, solar cooker and photovoltaics (PV). From 2000 to 2008, the use of solar water heater expanded the fastest, at the average annual growth rate 41.2 per cent. A 1.5 m2 vacuum tube solar water heater can provide approximately 120 litres of 50°-60°C hot water per day, which would meet a farmer’s basic needs.

0 2000

2001 2002 2003

2004 2005 2006 2007

2008

Years Table 2: Share energy sources in industrial consumption in rural China (in 10,000 tonnes of standard coal) Year

Firewood Electricity

“pig-biogas-fruit” model in the south of China, the “quaternary” model in the north of China, the “pentad” or “fruit-livestock-biogas pit-water cellargrass” model in the northwest China region, and so on. Household biogas utilization has been growing steadily, with household biogas units increasing from 7.64 million in 2000 to 28.59 million in 2008, and the annual gas production increasing by 360 times. In eight years, 38,800 biogas plants were added; the biogas produced by treating industrial waste increased by 95.70 million cubic metres and the biogas produced by treating agricultural waste increased by 492.3 million cubic metres. Domestic sewage treatment-biogas unit is primarily a villagelevel treatment system. The number of public places – such as hospitals and schools – that are establishing biogas units is witnessing a growth.

As indicated in Figure 1, biogas does not have a large share in the rural energy structure. However, if a household were to build an 8 m3 biogas unit, which approximately produces 350 m3 of biogas per year, the energy needs of that household for cooking, boiling water and lighting can be generally fulfilled. The Renewable Energy Project envisages that by 2010, close to 80 million households (that is 0.3 billion people) would be relying mainly on biogas for energy, with the annual biogas utilization reaching 30 billion cubic metres.

Biomass energy In rural areas, biomass is used mainly in firewood-saving stoves; straw finds use in some advanced energy utilization applications, such as gasification, moulded fuel and carbonization. By 2008, the number of households

By the end of 2008, the domestic output of solar water heater reached 47.58 million m2 per year, 4.3 times that of 2000 (Table 4). Meanwhile, the product quality and technology of solar water heater have improved dramatically. A number of new technologies and demonstration projects too have come up with independent intellectual property rights. The “Million rooftop solar water heating programme” has been implemented in several cities. Additionally, as of 2008, solar houses have increased to 15.9 million m 2, solar schools to 0.6013 million m2, and solar cookers to 1.36 million m2. In 2008 alone, 0.2957 million units of solar stoves and 1.5 million m 2 solar houses were installed. China’s overall objective in the usage of solar water heater is 50 million m2 by 2010 and 0.1 billion m2 by 2020.

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Special Feature: Renewable Energy Technologies Table 3: Development of biogas in China (2000 to 2008) Year

Household biogas units Quantity (point)

Industrial waste biogas plants

Gas produced (10 km3)

Quantity (point)

Household sewage purification digesters

Gas produced (10 km3)

Quantity (point)

Unit capacity (10 km3)

2000

764

258854

1042

12336

84116

326

2001

857

298172

1359

16870

96123

375

2002

1024

369878

1560

18370

115176

447

2003

1208

457975

2355

18392

131578

523

2004

1446

556819

2671

17619

137013

574

2005

1716

705893

3764

34114

145638

637

2006

2069

818733

17747

34713

130793

911

2007

2487

988359

26871

48920

144258

786

2008

2859

1138832

39842

71136

163719

785

Other renewable energy sources Wind power utilization in rural areas is mainly in off-grid small wind power turbines and wind-powered pumps, the latter mostly for pumping water for irrigation. By 2008, the installed capacity of small wind power turbines had reached 31,370 kW, of which Inner Mongolia accounted for 69 per cent, and the installed capacity of microhydro power reached 184,000 kW, of which Gansu accounted for 39,300 kW. The goal is to solve the power problem in off-grid areas, where locally available energy resources are supposed to play a major role, by using renewable energy technologies such as micro-hydro turbine, solar PV and wind power, so that the basic power needs of population in these areas can be met. In areas that are rich in hydropower resource, building small hydropower stations (including microhydro power stations) that can provide electricity for 1 million people would be the preferred approach. In other areas, small solar PV stations and hybrid wind-solar power stations will be built. Small household wind power turbines, household PV generation and hybrid wind-solar home systems are also preferred.1 1 Medium and Long-Term Development Plan for Renewable Energy in China. National Development & Reform Commission, China, September 2007.

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Rural renewable energy and Carbon Development Mechanism In rural areas, the traditional energy structure cause serious air pollution and carbon dioxide (CO2) emission. In the past three years, China Agricultural University and Beijing University of Chemical Technology did several pollution monitoring projects in the kitchens of farmer households and found that the levels of sulphur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter pollutants far exceeded the national standards. Renewable energy promotion will help farmers reduce CO/CO2 emissions and keep away indoor air pollution. Under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), carbon emission reduction through the usage of renewable energy can be sold to get subsidy or offset for the promotion of renewable energy. In the past few years, several CDM projects have been implemented in China, contributing greatly to subsidizing more renewable energy projects. Up to now, the China Development Committee (CDC) has approved the following CDM projects: 33 projects for landfill biogas production, three projects for large-scale biogas engineering, one project for household biogas digesters, one project for biomass stove and three projects for solar cooker. However, until now, the CDM

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Executive Board has not approved any CDM project on solar cooker or biomass stove.

Renewable energy policies in China In the past three years, the Chinese government issued many policies to support the promotion of renewable energy. The four main policies, rules and plans are listed below. z

“Renewable Energy Law of People Republic of China”, implemented from 1 January 2006, which states that government shall encourage and support the promotion and application of renewable energy in rural areas. Governments above the County level must make detailed development plan, according to the local conditions, to promote renewable energy. z “Development planning of agricultural biomass energy industry” issued in 2007 points out that the most important thing is to resolve the shortage in rural household energy. It also pointed out the need to adhere to the basic principles and concept of “resource recovery, reduction and re-use”, so to vigorously develop biogas, to accelerate the development of fuel pellets from agricultural residues and gasification of these residues, and to promote the rural energy structure within the ambit of the national energy plan.

Special Feature: Renewable Energy Technologies Table 4: Utilization of solar energy (2000-2008) Year

Recommendations

Solar water heater (10 km2)

Solar house (10 km2)

Solar cooker (10 km2)

2000

1107.80

977.95

332390

807386

2001

1319.37

1095.48

388599

829064

2002

1621.73

1194.44

478426

918465

2003

2464.84

1251.35

526177

949755

2004

2845.56

1360.31

577625

929648

2005

3205.58

1514.42

685552

955921

2006

3941.01

1444.20

865238

3170771

2007

4286.43

1523.67

1118763

3940985

2008

4758.69

1650.59

1356755

6929845

z

The general goal in the “Medium and Long-Term Development Plan for Renewable Energy” is to improve rural industrial and rural household energy. The important objectives of promoting renewable energy are to resolve the electricity problem in off-grid areas, to improve the energy situation in households and to develop green energy demonstration countries. z The guideline of the “Eleventh FiveYear Plan for Renewable Energy Development” pointed out that the development of renewable energy in rural areas is required to promote the construction of a “new

Solar battery (Wp)

z

z

z

socialist countryside” based on scientific development outlook with multi-channel, multi-level and high input. It urges to popularize biogas in rural areas with straw and manure utilization, to actively promote the utilization of solar energy, to implement green energy demonstration counties, to promote technological innovation and service system, to optimize rural energy structure, to protect the environment, to develop a recycling economy and to promote agricultural efficiency, thereby increasing the income and improving living conditions of the farmers.

z

z

The farmers’ awareness about renewable energy is still low. The government should strengthen the publicity, training and education about renewable energy, using multiple channels and innovative methods. The renewable energy industry is not yet solid in terms of direct economic benefit and therefore can’t compete with high-profit industries. The government must encourage and subsidize renewable energy projects in view of the high emission reduction. The promotion of renewable energy lacks a national plan. Even though the government has made many plans to promote renewable energy development, there must still be a detailed national plan. The technologies still need to improve, while there is a need to raise the level of both operation and management. There is a need to develop the national carbon trade business platform in advance to avoid problems expected in the post-Kyoto period. A market-oriented model needs to be adopted to balance the renewable energy and petroleum energy consumption and production.ˆ

Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate The Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate is an innovative new effort to accelerate the development and deployment of clean energy technologies. APP partners Australia, Canada, China, India, Japan, the Republic of Korea and the United States will work together and with private sector partners to meet goals for energy security, national air pollution reduction and climate change in ways that promote sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction. The Partnership will focus on expanding investment and trade in cleaner energy technologies, goods and services in key markets. The Partners have approved eight public-private sector task forces covering: Aluminium; Buildings and appliances; Cement; Cleaner fossil energy; Coal mining; Power generation and transmission; Renewable energy and distributed generation; and Steel. The Partners will collaborate to promote and create an enabling environment for the development, diffusion, deployment and transfer of existing and emerging cost-effective, cleaner technologies and practices, through concrete and substantial cooperation so as to achieve practical results. The Partners will also cooperate on the development, diffusion, deployment and transfer of longer-term transformational energy technologies that will promote economic growth while enabling significant reductions in greenhouse gas intensities. In addition, the Partners will share experiences in developing and implementing our national sustainable development and energy strategies, and explore opportunities to reduce the greenhouse gas intensities of our economies. For more information, contact: Administrative Support Group Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate Tel: +1 (202) 647 4875; Fax: +1 (202) 647 0191 E-mail: [email protected]; Website: www.asiapacificpartnership.org

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