Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha Departamento de Administración de Empresas Área de Comercialización e Investigación de Mercados
The role of time in consumer behaviour and market segmentation. Three contributions from a multidisciplinary perspective
El papel del tiempo en el comportamiento del consumidor y la segmentación de mercados. Tres contribuciones desde una perspectiva multidisciplinar
Juan Antonio García Martín Director: Arturo Molina Collado
Talavera de la Reina, 2014
Time is one of the most powerful influence on our thoughts, feelings, and actions, yet we are usually totally unaware of the effect of time in our lives.
Philip G. Zimbardo & John N. Boyd
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION ABSTRACT The role of time in consumer behaviour and market segmentation. Three contributions from a multidisciplinary perspective Time has been the subject of numerous studies in multiple disciplines such as economics, education, geography, psychology, and sociology. All human actions related to consumption involve the allocations of time and money. However, in marketing literature, far more attention has been paid to the latter than to the former. This doctoral thesis adopts an interdisciplinary approach in order to describe the role of time in consumer behaviour and market segmentation. It also considers both objective measures of time use (Studies 1-3) and subjective measures related to time perspective (Study 3). The objective of the first study is to identify and describe the time use patterns of Spanish consumers at weekends. The data used have been obtained from the Time Use Survey collected by the Spanish National Statistics Institute. The results obtained reveal the existence of nine segments or clusters which are different, not only with regard to their propensity to engage in each activity and the average time allocated to this (what), but also their sociodemographic profiles (who) and the timing or activity rhythms (when). This study provides information for leisure-related businesses since it may enable them to organise their leisure proposals/activities for weekends (as regards both duration and schedules), bearing in mind the specific consumer profile that they wish to attract. The objective of the second study is to evaluate the effectiveness and profitability of time use in a destination as a segmentation criterion in tourism. The empirical analysis took place in the historic city of Toledo (Spain), and was based on information obtained from 799 day-trippers and tourists. The results obtained reveal the existence of four segments as regards day-trippers and another four as regards tourists. What is more, there are significant differences in the spending and future intentions of the clusters of day-trippers and tourists. Lastly, the objective of the third study is to explore the role of five time perspectives (past-negative, past-positive, present-fatalistic, present-hedonistic, and future) and having a balanced time perspective on the amount of free time available, leisure benefits sought and leisure activities. The results obtained from a sample of 320 undergraduate and Master’s degree students from the University of Castilla-La Mancha show that how they understand time is a key predictor of their leisure choices. This study also reveals that having a balanced time perspective is a healthy way to enjoy leisure time. The doctoral thesis is organised in five chapters. The first introductory chapter presents an overview of the state of research regarding time from a multidisciplinary perspective. The second, third, and fourth chapters present the three aforementioned empirical studies, while in the fifth chapter a summary of this doctoral thesis’s contributions is provided.
5
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN RESUMEN El papel del tiempo en el comportamiento del consumidor y la segmentación de mercados. Tres contribuciones desde una perspectiva multidisciplinar
El tiempo ha sido objeto de numerosos estudios en varias disciplinas como la economía, la educación, la geografía, la psicología y la sociología. Todas las acciones humanas relacionadas con el consumo implican la asignación de tiempo y dinero. Sin embargo, en la literatura de marketing, se ha prestado mucha más atención a este último recurso que al primero. Esta tesis doctoral adopta un enfoque multidisciplinar con el fin de describir el papel del tiempo en el comportamiento del consumidor y la segmentación de mercados. Además, considera tanto medidas objetivas de utilización del tiempo (Estudios 1-3) como medidas subjetivas relacionadas con la perspectiva temporal (Estudio 3). El objetivo del primer estudio es identificar y describir los patrones de uso del tiempo de los consumidores españoles durante los fines de semana. Los datos utilizados se obtuvieron de la Encuesta de Empleo del Tiempo del Instituto Nacional de Estadística de España. Los resultados obtenidos ponen de manifiesto la existencia de nueve segmentos o grupos que son diferentes, no sólo en su propensión a participar en cada actividad y el tiempo asignado a ésta (qué), sino también en sus perfiles sociodemográficos (quién) y ritmos de actividad (cuándo). Este estudio proporciona información para los negocios relacionados con el ocio, ya que puede ser de utilidad para ayudar a organizar sus propuestas o actividades durante los fines de semana (en cuanto a duración y horarios), teniendo presente el perfil específico de consumidores que desean atraer. El objetivo del segundo estudio es evaluar la eficacia y la rentabilidad del uso del tiempo en un destino como criterio de segmentación en turismo. El análisis empírico se llevó a cabo en la ciudad histórica de Toledo (España), y se basó en la información obtenida de 799 excursionistas y turistas. Los resultados obtenidos revelan la existencia de cuatro segmentos de excursionistas y otros cuatro de turistas. Además, existen diferencias significativas en el gasto y las intenciones de comportamiento futuras de los distintos grupos de excursionistas y turistas. Por último, el objetivo del tercer estudio es explorar cómo cada una de las cinco perspectivas temporales (pasado-negativo, pasado-positivo, presente-fatalista, presente-hedonista y futuro) consideradas y el hecho de tener una perspectiva temporal equilibrada influyen sobre la cantidad de tiempo libre disponible, los beneficios buscados con el ocio y las actividades de ocio realizadas. Los resultados obtenidos a partir de una muestra de 320 estudiantes de Grado y Máster de la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha muestran que la forma en qué se entiende el tiempo es un indicador clave de las decisiones de ocio. Este estudio también sugiere que el hecho de tener una perspectiva temporal equilibrada es una forma saludable de disfrutar del tiempo libre. La tesis doctoral se estructura en cinco capítulos. En el primer capítulo introductorio se presenta una visión general del estado de la investigación en relación con el tiempo desde una perspectiva multidisciplinar. En los capítulos segundo, tercero y cuatro se presentan los tres estudios empíricos anteriormente mencionados, mientras que en el quinto capítulo se ofrece un resumen de las principales contribuciones de esta tesis doctoral.
6
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION: THE TIME RESEARCH IN A NUTSHELL
CHAPTER 2.
TIME USE PATTERNS OF SPANISH CONSUMERS AT WEEKENDS: IN SEARCH OF WHAT, WHO AND WHEN
19
35
2.1.
Introduction
35
2.2.
Literature review
37
2.2.1.
The role of time in consumer behaviour: a brief review
37
2.2.2.
From lifestyle segmentation to market segmentation based on time
2.2.3. 2.3.
2.4.
39
Heterogeneity in time use and its determinants
40
Method
43
2.3.1.
Data and sample profile
43
2.3.2.
Instruments
45
2.3.3.
Data analysis
45
Results 2.4.1.
2.5.
use
46 Number of time-use patterns and usefulness of the indicators and covariates
46
2.4.2.
Profiles of clusters: in search of what and who
51
2.4.3.
Activity rhythms: in search of when
58
Discussion and conclusions
60
7
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN CHAPTER 3.
MARKET SEGMENTATION BASED ON TIME USE: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS IN THE HISTORIC CITY OF TOLEDO, SPAIN
65
3.1.
Introduction
65
3.2.
Literature review
66
3.2.1.
The key role of time use: from marketing and leisure to tourism
66
3.2.2.
Market heterogeneity: towards a tourism market segmentation based on
3.2.3. 3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
time use
69
Time use, tourist experience and outcomes
72
Method
73
3.3.1.
Data collection and sample profile
73
3.3.2.
Instruments
74
3.3.3.
Data analysis
76
Results
78
3.4.1.
Market segmentation based on time use
78
3.4.2.
Differences in outcome variables
84
Discussion and conclusions
CHAPTER 4.
87
EXPLORING THE ROLE OF TIME PERSPECTIVE IN LEISURE CHOICES
93
4.1.
Introduction
93
4.2.
Literature review
94
4.2.1.
94
8
Time perspective
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION
4.3.
4.4.
4.2.2.
Balanced time perspective
98
4.2.3.
Time perspective and leisure choices
99
Method
104
4.3.1.
Data collection and sample profile
104
4.3.2.
Instruments
105
4.3.3.
Data analysis
106
Results 4.4.1.
107 Confirmatory factor analyses: time perspectives and leisure benefits sought
4.4.2.
4.5.
107
Relationship between time perspectives and the amount of free time available
109
4.4.3.
Relationship between time perspectives and leisure benefits sought
110
4.4.4.
Relationship between time perspectives and leisure activities
111
4.4.5.
Relationship between a balanced time perspective and leisure choice 117
Discussion and conclusions
CHAPTER 5.
CONCLUSIONS
118 127
REFERENCES
133
APPENDIX A
159
APPENDIX B
161
APPENDIX C
165
9
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN APPENDIX D
169
APPENDIX E
171
VITA
173
10
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION LIST OF TABLES
Tabla 1.1.
Interés por el estudio de aspectos objetivos del tiempo según área temática entre 2008 y 2012: revistas académicas disponibles en Google Scholar
Tabla 1.2.
Interés por el estudio de aspectos subjetivos del tiempo según área temática entre 2008 y 2012: revistas académicas disponibles en Google Scholar
Table 2.1.
26
Main studies concerning consumer segmentation on the basis of temporal dimensions
Table 2.2.
24
38
Socio-demographic profile: comparison between original and filtered weekend samples
44
Table 2.3.
Statistics for the latent class cluster models of Spanish consumers
46
Table 2.4.
Estimated parameters for the nine clusters of Spanish consumers: indicators
Table 2.5.
47
Estimated parameters for the nine clusters of Spanish consumers: covariates 49
Table 2.6.
Profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers: indicators
53
Table 2.7.
Profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers: significant covariates
55
Table 2.8.
Differences in multi-tasking style and computer/Internet use between clusters of Spanish consumers
Table 2.9.
Tests of independence between cluster membership of Spanish consumers and kind of day
Table 3.1.
57
58
Criteria/bases and evolution of tourism segmentation studies published between 2008 and 2012: tourism journals indexed in 2011 Journal Citation Report Social Sciences Edition®
70
11
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 3.2.
Non-parametric Spearman correlations between time allocated to each activity by day-trippers and tourists
Table 3.3.
75
Results from confirmatory factor analysis: destination image, and intentions to revisit and recommend it
76
Table 3.4.
Statistics for the latent class cluster models of day-trippers and tourists 79
Table 3.5.
Estimated parameters for the four clusters of day-trippers
80
Table 3.6.
Estimated parameters for the four clusters of tourists
81
Table 3.7.
Profiles of clusters of day-trippers: indicators and significant covariates
82
Table 3.8.
Profiles of clusters of tourists: indicators and significant covariates
84
Table 3.9.
Differences in outcome variables between clusters of day-trippers
85
Table 3.10.
Differences in outcome variables between clusters of tourists
86
Table 4.1.
Time perspective scales
95
Table 4.2.
Time perspective dimensions and features
97
Table 4.3.
Results from confirmatory factor analysis: time perspectives
108
Table 4.4.
Results from confirmatory factor analysis: leisure benefits sought
109
Table 4.5.
Stepwise hierarchical regression analysis predicting the amount of free time available
Table 4.6.
Stepwise
110 hierarchical
regression
analyses
predicting
sought Table 4.7.
benefits 111
Ordinal regression analyses predicting frequency of engaging in leisure activities: test of parallel lines and goodness-of-fit
12
leisure
112
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Table 4.8.
Ordinal regression analyses predicting frequency of engaging in leisure activities: parameter estimates
114
Table 4.9.
Statistics for the latent class cluster models
117
Table 4.10.
Significance of the indicators and profiles for the two clusters
117
Table 4.11.
Synthesis of findings: the role of time perspective in leisure choices
122
13
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION LIST OF FIGURES
Figura 1.1.
Principales líneas de investigación en comportamiento del consumidor sobre los aspectos objetivos y subjetivos del tiempo
27
Figure 2.1.
Basic background factors in the model underlying activity participation
42
Figure 2.2.
Activity rhythms of each cluster of Spanish consumers
59
Figure 3.1.
Research propositions, analysis procedures, and software packages
77
Figure 4.1.
Research objectives
101
15
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION:
THE
TIME
RESEARCH IN A NUTSHELL
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION CHAPTER
1.
INTRODUCTION:
THE
TIME RESEARCH IN A NUTSHELL
entre población rural y urbana, como el primer gran proyecto internacional de investigación empírica sobre este tópico y el precursor de la multitud de encuestas de empleo del tiempo que posteriormente
Como Durán y Rogero (2009) señalan,
se han desarrollado en distintos países.
intentar definir qué es el ‘tiempo’ no es
En este sentido, el Centre for Time Use
una tarea tan sencilla como a priori
Research (CTUR) de la Universidad de
pudiera parecer. La última edición del
Oxford tiene registrada la realización de
Diccionario de la Real Academia Española
encuestas de uso del tiempo en casi 100
(2001)
países distintos (Fisher & Tucker, 2013) y
ofrece
diecisiete
acepciones
distintas de este término. Este dato, a
ofrece
medio camino entre lo curioso y lo
procedente de más de 60 bases de datos
revelador, ya proporciona una pista sobre
de 25 países distintos a través de su base
la
de datos denominada Multinational Time
enorme
interdisciplinariedad
existente en el estudio del tópico del tiempo.
De
encontrar
hecho,
múltiples
resulta
información
armonizada
Use Study (Fisher & Gershuny, 2013).
posible
definiciones
y
En cuanto al ritmo de vida, éste hace
enfoques a la hora de estudiar el tiempo
referencia a la velocidad con la que se
dependiendo de cuál sea la disciplina en
realizan
la que éste ha sido objeto de análisis.
estudio de Levine y Norenzayan (1999),
las
distintas
actividades.
El
centrado en analizar el ritmo de vida en McGrath y Tschan (2004) distinguen
31 países utilizando observaciones del
cuatro
los
comportamiento, encuentra que éste fue
vida
significativamente más rápido en climas
cotidiana de las personas: uso del tiempo,
más fríos, en países más desarrollados
ritmo de vida, percepción del tiempo y
económicamente
orientación temporal.
individualistas.
El primer aspecto, uso del tiempo,
Por su parte, la percepción del tiempo
representa cómo un individuo distribuye
se refiere a cómo los seres humanos
este recurso en la realización de distintas
juzgan el paso del tiempo, estudiando,
actividades diarias, tales como trabajar y
por ejemplo, las estimaciones que los
estudiar,
individuos
realizan
duración
percibida
procesos
aspectos
básicos
temporales
cuidados
domésticas
o
de
en la
personales,
tiempo
libre.
tareas Suele
y
en
culturas
sobre de
cuál
más
es
la
intervalos
considerarse el trabajo de Szalai (1972),
temporales específicos o sus sentimientos
centrado en analizar las diferencias en el
sobre el paso del tiempo (Grondin, 2008;
tiempo dedicado a actividades diarias
McGrath & Tschan, 2004).
19
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Por último, la orientación temporal,
largo plazo puede alcanzar un mayor
también
perspectiva
desarrollo económico estarían los tres
temporal, en inglés time perspective
siguientes: (1) una elevada importancia
(TP), se define como la importancia
del ahorro; (2) el ‘trabajo duro’ como un
relativa que los individuos otorgan al
aspecto
pasado, presente y futuro (Lennings,
detrimento del ocio; y (3) el mayor
1996).
sido
énfasis que se pone en la mejora de la
extensamente estudiado como un rasgo
educación de los individuos que forman
de la personalidad en psicología (Sircova
parte de esa sociedad.
denominada
Este
aspecto
ha
socialmente
valorado,
en
et al., 2014; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Además, la orientación temporal también
Los cuatro aspectos temporales descritos
puede ser entendida como una dimensión
anteriormente, uso del tiempo, ritmo de
cultural susceptible de ser utilizada para
vida, percepción del tiempo y orientación
evaluar las diferencias transculturales
temporal, se pueden agrupar, a su vez,
entre sociedades y explicar las razones
en dos grandes categorías. Por una
del
en
parte, la primera incluiría el uso del
cuestiones de tipo económico y/o social
tiempo y los ritmos de actividad, ya que
(Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010).
ambos aspectos tienen en común el
Así, por ejemplo, estos últimos autores
análisis del tiempo como un recurso
encuentran correlaciones positivas entre
susceptible de ser medido o cuantificado
el grado de orientación al largo plazo y el
objetivamente, atendiendo, por ejemplo,
crecimiento económico, en países que
a cuánto tiempo dedica cada sujeto a una
partían de un nivel inicial de desarrollo
actividad
más bajo, y correlaciones negativas entre
frecuencia de realización de la misma. Por
ambas variables, en el caso de los países
otra parte, la percepción del tiempo y
más desarrollados. En otras palabras, el
orientación temporal se pueden agrupar
grado de orientación al largo plazo de una
en una segunda categoría, puesto que
sociedad parece ser un factor que se
suponen el análisis del tiempo desde un
relaciona directamente con el hecho de
punto de vista subjetivo, basándose en
que algunos países se hayan movido
las
desde la ‘pobreza’ a la ‘riqueza’, pero no
sentimientos asociados al tiempo por
ayuda a que las sociedades que ya están
parte de los individuos.
éxito/fracaso
de
los
países
concreta
o
percepciones,
a
cuál
es
cogniciones
la
y
desarrolladas alcancen todavía mayores niveles de ‘riqueza’ (Hofstede et al.,
La primera de estas dos categorías, es
2010). Entre los argumentos que pueden
decir, la que versa sobre los aspectos
esgrimirse para explicar el motivo por el
objetivos
que, bajo determinadas condiciones, una
profusamente estudiada dentro de la
sociedad con una elevada orientación a
sociología.
20
del Así,
tiempo, los
ha
sociólogos
sido han
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION puesto especial énfasis en analizar las
con mayor detalle el interés por el
diferencias en el uso del tiempo según
estudio
distintas variables sociodemográficas y,
subjetivos del tiempo según el área
más
temática,
concretamente,
en
función
del
de
aspectos
así
objetivos
como
la
y
evolución
género. De hecho, el uso del tiempo es
experimentada por la investigación de
una variable tremendamente útil para
estos tópicos entre 2008 y 2012.
comprender el papel asignado a mujeres y hombres en una sociedad. Una revisión
Se utilizó la herramienta en inglés para
exhaustiva
realizar
del
estado
actual
de
la
la
consulta,
se
consideraron
investigación sociológica sobre el uso del
exclusivamente
artículos
tiempo puede consultarse en el trabajo de
académicas
se
Durán y Rogero (2009). Por su parte, la
temporal a trabajos publicados entre
segunda
2008 y 2012. Es decir, las actas de
categoría,
que
incluye
los
y
revistas
el
período
limitó
aspectos subjetivos del tiempo, ha
congresos,
sido un tópico de investigación recurrente
trabajos fin de grado y fin de master, los
en el ámbito de la psicología. Dentro de
documentos de trabajo y los libros no
esta disciplina se ha generado una gran
fueron considerados debido a que, en
cantidad de investigación empírica al
muchos
abrigo de lo se ha denominado psicología
realizar
del
temática
tiempo
(Fraisse,
1963;
Grondin,
las
en
tesis
casos, una
doctorales,
resultaba
asignación
y,
en
su
área
calidad
académica
aspectos
subjetivos
cuestionable al carecer de revisión por
vinculados al tiempo no se circunscribe
pares. Por otra parte, la razón por la que
exclusivamente a estas dos disciplinas.
no se incluyeron en el análisis los artículos
Sin
relación
publicados en 2013 fue que cada vez es
exhaustiva, el tiempo ha sido objeto de
más habitual que las revistas académicas
estudio en otras disciplinas, tales como la
publiquen en su sitio web los avances
economía, la educación, la geografía o la
online
medicina. En el ámbito de las artes y las
aparecerán
humanidades, los filósofos, historiadores,
números (los denominados como articles
lingüistas,
in press). Sin embargo, esta práctica,
ánimo
incluso
de
y
exponer
antropólogos,
músicos
o
una
escritores,
artistas
e
plásticos,
pensada
de
cuanto
un
2008). Sin embargo, el estudio de los objetivos
era,
imposible
a
otros,
los
artículos incluidos
para
hacer
menos,
aceptados en
que
próximos
accesibles
los
también han convertido al tiempo en un
trabajos aceptados lo más rápido posible,
objeto continuado de su atención (Durán
podría sesgar el análisis presentado en
& Rogero, 2008).
esta tesis, puesto que Google Scholar indexa también los artículos en prensa,
Se
recurrió
a
Google
Scholar
asignando como fecha de publicación el
(http://scholar.google.com/) para ilustrar
momento de su aparición en el sitio web
21
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN hasta su inclusión en un volumen y
identificados
fueron
número definitivo de la revista. En este
revistas multidisciplinares (29.42%) o
sentido, es muy probable que en el año
de medicina (20.82%). Entre los temas
2014 todavía existan artículos en prensa
estudiados en relación con el uso del
aparecidos en 2013 y que éstos estén
tiempo dentro de la medicina es posible
pendientes de su inclusión en próximos
encontrar desde trabajos que utilizan la
números, lo que conduciría directamente
variable
a una sobrestimación del número de
propagación de enfermedades infecciosas
artículos publicados en 2013.
o la duración óptima de un determinado
tiempo
publicados
para
modelizar
en
la
tratamiento, hasta otros que analizan la En
la
Tabla
1.1
se
presentan
los
relación entre el
tiempo dedicado a
resultados relativos al interés por el
diferentes actividades (ejercicio físico,
estudio
del
ocio, vida sedentaria, etc.) y el riesgo de
tiempo según área temática entre 2008
sufrir ciertas enfermedades (ya sean de
y 2012. Los términos concretos utilizados
tipo cardiaco u obesidad, entre otras) o
para la búsqueda en el título del artículo
los patrones de uso del tiempo de sujetos
aparecen recogidos en la nota al pie de
con enfermedades o lesiones crónicas
esta misma tabla. Entre 2008 y 2012 es
concretas.
Dentro
posible
publicados
en
de
aspectos
identificar
un
objetivos
total
artículos que contienen
de
en su
826
de
los
artículos
revistas
de
ciencias
título
sociales, que suponen el 13.80% del
alguno de los términos de búsqueda
total, predominan estudios sobre las
considerados. Además, se observa que en
diferencias en el uso del tiempo según
estos cinco años se ha incrementado en
variables sociodemográficas, desde un
un 55.20% el número de estudios
enfoque sociológico, y otros en los se
publicados sobre aspectos objetivos del
analiza cómo el uso del tiempo influye
tiempo, pasando de 125 artículos en el
sobre el rendimiento académico, desde un
año 2008 a 194 en el 2012.
enfoque más próximo a la educación. En este último caso, hay que tener presente
En cuanto al área temática, ésta fue
que el tiempo es uno de los inputs más
medida a partir del área en el que la
relevantes del proceso educativo y, por
revista está indexada en SCImago Journal
esta razón, diversos estudios empíricos lo
Rank o Journal Citation Reports® o, en
han
caso de no aparecer en ninguno de estos
alcanzados por los estudiantes (Díaz,
dos
García, & Molina, 2014).
índices,
consultando
información
relacionado
con
los
resultados
sobre los objetivos y el alcance de cada revista en su propio sitio web. Los datos
A gran distancia, en cuarta y sexta
presentados en la Tabla 1.1 muestran que
posición, respectivamente, se encuentran
más
las áreas de economía, econometría y
22
del
50%
de
los
artículos
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION finanzas, con 73 artículos publicados, y
no mercado (realizada en el interior de los
empresas,
y
hogares) y el resto se dedica a otras
artículos
actividades, entre las que se incluyen la
publicados entre 2008 y 2012. En el
educación o la búsqueda de trabajo.
ámbito de la economía y la empresa, el
Resulta especialmente llamativo que esta
origen del interés por el estudio del
última actividad no llegue a absorber ni el
tiempo se puede situar en el trabajo de
6% del descenso de las horas de trabajo
Becker (1965). Siguiendo los postulados
remunerado.
administración
contabilidad,
con
36
de este autor, el tiempo se considera un recurso sujeto a restricciones (igual que
Ingeniería,
el dinero) que los individuos dedicarán a
ambientales completan la lista de las
la realización de distintas actividades con
áreas temáticas en las que más se han
el objetivo de maximizar su función de
estudiado
utilidad. Dentro de estas áreas, también
tiempo
existen estudios que abordan el tópico del
porcentajes que no superan el 4% en
tiempo
ninguno de los tres casos. Cabe destacar
para
relacionadas,
analizar por
cuestiones
aspectos
entre
2008
ciencias
objetivos
del
2012,
con
y
que la mayoría de los estudios publicados
productividad del trabajo, el proceso de
en revistas de ingeniería versan sobre la
asignación
distintas
modelización de los patrones de uso del
actividades en el interior de los hogares,
tiempo a la hora de viajar empleando
o la relación entre la situación de la
distintos medios de transporte.
economía
y
tiempo
el
Recientemente,
uso
a
con
los
y
la
de
ejemplo,
psicología
del
Hurst
y
Adicionalmente, la Tabla 1.1 también
usando
la
proporciona información, para cada área
American Time Use Survey entre 2003 y
temática o año, sobre la/s revista/s con
2010, analizan cómo, en un contexto de
más artículos publicados, así como las
recesión, el descenso en las horas de
citas promedio recibidas y el número de
trabajo remunerado se asigna a otras
citas
actividades
Destaca el hecho de que los artículos
Karabarbounis
Aguiar,
tiempo.
(2013),
como
pueden
ser
tareas
del
artículo
sobre
autores
ocio
publicados en las áreas de economía,
a
econometría y finanzas, y medicina
actividades como dormir o ver la TV que
(con un número de citas promedio de
suponen más de las dos terceras partes)
13.48 y 13.36, respectivamente) reciben
absorbe más del 50% del descenso de las
por término medio un mayor número de
horas de trabajo remunerado, algo menos
citas que el resto. En el otro extremo, los
del 30% de ese tiempo se sustituye por
artículos sobre el tópico del uso del
actividades vinculadas a la producción de
tiempo
(principalmente
que
tiempo
el
dedicado
en
objetivos
referenciado.
domésticas, ocio, educación, etc. Estos encuentran
aspectos
más
las
del
tiempo
publicaciones
de
23
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN ingeniería
y
ciencias
ambientales
tienen la media de citas más baja, con
3.45
y
3.17
citas
por
artículo,
respectivamente.
Tabla 1.1. Interés por el estudio de aspectos objetivos del tiempo según área temática entre 2008 y 2012: revistas académicas disponibles en Google Scholar.
Concepto
Número de artículos
Porcentaje
Revista con más artículos publicados (número)
Citas recibidas M (DT)
Por el artículo más citado
8.93 (24.14)
460
7.46 (10.97)
81
13.36 (46.35)
460
Social Indicators Research (16)
8.15 (12.36)
77
8.84%
Review of Economics of the Household (8)
13.48 (20.79)
99
51
6.17%
Animal Behaviour (3)
6.47 (14.53)
95
36
4.36%
Monthly Labor Review (7)
5.11 (5.86)
19
Ingeniería
33
4.00%
Transportation Research Record (10)
3.45 (6.15)
32
Psicología
27
3.27%
Journal of Research on Adolescence (2)
9.37 (13.64)
53
Ciencias ambientales
12
1.45%
Science of the Total Environment (3)
3.17 (2.73)
7
Otras áreas temáticas
65
7.87%
6.63 (12.48)
75
826
100.00%
8.93 (24.14)
460
16.21 (43.62)
460
12.83 (29.68)
361
9.42 (17.33)
151
ÁREA TEMÁTICA
826
100.00%
Multidisciplinares
243
29.42%
Medicina
172
20.82%
Ciencias sociales
114
13.80%
73
Economía, econometría y finanzas Agricultura y ciencias biológicas Empresas, administración y contabilidad
AÑO DE PUBLICACIÓN
Electronic International Journal of Time Use Research (16) Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine (6)
Animal Behaviour, Feminist Economics, Transportation Research Record (3) Social Indicators Research (10) British Journal of Learning Disabilities, Review of Economics of the Household (4)
2008
125
15.13%
2009
172
20.82%
2010
153
18.52%
2011
182
22.03%
Feminist Economics (8)
5.36 (8.92)
96
23.49%
American Economic Review, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, PLoS One (3)
3.73 (9.48)
89
2012
194
Notas: M: media; DT: desviación típica. Términos de búsqueda en el título del artículo: ‘time use’, ‘use of time’, ‘time spent’, ‘spending time’, ‘time allocation’, ‘allocation of time’, ‘time budget’. Fecha de consulta en http://scholar.google.com/: 2 de junio de 2014.
24
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION En cuanto a los aspectos subjetivos del
enfermedad de Parkinson, esquizofrenia,
tiempo, el interés por su estudio según el
etc.) afectan a la percepción subjetiva del
área temática entre 2008 y 2012 aparece
tiempo. El resto de áreas temáticas
en la Tabla 1.2. En este caso, el número
registran porcentajes comprendidos entre
total de artículos identificados en el
el
periodo considerado se sitúa en 573,
sociales, y el 2.27%, en el de artes y
registrándose
humanidades. Llama la atención que, en
un
incremento
del
61.96% entre 2008 y 2012.
el
6.28%,
en
el
caso
de
ciencias
periodo analizado, sólo se hayan
identificado
19
artículos
Las revistas multidisciplinares y de
publicaciones
psicología se sitúan, con diferencia,
administración y contabilidad en cuyo
como
título
las
más
interesadas
en
la
de
en
aparezcan
empresas,
los
términos
de
publicación de trabajos vinculados con los
búsqueda introducidos relativos a los
aspectos subjetivos del tiempo, tales
aspectos subjetivos del tiempo.
como percepción del tiempo o TP, ya que, de
forma
conjunta,
un
Por último, señalar que, como se observa
porcentaje del 58.64%. En el caso de la
en la Tabla 1.2, los artículos publicados
psicología, la TP ha sido ampliamente
en
relacionada
y
aspectos subjetivos del tiempo tienen
comportamientos de todo tipo, entre los
más probabilidad de ser citados (en
que se pueden citar, por poner algunos
promedio tienen casi 20 citas por artículo)
ejemplos, la preocupación ambiental y la
que
realización de conductas orientadas a la
cualquier otra área temática, mientras
conservación
que los artículos de las revistas de
con
registran
actitudes
del
medio
ambiente
revistas
los
de
neurociencia
publicados
en
revistas
bioquímica,
Verdugo, Fraijo-Sing, & Pinheiro, 2006),
molecular no llegan, en promedio, a
el ejercicio y la comida sana (Joireman,
dos citas por trabajo. La mayoría de los
Shaffer, Balliet, & Strathman, 2012) o el
artículos publicados en las revistas de
bienestar
Duncan,
esta última área guardan relación con el
Sutherland, Abernethy, & Henry, 2008),
estudio de la orientación temporal o TP
entre otros muchos. En tercer lugar se
entre personas de edad avanzada.
(Drake,
y
de
(Arnocky, Milfont, & Nicol, 2014; Corral-
subjetivo
genética
sobre
biología
sitúan las revistas de medicina, en las que se han publicado el 13.09% de los
A partir del análisis presentado en las
artículos
Tablas 1.1 y 1.2 es posible señalar que la
publicados
identificados. en
principalmente,
este
Los caso
cómo
trabajos abordan,
atención
prestada
distintas
empresas, administración y contabilidad a aspectos
en
objetivos
el y
área
de
enfermedades (Trastorno por Déficit de
los
subjetivos
Atención con Hiperactividad – TDAH,
relacionados con el uso del tiempo es
25
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN bastante escasa, en comparación con
los
otras áreas. Descendiendo al ámbito del
objetivos como subjetivos, a la hora de
marketing
comportamiento del
explicar las decisiones y comportamientos
consumidor, esta circunstancia resulta
de los consumidores (Bergadaà, 1990;
aún más paradójica, sobre todo si se tiene
Davies & Omer, 1996; Feldman & Hornik,
en cuenta que numerosos modelos de
1981; Hauser, Urban, & Weinberg, 1993;
comportamiento
Hornik, 1984; Hornik & Zakay, 1996;
y del
del
consumidor
aspectos
Lane,
temporales,
propuestos en la década de los 80 y 90
Kaufman,
&
han incidido en la importancia de incluir
Robinson & Nicosia, 1991).
tanto
Lindquist,
1991;
Tabla 1.2. Interés por el estudio de aspectos subjetivos del tiempo según área temática entre 2008 y 2012: revistas académicas disponibles en Google Scholar.
Concepto
ÁREA TEMÁTICA Multidisciplinares
Número de artículos
Porcentaje
Revista con más artículos publicados (número)
573
100.00%
170
29.67%
PLoS One (9)
Psicología
166
28.97%
International Journal of Psychology (37)
Medicina
75
13.09%
Journal of Vision (8)
Ciencias sociales
36
6.28%
Time & Society (5)
Neurociencia
26
4.54%
Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience (7)
25
4.36%
Gerontologist (15)
19
3.32%
Un artículo por revista
Ingeniería
16
2.79%
Un artículo por revista
Artes y humanidades
13
2.27%
Un artículo por revista
Otras áreas temáticas
27
4.71%
573
100.00%
Bioquímica, genética y biología molecular Empresas, administración y contabilidad
AÑO DE PUBLICACIÓN 2008
92
16.06%
2009
101
17.63%
2010
94
16.40%
2011
137
23.91%
2012
149
26.00%
International Journal of Psychology (26) Psychological Science (4) Psychology & Health (6) Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience (5) International Journal of Psychology (11)
Citas recibidas M (DT) 10.54 (22.86) 10.97 (19.79) 11.87 (29.44) 6.16 (8.76) 11.14 (16.70) 19.31 (34.36) 1.84 (8.79) 6.26 (10.62) 17.94 (36.43) 5.00 (8.75) 12.74 (23.52) 10.54 (22.86) 17.04 (38.00) 15.36 (23.35) 12.99 (26.89) 8.19 (12.92) 3.88 (7.76)
Por el artículo más citado 229 159 229 41 81 140 44 37 134 30 105 229 229 159 184 77 77
Notas: M: media; DT: desviación típica. Términos de búsqueda en el título del artículo: ‘time perception’, ‘time perceptions’, ‘time perspective’, ‘time perspectives’, ‘time orientation’, ‘time orientations’, ‘time attitude’, y ‘time attitudes’. Fecha de consulta en http://scholar.google.com/: 11 de junio de 2014.
26
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Lo descrito en el párrafo anterior no
LaMondia, 2010; Shores & Scott, 2007).
quiere decir, en ningún caso, que los
Realizando
aspectos temporales hayan sido obviados
principales líneas de investigación
sistemáticamente dentro de los estudios
que dentro del comportamiento del
de
consumidor
marketing
consumidor,
y
comportamiento
simplemente
sugiere
del la
abordar
el
una
se
síntesis
han
análisis
de
de
encargado los
las
de
aspectos
existencia de huecos de investigación
objetivos y subjetivos del tiempo, es
que
cubrir
posible encontrar cuatro grandes grupos
2000;
(Figura 1.1).
es
necesario
(Chetthamrongchai
&
Davies,
Figura 1.1. Principales líneas de investigación en comportamiento del consumidor sobre los aspectos objetivos y subjetivos del tiempo.
Modelos generales de comportamiento del consumidor
Influencia de la perspectiva temporal sobre las actitudes y comportamientos de los consumidores
Principales líneas de investigación
Psicología de las esperas
Diferencias en la valoración del tiempo y el dinero por parte de los consumidores
27
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Dentro de la primera línea se pueden
estrategia de marketing se debe poner en
incluir
ofrecer
los
modelos
comportamiento
generales
el
producto
o
servicio
más
consumidor.
económico o la mejor relación calidad-
Éstos han estudiado el tiempo y el dinero
precio; mientras que para el de ‘pobres’
como dos de los recursos disponibles por
en términos de tiempo pero ‘ricos’ en
el individuo y, por tanto, como factores
términos de dinero, la clave está en hacer
que influyen dentro del proceso de
que el producto sea fácilmente accesible,
decisión
&
siendo necesario centrarse, por tanto, en
en
el diseño de un adecuado sistema de
de
del
de
compra
(Hawkins
Mothersbaugh,
2010).
cuenta
recursos
ambos
Teniendo de
manera
distribución.
conjunta es posible identificar, al menos, cuatro
segmentos.
Dos
ellos,
También dentro de esta misma línea se
totalmente opuestos entre sí y que están
pueden incluir los trabajos que se centran
alcanzando cada vez más peso en las
en analizar los resultados posteriores a
sociedades modernas, a pesar de que
la compra, por ejemplo, en términos de
siguen
intenciones o comportamientos de lealtad
representando
porcentaje
población,
menor
hacia el producto, marca o empresa. En
denominados como ‘ricos’ en términos de
este sentido, existe abundante literatura
tiempo y dinero (por ejemplo, un rico
que considera el tiempo como un coste
heredero)
dos
de cambio (Burnham, Frels, & Mahajan,
recursos (por ejemplo, una mujer cabeza
2003). De tal forma que los consumidores
de
pueden decidir seguir siendo fieles a un
y
la
un
los
familia
de
de
‘pobres’
en
monoparental)
son
estos (Jäckel
&
Wollscheid, 2007). En los otros dos casos
producto,
(es decir, ‘ricos’ en términos de tiempo
esfuerzo en términos de tiempo que
pero ‘pobres’ en términos de dinero y
supone buscar y analizar información
‘pobres’ en términos de tiempo pero
sobre otras alternativas disponibles y
‘ricos’
adaptarse a las mismas.
en
términos
comportamiento
de
de
dinero),
compra
el
marca
o
empresa
por
el
estará
condicionado por el recurso que sea más
Dentro de una segunda línea, que podría
escaso. De esta forma, por ejemplo, un
vincularse con la psicología de las
desempleado estará más predispuesto a
esperas,
malgastar su tiempo que su dinero a la
literatura
hora de buscar información, evaluar las
diversas como pueden ser, por citar
alternativas de compra disponibles y
algunos ejemplos, la influencia de la
adquirir/contratar un producto/servicio.
música (McDonnell, 2007; Oakes, 2003)
Así, para el segmento de ‘ricos’ en
o los aromas (McDonnell, 2007) en el
términos de tiempo pero ‘pobres’ en
tiempo
términos de dinero, el énfasis de la
predisposición a esperar, o el estudio
28
también que
existe
aborda
percibido
de
abundante
cuestiones
espera
y
tan
la
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION de las esperas en el caso del comercio
realizan una valoración diferente del
electrónico (Ryan & Valverde, 2003). A
coste de oportunidad asociado a su
pesar de que las investigaciones en este
tiempo o dinero (Okada & Hoch, 2004).
ámbito
los
En concreto, parece que los consumidores
sus
están más predispuestos a malgastar
esfuerzos en eliminar las esperas por su
su tiempo que su dinero. Es lo que
influencia negativa sobre la satisfacción
algunos
del
estudios
justificación elástica (Hsee, 1995). En
recientes como el de Gavilán y García de
otras palabras, a la hora de tomar
Madariaga (2009) concluyen que, en
decisiones sobre el uso del tiempo, la
contra de lo que cabría esperar a priori, la
gente
espera
efectos
constantemente su tiempo como se ven
negativos. Así, en el caso de los servicios
obligados a hacer los personajes que
que cumplen cuatro premisas básicas
viven en los barrios humildes de la
(existencia de otras alternativas factibles,
película In time (Abraham, Newman,
atribución de la espera a causas externas
Niccol, & Niccol, 2011).
suelen
empresarios
cliente
no
recomendar
que
con
a
concentren
el
servicio,
siempre
tiene
autores
no
han
trata
de
denominado
optimizar
al propio cliente o proveedor del servicio, concurrencia de ciertos riesgos asociados
En esta película de ciencia ficción, las
a la elección y posibilidad de que tengan
personas dejan de envejecer al cumplir
lugar limitaciones en la capacidad de
los veinticinco años, ya que el gen
suministro), la espera actúa como indicio
responsable del envejecimiento humano
del
y
ha sido desactivado, pero a partir de ese
predispone al sujeto a esperar de una
momento sólo tienen un año más de vida.
forma más satisfactoria. Estos autores
Transcurrido ese año, mueren a menos
argumentan que el funcionamiento de la
que ‘ganen’ más tiempo y rellenen con él
espera
regla
sus ‘relojes vitales’, que portan en sus
heurística de decisión (las personas se
antebrazos izquierdos. En esta sociedad
basan
de
futurista, el tiempo se ha convertido en
principios para reducir la compleja tarea
‘dinero’ y es la forma de pagar cualquier
de evaluar y decidir) y, por esa razón,
necesidad o lujo. Las personas viven en
nuestro
como
‘zonas horarias’ distintas, en función de
consumidores ante las esperas suele ser:
su estatus social. Así, mientras que los
‘si esperamos es mejor y si es mejor,
pobres viven en barrios humiles (para
estamos dispuestos a esperar’ (Gavilán &
ellos, el trabajo diario es imprescindible
García de Madariaga, 2009, p. 72).
para ganar unas cuantas horas más de
valor,
es en
estimula
la
asimilable un
número
elección
a
una
limitado
razonamiento
vida, y pagar los bienes y servicios que En tercer lugar, otros estudios se centran
les
en
diarias), los ricos residen en la zona más
evaluar
cómo
los
consumidores
permiten
cubrir
sus
necesidades
29
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN lujosa y pueden vivir durante siglos. En la
Méndez
película, cada ‘zona horaria’ está cercada
impulsividad,
y, continuando con el símil del dinero, se
diferentes comportamientos durante la
cobran costosos peajes en tiempo para
actividad de estar de compras (Karande &
evitar
Merchant,
que
la
gente
‘pobre’
pueda
&
Davies, la
2005);
prudencia
2012),
la
la
y
tendencia
los
a
la
progresar y acceder a niveles sociales
compra por impulso (Lee & Song, 2011) y
más altos.
distintos patrones de compra (SarabiaSanchez,
2005);
la
compra
de
A partir del argumento de la película In
alimentos (Chetthamrongchai & Davies,
time, se puede entender la razón por la
2000; Dobson & Ness, 2009); y los
que los consumidores no se comportan en
beneficios buscados con el consumo de
la vida real de la misma forma al tomar
alimentos
decisiones relacionadas con el tiempo y
Dacko, 2013).
ecológicos
(Mohsen
&
con el dinero: simplemente, no son conscientes de la enorme restricción
A pesar de la importancia del tiempo para
temporal
comprender
existente
en
sus
vidas.
el
comportamiento
del
Estudios como el de Okada y Hoch (2004)
consumidor, no cabe duda de que este
desmontan la validez de otros intentos
recurso
previos,
la
mucho menos estudiado que el dinero
por
(Chetthamrongchai & Davies, 2000). En
como
propuesta
de
los
basados
Becker
en
(1965),
ha
sido,
sentido,
comparativamente,
modelizar el uso tiempo como si siguiera
este
los
tres
estudios
el mismo patrón que el uso del dinero.
empíricos incluidos en esta tesis doctoral pretenden cubrir algunos de los huecos de
Una
cuarta
línea
de
investigación
investigación
existentes
dentro
del
destacada dentro de los estudios de
marketing con aportaciones procedentes
marketing
del
de distintas disciplinas como pueden ser
consumidor es la que vincula la TP (que
la psicología o la sociología. En concreto,
puede ser definida como la importancia
las tres investigaciones tienen en común
relativa
al
que se centran en analizar el papel de los
pasado, presente y futuro) con distintos
aspectos temporales (ya sea el uso del
tipos de actitudes y comportamientos
tiempo
de los consumidores. Aunque Usunier y
comportamiento del consumidor y,
Valette-Florence
una
por tanto, como criterios/bases válidas
extensa revisión en este sentido, la TP ha
para segmentar el mercado (es decir,
sido relaciona principalmente con: las
como
actitudes y los comportamiento hacia la
utilizadas
publicidad (Kaynak, Kara, & Apil, 2011;
sujetos
Martin, Gnoth, & Strong, 2009; Rojas-
heterogéneos entre sí).
30
que
y
comportamiento
los
sujetos
(2007)
asignan
ofrecen
o
la
TP)
variables para
para
entender
susceptibles encontrar
homogéneos
de
grupos
internamente
el
ser de y
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION El primer estudio (Capítulo 2) propone
españoles usan el tiempo es objeto de
utilizar la Encuesta de Empleo del Tiempo
continuo
realizada por el Instituto Nacional de
Hamermesh, 2014) y, probablemente,
Estadística entre el 1 de octubre de 2009
constituye
y el 30 de septiembre de 2010 como
característicos y diferenciadores de esta
aproximación al análisis de los estilos de
sociedad, sirva como ejemplo el título de
vida.
la
un artículo reciente de The New York
conceptualización de Anderson y Golden
Times: ‘Spain, Land of 10 P.M. Dinners’
(1984), quienes sugieren que existe una
(Yardley, 2014).
Esta
propuesta
sigue
debate uno
(González
de
los
&
rasgos
más
imprecisión conceptual y operativa en la forma en que el constructo estilos de vida
El segundo estudio (Capítulo 3) evalúa
ha sido tradicionalmente estudiado en la
la eficacia del uso del tiempo en un
literatura
destino
de
comportamiento
del
turístico
como
segmentación.
(1984) proponen limitar la definición de
realizado se desarrolla en la ciudad de
estilos de vida a patrones de conducta
Toledo
manifiesta, sin incluir otros aspectos
información
como intereses u opiniones que formarían
excursionistas y turistas. A partir de una
parte de la
estilo
exhaustiva revisión de la literatura en la
cognitivo de los individuos, pero no de los
que se analizan cuáles son las principales
estilos de vida propiamente dichos.
variables de segmentación en el ámbito
o del
(España),
análisis
de
consumidor. Por ello, Anderson y Golden
psicografía
El
criterio
y
se
empírico
basa
obtenida
en
de
la
799
del marketing turístico, se concluye que En concreto, el propósito de esta primera
las
investigación es identificar y describir
motivaciones
distintos patrones de uso del tiempo de
utilizadas como bases de segmentación
los consumidores españoles durante los
en este ámbito concreto. Sin embargo, la
fines
una
efectividad de estos dos criterios de
contribución relevante, sobre todo si se
segmentación puede ser reducida en el
tiene en cuenta que las dimensiones
caso específico de un destino cultural
temporales rara vez se han utilizado como
donde,
criterios/bases
visitantes pasean por el casco antiguo de
de
semana.
de
Ésta
segmentación
estudios
empíricos
previos.
parte,
no
han
investigaciones
se
es
anteriores
Por
en otra
encontrado que
hayan
la
actividades
por
ciudad
realizadas
han
sido
ejemplo, o
las
ampliamente
casi
visitan
o
todos museos
los y
monumentos. La segunda investigación empírica de esta tesis da un paso más en
abordado esta cuestión en el contexto
este
sentido,
al
proponer
una
socio-cultural español, lo que constituye
segmentación basada en la medición del
otra justificación adicional del interés del
tiempo dedicado a cada actividad y
estudio. Además, la forma en que los
evaluar las diferencias existentes entre
31
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN los
distintos
relación como
grupos
con
identificados
variables
en
relación con la falta de tiempo y la
fundamentales
insatisfacción con el disfrute del ocio no
son
el
gasto
efectuado,
intenciones
de
comportamiento
y
las
se encuentra en la cantidad de tiempo
la
disponible, sino en la incapacidad para
imagen después de visitar la ciudad.
manejar este recurso con éxito a hora extraer el máximo provecho de cada hora
Por último, el tercer estudio (Capítulo 4)
del día. Además, añade que la falta de
explora cómo cada una de las cinco TP
efectividad
(pasado-negativo,
pasado-positivo,
entrenamiento a la hora mejorar la forma
presente-fatalista, presente-hedonista y
en que se usa el tiempo y conseguir los
futuro), propuestas por Zimbardo y Boyd
resultados esperados se debe a que el
(1999),
énfasis se ha puesto, tradicionalmente,
y
el
perspectiva
hecho
de
temporal
tener
una
equilibrada
en
de
modificar
los
programas
directamente
de
los
(entendida como una perspectiva flexible
comportamientos, sin entender que la
o adaptable a cada situación, sin sesgo
clave se encuentra en la psicología del
hacia
concreta)
tiempo (Boniwell, 2012). En este sentido,
influyen sobre la cantidad de tiempo
este último estudio pretende ser valioso a
libre
beneficios
la hora de aportar nuevas evidencias
buscados con el ocio y las actividades
sobre si determinadas TPs o, tal vez, el
de
resultados
hecho de tener una perspectiva temporal
obtenidos proceden de una muestra de
equilibrada se pueden llegar a considerar
320 estudiantes de Grado y Máster de la
como orientaciones sanas para disfrutar
Universidad
del tiempo libre.
una
zona
temporal
disponible, ocio
los
realizadas.
de
Los
Castilla-La
Mancha
(UCLM). A pesar de que, como se comentó anteriormente,
las
TPs
han
sido
ampliamente relacionadas con diferentes actitudes y comportamientos (hacia la publicidad, las compras, el consumo de productos ecológicos, etc.), existen pocos estudios empíricos que investiguen el papel que la orientación temporal tiene en las
elecciones
consumidores 2005;
de
ocio
(Philipp, 1992;
Shores
&
Scott,
de
los
Shores, 2007).
Recientemente, Boniwell (2012) señala que, en la sociedad actual, el problema en
32
CHAPTER 2.
TIME USE PATTERNS OF SPANISH
CONSUMERS
AT
WEEKENDS: IN SEARCH OF WHAT, WHO AND WHEN
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION CHAPTER 2. TIME USE PATTERNS OF
time, money, and space (Feldman &
SPANISH
Hornik,
CONSUMERS
AT
1981).
Of
course,
activities
WEEKENDS: IN SEARCH OF WHAT,
related to consumption are no exception
WHO AND WHEN
to
this
statement.
Time
use
should
therefore be a topic of interest for marketing
and
consumer
researchers, 2.1.
Introduction
behaviour
particularly
when
considering that the time spent on each activity can be viewed as an indicator of
Time
use
studies
detailed
lifestyles
information on the roles of personal care
enormous
(Basner et al., 2007), study (Dolton,
Ratchford, & Yang, 2013). However, as
Marcenaro,
Chetthamrongchai and Davies (2000, p.
&
provide
Navarro,
2003),
and
point
that
it
economic
out,
also
has
impact
(Luo,
employment and family care (Freeman &
82)
Schettkat, 2005), volunteer work (Hook,
expenditures
2004), social life and entertainment,
extensively, the issue of time allocation
sports and outdoor activities, hobbies and
has received relatively little attention’.
have
‘while
an
been
monetary studied
games, the mass media (Frey & Benesch, 2008; Harvey, 1990; Nimrod, 2007), and
More specifically, we focus our attention
travel
in
on literature on market segmentation
people’s lives. Time use additionally
(grouping consumers into clusters or
offers a valuable framework with which to
segments,
discover
by
homogeneous and heterogeneous with
quantifying and comparing activity levels
regard to other segments). Although
(Farber,
&
some studies which carry out consumer
Morency, 2011). From a social policy
segmentation on the basis of different
perspective, time poverty (not having
time
enough time to do the things one needs
perspectives do exist (Avello, Gavilán,
to do) may be more important than
Blasco, & Abril, 2010; Chetthamrongchai
income poverty, and generates social
& Davies, 2000; Dobson & Ness, 2009;
costs (less time to volunteer, to socialise
McDonald, 1994), very few propose a
with family and friends, or to relax), which
market segmentation based on time use
are important determinants of life quality
(Jäckel & Wollscheid, 2007; Kamakura,
and emotional well-being (Spinney &
2009). This circumstance is particularly
Millward, 2010).
striking if we bear in mind that consumers
(Srinivasan
barriers Paéz,
&
to
Bhat, 2008)
inclusion
Mercado,
Roorda,
have
which
attitudes,
commonly
are
internally
perceptions
been
or
segmented
All human actions involve the allocations
according to the products and services
of three resources to varying degrees:
that they purchase and consume, when
35
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN these behaviours are really related to the
Firstly, the study of time use patterns at
allocation of time to various activities
weekends is a key aspect since these
(Kamakura, 2010).
patterns have an effect on well-being that
is
highly
relative
other
The purpose of this study is therefore to
determinants
identify
time use
weekends are more valuable not because
patterns of Spanish consumers at
they are a rest period from work but
weekends.
relevant
rather because they allow us to share
contribution if we bear in mind that
social time with others (Young & Lim,
temporal dimensions (i.e. both subjective
2014).
and
describe This
the
is
a
of
to
well-being,
and
measures related to time attitudes and objective measures of time use) have
Secondly,
rarely
consumers
been
criteria/bases
used in
as
segmentation
previous
the
time
can
budget
freely
that
allocate
is
empirical
highest on a weekend day because
studies. Moreover, no previous research
contracted time (amount of time spent on
has investigated this issue in the Spanish
paid work or study, including associated
socio-cultural context. The three main
travel) is quite low for a large part of the
research questions, which are closely
Spanish population.
linked to the search for what, who, and when, are as follows:
Thirdly, the available data are crosssectional (interactions of an individual
(1)
Are there different clusters of
and a specific day), signifying that if we
Spanish consumers based on the
had considered all the days of the week it
time spent on each activity at
would
weekends? (What)
distinguish which time use patterns are
have
been
impossible
to
explained by differences in personal (2)
Do
socio-demographic
variables
affect
cluster
preferences and which are caused by the day of the week.
membership? (Who) The remainder of this chapter is divided (3)
Do clusters differ as regards their
into four sections, the first of which
timing
shows a literature review. The second
or
activity
rhythms?
(When)
provides a description of the method used, while our results are reported in the
As a starting point, it is important to
third section. Conclusions, implications,
clarify
limitations,
why
we
have
analysis to weekends.
36
limited
our
and
future
research
discussed in the last section.
are
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION 2.2.
Literature review
factors, such as awe, expand people’s perceptions
2.2.1.
of
time,
and
make
alter life
decision
The role of time in consumer
making,
feel
more
behaviour: a brief review
satisfying (Rudd, Vohs, & Aaker, 2012). Advances in objective time measures
Schary (1971, p. 51) pointed out that
have, on the other hand, shown for
‘time
example
that
consumer
marketing because it has not been part of
(acquired
over
time
the accepted framework of consumer
consumption) has both a direct and an
behaviour’. Since then various studies
indirect impact (via its influences on
carried out in the 1980s and ‘90s have
consumption
concentrated on partially remedying this
patterns and preferences towards an
situation by emphasising the importance
activity (Luo et al., 2013).
has
been
largely
ignored
in
motives)
expertise
through
on
past
time
use
of including the time approach as regards both
subjective
and
objective
time
With
regard
to
the
theoretical
and
measures in consumer behaviour models
empirical developments described above,
(Bergadaà, 1990; Davies & Omer, 1996;
the scant amount of attention that has
Feldman & Hornik, 1981; Hauser et al.,
been paid to temporal dimensions
1993; Hornik, 1984; Hornik & Zakay,
(time
1996; Kaufman et al., 1991; Robinson &
perspectives,
Nicosia, 1991).
segmentation criteria is paradoxical.
More recently, on the one hand, research
Table 2.1 provides a summary of the
focused on subjective time measures
empirical studies reviewed that have
has shown, among other things that
proposed consumer segmentation based
people are more willing to waste their
on time. Upon studying this table, various
time than their money (Okada & Hoch,
aspects stand out. First, there is a
2004); time orientation is an essential
predominance of research that uses a
starting point for understanding some
subjective
purchase patterns (e.g. impulsiveness or
segmentation base in comparison to that
means of payment) (Sarabia-Sanchez,
which uses an objective measure (five
2005); compared to wasting time, gaining
studies as opposed to two). Second,
a windfall of ‘free’ time, or spending time
almost all the studies reviewed focus on
on oneself, spending time with others
very specific subjects (e.g. shopping,
relaxes
constraints,
food shopping, or leisure), with the
increases feelings of time affluence, and
exception of that of Kamakura (2009).
can
Third, some researchers have used small
perceived
lessen
time
time pressure
(Mogilner,
Chance, & Norton, 2012); and emotional
attitudes, and
time
sample sizes
perceptions
or
time
as
use)
measure
(Avello
et
al.,
as
a
2010;
37
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Chetthamrongchai & Davies, 2000). All of
carry out new empirical research based
the above therefore justify the need to
on time use as segmentation criterion.
Table 2.1. Main studies concerning consumer segmentation on the basis of temporal dimensions.
Authors (year)
McDonald (1994)
Specific subject
Shopping
Segmentation criteria/bases Time perceptions (sense of purpose, structured routine, effective organisation, lack of present orientation, and persistence)
Sample size
Clusters (Percentage)
Country
448 individuals aged 45 or over
1. Routine managers (51%) 2. Aimless wanderers (37%) 3. Purposeful organisers (12%)
United States of America
Food shopping
Time attitudes (past, present and future orientations, time pressure, and succession) and shopping attitudes
210 respondents
Leisure
Temporal orientations or TPs (pastnegative, pastpositive, presentfatalistic, presenthedonistic, and future)
Study 1 (S1): 148 undergraduate students Study 2 (S2): 437 respondents aged 18 or over
Leisure
Leisure budgets, time use (five activities), temporal distribution, and perceptions of leisure time
3776 working day diaries
Dobson and Ness (2009)
Food shopping
Time attitudes (pressure, succession-planner, present-traditional, past-secure, future, past-tradition, and present-planner) and shopping attitudes
744 undergraduate students
Kamakura (2009)
Timestyles
Time use (18 activities)
12,687 individuals/ diaries
Shopping
Time perceptions (time pressure, temporal orientation, efficiency, planning, routine, and succession) and hedonic shopping motivations
257 women aged between 30 and 50 years old
Chetthamrongchai and Davies (2000)
Shores (2005)
Jäckel and Wollscheid (2007)
Avello et al. (2010)
38
1. Convenience seekers (29%) 2. Time-pressured convenience seekers (28%) 3. Apathetic but regular (23%) 4. Hedonists (20%) 1. Present-hedonistic (S1: 20%, S2: 7%) 2. Future (S1: 20%, S2: 27%) 3. Present-fatalistic (S1: 20%, S2: 6%) 4. Past-positive (S1: 18%, S2: 43%) 5. Past-negative (S1: 11%, S2: 9%) 6. Undifferentiated (S1: 11%, S2: 8%) 1. Cluster with a medium leisure time (50%) 2. Time-poor cluster (33%) 3. Time-rich cluster (17%) 1. Methodical, valueseeking, apathetic, time-pressured traditional females (36%) 2. Hedonistic, succession-planning past-secure females (33%) 3. Futuristic, spontaneous male convenience seekers (31%) A-B. Timestyles on a working day (34%) C. Timestyle of students (5%) D-F. Timestyles of homemakers (35%) G-K. Timestyles focused on personal care and free time (26%)
1. Efficient/recreational (29%) 2. Erratic (34%) 3. Pragmatic (37%)
England
United States of America
Germany
England
United States of America
Spain
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION 2.2.2.
From lifestyle segmentation
the basis of four dimensions: values, life
to
visions,
market
segmentation
based on time use
aesthetic
styles,
and
media
preferences.
From a theoretical perspective, the need
However, none of the proposals described
to segment the market on the basis of
in the previous paragraph are consistent
time use refers to the concept of lifestyles
with
as a means of discovering the activities
Golden (1984), who conclude that there
carried out by consumers in their daily
is
lives. The concept of lifestyle has been
imprecision as regards the lifestyle
addressed by various disciplines (e.g.
construct
sociology,
or
literature. These authors suggest a clear
environmental sciences) and related to
distinction between lifestyle (restricting
many different problems (Jensen, 2009).
the
This interdisciplinary interest
characteristic
psychology,
marketing,
signifies
a
the approach
of Anderson
conceptual in
and
operational
consumer
definition
of
and
behaviour
lifestyle
patterns
of
to overt
that in our literature review we have
behaviour) and psychographic variables
found almost as many definitions of
or cognitive style (characteristic patterns
lifestyle as there are disciplines in which
of thinking, feeling, and perceiving). In
this concept has been studied.
this respect, Jensen (2009, p. 225) defines lifestyle as ‘a pattern of repeated
In the areas of marketing and consumer
acts that are both dynamic and to some
behaviour, lifestyle segmentation has
degree hidden to the individual, and they
been
identify
involve the use of artefacts’. Thus, von
homogeneous groups of consumers and
Normann (2009) for example presents
to
strategies
the results from an empirical study of
(Cahill, 2006). Plummer (1974) points out
German children in which a segmentation
that lifestyle measures people’s activities
analysis was conducted based on their
in terms of: how they spend their time,
lifestyles measured with leisure time
their interests and opinions, and certain
activities selected. This research reveals
demographic
Lifestyles
four lifestyles: family-centred children,
have therefore been measured using
outdoor and sociable youth, multimedia
different
kids, and culture-oriented youth.
used
extensively
implement
to
marketing
characteristics.
versions
of
the
Activities,
Interests and Opinions (AIO) Scale (Wells & Tigert, 1971) in a number of
McDonald (1994, p. 360) suggests that
studies,
consumers ‘assign time to activities based
such
as
that
conducted
by
Kucukemiroglu (1999). Vyncke (2002)
on
opportunities
subsequently advised against the use of
associated with lifestyle characteristics,
the AIO Scale, and identified lifestyles on
which
is
consistent
and with
constraints the
social-
39
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN psychological perspective that time use
work, housework, and leisure. As (1978)
represents
denominates these four kinds of time as:
an
indicator
of
lifestyles’.
Various authors have followed this idea to
necessary
go a step further and indicate that time
health, and hygiene), contracted time
use methodologies can provide valuable
(amount of time spent on paid work or
empirical evidence about lifestyles (Luo
study,
et al., 2013), while other researchers
committed time (time budget dedicated
have performed segmentations based on
to unpaid work such as housework,
data concerning how people allocate their
childcare,
time
2007;
volunteer work and meetings, and travel
Kamakura, 2009). Jäckel and Wollscheid
related to these activities), and leisure
(2007) use the German Time Use Survey
time (remaining time, when the time for
data collected from 2001 to 2002 and find
necessary, contracted
three lifestyles (a group with medium
activities is removed). Some authors refer
leisure time, a time-poor cluster, and a
to the last dimension (leisure time) as
time-rich cluster) which differ in their
free time, which is a standard measure of
leisure budgets, activities (media, social
time poverty (Spinney & Millward, 2010).
activity, sports, hobbies and games, and
However, in practise, people may spend
relaxing), temporal distribution (morning,
more time than is strictly necessary on
afternoon, and evening), perceptions of
each of the three previous dimensions
leisure time (not enough, enough, or too
(i.e. they spend more time on personal
much
socio-
care than necessary, work longer, or
demographic profiles. Kamakura (2009)
spend more time on unpaid household)
proposes a time-allocation model and
(Goodin, Rice, Bittman, & Saunders,
applies it to data from the American Time
2005). According to these authors, this
Use Survey collected in 2006, identifying
leads to what they denominate as ‘time-
eleven timestyles that define the different
pressure
ways in which American people allocate
recommend that time poverty should be
their time to 18 daily activities (Table
measured
2.1).
‘discretionary time’ (time left to them
(Jäckel
leisure
&
Wollscheid,
time),
and
time
and
(eating,
associated
shopping
illusion’ using
and the
and
and
they
sleeping,
travel),
services,
committed
therefore
concept
of
after they do the minimum they need to 2.2.3.
Heterogeneity in time use and
do as regards personal care, paid work
its determinants
and unpaid household labour).
As Feldman and Hornik (1981) indicate,
In addition to having to choose between
the
the
spending time on one activity or another,
consumer’s allocation of the resources to
individuals may combine (both actively
four components of time: necessities,
and passively) two or more activities at
40
basic
choice
consists
of
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION the same time. In this respect, previous
these unobservable individual differences
research has confirmed the prevalence of
is likely to produce a biased assessment
multi-tasking,
of
multi-tasking
suggesting style
that
affects
the
life
priorities’.
Our
first
research
people’s
question (RQ1) was, therefore: Are there
understanding of time use and the time
different clusters of Spanish consumers
that they spend participating in different
based on the time spent on each activity
activities (Kenyon, 2008).
at
weekends?
aforementioned
Based
on
studies
2007;
the
(Jäckel
Kamakura,
&
This leads us to pose a relevant question:
Wollscheid,
2009;
What do various individuals’ differences
Yamamoto & Kitamura, 1999), we can
in time allocation depend on? According
draw a tentative conclusion as follows:
to Yamamoto and Kitamura (1999), these differences may be owing to observed
Proposition
and unobserved factors. On the one
clusters of Spanish consumers based on
hand, some differences in time use can be
the
accounted for by measures explanatory
weekends.
socio-demographic environmental
on
are
each
different
activity
at
or With regard to observed heterogeneity,
Godbey, 2000), which have been widely
Robinson and Godbey (2000) classify the
dealt with in previous empirical and
background factors that affect how people
theoretical studies, and which will be
spend
discussed later. On the other, some other
biological factors; role factors; status
differences cannot be accounted for by
factors;
observed
geographic factors; and temporal factors
explanatory are
called
(Robinson
spent
There
&
these
aspects
variables
time
1:
variables,
and
‘unobserved
their
time
locational,
into
five
groups:
ecological,
or
(Figure 2.1).
heterogeneity’ (Yamamoto & Kitamura, 1999).
The importance of all these factors has been widely analysed in literature, that
With regard to the latter (unobserved
which has been most frequently studied
factors), Feldman and Hornik (1981)
being gender. This is not only because
indicate that time dedicated to each
there are large gender differences as
activity will depend on its subjective
regards time use, but also because of its
meaning for the consumer. Kamakura
importance for social policies (Robinson &
(2009, p. 335), meanwhile, points out
Godbey, 2000; Shaw, 1991). Current
that there are many explanations why
studies from Spain thus report gender
‘one should expect individuals to differ in
differences in the allocation of leisure
the value they assign to the competing
time to sports and cultural activities
daily activities. Any analysis that ignores
(Muñiz, Rodríguez, & Suárez, 2014). With
41
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN regard to age, previous empirical studies
literature
have
same
leisure time in relation to income (Jäckel
conclusions: older people have more
& Wollscheid, 2007). These authors have
leisure time, but they tend to spend less
discovered differences in leisure time use
time with others than young people
as regards not only gender, age and
(coinciding
income,
consistently
with
reached
the
the
disengagement
on
but
inequalities
also
concerning
family
status,
employment,
and
theory). This may explain why older
education,
people have more freedom than younger
professional status. Kamakura (2009),
people to spend time alone or because
meanwhile, profiles the eleven time-
they have fewer people around (i.e.
styles
smaller, less diverse, and more family-
marital status, presence of children
centric networks than younger people)
younger than 12 at home, family income,
(Marcum, 2013). There is also extensive
occupation, and day of the week.
based
on
gender,
age,
race,
Figure 2.1. Basic background factors in the model underlying activity participation.
Role factors
Work hours Marital status Number of children
Status factors
Biological factors
Sex Age Nationality or race
Education level Income Occupation Activities/behaviour Ecological factors
Housing type Size of place or urban area Region
Temporal factors
Day of the week Month or season Year
Source: adapted from Robinson and Godbey (2000, p. 17).
42
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION The second research question (RQ2)
their time at weekends will be associated
was:
with differences in timing or activity
Do
socio-demographic
variables
affect cluster membership? The research proposition
based
on
the
research
question above is: Proposition
2:
Clusters
rhythms.
of
Spanish
2.3.
Method
2.3.1.
Data and sample profile
consumers based on the time spent on each activity at weekends differ with
This research uses data from the Time
regard
status,
Use Survey (TUS) collected by the
occupation, education level, presence of
Spanish National Statistics Institute from
children younger than 10 at home, and
1 October 2009 to 30 September
family income.
2010, in order to obtain information
to
age,
sex,
marital
concerning all the weeks in the year. The In the present study, the variable ‘day of
TUS
the week’ is not particularly relevant,
strategy
since we have limited our analysis to
census sections (they were grouped into
weekends. However, in order to take a
strata within each Spanish region based
step further in the analysis of time use,
on the size of the municipality to which
we also wish to investigate the question
the section belongs) at first stage. The
of when each type of activity takes
second stage units were selected from
place.
and
lists of family dwellings in each of these
Wollscheid (2007) have found differences
sections. Only those people aged 10 or
in
time
over residing in private residences were
evening)
studied in the TUS. These people filled out
among the three lifestyles that they
an individual questionnaire and an activity
identified. More specifically, the cluster
diary on a pre-established day. More
containing medium leisure time and the
comprehensive details about the data
time-poor
collection process are available in the
In
the
(morning,
this
respect,
distribution
of
afternoon,
cluster
Jäckel leisure
and
spend
a
higher
applied with
percentage of their leisure time budget in
methodological
the morning in comparison with the time-
Spanish
rich cluster. The third research question
(2011).
a
two-stage
stratified
report
National
sampling
sampling
prepared
Statistics
of
by
Institute
(RQ3) was therefore: Do clusters differ as regards their timing or activity rhythms?
The public-use microdata files for the TUS
And our research proposition is:
include
information
individuals/diaries Proposition 3:
Market
about
(Spanish
19,295 National
segmentation
Statistics Institute, 2012), individuals’
based on how Spanish consumers spend
interactions and a specific day. The 7559
43
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN weekend
diaries
beforehand
in
were
selected
accordance
with
the
memory effect may have significantly affected the outcomes of this study (e.g.
objectives of the study. Of these, only
omission
2118 individuals completed their diary
imprecision in timing or activity rhythms,
throughout or at the end of the pre-
etc.). This was nevertheless a sufficiently
established
the
large sample size for statistical analysis.
diary
Furthermore, we compared the socio-
retrospectively (i.e. one or more days
demographic profile of the original (n =
after
for
7559) and filtered weekend (n = 2118)
equality of means were performed to
samples. No substantial deviations were
assess whether the effect of memory
observed, and only two specific deviations
caused a bias in the reported time. We
of above four percentage points (in
found significant differences (p < 0.05) in
absolute value) from the original weekend
the average time spent on 60% of the
sample were detected. These were in
activities considered. Our sample was
occupation (employee = 4.84%) and
therefore reduced to 2118 individuals/
educational level (primary education = -
diaries
5.36%) (Table 2.2).
remaining the
weekend 5441
filled
reported
owing
day,
while
out
day).
the
T-tests
to the fact
that
the
of
short-duration
activities,
Table 2.2. Socio-demographic profile: comparison between original and filtered weekend samples.
Variable AGE SEX
Male Female MARITAL STATUS Single Married/living as a couple Widowed Separated/divorced OCCUPATION Employee Unemployed Student Retired Homemaker Other occupation EDUCATION LEVEL Without any formal education Primary education Secondary education Post-secondary non-tertiary education Tertiary education CHILDREN YOUNGER THAN 10 AT HOME None At least one
Original weekend sample (n = 7559) 47.66
Filtered weekend sample (n = 2118) 44.58
Deviations from the original weekend sample -3.08
46.09% 53.91%
46.08% 53.92%
-0.01% 0.01%
28.06% 59.20% 8.04% 4.70%
30.26% 59.54% 6.14% 4.06%
2.20% 0.34% -1.90% -0.64%
43.23% 10.69% 10.60% 15.76% 12.44% 7.28%
48.07% 10.62% 13.41% 12.23% 10.95% 4.72%
4.84% -0.07% 2.81% -3.53% -1.49% -2.56%
3.97% 34.30% 34.41% 11.59% 15.73%
2.56% 28.94% 37.06% 11.99% 19.45%
-1.41% -5.36% 2.65% 0.40% 3.72%
77.58% 22.42%
74.69% 25.31%
-2.89% 2.89%
Notes: The filtered sample was composed of people who completed the diary throughout or at the end of the pre-established weekend day.
44
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION 2.3.2.
Instruments
profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers and their activity rhythms, we presented
The TUS consisted of four information
the
collection
classification
tools
(Spanish
National
aggregated of
data
based
four
kinds
on of
the time
Statistics Institute, 2011): a household
(necessary, contracted, committed, and
questionnaire;
leisure time) proposed by As (1978), and
an
individual
questionnaire; an activity diary; and a
also
used
weekly work schedule (which was not
(2010).
by
Spinney
and
Millward
used in this research). The individual and
household
questionnaires
2.3.3.
Data analysis
provided us with information about the socio-demographic profile of the sample
The research propositions were tested
(who).
by
applying
analysis
(LCCA).
Time use data were collected using a 24-
significant
hour
segmentation
diary
(divided
into
10-minute
latent
class The
cluster
LCCA
advantages
over
procedures
has other
(Oppewal,
intervals, from 6:00 am to 6:00 am of the
Paas, Crouch, & Huybers, 2010) and has
following day) in which each respondent
been used in other market segmentation
was
main/principal
studies based on time use (García, 2013;
activity (what) and secondary activity
Kamakura, 2009). The proposed model
performed simultaneously (multi-tasking
included a series of indicators (what:
style), in addition to whether she/he used
minutes spent by Spanish consumers on
a
28
asked
computer
performing
to
report:
or these
the
Internet
activities;
when
activities
at
weekends)
and,
in
timing
accordance with previous research, also
(when); location or means of transport
incorporated certain relevant covariates
(where); and social context (with whom).
(who:
The activity code system used in the TUS
occupation, education level, presence of
was an adaptation of the Activity Coding
children younger than 10 at home, and
List 2008 proposed by Eurostat (2009) for
family income) with which to predict
harmonised European time use surveys.
cluster
This is hierarchical, with a maximum of
parameters were estimated using Latent
three levels. For our analyses, the 33
Gold® 4.5, while additional univariate
second-level activities were aggregated
and
into 28 categories. In addition, in order
conducted using IBM® SPSS® Statistics
to facilitate the interpretation of the
19.0.
age,
sex,
marital
membership.
bivariate
The
analyses
status,
model
were
45
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN 2.4.
Results
better fit (Wedel & Kamakura, 2000). The results presented in Table 2.3 indicate
2.4.1.
Number of time-use patterns
that, according to the CAIC, there were
and
nine time use patterns for Spanish
usefulness
of
the
indicators and covariates
consumers at weekends.
The first step in the LCCA is the selection
After determining the number of clusters
of
(nine), we evaluated the usefulness of
the
appropriate
number
of
clusters/segments based on statistical
the
criteria, such
significant
as
consistent
Akaike
indicators
and
p-value
covariates.
(i.e.
p
C2, C3; C4 > C2, C3; C6 > C2, C3
C2 C3 C5 C6 C8 C9
> > > > > >
C1, C3, C4, C7; C1; C1, C3, C4, C7; C1; C1, C4; C1
Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation; C1-9: Cluster 1 to 9; aAsymptotically F distributed.
57
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 2.9. Tests of independence between cluster membership of Spanish consumers and kind of day.
Pearson chi-square test
Kind of day
χ (df)
p
2
Ordinary/unusual day
8.41 (8)
0.39
Busy day (yes/no)
9.26 (8)
0.32
Sick leave day (yes/no)
10.56 (8)
0.23
Holiday or vacation day (yes/no)
12.66 (8)
0.12
Travel day (yes/no)
11.56 (8)
0.17
32.00 (24)
0.13
Quarter of the year (IV/2009, I/2010, II/2010, III/2010)
Bearing in mind that the TUS data are
membership
cross-sectional
an
variables related to the kind of day (p >
individual and a specific day) rather than
0.05), suggesting that the nine time use
longitudinal, it might be necessary to ask
patterns
to what extent the nine clusters identified
individual differences and not to the
above really do correspond with the time
kind of day.
use
patterns
(interactions
developed
by
of
and
were
the
aforementioned
really
owing
to
different
individuals and are not explained by the
2.4.3.
existence of weekend days with different
Activity rhythms: in search of when
characteristics. The activity rhythms were measured Robinson and Godbey (2000) point out
through the percentage of people who
the fact that temporal factors (e.g. day of
spent their time on the same kind of
the week, month or season of the year, or
activity
year) can greatly affect how time is spent.
committed, and leisure activities) at the
Although all the diaries used in this
same time on a weekend day (Figure
research were related to a weekend day
2.2). The last line graph, entitled ‘Total’,
(Saturday or Sunday), we believed that it
provides the activity rhythms of the
would be appropriate to analyse the
Spanish consumers on a weekend day:
statistical
the
from 6:00 to 10:00, most people spend
(cluster
their time in necessary activities; from
membership) and the kind of day (i.e.
11:00 to 13:00, about 40% spend their
an ordinary/unusual day, a busy day, a
time on committed activities; from
sick leave day, a holiday or vacation day,
14:00 to 15:00, the necessary time is
a travel day, and quarter of the year).
predominant; from 16:00 to 23:00, a
nine
association
time
use
between
patterns
higher Table 2.9
(necessary,
percentage
of
contracted,
people
pursue
shows that no statistical
leisure activities; and from midnight,
associations were found between cluster
almost all perform necessary activities.
58
100%
100%
Cluster 5. DIY handy-people
Cluster 7. People committed to caring for relatives
Cluster 9. People who mix leisure time and studies
Necessary time
Contracted time 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00
100% 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00
06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00
Cluster 3. Weekend workers
06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00
06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00
100% 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00
06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00
Cluster 1. People who pursue domestic activities 100%
80% 80%
60% 60%
40% 40%
20% 20%
0% 0%
100%
80% 80%
60% 60%
40% 40%
20% 20%
0% 0%
100%
80% 80%
60% 60%
40% 40%
20% 20%
0% 0%
80% 80%
60% 60%
40% 40%
20% 20%
0% 0%
80%
80%
60%
60%
40%
40%
20%
20%
0%
0%
06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00
06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00
100%
06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Figure 2.2.
Activity rhythms of each cluster of Spanish consumers.
Cluster 2. Sleepyheads and couch potatoes
Cluster 4. Book and radio/music lovers during leisure time
Cluster 6. Art lovers with quite a lot of leisure time
100%
Cluster 8. Eclectics
100%
Total
Committed time
Leisure time
59
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Figure 2.2 is extremely valuable since it
2009). The main conclusions obtained
highlights some differences between and
as regards the three research questions
similarities in the timing in the nine
posed are detailed as follows.
clusters (RQ3). With
regard
to
the
first
research
It is thus interesting to observe that
question, nine clusters based on the time
almost
spent on each activity at weekends have
all
the
clusters
are
focused,
although with different intensities, on
been
leisure activities during a weekend
domestic
afternoon, with the exception of the
couch potatoes, weekend workers, book
cluster that contains people committed
and radio/music lovers during leisure
to caring for relatives (Cluster 7). The
time, DIY handy-people, art lovers with
sleepyheads and couch potatoes (Cluster
quite
2) and those who mix leisure time and
committed
studies (Cluster 9) are the only people
eclectics, and people who mix leisure time
whose
clearly
and studies. All the activities considered
predominates over other types of time in
are relevant as regards segmenting the
the
workers
consumers into these nine groups, with
maximum
the exception of the time dedicated to
leisure
morning.
(Cluster
3)
time The
also
weekend
contains
the
identified:
a
people
activities,
lot
of to
personal
who
pursue
sleepyheads
leisure caring
for
relatives,
other
contracted activities from 10:00 to 13:00.
significant differences can be observed in
More detailed interpretations for each
the relative size of the various groups.
cluster of Spanish consumers could be
The
extracted from Figure 2.2.
domestic
three
What
people
percentage of people who carry out
first
care.
time,
and
(people
activities,
is
who
more,
pursue
sleepyheads
and
couch potatoes, and weekend workers) 2.5.
Discussion and conclusions
comprise 66.15% of the sample, while the set size of the last four (art lovers with
The objective of the first study has
quite
been to identify and describe the time use
committed
patterns
eclectics, and people who mix leisure time
of
Spanish
consumers
at
weekends. This is relevant from both
a
lot
of to
leisure caring
time, for
people
relatives,
and studies) does not reach 18%.
academic and professional perspectives, particularly when bearing in mind the
That which is described in the paragraph
scant
above
amount
of
previous
empirical
has
important
practical
research in the sphere of consumer
implications for marketers and public
behaviour oriented towards carrying out a
policy makers since it may help them to
market segmentation based on time use
understand which time use patterns are
(Jäckel & Wollscheid, 2007; Kamakura,
more
60
or
less
common
amongst
the
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Spanish at weekends. From the point of
younger than 10 at home. However,
view of social policy, the fact that two of
unlike what we expected to find a priori
the three largest groups (those who
based on the empirical evidence (Jäckel &
pursue domestic activities and weekend
Wollscheid, 2007), we have found no
workers)
at
differences in family income among the
weekends should be the object of more
nine groups identified. This result may, in
in-depth
when
part, be because over 20% of the sample
has been
chose the ‘do not know/no answer’ option
indicated by diverse authors, social time
when responding to this question, which
during weekends has a great impact on
considerably reduces the discriminant
emotional
power of this variable.
bearing
are
time-poor
analysis, in
mind
clusters
particularly that, as
well-being
(Young
&
Lim,
2014). In
relation
to
the
third
research
It is also noteworthy that two of the
question, we have discovered that the
groups that spend most time carrying out
nine clusters identified are associated
various activities at once (Clusters 4 and
with various timing or activity rhythms
6) are clusters with quite a lot of leisure
during a weekend. This information is
time. This does not coincide with what has
truly valuable as regards allowing leisure-
been found in other previous studies
related business to organise their leisure
which suggest that the multi-tasking style
proposals/activities
is almost exclusive to consumers who
(concerning both duration and schedule)
need a response to strong time pressure
by considering the specific profile of the
(Kenyon,
2008).
consumers that they wish to attract. For
therefore
to
It
is
conclude
reasonable that
for
the
weekend
time
example, the target market of a book
management strategies based on multi-
release event or a cultural activity should
tasking styles not only respond to little
be the subjects belonging to Clusters 4
free time but also to personal tendencies
and 6 (book and radio/music lovers
and preference as regards the way in
during leisure time, and art lovers with
which time is organised (independently of
quite a lot of leisure time). In order to
the time pressure experienced).
influence the public, they should therefore programme these events to take place in
With respect to the second research
the afternoon/evening (between 16:00
question, we have been able to conclude
and 20:00 at weekends), since a greater
that the various time use patterns are
proportion of the consumers in these two
effectively associated with differences in
groups enjoy their leisure during this time
socio-demographic profile as regards age,
span. Similar practical implications can be
gender, marital status, occupation, level
extracted for other types of activities
of education, and presence of children
related to the leisure industry.
61
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN In interpreting the results of this study,
interest, particularly when bearing in
several
mind that in Spain there is even a
limitations
should
be
considered.
National
Commission
for
the
rationalisation of schedules and their Firstly, two of these limitations are related
standardisation
to the characteristics of the method that
Union
is used internationally in the sphere of
Commission
time use surveys: the data used are
things, that private TV channels should
cross-sectional, and to make advances
bring forward their prime-time shows in
in this respect it would be interesting to
order to encourage Spanish people to go
be able to have longitudinal panel data
to bed earlier. Whatever the case, it
(Kamakura, 2009); and the method
would certainly be interesting to carry out
used
participants’
cross-cultural studies in order to be able
capacity, constancy and motivation if
to obtain a more in-depth analysis of the
they are to complete an exhaustive
differences
activities
countries.
requires
the
diary
(Jäckel
this
research
&
Wollscheid,
2007). Secondly,
has
focused
exclusively on weekends for the reasons given in the Introduction of this chapter. Nevertheless, in future studies it would be interesting methodology
to
apply
followed
additionally analyse the
the in
same
order
existence
to of
rich/poor clusters in terms of weekday leisure time. Finally, the findings are circumscribed to the sphere of Spanish consumers. We do not believe that this detracts from the importance of the research, since we are dealing with a country with certain very interesting
cultural
particularities
as
regards schedule (e.g. a considerable percentage
of
consumers
are
still
watching TV at midnight). In fact, we consider that this increases the study’s
62
with
countries. proposes,
and
other This
European National
among
similarities
other
between
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION
CHAPTER 3.
MARKET
SEGMENTATION
BASED ON TIME USE: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS IN THE HISTORIC CITY OF TOLEDO, SPAIN
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION CHAPTER 3. MARKET SEGMENTATION
times,
and
attraction
opening
BASED ON TIME USE: AN EMPIRICAL
(Dickinson & Peeters, 2014). Constraints
ANALYSIS IN THE HISTORIC CITY OF
have been
TOLEDO, SPAIN
categories: intrapersonal (psychological),
classified in
interpersonal
hours
three major
(interactions
and
relationships), and structural (financial and temporal) (Crawford, Jackson, & 3.1.
Introduction
Godbey, 1991;
Nyaupane, Morais, &
Graefe, 2004). Time is considered as a Time use is a frequent research topic in
structural constraint that predetermines
the literature appertaining to a wide
the activities which can be pursued at the
range of disciplines, such as sociology,
destination
economics,
Andronikidis, 2013).
urban
planning,
and
(Vassiliadis,
Priporas,
&
transportation (Kamakura, 2009). The lack of time in modern societies has
Visitors need to determine not only how
become
important
much time is needed to travel to and from
problems (Anderson, Golden, Umesh, &
the destination, but also how much time
Weeks, 1992) given that, unlike money,
should be allocated to each activity in
it is impossible to postpone its use
order to experience the place visited
(Kamakura, 2009). In fact, lack of time
(Haldrup, 2004). Examinations of time
and excess of information may even
use and activity patterns allow a more
eclipse the importance of money. It may
exhaustive understanding of visitors’
occur that people with relatively high
decisions, which can lead to better
incomes are poor as regards free time
marketing strategies and more economic
(income-rich/time-poor), and not having
growth (LaMondia, 2010). On the one
the time needed to carry out their leisure
hand, time allocated to activities provide
activities may lead to dissatisfaction in
useful insights into decisions that might
their lives (Jäckel & Wollscheid, 2007).
improve
one
of
the
most
levels
of
services
at
destinations (Zhang et al., 2012). On the Within the area of tourism, time and
other hand, time is an important resource
money are the two scarce resources
in the touristic experience (Prebensen,
that are of most importance to visitors
Vittersø, & Dahl, 2013). Increasing the
(Zhang, Zhang, & Kuwano, 2012), be
quality of time use during travel may
they day-trippers (those who do not
therefore
spend the night at the destination) or
satisfaction and the probability of them
tourists (those who do). All touristic visits
revisiting and recommending it to others,
have a time limit and are conditioned by
which
the schedules of public transport, meal
competitive position to improve.
will
serve
to
permit
increase
the
visitors’
destination’s
65
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Despite the fact that time is a precious
of time use in tourism, which is followed
resource
by
for
visitors,
relatively
little
a
presentation
of
the
method.
specifically relating to tourism and time
Empirical results (market segmentation
has
years
based on time use and differences in
(Dickinson & Peeters, 2014). In this
outcome variables) are then analysed
respect, and based on an in-depth review
before our final conclusions are drawn,
of
and
been
the
written
current
in
recent
tourism
literature,
LaMondia (2010, p. 11) points out that ‘the understanding many
and
future
research
opportunities are discussed.
of time use and
activities within this field is incomplete and
limitations
opportunities
for
3.2.
Literature review
3.2.1.
The key role of time use: from
further
analysis currently exist’. This chapter in fact fills one of the many existing gaps by
marketing
evaluating time use at the destination as
tourism
and
leisure
to
a segmentation criterion/base in tourism. This is a relevant contribution if we bear
Empirical and theoretical research has
in mind that we have been unable to find
recently
any
marketing, leisure, and tourism areas
previous
empirical
studies
that
been
the
the basis of this segmentation criterion.
consumers/visitors’ behaviour when they
More specifically, the study presented
decide how to spend their time. The
herein has two research objectives.
researchers who most stand out in the
The first is to identify the various
first
segments of visitors to the historic city
marketing and consumer studies, are
of Toledo as regards both day-trippers
Okada and Hoch (2004), who focus their
and tourists, according to the amount of
interest
time spent pursuing different activities.
different evaluation of the opportunity
The second is to determine whether
cost associated with their time or money.
there
their
The second group of studies is focused
spending, the image that they have of
on factors that determine timestyle and
the destination after visiting it, and their
its influence on leisure activities (Cotte &
intention to revisit and recommend as
Ratneshwar, 2003). In the third group,
regards the various segments identified
tourism researchers incorporate time
according to their time use.
use and activity patterns into their studies
differences
in
group,
on
which
how
factors
in
that
any
which
out
analyse the heterogeneity of visitors on
are
study
carried
is
influence
related
to
consumers make a
in a number of ways, including how time The remainder of the third chapter is
use and activities are integrated into the
organised as follows. The next section
tourism decision-making process, and the
focuses on a literature review of the role
role of preferences and perceptions in
66
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION determining
time
use
and
activities
(LaMondia, 2010).
associated with the time available to them at the destination. On the other hand, a high
proportion
of
visitors
have
a
Within the first group of researches,
high/medium need for variety (Barroso,
Okada and Hoch (2004) find differences
Martín, & Martín, 2007), signifying that
in the way that people spend time versus
they attempt to optimize their time
money. Specifically, it would appear that
because they will probably not return to
consumers are more willing to waste their
the destination. In this context, the
time than their money. This is owing to
ambiguity
the fact that individuals are flexible in
substantially reduced. In an experiment
valuing their time, and if the experience
in which athletic shoes could only be paid
is negative, they infer a lesser value to
in time, a negative outcome could be
the
exchange
relativized and a consumer could say ‘It
transaction (Okada & Hoch, 2004), since
cost me no money, just time’ or ‘At least
it is more difficult to make an evaluation
I didn't pay money’ (Okada & Hoch,
of the opportunity cost of time (Soman,
2004). However, in the case of tourist
2001). Some authors have referred to
activities, including those on which no
this as ambiguity of the value of time or
money is spent (e.g. a visit to a museum
elastic justification (Hsee, 1995). An
whose entrance is free), the result of an
important question therefore arises: are
unsatisfactory experience would probably
visitors really arbitrary when evaluating
be ‘It was a huge waste of time’. It would
their
therefore appear that on a tourist visit
time
time
spent
during
in
the
their
stay
at
a
destination?
of
the
value
of
time
is
‘Time is gold’, thus making it an asset that is similar to or perhaps even more
The
characteristics
of
a
tourist
trip
valuable than money.
suggest that visitors are not so arbitrary when making decisions regarding how to
In
spend their time. On the one hand, the
Ratneshwar (2003, p. 560) point out that
existence of a trip plan (i.e. visitors are
‘leisure
required to consider a number of facets
patterns can be explained, at least in part,
such as travel destination, activities,
by people’s timestyles’. Feldman and
accommodation, attractions, or length of
Hornik (1981, p. 407) define timestyle as
trip) (Park, Nicolau, & Fesenmaier, 2013)
‘the allocation of time among the various
and the constraints imposed by activities
activities’. Cotte and Ratneshwar (2003)
that are finite in space and time (Xiao-
propose
Ting & Bi-Hu, 2012) are common to
determined by four key dimensions:
almost all tourist trips. This helps visitors
social orientation (time for self versus
to
time
calculate
the
opportunity
cost
the
second
group,
behaviours
that
with/for
and
timestyles
others);
Cotte
and
consumption
should
be
temporal
67
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN orientation (the relative significance of
destination
past,
spontaneous trip decision making, and
present
or
orientation
future);
planning
(analytic
spontaneous);
and
versus polychronic
extent
of
travel
tendency,
advance
level
planning)
of
have
significant impacts on the number of
orientation (multi-tasking style versus
unplanned
stops.
one-thing-at-a-time style).
independent
In
visitors
the or
case
of
backpackers,
previous studies report partially mixed The aforementioned dimensions acquire
results as regards trip planning. Hyde and
tremendous relevance when carrying out
Lawson (2003) conclude that backpackers
an analysis of timestyles in tourism. In
experience an evolving itinerary, are
the first place, with regard to social
willing to take risks, and possess a desire
orientation,
to
the
composition
of
the
experience
the
unplanned;
while
travel group (tour group, travelling alone,
Hottola (2005) identifies that almost all
presence of children, etc.) conditions the
the backpackers surveyed in India have
activities
the
to some degree planned their tourist trip
destination (LaMondia, 2010). In other
and timetables earlier. Lastly, during a
words,
and/or
tourist visit it is customary to perceive
obligatory activities (Cotte & Ratneshwar,
time in terms of one-thing-at-a-time,
2003). In the second place, time use can
although visitors can perform more than
vary
past
one activity at the same time (Vassiliadis
experiences or familiarity with the
et al., 2013) (e.g. strolling and shopping,
destination.
walking and seeing monuments, etc.).
to
be
there
are
greatly
visitors
carried
out
voluntary
according First-time
consume
the
at
to and
repeat
destination
in
substantially different ways (i.e. first-time
In the third group, tourism researchers
visitors are interested in exploring, and
incorporate time use and activity patterns
repeaters are more interested in passive
into their studies in a number of ways
consumption) (McKercher, Shoval, Ng, &
(LaMondia,
Birenboim, 2012). In the third place, with
have commonly ignored the ‘where’,
regard to planning orientation, Hwang
concentrating
and Fesenmaier (2011, p. 412) point out
‘what’ (Fennell, 1996); while tourism
that ‘unplanned attraction visits are a
researchers who are geographers have
substantial part of pleasure travel’. These
focused on spatial-temporal behaviour
authors find that trip plan characteristics
patterns
(planned
of
Vassiliadis et al. (2013), who belong to
activities planned, and number of planned
the former, examine time distribution and
stops)
and
the activity allocation of visitors to ski
(past
travel
length
of
stay,
trip/visitor experience,
number
characteristics number
of
purposes, travelling with children, multi-
68
2010).
Non-geographers
on
(McKercher
the
et
‘when’
al.,
and
2012).
resorts using an analysis based on time blocks.
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Within the geographic sphere, the time-
permitting the normal notions of time to
space concept introduced by Hägerstrand
be suspended (Wilson & Richards, 2008).
(1970) in order to develop a type of socio-
More recently, Hottola (2012) suggests
economic web model, has had a great
that time-budget studies with a focus on
influence on the way in which tourism and
metaspaces could be one instrument to
leisure are conceived (Coles & Hall, 2006;
research whether independents visitors
Hall, 2005, 2012). Hägerstrand (1970)
spend less time in metaspacial retreats
proposes that the combined effect of
and interact more with the local people
three types of constraints (capability,
than package visitors.
coupling,
and
authority
constraints)
condition
the
individual’s
ability
to
3.2.2.
Market
heterogeneity:
move/change from one place/activity to
towards
another. In this respect, Shoval (2012)
segmentation based on time
proposes the following
use
adaptation
of
a
tourism
market
these time geography constraints for tourists’ time-space activity: capability
Various theoretical and empirical studies
constraints (the need for a minimum
suggest the utility of time use as a
amount of sleep and food, the kind of
segmentation criterion (Davies & Omer,
transport used, and the length of stay);
1996; Kamakura, 2009; Schary, 1971).
coupling constraints (the composition
Davies and Omer (1996, p. 264) conclude
of the travel group); and authority
that ‘any new approach will need to
constraints
provide
opening
(e.g.
hours
attractions,
the
the
for
existence
museums
schedules
of
of
an
understanding
of
how
and
customers interact with time so as to help
public
us to develop a way of analysing or
transport, etc.). The contributions of
segmenting
Hottola (2005) are also important, as are
services
those of Wilson and Richards (2008) who
related’. The market segments that are
refer to metaworlds (also termed as
created by time choices could be more
tourist bubbles, enclaves, or touristic
meaningful
metaspaces). Hottola (2005, p. 2) defines
criteria/bases used (Schary, 1971). In
metaworlds as ‘realities placed in time
this
and space that differ from the dominant
empirically proves that individuals differ
reality’. Visitors feel
that they have
in their usage of time in a full day; and
control in these tourist bubbles, and that
people are diverse in both their needs and
they can manage the stress of learning
many
and their cultural confusion, leading them
unobserved heterogeneity in different
to
people’s time priorities.
relax
(Hottola,
2005),
and
thus
markets
whose
other
goods
consumption
than
respect,
for
many Kamakura
factors,
which
is
and time
of
the (2009)
leads
to
69
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN According
to
Wedel
and
Kamakura
indexed in the 2011 Journal Citation
(2000), market segmentation involves
Report
portioning a heterogeneous market into
between 2008 and 2012 (Table 3.1).
smaller homogenous markets. A market
After refining the search results, a total of
can be segmented in a number of ways
90 studies were identified as being
using
empirical
observable/unobservable
direct
versus
(i.e.
inferred
measurement)
general/product-specific
(i.e.
independent
of
circumstances
versus
Social
Sciences
articles
methodological
or
Edition®
(i.e.
without
theoretical
reviews,
book
reviews,
papers,
corrections,
proceedings or
editorial
tourism
market
related to the particular circumstances)
materials)
bases. Six conditions have been put
segmentation (i.e. without businesses
forward as determining the effectiveness
clusters, or segmentation of companies,
and profitability of market segmentation
residents, non-travellers and countries)
strategies: identifiability, substantiality,
(Appendix B). Surprisingly, in spite of
accessibility, stability, actionability, and
the growing interest in this research topic,
responsiveness
no tourism studies have been found that
(Wedel
&
Kamakura,
2000).
on
papers,
identify segments of visitors according to the time dedicated to pursuing various
Tourism
researchers
have
suggested
activities at the destination.
diverse segmentation criteria/bases and have applied them in order to
As will be observed in Table 3.1, 18 of
understand visitors’ behaviours. Bigné,
the
Gnoth,
activities
and
Andreu
(2007),
and
90
articles and
analysed
motivations
propose as
a
Tkaczynski, Rundle-Thiele, and Beaumont
segmentation criterion (e.g. Nimrod &
(2009), provide excellent summaries of
Rotem, 2010; Park & Yoon, 2009). The
research
studies in this group evaluate the market
on
segmentation.
tourism More
market
specifically,
the
heterogeneity
based
on
the
various
segmentation of cultural and heritage
activity types participated in or the main
visitors has been the topic of numerous
purpose
empirical studies (Galí & Donaire, 2006;
effectiveness
Tchetchik, Fleischer, & Shoval, 2009).
criterion may be reduced in the case of a
of
the
trip.
of
this
However,
the
segmentation
specific cultural destination (such as that In order to provide a more complete
considered in the research presented
overview
herein), where, for example, almost all
of
current
tendencies
in
tourist segmentation, we have used
individuals
the Web of Science® database to analyse
monuments. In spite of this, none of the
the
studies analysed quantify how much
empirical
segmentation
articles
published in the 12 tourism journals
70
visit
museums
time is dedicated to each activity.
and
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Table 3.1. Criteria/bases and evolution of tourism segmentation studies published between 2008 and 2012: tourism journals indexed in 2011 Journal Citation Report Social Sciences Edition®.
Concept
Percentage (N = 90)
SEGMENTATION CRITERIA/BASES
100.00%
Activities and motivations
20.00%
Environmental behaviour and attitudes
8.89%
Expenditure
6.67%
Price sensitivity
5.56%
Spatial-temporal patterns
5.56%
Loyalty intentions and behaviours
4.44%
Tourism decision-making process
4.44%
Destination familiarity
3.33%
Satisfaction and destination image
3.33%
Mixed bases
13.33%
Other unobservable tourism-specific bases (benefits sought, perceptions…)
6.67%
Other observable tourism-specific bases (length of stay, frequency…)
6.67%
Other unobservable general bases (lifestyles and psychographic variables) Other observable general bases (demographic, geographic and socio-economic variables) JOURNAL NAME
6.67% 4.44% 100.00%
Tourism Management
31.11%
International Journal of Tourism Research
16.67%
Journal of Travel Research
13.33%
Tourism Economics
7.78%
Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research
6.67%
Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research Other tourism journals indexed in 2011 JCR Social Sciences Edition® PUBLICATION YEAR
6.67% 17.77% 100.00%
2012
30.00%
2011
28.89%
2010
18.89%
2009
7.78%
2008
14.44%
Five of the empirical studies of those
attractions/nodes/points, time spent at
published
2012
each point, total time of the visit, length
on
of the itinerary, area visited, dominant
spatial-temporal patterns (Lee & Joh,
movement patterns, etc. (Lee & Joh,
2010; Tchetchik et al., 2009; Xia et al.,
2010; Tchetchik et al., 2009; Xia et al.,
2010; Xiao-Ting & Bi-Hu, 2012; Zakrisson
2010).
present
between a
2008
segmentation
and based
& Zillinger, 2012). In this group of works, which
were
principally
developed
by
The paper of Zakrisson and Zillinger
geographers, the emphasis is on the
(2012) presents the results from four
‘where’, but not on the ‘what’. Visitors are
case studies (two event studies and two
therefore segmented on the basis of
destination studies). In all four cases,
variables such as number of accessible
there are three mobility patterns (main
71
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN attraction
visitors,
specialists,
and
wanderers). These authors’ results also
visitors,
we
therefore
propose
the
following:
show that negative experiences are more often associated with mobility patterns
Proposition
1:
There
are
different
than positive experiences.
segments within the groups of both daytrippers and tourists in the historic city of
Xiao-Ting and Bi-Hu (2012) identify seven
Toledo based on the time spent on each
clusters of spatial-temporal behaviour
activity.
patterns in the Summer Palace, located in Beijing (China). These spatial-temporal
We also hope that it will be possible to
behaviour patterns can be determined by
profile each of the segments with
four factors: temporal behaviour factors
different
(total time at an attraction, plan time,
incorporating
entrance time, exit time, and total stay
covariates (Wedel & Kamakura, 2000):
time);
factors
previous visits (McKercher et al., 2012);
factors
tour group (LaMondia, 2010); and socio-
exhibitions,
demographic variables (age and place of
general sightseeing, admiring the flowers,
residence). Nevertheless, in this last
and
path
case it is important to stress that previous
characteristic factors (stay-points, length
studies have found the role of socio-
of space-time path, areas visited, and
demographic
stay time in a sequence). However, Xiao-
segmentation of cultural visitors to be
Ting and Bi-Hu (2012) do not measure
very limited (Galí & Donaire, 2006; Xiao-
the time that the visitors spend on each
Ting & Bi-Hu, 2012).
spatial
(districts); (walking,
behaviour
activity
choice
photography,
other
activities);
and
time
use
some
patterns
relevant
variables
by
external
in
the
activity, only whether or not they pursue a specific activity. Accordingly, the work of
these
authors
as
regards
3.2.3.
the
Time use, tourist experience and outcomes
discriminate power of activity choice factors is consequently virtually non-
Many tourism scholars have criticised
existent (e.g. in almost all the clusters the
certain
main activities were photography and
demographic or geographic variables) for
general sightseeing).
their failure to predict future behaviour.
segmentation
bases
(e.g.
Tkaczynski et al. (2009) emphasise the Bearing
aforementioned
importance of the segmentation bases
studies on individuals’ heterogeneity as
used in tourism being able to accurately
regards time use in their daily lives
predict
(Kamakura, 2009), along with the various
intentions to revisit and recommend the
behaviour patterns of a destination’s
destination).
72
in
mind
the
future
visitor One
behaviour
critical
aspect
(i.e. is,
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION therefore,
to
analyse
how
time
use
resource in the co-creation of value that
conditions the tourist experience and
contributes
outcome variables (spending, post-visit
involved
destination
destination (Prebensen, Vittersø, et al.,
image,
and
intentions
to
revisit and recommend it).
to in
how
visitors
interactions
become
with
the
2013). In the light of the discussion above, the way in which time is used at
Dellaert,
Ettema,
and
Lindh
(1998)
the
destination
determine
existence
framework to describe visitors’ sequential
experience,
choices
of
image, and intentions to revisit and
consist
of
components,
pre-travel
choice
which
differences post-visit
(e.g.
recommend
destination, lodging, travel mode, length
Uysal, 2013).
it
in
the
propose a constraint-based conceptual travel
of
will
tourist
destination
(Prebensen,
Woo,
&
of stay, etc.) and during-travel (e.g. attractions to visit, travel route to follow,
Given the findings on time use, tourist
day-to-day expenditure, etc.). Activity
experience and outcome variables, we
participation, time use and expenditure
propose the following:
during trip are usually interrelated (Zhang et al., 2012). This suggests that groups of
Proposition 2:
visitors with different time use will also
based on time use will be associated with
have
differences in expenditures, post-visit
different
spending
patterns.
Market
Nevertheless, the money spent on some
destination
image,
and
expenditure items is not expected to be
revisit and recommend it.
segmentation
intentions
to
conditioned by the way in which time is used at the destination, since it concerns
3.3.
Method
3.3.1.
Data collection and sample
pre-travel choices (e.g. transportation/ travel mode and lodging).
profile Visitors spend money, time, and effort during their tourist trip because they want
The data were collected by surveying 810
to do so. ‘That being so, tourist resources
visitors to Toledo in March and April
such as involvement, time, and effort are
2010. The historic city of Toledo has been
important inputs in our measures of
a UNESCO World Heritage City since 1986
overall
(Prebensen,
and it was one of the Spanish cities that
Vittersø, et al., 2013, p. 254). Visitors
was most visited in 2012, according to
experience the destination over time
data from the Collective Accommodation
during the course of a trip, encountering
Occupancy Survey (CAOS) compiled by
different
rhythms
the Spanish National Statistics Institute.
(Haldrup, 2004). Time is an important
A two-stage sampling strategy was used.
experience
places
at
value’
different
73
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN A quota sampling was first developed by
and hotels (64.19%) were the most
using the CAOS data for 2009, and the
frequent type of accommodation.
surveys were proportionally distributed between visitors residing both in Spain
3.3.2.
Instruments
and abroad. It was therefore possible to establish a quota of 30% as regards the
The questionnaire was structured in four
proportion of foreign visitors surveyed.
sections. The first section contained
Convenience sampling was then carried
questions concerning how the visit had
out in the principal tourist areas of the city
been planned and its characteristics,
in order to select the units that would be
while the last referred to the socio-
surveyed.
demographic data used to characterise the sample.
Of the 810 questionnaires collected, 11 were
eliminated
were
The second part of the questionnaire
incorrectly
adopted a diary approach in order to
completed. This resulted in 799 usable
record the primary activities performed
questionnaires. With regard
to the
by visitors within a day (from 10:00 am
profile of the visitors surveyed, 51.44%
to 10:00 am of the following day). This
were between 25 and 44 years of age,
approach was used to document visitor
and 53.57% were women. More than half
time allocation and has been used in
were married or living as a couple
recent studies related to tourism and
(58.20%), while 33.67% were single.
leisure (Vassiliadis et al., 2013; Xiao-Ting
With regard to their experience of the
& Bi-Hu, 2012). All time-diary primary
destination, 67.08% had not visited the
activities were grouped into 9 and 12
city in the last five years. Only 12.39%
major activity categories for day-
were visiting the city as part of a tour
trippers
group. More than 90% had planned their
Table 3.2 shows the non-parametric
trip, the average amount of information
Spearman correlations of the time spent
sources used to do this being 2.22. Day-
on each of these activities as regards both
trippers accounted for 61.20% of the
day-trippers
total sample (n = 489) and tourists
information provided indications of the
accounted for the remaining 38.80% (n =
degree
310). As regards the latter group, the
activities
average stay in the city was 2.26 nights,
complementary.
incomplete
74
or
because had
been
they
and
to
tourists,
and
tourists.
which were
respectively.
the
This various
substitutive
or
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Table 3.2. Non-parametric Spearman correlations between time allocated to each activity by day-trippers and tourists.
Activities A1. Walking about A2. Guided visits A3. Shopping A4. Visiting museums and monuments A5. Gathering information A6. Having drinks A7. Eating A8. Sport and health A9. Nightlife A10. Sleeping
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
-0.35*
0.01
-0.14*
0.20*
-0.08
0.05
-0.31* -0.24*
0.00
-0.23*
-0.04
0.00
0.07
-0.01
-0.11
-0.21*
-0.04
0.10
-0.11
-0.06
-0.04
0.04
0.11
-0.08
-0.12*
-0.27*
0.12*
0.10
0.05
0.05
-0.20*
-0.11*
0.06
-0.15*
-0.14*
0.12*
0.04
-0.03
0.20*
0.10* 0.16*
A6
A7
A8
-0.14*
n.a.
n.a
n.a.
-0.12*
0.09*
n.a.
n.a
n.a.
0.12*
-0.16*
0.15*
0.12*
n.a.
n.a
n.a.
0.08
-0.32*
-0.06
0.10*
n.a.
n.a
n.a.
0.04
-0.55*
0.04
0.12*
n.a.
n.a
n.a.
0.12*
-0.34*
0.21*
n.a.
n.a
n.a.
0.02
-0.14*
n.a.
n.a
n.a.
0.21*
-0.33*
n.a
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
-0.08
0.22*
A9
0.09
-0.04
0.17*
-0.01
0.12*
A10
A11
A12
-0.02
-0.10
-0.23*
-0.19*
0.12*
0.00
0.01
-0.16*
-0.24*
A11. Travelling
-0.10
-0.07
-0.17*
-0.24*
0.04
-0.23*
-0.41*
-0.02
-0.13*
-0.35*
A12. Rest of time (outside/at the destination)
0.03
-0.03
0.06
-0.10
0.25*
-0.04
-0.01
-0.07
-0.12*
0.17*
-0.25*
n.a.
n.a. -0.52*
-0.06
Notes: Values above the diagonal: day-trippers; Values below the diagonal: tourists; n.a.: not applicable; *p < 0.05.
The third section contained information
(2007), Lam and Hsu (2006), and were
about the spending that had taken place
also used by Ramkissoon and Uysal
on eight separate items (seven in the case
(2011). All items were measured with an
of the day-trippers), the visitors’ image of
11-point
the destination after visiting it, and
strongly disagree (0) to strongly agree
intentions to revisit and recommend it.
(10). A confirmatory factor analysis
Spending per person per day was
was employed and produced satisfactory
calculated using the data over the size of
results
the trip group and the duration of the trip.
acceptable
This was for later analysis. Destination
(Schumacker & Lomax, 2010) (Table
image was measured with two items also
3.3). Once completed, the items used to
used by García, Gómez, and Molina
measure each of these three concepts
(2012). The measurement scales for the
were
intentions to revisit and recommend
measures derived were standardised (by
were slightly modified versions of items
subtracting the mean and dividing by its
adopted from Alén, Rodríguez, and Fraiz
standard deviation).
Likert
scale,
indicating
a
reliability
added,
and
ranging
good
fit,
and
the
from
and
validity
aggregated
75
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 3.3. Results from confirmatory factor analysis: destination image, and intentions to revisit and recommend it.
Concept/Item
Loading
α
CR
AVE
Square correlation IMA
REV
REC
DESTINATION IMAGE (IMA) IMA1. The image that I have of Toledo is as good as or even better than that of 0.56* 0.69 0.74 0.60 1.00 0.20 0.39 other similar destinations IMA2. My overall image of Toledo is very 0.94* positive INTENTION TO REVISIT (REV) REV1. I would like to visit Toledo within 0.40* 0.57 0.70 0.58 0.20 1.00 0.31 the next 12 months REV2. If I can, I have the intention of 1.00* coming back to Toledo in the future INTENTION TO RECOMMEND (REC) REC1. I would encourage my family and 0.89* friends to visit Toledo 0.93 0.93 0.82 0.39 0.31 1.00 REC2. I would recommend Toledo to 0.91* anyone that asks me REC3. I would give good references of 0.93* Toledo to others Goodness of fit summary: Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square (df = 11) = 46.73 (p < 0.01); Bentler-Bonett normed fit index (BBNFI) = 0.98; Bentler-Bonett non-normed fit index (BBNNFI) = 0.97; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.98; incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.98; McDonald's fit index (MFI) = 0.98; root mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.06. Notes: α: Cronbach’s alpha; CR: composite reliability; AVE: average variance extracted; *p < 0.05.
3.3.3.
Data analysis
Akaike
information
criterion
(AIC),
Bayesian information criterion (BIC) or Figure
3.1
shows
the
research
consistent Akaike information criterion
propositions proposed in this work, along
(CAIC) (Wedel & Kamakura, 2000), and
with the data analyses carried out and the
the LCCA is therefore particularly useful
software packages used.
when the number of clusters is unknown a priori, as is the case in this research.
The first proposition was tested by applying
latent
class
analysis
a
As is shown in Figure 3.1, the proposed
segmentation method, also referred to as
model included a series of indicators
latent class cluster analysis (LCCA) or
(time spent by day-trippers and tourists
mixture-model
on
clustering
Magidson,
2002).
significant
advantages
(Vermunt LCCA
&
a
series
of
activities)
and
also
has
incorporated some relevant covariates
other
(previous visits in the last five years, tour
segmentation procedures (Oppewal et al.,
group, age, and place of residence) with
2010). However, the main reason for
which to predict class membership. The
choosing the LCCA was that the selection
latent class cluster model for mixed
of a suitable number of clusters/segments
indicators
is based on statistical criteria, such as
variables) with covariates is formally
76
The
as
over
(continuous
and
ordinal
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION defined as Equation (1) (Vermunt &
vector of indicators; Zi is the vector of
Magidson, 2002).
covariates; θ denotes the vector of all unknown parameters to be estimated;
f Yi Zi ,
f y J
K
k 1
k zi
j 1
k
ij
jk
(1)
and fk(yij|θjk) is the conditional density function. In order to reduce the number
Where:
of
i is an index to denote a particular case
belonging to cluster k given covariate
(each
values zi,
day-tripper
or
tourist
in
the
parameters,
the
probability
of
πk|zi, will generally be restricted
sample); K is the number of clusters and
by a multinomial logit model. Full details
k is a particular cluster; J denotes the
of the parameter estimation model
total number of indicators and j denotes a
with Latent Gold® 4.5 can be found in
particular indicator; Yi represents the
Vermunt and Magidson (2002, 2005b).
Figure 3.1. Research propositions, analysis procedures, and software packages.
Indicators (time use)
Day-trippers (n = 489): 9 activities Tourists (n = 310): 12 activities
Outcome variables
Number of clusters of daytrippers/tourists
Covariates
Previous visits in the last five years Tour group Age Place of residence
Spending per person per day (€): 7 and 8 spending items for day-trippers and tourists, respectively Destination image (M = 0, SD = 1) Intention to revisit (M = 0, SD = 1) Intention to recommend (M = 0, SD = 1)
Proposition 1. Market segmentation based on time use
Proposition 2. Differences in outcome variables
Latent class cluster analysis (Latent Gold® 4.5)
One-way analysis of variance/Welch test (IBM® SPSS® Statistics 19.0)
Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation.
77
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN With regard to the second proposition,
of chance resulting from a local solution,
the
following the recommendation of Oppewal
differences
in
outcome
variables
among the identified clusters of day-
et al. (2010).
trippers and tourists were studied by: Once the number of clusters had been (1)
The
one-way
analysis
of
established (four), the significance of
variance (ANOVA) procedure
the indicators and covariates was
when the homogeneous variance
evaluated. A significant p-value (i.e. p
0.05).
Table 3.4. Statistics for the latent class cluster models of day-trippers and tourists.
Kind of visitors/Model
Log-likelihood (LL)
CAIC(LL)
Number of parameters
Classification errors
DAY-TRIPPERS One cluster
-6221.94
12,774.72
46
0.00
Two clusters
-5906.78
12,331.41
72
0.05
Three clusters
-5682.43
12,069.71
98
0.04
Four clusters*
-5544.82
11,981.50
124
0.07
Five clusters
-5505.81
12,090.48
150
0.08
One cluster
-5085.15
10,331.97
24
0.00
Two clusters
-3852.75
8096.21
58
0.00
Three clusters
-3534.08
7687.92
92
0.00
Four clusters*
-3269.59
7388.00
126
0.00
Five clusters
-3166.99
7411.83
160
0.01
TOURISTS
Notes: CAIC: consistent Akaike information criterion; *Best model according to CAIC.
79
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 3.5. Estimated parameters for the four clusters of day-trippers.
Cluster 1. Brief daytrippers and shoppers
Variable
Cluster 2. Cultural day-trippers
Cluster 3. Day-trippers who are ‘wanderers’
Cluster 4. Hyperactive and guided day-trippers
Robust Wald statistic
p
INDICATOR Walking about
-0.25
0.92
0.03
-0.70
34.32
0.00
Guided visits
-0.13
-0.23
-0.06
0.42
21.56
0.00
Shopping
0.23
0.10
-0.74
0.31
999.93
0.00
-0.95
0.69
-0.41
0.67
97.78
0.00
-1.20
1.41
-0.87
0.66
32.61
0.00
Having drinks
-0.04
-0.11
-0.07
0.22
6.55
0.09
Eating
-0.17
-0.08
-0.17
0.42
50.25
0.00
Travelling
-0.71
-0.47
-0.48
1.66
57.46
0.00
Rest of time (outside the destination)
2.16
-1.03
2.06
-3.19
516.18
0.00
6.91
0.33
17.18
0.00
21.73
0.11
26.73
0.00
Visiting museums and monuments Gathering information
COVARIATE Previous visits in the last five years None
0.07
0.02
0.04
-0.12
One time
-0.12
0.12
-0.34
0.34
Two or more times
0.05
-0.14
0.31
-0.22
Tour group Yes
-0.21
-0.41
-0.07
0.68
No
0.21
0.41
0.07
-0.68
Age Under 25
0.18
0.19
-0.02
-0.34
25-34
0.27
-0.26
0.46
-0.47
35-44
-0.20
0.04
-0.05
0.20
45-54
-0.55
0.34
-0.12
0.34
55-64
-0.04
-0.09
-0.23
0.37
Over 64
0.35
-0.21
-0.04
-0.10
Place of residence
80
Spain
-0.29
-0.62
-0.05
0.96
Other country
0.29
0.62
0.05
-0.96
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Table 3.6. Estimated parameters for the four clusters of tourists.
Cluster A. Tourists who are ‘wanderers’
Variable
Cluster B. Relaxed and cultural tourists
Cluster C. Guided tourists
Cluster D. Hyperactive and nocturnal tourists
Robust Wald statistic
p
INDICATOR Walking about
0.87
0.52
-0.22
-1.17
68.11
0.00
Guided visits
-0.66
-0.66
1.05
0.27
166.16
0.00
Shopping
-0.25
0.14
0.04
0.06
16.54
0.00
-0.05
0.21
-0.12
-0.04
415.39
0.00
0.15
-0.38
0.16
0.07
2.10
0.55
Having drinks
-0.18
0.10
-0.10
0.17
9.80
0.02
Eating
-0.18
0.18
0.05
-0.06
8.26
0.04
Sport and health
-0.29
-0.29
-0.29
0.86
68.56
0.00
Nightlife
-0.34
0.25
-0.63
0.72
26.61
0.00
Sleeping
0.49
0.35
-0.11
-0.74
19.27
0.00
Travelling
0.39
-0.43
0.08
-0.03
8.36
0.04
Rest of time (at the destination)
0.03
0.01
0.07
-0.11
6.21
0.10
14.42
0.03
9.78
0.02
5.76
0.98
3.75
0.29
Visiting museums and monuments Gathering information
COVARIATE Previous visits in the last five years None
0.25
-0.47
0.34
-0.12
One time
0.02
0.11
0.00
-0.13
Two or more times
-0.27
0.37
-0.34
0.24
Tour group Yes
-0.20
-0.80
0.45
0.55
No
0.20
0.80
-0.45
-0.55
Age Under 25
-0.01
0.06
-0.17
0.12
25-34
0.12
0.09
-0.25
0.04
35-44
0.26
0.01
0.26
-0.54
45-54
-0.04
0.06
-0.02
0.00
55-64
-0.09
0.14
0.10
-0.15
Over 64
-0.23
-0.37
0.07
0.52
Place of residence Spain
-0.09
-0.16
-0.20
0.46
Other country
0.09
0.16
0.20
-0.46
81
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 3.7. Profiles of clusters of day-trippers: indicators and significant covariates.
Cluster 1. Brief day-trippers and shoppers (31.13%)
Variable
Cluster 2. Cultural daytrippers (29.50%)
Cluster 3. Daytrippers who are ‘wanderers’ (22.10%)
Cluster 4. Hyperactive and guided day-trippers (17.26%)
Total (Daytrippers)
INDICATOR (HOURS) Walking about
3.76
4.93
4.04
3.31
4.09
Guided visits
0.31
0.25
0.35
1.04
0.43
Shopping
0.98
0.44
0.00
1.05
0.62
1.20
3.33
1.73
2.82
2.22
0.22
0.44
0.24
0.36
0.31
Having drinks
0.70
0.63
0.68
0.96
0.72
Eating
1.13
1.23
1.13
1.72
1.26
Travelling
1.08
1.32
1.31
3.45
1.61
Rest of time (outside the destination)
14.63
11.43
14.52
9.28
12.74
Total
24.00
24.00
24.00
24.00
24.00
Visiting museums and monuments Gathering information
COVARIATE Tour group Yes
13.05%
9.17%
11.72%
37.02%
15.75%
No
86.95%
90.83%
88.28%
62.98%
84.25%
Spain
60.17%
43.47%
71.61%
93.96%
63.60%
Other country
39.83%
56.53%
28.39%
6.04%
36.40%
Place of residence
Table 3.7 shows the profiles of the
characteristics of each of the clusters
clusters
are the following:
of
day-trippers
obtained
(number of hours dedicated to each activity and frequency distribution of
Cluster
covariates).
non-significant
shoppers (DT1). This contains 31.13%
covariates were omitted. The first row
of the sample of day-trippers. These
shows the name assigned to each cluster,
people spend little time pursuing activities
in addition to its relative size. Shaded
at the destination (they spend almost 15
cells indicate the most relevant features
hours outside the city and more than an
in
hour
82
each
The
cluster.
The
main
1.
Brief
travelling).
day-trippers
However,
they
and
are,
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION together with day-tripper Cluster 4, the
characteristics of each of the clusters
people who spend most time shopping
are the following:
(almost an hour). Cluster Cluster
2.
Cultural
A.
Tourists
who
are
day-trippers
‘wanderers’ (TA). This first segment is
(DT2). This group represents 29.50% of
the most numerous, representing 34.97%
the sample. The most salient feature is
of tourists in the historic city of Toledo.
that they spend more than three hours
These people, together with the tourists
visiting museums and monuments and
in Cluster B, are those who spend most
almost five hours strolling around the
time walking around the city and sleeping
streets in the historic city. This cluster contains the highest percentage of those
Cluster
B.
Relaxed
day-trippers who do not visit the city with
tourists
(TB).
a tour group (90.83%) and who live
27.08% of the tourist sample. These
abroad (56.53%).
people have a high propensity towards
This
and
cultural
cluster
contains
carrying out activities linked with culture Cluster
3.
Day-trippers
who
are
(they visit museums and the interiors of
‘wanderers’ (DT3). This group has a
monuments for more than three hours
relative size of 22.10%. Their visit to the
per day), and relaxation (having a drink,
city is short, and they spend most of their
eating and sleeping). They are also
time pursuing
do not
tourists with a wide previous experience
generate an income for the destination
of the destination, since 42.88% of them
(such as, for example, strolling around).
had already visited the destination in the
activities that
last five years. Cluster 4. Hyperactive and guided day-trippers (DT4). 17.26% are day-
Cluster C. Guided tourists (TC). The
trippers who are characterized by the fact
relative size of this group is 26.35%. The
that they carry out a wide range of
tourists
activities. They are also those who spend
differentiated from the rest in that they
most time on guided visits, having a drink
spend almost two hours on guided tours.
and eating. This is the cluster with a
They are also tourists with little previous
higher proportion of those day-trippers on
experience of the destination.
in
this
cluster
can
be
organised trips and who live in Spain (93.96%).
Cluster D. Hyperactive and nocturnal tourists (TD). The remaining 11.60%
Table 3.8 shows the name assigned to
are tourists with a high predilection for
each cluster of tourists, in addition to its
spending time pursuing activities linked to
relative
the city’s nightlife, sports and health.
size
and
profile.
The
main
83
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 3.8. Profiles of clusters of tourists: indicators and significant covariates.
Cluster A. Tourists who are ‘wanderers’ (34.97%)
Variable
Cluster B. Relaxed and cultural tourists (27.08%)
Cluster C. Guided tourists (26.35%)
Cluster D. Hyperactive and nocturnal tourists (11.60%)
Total (Tourists)
INDICATOR (HOURS) Walking about
4.76
4.40
3.67
2.72
4.14
Guided visits
0.00
0.00
1.71
0.93
0.56
Shopping
0.72
1.11
1.01
1.03
0.94
2.86
3.13
2.80
2.87
2.92
0.53
0.00
0.54
0.45
0.38
Having drinks
0.93
1.20
1.01
1.28
1.06
Eating
1.96
2.32
2.18
2.08
2.13
Sport and health
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.14
0.13
Nightlife
0.91
1.50
0.63
1.97
1.12
Sleeping
8.46
8.32
7.86
7.23
8.12
Travelling
2.28
1.46
1.97
1.86
1.92
Rest of time (at the destination)
0.60
0.57
0.63
0.45
0.58
24.00
24.00
24.00
24.00
24.00
78.83%
57.12%
80.44%
66.36%
71.94%
One time
14.72%
23.82%
14.68%
19.62%
17.74%
Two or more times
6.45%
19.06%
4.88%
14.01%
10.32%
Yes
3.67%
1.18%
14.69%
13.99%
No
96.33%
98.82%
85.31%
86.01%
Visiting museums and monuments Gathering information
Total COVARIATE Previous visits in the last five years None
Tour group
3.4.2.
Differences
in
outcome
variables
7.10% 92.90%
4 categories of day-trippers and tourists (as many as the amount of clusters identified). Each visitor in the sample was
We finally contrasted proposition 2. The
therefore assigned to a group according
cluster
saved
to the probability of their having a specific
beforehand as a new variable containing
time use pattern. Their influence on
84
membership
was
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION spending, post-visit destination image,
recommend
the
destination.
If
the
and intentions to recommend and revisit
greatest amount of money spent and
are analysed below. This analysis is a key
intentions to recommend are considered,
aspect in the evaluation of time use as a
then the brief day-trippers and shoppers
segmentation criterion.
(DT1) (70.83 € per person per day, 0.11 standard deviations over the mean), and
The analysis presented in Table 3.9
the cultural day-trippers (DT2) (73.44 €
shows that the cluster membership of the
per
day-trippers, and therefore the ways of
deviations over the mean) were the
allocating their time whilst visiting the
clusters
city, does influence in three of the
destination.
seven spending items considered (food
differences were found as regards the
bought in stores, tickets for museums,
destination image after the visit and
exhibitions and similar, and shopping for
intentions to revisit it in the future in the
local crafts) and their intentions to
various clusters identified.
person of
per
day,
most
0.06
interest
However,
no
standard to
the
significant
Table 3.9. Differences in outcome variables between clusters of day-trippers.
Variable SPENDING PER PERSON PER DAY (€) Bars and restaurants Food bought in stores Tickets for museums, exhibitions and similar Hiring guides Shopping for local crafts Transportation Other expenses DESTINATION IMAGE INTENTION TO REVISIT INTENTION TO RECOMMEND
M DT1 (SD)
M DT2 (SD)
70.83 73.44 (123.21) (111.84)
M DT3 (SD)
M DT4 (SD)
46.17 (37.14)
57.74 (42.32)
19.72 (36.59) 2.72 (5.76)
19.10 (15.16) 3.14 (6.85)
15.77 (14.62) 1.52 (3.56)
19.05 (17.41) 3.40 (6.86)
4.52 (10.57)
10.27 (15.05)
5.56 (7.72)
6.47 (7.63)
2.10 (16.65) 18.03 (64.15) 20.77 (42.91) 2.93 (7.89) -0.09 (1.07) 0.02 (1.06) 0.11 (0.89)
2.84 (10.86) 14.09 (33.57) 22.65 (64.56) 1.30 (8.21) 0.14 (0.94) -0.15 (1.05) 0.06 (0.87)
1.85 (5.37) 2.20 (10.97) 16.32 (18.76) 2.94 (10.48) -0.09 (1.09) 0.07 (1.02) 0.03 (1.05)
1.56 (4.55) 10.39 (18.72) 15.14 (19.07) 1.91 (3.66) 0.05 (0.81) 0.11 (0.72) -0.34 (1.25)
Levene test
ANOVA/ Welch test F
p
Post hoc tests (p < 0.1)
F
p
2.19
0.09
1.32a
0.27
2.89
0.04
3.44a
0.02 DT2 > DT3
2.78
0.04
4.94a
DT2 > 0.00 DT1, DT3, DT4
0.93
0.43
0.27
0.85
6.35
0.00
10.18a
0.00
1.20
0.31
0.75
0.52
3.31
0.02
1.33a
0.27
3.52
0.02
1.73a
0.16
6.27
0.00
1.75a
0.16
9.59
0.00
2.81a
0.04
DT1, DT2, DT4 > DT3
DT1, DT2 > DT4
Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation; DT1: Cluster 1. Brief day-trippers and shoppers; DT2: Cluster 2. Cultural day-trippers; DT3: Cluster 3. Day-trippers who are ‘wanderers’; DT4: Cluster 4. Hyperactive and guided day-trippers; aAsymptotically F distributed.
85
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN With regard to the tourists (Table
(80.17 € per person per day). However, it
3.10),
was more probable that the hyperactive
differences
were
found
both
among the clusters identified in four of
and
the eight spending items (bars and
standard
restaurants,
museums,
would revisit the destination than the
exhibitions and similar, hiring guides, and
clusters containing ‘wanderers’ (TA) and
shopping for local crafts) and in the
guided tourists (TC), whilst the relaxed
intention to recommend and revisit.
and cultural tourists (TB) (0.15 standard
If spending is considered, then the most
deviations over the mean) would be more
attractive cluster for the destination is
likely to make positive recommendations
that denominated as guided tourists (TC)
to others than the guided tourists (TC).
tickets
for
nocturnal
tourists
deviations
over
(TD)
(0.52
the
mean)
Table 3.10. Differences in outcome variables between clusters of tourists.
Variable SPENDING PER PERSON PER DAY (€) Bars and restaurants Food bought in stores Tickets for museums, exhibitions and similar Hiring guides Shopping for local crafts Transportation Lodging Other expenses DESTINATION IMAGE INTENTION TO REVISIT INTENTION TO RECOMMEND
M TA (SD)
M TB (SD)
M TC (SD)
M TD (SD)
57.58 (34.54)
69.05 (54.95)
80.17 (136.56)
74.83 (54.65)
11.87 (10.08) 1.78 (3.06)
18.09 (13.20) 2.08 (3.69)
14.74 (11.62) 3.39 (5.44)
19.37 (21.67) 1.94 (3.44)
3.31 (2.90)
4.15 (4.07)
5.20 (5.48)
5.70 (7.31)
0.00 (0.00) 2.42 (3.01) 12.82 (16.99) 23.01 (17.36) 2.37 (7.54) 0.03 (1.03) -0.15 (0.98) 0.04 (1.01)
0.00 (0.00) 3.97 (6.73) 17.73 (39.23) 20.71 (22.63) 2.32 (5.00) -0.12 (1.00) 0.07 (1.05) 0.15 (0.96)
3.02 (4.84) 6.35 (8.50) 23.41 (126.77) 20.94 (18.97) 3.12 (8.22) -0.01 (0.94) -0.09 (0.99) -0.26 (1.00)
4.82 (12.21) 5.32 (7.91) 9.77 (10.02) 21.86 (20.06) 6.05 (19.71) 0.23 (1.03) 0.52 (0.82) 0.13 (0.98)
Levene test F
p
ANOVA/ Welch test F
p
Post hoc tests (p < 0.1)
7.94
0.00
5.03a
0.00
TB > TA
6.88
0.00
1.94a
0.13
9.48
0.00
3.75a
0.01
TC > TA
37.46
0.00
14.67b
0.00
TC > TA, TB; TD > TA, TB
9.43
0.00
7.08a
0.00
TC > TA
2.14
0.09
1.46a
0.23
0.75
0.52
0.28
0.84
3.13
0.03
0.57a
0.64
0.10
0.96
1.07
0.36
1.58
0.19
4.43
0.01
TD > TA, TC
0.29
0.83
2.73
0.04
TB > TC
Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation; TA: Cluster A. Tourists who are ‘wanderers’; TB: Cluster B. Relaxed and cultural tourists; TC: Cluster C. Guided tourists; TD: Cluster D. Hyperactive and nocturnal tourists; Asymptotically F distributed; bANOVA, Welch test cannot be performed because at least one group has zero
a
variance.
86
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION 3.5.
Discussion and conclusions
empirical
link
between
individuals’
internal priorities and their behaviour The objective of this study has been to
(Anderson et al., 1992). Since it is an
empirically evaluate the utility of time use
observable
as a segmentation criterion of the visitors
time use function is very good or good in
to the historic city of Toledo. The results
terms
have allowed us to obtain four segments
accessibility,
of day-trippers (brief day-trippers and
responsiveness
shoppers, cultural
2000).
day-trippers, those
tourism-specific
of
identifiability,
base,
substantiality,
stability,
Its
(Wedel principal
the
&
and Kamakura,
weakness
is
who are ‘wanderers’, and hyperactive and
actionability. However, bearing in mind
guided
to
that unobservable tourism-specific bases
another four for tourists (‘wanderers’,
stand out because of their actionability, it
relaxed
might
day-trippers), and
cultural
in
addition
tourists,
guided
be
possible
to
increase
the
tourists, and hyperactive and nocturnal
effectiveness and profitability of tourism
tourists). We also discovered that the
market segmentation based on time by,
various segments identified according to
for
the time spent pursuing each activity can
presented in this research (time use) with
be
other subjective measures related to time
differentiated
spending
items
as
regards:
and
certain
intentions
example, combining the criterion
to
attitudes (Chetthamrongchai & Davies,
recommend the destination, in the case of
2000): time orientation, time pressure,
both day-trippers and tourists; and the
and succession during the touristic visit.
intentions to revisit, in the case of tourists.
The study presented herein may also have
practical
implications
for
From the academic point of view, after
Destination Management Organisations
carrying out a detailed analysis of the
(DMOs)
empirical studies on tourism that have
develop their activities at the destination.
been published, it was concluded that
Both the size and profile of the groups
activities or motivations have been widely
identified, and the differences between
used as segmentation bases. However,
the outcome variables would therefore
this research takes one step further in
provide
that it proposes a segmentation based on
configuring the activities on offer in the
the measurement of the time dedicated to
destination.
each
activity.
This
chapter
and
tourism companies that
useful
information
when
therefore
situates the time use at the destination as
More
specifically,
a valuable segmentation criterion that will
example, that one of the tourist groups
be useful to tourism researchers since it
that
establishes a more direct conceptual and
denominated as ‘wanderers’ (TA), who
is
relatively
it
highlights, large
is
for that
87
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN spend
a
lot
pursuing
In spite of the interest value of this study,
activities that do not generate income for
it is necessary to bear in mind a series of
the
limitations.
city.
of
their
However,
time
the
other
three
segments of tourists (who are more interesting in terms of spending or their
Firstly, it is focused solely on the historic
intentions to revisit and recommend) are
city
smaller. This indicates the need to reflect
information concerning time use in other
upon
places (e.g. sun and beach, nature, or
the
destination’s
promotion
of
Toledo.
The
destinations)
collection
strategies, since it is principally attracting
urban
would
a group of tourists of little actual value
valuable for further research.
be
of
very
(spending) and future for the destination (revisiting and recommendation). It has
Secondly, the data concerning time use
further been concluded that both the
have been obtained by using a diary, as
hyperactive
day-trippers
has occurred in other recent studies such
(DT4), and the guided tourists (TC) who
as that of Vassiliadis et al. (2013).
spend most of their time on guided visits,
Although the various methods with which
are
to obtain information on time use that are
those
and
who
guided
are
least
likely
to
recommend the destination. This may be
available
(observation,
owing to the fact that they do not have
questionnaires
free control over part of their time.
System (GPS) technology, among others)
Whatever the case may be, these findings
have their advantages and disadvantages
indicate that if the destination’s future
(Xiao-Ting & Bi-Hu, 2012), in future
competitive position is to be improved,
studies,
then it is not appropriate to promote the
obtained by combining Global Positioning
use of guided visits to excess.
System
this (GPS)
and
Global
diaries, Positioning
information technology
could with
be a
questionnaire (Tchetchik et al., 2009). Finally, the cultural day-trippers (DT2), and the relaxed and cultural tourists (TB)
Thirdly, it would be interesting to analyse
are those who are of most interest to the
how the differences in time use influence
destination, at least as regards their
other variables that have not been
intentions to recommend it. It might
considered in this research, such as
therefore be possible to set up initiatives
satisfaction
such as a single entrance ticket for the
emotions (Prebensen, Woo, et al., 2013;
city’s monuments and museums, since
Zakrisson & Zillinger, 2012).
or
positive
and
negative
this would encourage visitors to spend more time pursuing this type of activities,
Lastly, the study required visitors to
which
indicate how much time they spent
might
make
them
feel
more
inclined to recommend the destination.
88
pursuing the principal activities at each
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION moment. In future works it will be necessary to bear in mind that visitors may pursue various activities at the same time (Vassiliadis et al., 2013) and to analyse whether a multi-tasking style is related to greater stress or anxiety during the visit to the destination. Despite
these
segmentation
limitations, proposed
the
in
this
research could be useful in other areas, such as shopping centres. Time is a critical variable for the managers of this type of establishments, since the longer that people stay, the more likely it is
that
they
will
spend
money.
Segmenting visitors to shopping centres according
to
the
amount
of
time
dedicated to each activity may therefore permit the marketing strategies applied in this area to be improved (García, Molina, & Gómez, 2012).
89
CHAPTER 4.
EXPLORING THE ROLE OF TIME
PERSPECTIVE
LEISURE CHOICES
IN
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION CHAPTER 4. EXPLORING THE ROLE OF
recently concluded that personality plays
TIME
a key role in predicting why people choose
PERSPECTIVE
IN
LEISURE
CHOICES
to pursue leisure activities. However, most leisure studies do not account for the way in which individuals view time and how this affects leisure choices
4.1.
Introduction
(Shores & Scott, 2007).
The centrality of time orientation or
Urry (1994) connects time and leisure as
time perspective (TP), which is used to
a means to explain social identity and
explain general attitudes towards life
society’s evolution. He suggests that
and the reasons for human behaviour,
society has gone from being clock-time
has
psychology
oriented in which people are focused on
(Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999; Zimbardo,
the future and long-term planning, and
Keough, & Boyd, 1997), and consumer
the leisure is organised and regulated by
behaviour (Bergadaà, 1990; Davies &
the clock, to the current society in which
Omer, 1996).
both the glacial and the instantaneous
been
recognised
in
sense of time co-exist. Those people with The concept of TP is based on the idea
a glacial sense of time are oriented
that people place emphasis on the past,
towards the past, and they feel the weight
present or future (Bergadaà, 1990). The
of
relative
instantaneous sense of time are highly
significance
that
individuals
history,
while
those
oriented
whether people prefer to look back at
present context that may be, for example,
events and accomplishments, live in the
associated with independent travellers.
here
now,
whatever
may
or
look
unfold’
turmoil
an
attach to each time frame ‘indicates
and
towards the
with
of the
forward
to
Shores and Scott (2007) show that TP has
(Cotte
&
a
stronger
relationship
leisure
Ratneshwar, 2003, p. 560). TP is widely
benefits
regarded as an important aspect of
variables. Philipp (1992) concludes that
overall personality (Davies & Omer,
future-oriented people appear to seek
1996; Fraisse, 1963; Shores, 2005) and
many specific leisure activities more
individuals’
been
frequently than past-oriented or present-
demonstrated to have more influence on
oriented people. It can thus be stated that
their behaviour as regards leisure in
there are signs that different TPs might
comparison
influence consumers’ leisure preferences
personalities
to
have
other
settings
socio-demographic
(Brandstätter, 1994; Diener, Larsen, &
(Cotte
Emmons,
1992; Shores, 2005; Shores & Scott,
Larsen,
1984; 1986).
Emmons, Barnett
Diener,
(2013)
&
has
&
than
with
Ratneshwar,
2003;
Philipp,
2007).
93
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Furthermore, with the exception of some
(Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Like Barnett
studies in the field of positive psychology,
(2013), leisure time and free time are
most research has focused on analysing
considered interchangeable terms in the
biased TPs without studying a balanced
present study. The proximity of both
time perspective (BTP). People with a
terms is reflected by Shores (2005, p. 2)
BTP have the ability to be flexible in
who uses Mannell and Kleiber’s (1997)
shifting from one TP to another; they are
conception to describe leisure ‘as an
supposed to be adaptive to the past,
activity chosen with relative freedom
present, and future (Boniwell & Zimbardo,
usually undertaken during free time with
2004). A BTP has been associated with
the potential to provide a feeling of joy,
subjective
control or mastery’.
previous
well-being. studies
However,
have
no
investigated
differences in leisure choices between BTP
The
rest
of
the
fourth
chapter
is
and non-BTP groups.
organised as follows. The next section provides a brief overview of some related
Despite findings that TP may be a key
research
aspect in leisure choices, most research
presents the data and methodology used.
linking both aspects has emerged from
The empirical results are presented in the
qualitative studies or small samples
third
sizes
limitations
(Shores
&
Scott,
2007).
The
growing research related to TPs and
works.
section. and
The
second
Concluding future
section
remarks,
research
are
addressed in the last section.
having a BTP (Sircova et al., 2014; Wiberg, Sircova, Wiberg, & Carelli, 2012)
4.2.
Literature review
4.2.1.
Time perspective
and leisure (Cotte & Ratneshwar, 2003), has not stimulated their joint analysis, leading to an important research gap. The effective operationalization of TP The
to
requires an adequate conceptualisation
contribute to the research on leisure and
of this construct. Due to its complexity,
consumer behaviour by exploring the
different definitions have been used in the
role of five TPs (past-negative, past-
literature (Díaz-Morales, 2006). The lack
positive,
present-
of a precise definition of TP has
hedonistic, and future) and having a
stimulated the development of multiple
BTP on the amount of free time available,
scales with a single temporal category
leisure
leisure
(Bond & Feather, 1988; Joireman et al.,
activities. The five TPs were measured by
2012; Strathman, Gleicher, Boninger, &
an adaptation of the Zimbardo Time
Edwuards,
Perspective
Zaleski, 1996; Zuckerman, Eysenck, &
94
purpose
of
this
study
present-fatalistic,
benefits
sought
and
Inventory
is
(ZTPI)
1994;
Wohlford,
1966;
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Eysenck, 1978) or two different time
construct, and provides a definition of TP
frames (Rappaport, 1990; Usunier &
as ‘a cognitive operation that implies both
Valette-Florence,
4.1).
an emotional reaction to imagined time
None of these methods has been widely
zones (such as future, present or past)
accepted because of their low reliability,
and a preference for locating action in
unstable
scoring
some temporal zone’ (p. 72). Zimbardo
difficulties (Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004;
and Boyd (1999, p. 1271) define TP as
D’Alessio,
‘the often non-conscious process whereby
factor
2007)
(Table
structure,
Guarino,
De
or
Pascalis,
&
Zimbardo, 2003; Shores & Scott, 2007).
the continual flows of personal and social experiences are assigned to temporal
However, our review of the literature
categories, or time frames, that help to
shows that most authors provide a wider
give order, coherence, and meaning to
definition
three
those events’. More recently, Corral-
temporal categories. One of the most
Verdugo et al. (2006) use Zimbardo and
frequently
Boyd’s (1999) conception to define TP as
of
TP
cited
consisting definitions
of of
TP
is
provided by Lewin (1951), who defines TP
‘one
fundamental
as ‘the totality of the individual’s views of
construction of psychological time, which
his psychological future and psychological
includes
past existing at a given time’ (p. 75).
classifying human experience in past,
Lennings (1996) highlights cognitive,
present and future ‘compartments’’ (p.
affective and conative aspects of the
139).
those
dimension cognitive
in
the
processes
Table 4.1. Time perspective scales.
Scale – Authors (year) Time Competence Scale – Shostrom (1964) Time Reference Inventory – Roos and Albers (1965a, 1965b) Thematic Apperception Test – Wohlford (1966) Circles Test – Cottle (1967) Experimental Inventory – Cottle (1968) Time Attitude Scale – Nuttin (1985) Sensation Seeking Scale – Zuckerman et al. (1978) Time Structured Questionnaire – Bond and Feather (1988) Time Lines – Rappaport (1990) Stanford Time Perspective Inventory – Zimbardo (1990) Consideration of Future Consequences Scale – Strathman et al. (1994) Future Anxiety Scale – Zaleski (1996) Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory – Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) Chetthamrongchai and Davies (2000) Time Styles Scale – Usunier and Valette-Florence (2007) Consideration of Future Consequences–14 Scale – Joireman et al. (2012)
Temporal categories Past Present Future X X X X X X X X X X X (a) X X (a) X X X X X X X X X (b) X X X X (c) X (c) X X X X X X X (d)
Notes: (a) double past and future: near and distant; (b) double present: hedonist and fatalist; (c) double past: negative and positive; double present: hedonistic and fatalistic; (d) double future: CFC-future and CFCimmediate.
95
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN The relative emphasis or habitual focus on
negative, past-positive, present-fatalist,
any time frames (usually of past, present,
present-hedonist,
and future) is defined as TP, which has
theoretical foundation of ZTPI combines
cognitive,
social
motivational, emotional, cognitive, and
Zimbardo,
social processes that are presumed to
2004). Furthermore, the formation of
contribute to TP and to be influenced by it
TP is influenced by three factors: the
(Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Although the
socialisation
five subscales of the ZTPI are related to
emotional
components
and
(Boniwell
individual’s
&
process
cultural
(e.g.
values,
an
dominant
many
and
psychological
constructs,
religious orientation, kind of education,
remain
socioeconomic
family
conceptual
independence
experiences
Zimbardo,
2004;
modelling),
status,
or
personal
distinct,
future.
their
(Boniwell
Zimbardo
&
Boyd,
or personal successes), and situational
psychometric properties and it has
forces (e.g. being on holiday or under
been used to predict different behavioural
survival stresses) (Boniwell, Osin, Linley,
and personal features for more than a
&
decade (Boniwell et al., 2010; Corral-
Boniwell
&
Zimbardo, 2004).
has
&
1999).
2010;
ZTPI
they
throughout life (e.g. traumatic events
Ivanchenko,
The
maintaining
The
good
Verdugo et al., 2006; Drake et al., 2008; Mello & Worrell, 2006; Shores & Scott,
Based
on
the
above
2007). Some modifications include short
definitions have commonly included three
versions, such as the 36-item ZTPI, which
temporal categories (past, present, and
is suitable for cross-cultural comparisons
future),
(Sircova
an
fact
that
adequate
the
measurement
et
al.,
2014);
three
main
instrument for the assessment of TP must
dimensions: past, present and future
consider at least these three time frames.
orientations (Karande & Merchant, 2012);
The TP scales used to measure these
or two dimensions: past and future
three temporal categories are shown
(Webster, 2011).
in
Table
4.1
Chetthamrongchai
(e.g. &
those
Davies,
of
2000;
Table 4.2 shows the main features of the
Cottle, 1967; Nuttin, 1985; Zimbardo,
five
1990). However, these instruments have
(Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004; D’Alessio et
the
the
al., 2003; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999).
instruments mentioned above (i.e. low
Firstly, the past-negative perspective
reliability, unstable factor structure, and
reflects a generally pessimistic, negative
scoring difficulties). The ZTPI, which was
or aversive view or attitude towards the
developed by Zimbardo and Boyd (1999)
past, presenting a potentially disturbing
to solve the shortcomings of previous
portrait. These negative attitudes may be
scales,
the
96
same
has
disadvantages
five
as
dimensions:
past-
TPs,
result
based
of
on
actual
several
studies
experiences
of
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION unpleasant
or
traumatic
the
openly love adventures and risk taking.
negative reconstruction of benign events,
High levels of self-monitoring have been
or a mixture of both. This dimension
cited
suggests
present-fatalistic
trauma,
pain,
events,
and
regret.
for
individuals or
with
dominant
present-hedonistic
Secondly, past-positive perspective is
TPs, and they are therefore presumed to
related
positive
be able to adapt and feel secure in
construction of the past. This dimension
different surroundings. Fifthly, future-
reflects
often
oriented people are dominated by a
attitude
striving for future ambitious goals and
to
a
a
nostalgic
warm,
sentimental,
and
towards
past
the
and
pleasurable, nostalgic
on
rewards, and place an emphasis on
maintaining relationships with family and
planning and punctuality. They are self-
friends. A common feature of both past-
responsible
negative and past-positive orientations is
always bear in mind the consequences,
that they act and decide in response to
contingences, and probable outcomes of
recurrent situations that reflect their past
present
experiences. They do not take chances,
individuals feel pressed for time but are
tend to be conservative, and are not
willing to sacrifice present enjoyment in
attracted to new experiences. Thirdly,
order to achieve their career objectives,
present-fatalistic
whilst delaying gratification and avoiding
represents
a
with
emphasis
perspective
fatalistic,
helpless,
and
and
decisions
super-achievers,
or
actions.
and
These
time-wasting temptations.
hopeless attitude towards the future and life. Present-fatalistic people believe that
Table 4.2.
the
Time perspective dimensions and features.
future
is
uninfluenced
by
predestined individual
and
actions,
whereas the present must be borne with
Dimension
resignation because they tend to see themselves as puppets in the hands of
Pastnegative
fate. They tend to be dissatisfied with their present life and are ready to take the blame for their failures and to deny their
Pastpositive
achievements. Fourthly, the presenthedonist
perspective
suggests
an
orientation towards present pleasure with little concern for future consequences.
Presentfatalist Presenthedonist
Present-hedonistic people live for the moment,
value
hedonistic
pleasures,
Future
Features Depressive, anxiety, unhappiness, low self-esteem, aggression, shyness, temperamental, choleric, conservative, cautious, avoiding changes and new experiences Self-esteem, friendliness, energetic, nostalgic, happy, without past regrets, warm, pleasurable, sentimental, conservative, cautious, avoiding changes and new experiences Aggression, depression, hopeless, anxious, choleric Ego under-control, novelty seeker, sensation seeker, energetic, impulsive, passionate Conscientiousness, hard worker, energetic, impulses under-control, innovator, seek reward
enjoy high-intensity activities, seek thrills
Source: Boniwell and Zimbardo (2004); D’Alessio et
and new sensations, avoid pains, and
al. (2003); Zimbardo and Boyd (1999).
97
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN The
literature
possibility
review
of
reveals
qualitatively
the
simultaneous
bias
towards
different
different
temporal frames have a BTP, which is the
versions of the future derived from the
state and the ongoing process of being
anxiety and frustrations of trying to fit in
capable of operating in a temporal
with society’s schedule-driven emphasis
mode
(Spears & Amos, 2012). The future-
situation in which they find themselves.
negative perspective involves worrying
According to Zimbardo (2002), in an
about the future and anticipating negative
optimally BTP, the past, present and
outcomes, which results in a poor ability
future components ‘blend and flexibly
to enjoy the present (Carelli, Wiberg, &
engage,
Wiberg, 2011; Mello & Worrell, 2006;
demands and our needs and values’.
Wiberg
Students with a BTP may thus focus
et
al.,
2012).
These
that
is
appropriate
depending
a
situation’s
intensively
consequences are not included in the
excellent
ZTPI, and this may therefore show that
celebrating intensively the end of these
this
exams,
comprehensive investigate a
is
not
scale fuller
a
sufficiently
with
which
spectrum
of
studying
the
interpretations of the future with negative
instrument
on
on
to
marks and
in
on
to
their
enjoying
achieve
exams,
on
themselves
to
during family events. They choose to
TP.
work hard when it is time to work, enjoy
Nevertheless, it continues to be the
themselves
leading
celebrations, and to be close to their
scale
used
to
measure
TP
(Boniwell et al., 2010).
when
it
is
time
for
families when it is a family moment. It is supposed that they are able to switch
4.2.2.
Balanced time perspective
among
different
temporal
frames
depending on task features, situational The description of different TPs makes it
considerations, and personal resources
possible to note the main differences as
(Wiberg et al., 2012).
regards how the temporal view may shape actions, These
individuals’ and
thoughts,
dispositional
dimensions
feelings,
tendencies.
measure
People
with
a
BTP
therefore
score
higher on past-positive, future, and
people’s
present-hedonist, but lower on past-
propensity to have each type of time
negative and present-fatalistic (Drake
orientation. Nevertheless, for example,
et al., 2008). This is the more functional
people who are predominantly present
or
oriented could also think about their
dysfunctional orientations (past-negative
future (Cotte, Ratneshwar, & Mick, 2004).
and present-fatalist), high scores on the
ideal
functional
profile
ones
with
low
scores
(past-positive
on
and
In their study, Zimbardo and Boyd (1999)
future), and a moderate score on the
suggest that individuals that have a
remaining present-hedonist orientation
98
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION (Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004; Sircova et
research linking TP and leisure is based on
al., 2014). According to this, people who
qualitative studies or small sample sizes,
have a BTP have a positive attitude
with the sole exception of the study by
towards their past, enjoy the present and
Shores and Scott (2007).
focus on future goals (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Empirical research has focused
Considering the circumstances described
almost
above, it would appear that a theoretical
entirely
on
the
relationship
between having a BTP and subjective
framework
derived
well-being (Boniwell et al., 2010; Drake
behaviour
is
et al., 2008; Gao, 2013; Wiberg et al.,
understand the role of TP in leisure
2012). They agree that having a BTP is a
choices. Davies and Omer (1996) propose
more optimal alternative to living life than
a time allocation model for this. These
the slavery of belonging to a specific
authors point out that, in the ‘inter-
temporal
have
activity’ process, the amount of time
associated a BTP with more positive
spent on each three major blocks or
emotions, subjective happiness, and life
activity
satisfaction. Wiberg et al. (2012) refer to
discretionary
other
from
time) is determined by both exogenous
having a BTP, such as a purpose in life
(e.g. culture, social structure, economic
(Shipp, Edwards,
situation,
frame.
specific
These
benefits &
studies
derived
Lambert, 2009),
types
from
needed
(paid
time,
consumer to
work,
and
legislation,
better
non-
discretionary
etc.)
and
better psychological health (Zimbardo &
endogenous variables (e.g. age, sex,
Boyd, 1999), and patience as a virtue
TP as an important aspect of overall
(Schnitker & Emmons, 2007).
personality, etc.). In what they label as the ‘intro-activity’ allocation process, time
4.2.3.
Time perspective and leisure
is allocated and reallocated to different
choices
activities within each activity type in the same way as above. Lastly, the outcomes
Boniwell and Zimbardo (2004) emphasize
of
both
processes
that TP affects attention, perception,
particularly in terms of satisfaction, and
decision-making and actions, and that it
this evaluation is another input to the
is one of the most powerful influences on
allocation process. This model proposed
almost all aspects of human behaviour.
by Davies and Omer (1996) explicitly
Paradoxically, only a few studies (Cotte &
recognizes the influence of TP on the
Ratneshwar, 2003; Philipp, 1992; Shores,
amount of time spent on leisure (in
2005; Shores & Scott, 2007) investigate
the ‘inter-activity’ process) and the time
the effects of TP on leisure choices: the
allocated to different leisure activities
amount of free time available, benefits
(in the ‘intro-activity’ process). However,
sought, and activities. Furthermore, most
they
conclude
that
are
the
evaluated,
exogenous
99
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN variables are likely to dominate the
highlight exciting leisure activities (Martin
former decisions, whereas endogenous
et al., 2009). Consequently, it can be
variables, including TP, are more likely to
argued that TP does not necessarily
determine the latter.
determine participation/non-participation in
Bergadaà
(1990)
introduces
an
leisure
activities,
but
rather
the
content of the activities.
alternative theoretical model in which TP (that is, an orientation toward present,
More recently, Cotte and Ratneshwar
past, or future formed by a mix of
(2000,
personal
environmental/social
theoretical approach with which to
aspects) leads to different motivations,
examine how timestyle influences the
plans and types of products and services
choice of leisure goals, and impacts on
purchased. TP also influences consumers’
consumers’ decisions regarding leisure
attitudes and how they organise and
products,
choose
self-
Cotte and Ratneshwar (2000) assume
organised versus non-organised, personal
that consumer behaviour is goal-driven,
choice versus external selection, etc.).
and that leisure consumption implies the
More
a
consumption of discretionary time. They
qualitative study, this author describes
then point out that ‘leisure behaviours
the differences between present and
and
future orientation as regards two products
explained, at least in part, by people’s
related to leisure: holidays and books.
timestyles’ (Cotte & Ratneshwar, 2003, p.
Present-oriented people prefer package
560). These authors suggest that an
holidays and reading books for relaxation,
individual’s
whereas future-oriented individuals have
dimensions: social orientation, temporal
a greater preference for self-organised
orientation,
trips
enriching
polychronic orientation. The objective of
informative
our research has led us to focus our
books (Bergadaà, 1990). Similarly, Martin
attention on temporal orientation (the
et al. (2009) suggest that both future-
relative significance of past, present or
oriented
people
future) or TP, as we have called it. Cotte
could read magazines. However, future-
and Ratneshwar (2003) conclude that TP
oriented people could read magazines
appears to influence not only day-to-
that discuss issues such as investments
day leisure activities but also more
and retirement incomes (e.g. Fortune),
major leisure consumption decisions.
while present-oriented people, who tend
Their qualitative research has led them
to
to
and
products/services
specifically,
designed
experiences
and
engage
to
and
and
(e.g.
based
provide reading
present-oriented
in
on
sensation-seeking
behaviours, could read magazines that
100
2003)
have
services
consumption
state
and
planning
a
activities.
patterns
timestyle
that
proposed
can
has
four
orientation,
past-oriented
be
and
people
concentrate on activities such as visiting
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION the neighbourhoods in which they grew
The
theoretical
up and talking to old friends on the phone.
qualitative
Present-oriented people’s leisure choices
(Bergadaà, 1990; Cotte & Ratneshwar,
are more likely to be based on hedonic
2000, 2003; Davies & Omer, 1996) allow
pursuits (e.g. casino gambling, shopping,
us
playing on the Internet, or going out with
precisely (Figure 4.1). Surprisingly, few
friends or family for dinner). Future-
quantitative studies have examined the
oriented individuals often pursue personal
impact of TP on leisure choices. Although
development activities such as cookery
there is little empirical evidence, the main
classes, golf classes, or poetry discussion
findings of previous quantitative studies
groups.
are described in more detail below.
to
studies
define
our
models
and
reviewed
above
objectives
more
Figure 4.1. Research objectives.
Objective 1
Objective 4a
Amount of free time available on…
Weekdays (FTW) Sundays (FTS)
Time perspectives (TPs)
Past-negative (NEG) Past-positive (POS) Present-fatalistic (FAT) Present-hedonistic (HED) Future (FUT)
Leisure benefits sought
Objective 2 Objective 4b
Sociability (SOC) Physical fitness (PHY) Learning and competence testing (LEA) Spirituality (SPI) Risk taking (RIS)
Balanced time perspective (BTP)
Objective 3 Objective 4c
Frequency of engaging in leisure activities (how often people had spent time on 25 leisure activities in the previous month)
101
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN The first research objective
is to
One
of
these
internal
personality.
TPs and the amount of free time
undergraduate student sample, Barnett
available.
(2013) finds that the facets of the Big Five
introduces concept
the
of
(2005),
social
TP
to
who
psychological
leisure
studies,
personality
in
dimensions
a
is
evaluate the relationship between the five Shores
Thus,
attributes
large
(neuroticism,
extraversion, openness to experience,
hypothesises that TPs prove to have
agreeableness,
and
conscientiousness)
significant relationships to the amount of
were predictive of six desired outcomes
residual time (defined as time not spent
(new experiences, challenges and skills,
at work) and time allocated to leisure. In
internal rewards, social interaction, feel
a study with 148 undergraduate students,
good, and active engagement).
no differences were observed in the amount of residual time between each TP.
With regard to the relationship between
Conversely, significant differences were
TP, as an important influence on overall
observed in the percentage of residual
personality, and leisure benefits sought,
time allocated to leisure for respondents
the only empirical research to have been
with different TPs. What is more, present-
conducted on this specific issue is that by
fatalistic
Shores and Scott (2007). These authors
and
present-hedonistic
individuals averaged more than twice the
selected
six
benefit
domains
(family
amount of recreation time than future-
togetherness, physical fitness, learning,
oriented respondents (Shores, 2005).
competence testing, spirituality, and risk taking), which provided information about
Our second research objective is to
the
empirically determine whether the five
sociability,
TPs have an influence on the leisure
psychological state goals. These benefit
benefits sought. The answer to the
domains are the only ones for which a
question ‘why do people engage in leisure
theoretical basis exists in TP literature.
activities’ has motivated a great deal of
These authors’ two key findings are as
research in leisure studies (for a more
follows.
detailed review, see Dillard & Bates,
influence of TP on leisure benefits is more
2011). More specifically, leisure studies
important
have described how internal attributes
variables (e.g. age, gender, income,
(inputs) are related to personal benefits
etc.). Second, for the six leisure benefits,
that
past-negative
individuals
(outputs)
(Shores
seek
and
acquire
&
Scott,
2007).
desired
outcomes
related
achievement,
First,
they
than
and
show
to and
that
the
socio-demographic
present-fatalistic
people were least likely to describe any
However, there is a lack of systematic and
benefit
comprehensive research on this topic
respondents classified as future-oriented
(Barnett, 2013; Shores & Scott, 2007).
and past-positive attributed the highest
102
as
important,
whereas
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION level of importance to all leisure benefits
were linked to a future time orientation.
sought except risk taking. Shores and
This is why Philipp (1992, p. 663)
Scott (2007, p. 98) therefore concluded
concludes that
that
time
‘appear to seek many specific leisure
perspectives are good and healthy time
activities much more frequently than
perspectives for shaping our free time’.
those individuals with a past or present
‘past-positive
and
future
future-oriented
time orientation’. No
other
people
empirical
The third objective is to explore whether
studies have been found which have
TPs predict how often people spend
examined the relationship between TPs
time on different leisure activities.
and a wide range of leisure activities,
Philipp (1992) provides tentative support
although there are studies in which a
for the hypothesis that TPs are associated
single
with participation in leisure activities. The
reported (Epel, Bandura, & Zimbardo,
Experimental Inventory used by Cottle
1999;
(1968) was used as a basis to assess five
Lukavska, 2012).
leisure
activity
Karande
&
has
Merchant,
been 2012;
time orientations (i.e. distant past, near past, present, near future, and distant
For instance, Epel et al. (1999) report that
future), and 149 respondents were asked
the future orientation of homeless adults
to report whether they had participated in
living in shelters (N = 82) was related to
each of 39 leisure activities during the last
less time spent watching TV and passing
year. Philipp (1992) reports that 15 of the
time, whereas present orientation was
39 activities (38%) were significantly
related to more time spent on these
associated
activities.
with
orientations.
one
or of
In
a
study
with
306
undergraduate students, Karande and
to
Merchant (2012) found that present time
bars/nightclubs, going to movies, going to
orientation influences impulsiveness, and
concerts, reading a newspaper, reading
that the latter affects the consumer’s
for
were
recreational shopper identity, which in
orientation
turn influences shopping behaviour (i.e.
(camping,
pleasure,
associated
and
with
a
the
time leisure
activities
Seven
more going
swimming) past
(composed of distant past and near past),
browsing,
whereas going to amusement parks and
frequency, number or stores shopped at,
going to zoos were the only two activities
time spent shopping, and dollars spent).
related
Nine
TPs even predict the extent to which 154
vehicles,
respondents waste their time playing
activities
to
present (driving
orientation. off-road
online
concerts, horseback riding, playing indoor
significant negative correlation was found
sports,
between future TP and the amount of time
outdoor
sports,
swimming, and watching sporting events)
(Lukavska,
shopping
fishing, going to bars/nightclubs, going to playing
games
socializing,
2012):
a
spent on this activity.
103
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN The fourth objective of our research is
and, most importantly, to identify the
to investigate differences in leisure
potential benefits of each activity. On the
choices between BTP and non-BTP
other hand, individuals with a BTP also
groups. As noted in the section above,
make the most of their leisure time
almost all previous research into BTP has
(Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2003) and may
focused on its influence on well-being.
spend less time on passive entertainment
This study is in fact the first to link BTP to
or boring activities.
the
amount
of
free
time
available,
benefits sought, and leisure activities.
Following the discussion in the previous
Nevertheless, research in the field of
paragraph, in the current study we expect
positive
that:
psychology
(Boniwell,
2012)
provides support for the key role of a BTP in the ability to use leisure time in a
(a)
The amount of free time available
positive and healthy way, while Boniwell
for BTP and non-BTP groups will
and Zimbardo (2003) point out that a BTP
be similar;
is related to the way in which people use their time and is useful for solving the
(b)
BTP group will be more likely to
dilemmas of work-leisure balance. As
describe all of the leisure benefits
Boniwell
sought as important; and
(2012,
p.
80)
clarifies,
‘a
balanced use of time does not mean equal allocation of time to work and leisure, it
(c)
Differences between
BTP and
does not even necessarily mean investing
non-BTP groups will be observed
more time into leisure’. It is a matter of
as
quality rather than quantity. Individuals
participation in activities that are
with
intimately
a
BTP
seek
quality
leisure
regards
the
frequency
of
associated
with
entertainment
(e.g.
experiences, rather than having more
passive
free time. Furthermore, it seems clear
watching TV) or activities without
that a satisfying use of leisure time is
content (e.g. resting and time
characteristic of a balance in our TP
out).
(Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2003). On the one hand, people with a BTP have the ability
4.3.
Method
4.3.1.
Data collection and sample
to be flexible in shifting from one TP to another and are capable of adopting a TP that is appropriate to the situation in
profile
which they find themselves (Boniwell, 2012; Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2003). This
A total of 374 undergraduate and
ability allows them to be fully involved in
Master’s degree students from the
the leisure activities in which they engage
UCLM answered a questionnaire about TP
104
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION and leisure in December 2013. The
(Sircova et al., 2014). The original ZTPI
UCLM is a Spanish public university at
consisted of 56 items, but we decided to
which more than 31,000 students are
use a shortened version of 20 items (four
enrolled.
was
for each TP) based on the results (i.e.
the
items with the highest factor loadings) of
software
a previous study conducted in Spain
(https://www.surveymonkey.com/). The
(Díaz-Morales, 2006). A 5-point Likert
average duration of the survey was 17
scale was used, ranging from strongly
minutes. After deleting incomplete cases,
disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).
The
questionnaire
administered
online
using
SurveyMonkey®
we retained 320 usable questionnaires for data analysis.
The second section was dedicated to leisure choices: the amount of free time
The average age of the participants was
available, benefits sought, and activities.
22.28 years (SD = 3.67), with a range of
Two questions were about the amount of
18 to 43 years of age. The distribution by
free time available on weekdays and
sex was 57.19% females and 42.81%
Sundays (hours), respectively, referring
males.
were
more specifically to the time that had
undergraduate students, while 13.75%
been available the previous week. The
were Master’s degree students. A small
leisure benefits sought were measured
proportion
of
using 15 items on a 5-point Likert scale
performed
paid
The
majority
the
(86.25%)
sample
work.
(16.25%)
Nearly
65%
ranging from not at all important (1) to
reported living in the family home. Over
very important (5). We used 14 items
75% of the respondents resided in an
from Shores and Scott (2007) and added
urban area. The average family size was
an additional item from Barnett (2013)
4.03 members (SD = 1.07), and the
related to sociability: ‘to be with my
monthly family income per capita was, on
friends’. The respondents also reported
average, 387.68 € (SD = 287.29).
how often they had spent time on 25 leisure
4.3.2.
Instruments
month.
activities The
during
choice
of
the these
previous leisure
activities was based on studies conducted The questionnaire consisted of three
by Rodríguez and Agulló (1999) and von
sections
Normann (2009). A pre-test with 20
(Appendix
C).
The
first
section included 20 items derived
undergraduate
from the ZTPI (Zimbardo & Boyd,
confirmed the appropriate selection of
1999). The ZTPI is considered to be a
activities. The response options were
reliable and valid measure of five TPs:
never (1), once a month (2), more than
past-negative,
present-
once a month but less than once a week
fatalistic, present-hedonistic, and future
(3), once a week (4), more than once a
past-positive,
students
further
105
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN week but less than once a day (5), and
and significant control variables were also
daily or almost daily (6).
included. Five different link functions (cauchit, complementary log-log, logit,
The
last
section
collected
socio-
negative log-log, and probit) can be used
demographic information (i.e. age,
to obtain a set of candidate models
sex, education level, paid work, living in
(Norusis, 2012). This author suggests
the family home, family size, and family
that the researcher may delimit the link
income). These variables were used to
functions a
characterise the sample and as control
distribution of the dependent variables
variables in the subsequent analyses.
(Appendix D). More specifically, the
priori
depending
on
the
cauchit function is a reasonable choice 4.3.3. Two
Data analysis
confirmatory
when the outcome has many extreme
factor
analyses
values,
the
function
is
complementary appropriate
log-log
when
higher
(CFA) of the TPs and leisure benefits
categories are more probable, the logit
sought scales were conducted using EQS
model is suggested when the outcome is
6.1 for Windows. The normalised estimate
uniformly distributed, the negative log-
of Mardia's coefficients of multivariate
log function is more suitable when lower
kurtosis were high (11.81 and 17.66,
categories are more probable, and the
respectively), indicating multivariate non-
probit function provides better predictions
normality.
when the outcome is normally distributed.
likelihood
The
robust
estimation
maximum
method
was
However, there is no general method that
therefore used. Stepwise hierarchical
can be used to choose the proper link
regression analyses were then used to
function (Khan & Almas, 2013). We used
evaluate the relationship between the five
the
TPs and the amount of free time available
goodness-of-fit to monitor the candidate
(Objective 1) on the one hand, and the
models and choose the proper ones, as
leisure benefits sought (Objective 2) on
suggested by Khan and Almas (2013).
test
of
parallel
lines
and
the
the other. Exogenous variables were entered
hierarchically in
two
blocks:
With regard to the relationship between a
control variables (block 1), and TPs (block
BTP and leisure choices (Objective 4),
2).
various
approaches
can
be
used
to
operationalize BTP (for a more detailed The impact of TPs on each leisure activity
review, see Wiberg et al., 2012; Zhang,
(Objective
using
Howell, & Stolarski, 2013). We have used
ordinal regression analyses in which
a cluster-analysis to operationalize the
leisure benefits sought, amount of free
BTP using the standardised scores of the
time available on weekdays and Sundays
five ZTPI subscales, as proposed by
106
3)
was
examined
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Boniwell et al. (2010). These authors
loadings
applied a hierarchical cluster analysis in
respectively).
order to identify the BTP and non-BTP
corrections, the overall model fit was
groups. Nevertheless, we performed a
adequate (Schumacker & Lomax, 2010).
latent class cluster analysis (LCCA)
Regarding reliability, the ordinal alpha (O-
using Latent Gold® 4.5 owing to its
α), recommended by Gadermann, Guhn,
significant
other
and Zumbo (2012) for Likert-type items
procedures (Oppewal et al., 2010). The
with 2 to 7 response options, ranged from
differences between BTP and non-BTP
0.74 for past-positive to 0.84 for present-
groups as regards the amount of free time
hedonistic, while the composite reliability
available and the leisure benefits sought
(CR) values exceeded the threshold of
(Objectives 4a and 4b, respectively) were
0.70 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). All
analysed using t-tests, whereas the
loadings were significant (p < 0.001) and
differences in how often the respondents
above
had spent time on 25 leisure activities
extracted (AVE) values greater than or
(Objective 4c) were conducted using
close
Mann-Whitney U tests. All regression
convergent validity (Fornell & Larcker,
and bivariate analyses were performed
1981).
with IBM® SPSS® Statistics 19.0.
construct was higher than the squared
advantages
over
(0.42,
0.28,
Having
0.60. to
and
0.32,
made
these
Average
0.50
variance
indicated
Moreover,
the
AVE
sufficient for
each
correlations for all pairs of constructs 4.4.
Results
(Fornell
&
Larcker,
1981)
and
discriminant validity was ensured. 4.4.1.
Confirmatory factor analyses: time perspectives and leisure
A CFA for the leisure benefits sought
benefits sought
scale allowed us to group 15 items into five
benefit
domains:
sociability,
As a starting point, the 20 items from the
physical fitness, learning and competence
shortened version of the ZTPI were
testing,
subjected to a CFA in order to assess the
(Table 4.4). This factor structure was
adequacy of the five-factor model:
very similar to that identified by Shores
past-negative,
present-
and Scott (2007), except for the fact that
fatalistic, present-hedonistic, and future
these authors examine ‘learning’ and
(Table 4.3). Three items (‘POS3. I get
‘competence
nostalgic about my childhood’, ‘FAT4.
domains, whereas we grouped them into
Often luck pays off better than hard
a single construct owing to their high
work’, and ‘HED4. I try to live my life as
correlation. The results from the CFA
fully as possible, one day at a time’) were
indicated an acceptable fit for the five-
deleted
factor model, adequate reliability levels,
owing
past-positive,
to
low
standardised
spirituality,
testing’
and
as
risk
two
taking
distinct
107
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN and
satisfactory
convergent
(loadings
weighted
arithmetic analyses,
means in
for
the
which
the
above 0.60, with the exception of ‘SOC3.
subsequent
To be with my friends’ = 0.46; and AVE
weights were the standardised loadings
above 0.50) and discriminant validity.
derived from the previous CFA. Appendix E provides the descriptive statistics
The scores for the five TPs and leisure
regarding the five TPs and leisure
benefits
benefits sought.
sought
were
calculated
as
Table 4.3. Results from confirmatory factor analysis: time perspectives.
Concept/Item
Loading
O-α
CR
AVE
0.80
0.79
0.74
Square correlation NEG
POS
FAT
HED
FUT
0.49
1.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.03
0.72
0.47
0.00
1.00
0.07
0.00
0.06
0.79
0.75
0.50
0.00
0.07
1.00
0.03
0.11
0.84
0.80
0.58
0.01
0.00
0.03
1.00
0.08
0.81
0.79
0.49
0.03
0.06
0.11
0.08
1.00
PAST-NEGATIVE (NEG) NEG1. I think about the bad things that have happened to me in the past NEG2. It’s hard for me to forget unpleasant images of my youth NEG3. Painful past experiences keep being replayed in my mind NEG4. The past has too many unpleasant memories that I prefer not to think about
0.62*** 0.71*** 0.78*** 0.67***
PAST-POSITIVE (POS) POS1. Familiar childhood sights, sounds, smells often bring back a flood of wonderful memories POS2. Happy memories of good times spring readily to mind POS4. I enjoy stories about how things used to be in the ‘good old times’
0.72*** 0.66*** 0.67***
PRESENT-FATALISTIC (FAT) FAT1. It doesn’t make sense to worry about the future, since there is nothing that I can do about it anyway FAT2. Since whatever will be will be, it doesn’t really matter what I do FAT3. You can’t really plan for the future because things change so much
0.71*** 0.74*** 0.66***
PRESENT-HEDONISTIC (HED) HED1. I take risks to put excitement in my life HED2. It's important to put excitement in my life HED3. Taking risks keeps my life from becoming boring
0.68*** 0.82*** 0.77***
FUTURE (FUT) FUT1. I complete projects on time by making steady progress FUT2. I am able to resist temptations when I know that there is work to be done FUT3. Meeting tomorrow’s deadlines and doing other necessary work comes before tonight’s play FUT4. When I want to achieve something, I set goals and consider specific means for reaching those goals
0.66*** 0.77*** 0.71*** 0.63***
Goodness of fit summary: Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square (df = 109) = 144.22 (p = 0.01); BentlerBonett normed fit index (BBNFI) = 0.90; Bentler-Bonett non-normed fit index (BBNNFI) = 0.97; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.97; incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.97; McDonald's fit index (MFI) = 0.95; root meansquare error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.03. Notes: O-α: ordinal alpha; CR: composite reliability; AVE: average variance extracted; ***p < 0.001.
108
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Table 4.4. Results from confirmatory factor analysis: leisure benefits sought.
Concept/Item
Loading
O-α
CR
AVE
SOC
Square correlation PHY LEA SPI
RIS SOCIABILITY (SOC) SOC1. To do something 0.89*** with my family SOC2. To bring my family 0.78 0.76 0.53 1.00 0.02 0.14 0.10 0.02 0.78*** closer together SOC3. To be with my 0.46*** friends PHYSICAL FITNESS (PHY) PHY1. To get exercise 0.91*** PHY2. To keep physically 0.96 0.94 0.84 0.02 1.00 0.17 0.05 0.06 0.95*** fit PHY3. To feel good after 0.89*** being physically active LEARNING AND COMPETENCE TESTING (LEA) LEA1. To develop my 0.77*** knowledge about things 0.91 0.87 0.62 0.14 0.17 1.00 0.15 0.21 LEA2. To learn about 0.87*** things LEA3. To test my abilities 0.84*** LEA4. To learn what I am 0.67*** capable of SPIRITUALITY (SPI) SPI1. To grow and 0.97*** develop spiritually 0.92 0.90 0.81 0.10 0.05 0.15 1.00 0.03 SPI2. To reflect on my 0.83*** spiritual values RISK TAKING (RIS) RIS1. To take risks 0.63*** RIS2. To chance 0.80*** 0.84 0.81 0.59 0.02 0.06 0.21 0.03 1.00 dangerous situations RIS3. To experience the 0.86*** risks involved Goodness of fit summary: Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square (df = 80) = 197.13 (p < 0.001); BentlerBonett normed fit index (BBNFI) = 0.92; Bentler-Bonett non-normed fit index (BBNNFI) = 0.93; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.95; incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.95; McDonald's fit index (MFI) = 0.83; root meansquare error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.07. Notes: O-α: ordinal alpha; CR: composite reliability; AVE: average variance extracted; ***p < 0.001.
4.4.2.
Relationship
between
time
demographic
characteristics,
future
perspectives and the amount
orientation had negative impacts on the
of free time available
leisure time available on weekdays and Sundays, while the present-hedonistic
Table 4.5 shows the outcomes of the two
perspective had a positive effect on the
stepwise hierarchical regression analyses
amount of hours spent participating in
used to determine the proportions of
leisure
variance in the amount of free time
significant effects were observed for
available
the other TPs examined (i.e. past-
explained
on by
weekdays the
TPs
and and
Sundays control
variables. After controlling for socio-
activities
negative,
on
weekdays.
past-positive,
and
No
present-
fatalistic).
109
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 4.5. Stepwise hierarchical regression analysis predicting the amount of free time available.
Amount of free time available on weekdays Standardised ∆R2 coefficients (b*)
Block/Exogenous variable
BLOCK 1. CONTROL VARIABLES
0.09***
Sex (1 = female)d
Amount of free time available on Sundays ∆R2
b*
0.03** -0.15**
Paid work (1 = yes)d
-0.21***
Family size
-0.13*
0.09†
Family income per capita
-0.11†
BLOCK 2. TIME PERSPECTIVES
0.07***
0.05***
Past-negative Past-positive Present-fatalistic Present-hedonistic
0.10†
Future
-0.23***
TOTAL R2
0.16
F
-0.21*** 0.08
12.21***
8.63***
Notes: †p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; dDummy variable.
4.4.3.
Relationship
between
perspectives
and
time
leisure
benefits sought
explained.
Neither
past-negative
nor
present-fatalistic were associated with the five leisure benefits sought. The pastpositive perspective had positive impacts
As
explained
earlier,
the
significant
on
sociability,
and
learning
and
control variables (i.e. age, sex, education
competence testing. Respondents who
level, living in the family home, or family
scored high on the present-hedonistic
size) were entered in the regression
perspective were more likely to seek risk-
equations in the first block and TPs were
taking benefits and less likely to seek
added
The
learning and competence testing benefits
coefficients of determination indicated
from leisure. Future TP had positive
that for four of the five leisure benefits
effects on learning and competence
sought, with the exception of spirituality,
testing, physical fitness, sociability,
more than 10% of the variance was
and spirituality (Table 4.6).
110
in
the
second
block.
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Table 4.6. Stepwise hierarchical regression analyses predicting leisure benefits sought.
Block/ Exogenous variable BLOCK 1. CONTROL VARIABLES
Physical fitness
Sociability ∆R2
b*
∆R2
0.09***
b*
0.06***
Learning and competence testing ∆R2
b*
0.00
Spirituality
Risk taking
∆R2
∆R2
b*
0.11†
Sex (1 = female)d
0.13*
Education level (1 = master's degree)d Living in family home (1 = yes)d
-0.24***
0.12*
0.10*
0.10†
-0.17***
-0.10†
Family size BLOCK 2. TIME PERSPECTIVES
0.01†
0.06**
Age
b*
0.15** 0.14***
0.05***
0.12***
0.01*
0.23***
Past-negative Past-positive
0.36***
0.12*
Present-fatalistic Present-hedonistic
-0.15**
Future TOTAL R2
0.11*
0.22***
0.23
F
0.11
22.97***
0.47***
0.30*** 0.12
13.09***
0.11* 0.07
14.20***
0.24
4.62***
48.69***
Notes: †p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; dDummy variable.
4.4.4.
Relationship perspectives
between and
time
leisure
activities
discussed
below,
indicating
that
the
location parameters are equivalent across the levels of the dependent variable. When assessing model fit, Pearson and
Ordinal regression analyses were used to
deviance statistics (p > 0.05) indicated
explore how TPs predicted how often
a good fit to the data. Unfortunately, both
people had spent time on each leisure
goodness-of-fit
activity
month.
viewed with great caution. They are
Leisure benefits sought, amount of free
sensitive to empty cells when estimating
time available on weekdays and Sundays,
models with continuous covariates, as in
and significant control variables were also
our case. The Nagelkerke pseudo R2,
included in the ordinal regression models.
which appears to best exhibit palindromic
The test of parallel lines was non-
invariance (Smith & McKenna, 2012), was
significant (p > 0.05) in the models
accordingly used to evaluate goodness-
during
the
previous
statistics
should
be
111
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN of-fit for our models. The Nagelkerke
parameters and coefficients for significant
R values for the 25 models ranged from
control variables have been omitted for
0.04 (for travel and tourism, and going for
brevity, but are available upon request.
a walk) to 0.47 (for sports) (Table 4.7).
As can be seen in columns 1-6, 23 of the
Although these values were suitable for
25 leisure activities were significantly
an exploratory study, the Nagelkerke R
associated with one or more TPs. 10 of
2
2
was below 10% in seven activities,
these
23
activities
(reading
comics,
indicating that the predictors did not
shopping, nightlife, watching TV, surfing
explain much of the variance in these
the Internet, listening to the radio and
activities.
music, using social networks, attending concerts, attending sporting events, and
Table 4.8 shows the model parameter
going to the cinema) were significantly
estimates.
associated with more than one TP.
The
non-significant
Table 4.7. Ordinal regression analyses predicting frequency of engaging in leisure activities: test of parallel lines and goodness-of-fit.
Leisure activity Reading comics (d)
Test of parallel lines χ2 (df)
p
Nagelkerke pseudo R2
7.24 (52)
1.00
0.26
Shopping (c)
37.29 (48)
0.87
0.11
Nightlife (e)
68.49 (52)
0.06
0.18
Watching TV (b)
63.74 (48)
0.06
0.12
Reading books (printed or eBooks) (c)
51.73 (44)
0.20
0.07
Surfing the Internet (b)
38.08 (44)
0.72
0.11
Listening to the radio and music (c)
51.29 (40)
0.11
0.08
Talking on the phone and using instant messaging services (b)
45.01 (36)
0.14
0.17
Using social networks (b)
58.14 (48)
0.15
0.12
Sports (c)
52.41 (52)
0.46
0.47
Travel and tourism (e)
22.87 (44)
1.00
0.04
Attending concerts (d)
23.91 (44)
0.99
0.13
Attending sporting events (d)
54.43 (52)
0.38
0.20
Playing a musical instrument (d)
21.55 (48)
1.00
0.13
Attending the theatre or similar activities (c)
56.60 (44)
0.10
0.14
Collaborating with associations (e)
12.67 (44)
1.00
0.09
Going to the cinema (d)
27.96 (42)
0.95
0.12
Going for a walk (a)
60.07 (44)
0.05
0.04
Watching online videos (c)
55.87 (52)
0.33
0.16
Resting and time out (c)
50.41 (44)
0.23
0.13
Playing video games or online games (c)
59.36 (48)
0.13
0.16
Going out for a drink (e)
64.67 (48)
0.05
0.06
Reading newspapers and magazines (printed or online) (b)
45.59 (48)
0.57
0.14
Going to restaurants (e)
44.60 (48)
0.61
0.06
Visiting museums and art galleries (d)
27.65 (52)
1.00
0.20
Notes: Link function: (a) cauchit; (b) complementary log-log; (c) logit; (d) negative log-log; (e) probit.
112
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Past perspectives (i.e. past-negative and
associated with reading newspapers and
past-positive)
magazines.
had
different
roles
in
predicting how often certain activities had been performed in the previous month.
Although it was not the objective of our
Past-negative perspective had negative
study, Table 4.8 also provides evidence
impacts on reading comics, shopping, and
regarding the extent to which there was a
nightlife;
relationship
orientation
whereas was
past-positive significantly
and
between
each
benefit
sought and leisure activity (columns
positively associated with reading comics,
7-11).
watching TV, reading books, surfing the
positive impacts on collaborating with
Internet, listening to the radio and music,
associations and some activities related to
and talking on the phone and using
the arts and culture (i.e. reading comics,
instant messaging services. The present-
attending concerts, playing a musical
fatalistic
associated
instrument, attending theatre or similar
with eight activities. It had an inverse
activities, and visiting museums and art
relationship with surfing the Internet,
galleries). With regard to the significant
using social networks, and sports; and a
control variables (columns 12 and 13),
direct relationship with watching TV,
we can highlight that sex was significantly
travel and tourism, attending concerts,
associated
attending sporting events, and playing a
Being female was associated with a higher
musical instrument. Mixed (positive and
propensity to participate in activities such
negative) results were similarly found for
as shopping, talking on the phone and
the relationship between the present-
using instant messaging services, and
hedonistic perspective and nine leisure
using social networks; while being male
activities, and had a positive relationship
was related to reading comics, nightlife,
with shopping, watching TV, using social
sports, attending sporting events, playing
networks, going for a walk, and watching
a musical instrument, watching online
online videos; and a negative relationship
videos, playing video games, and reading
with attending concerts, attending the
newspapers
theatre or similar activities, collaborating
interpretations can be made for living in
with
the
the family home and paid work, family
cinema. With regard to future TP, it was
income, family size, age, and education
negatively associated with eight activities
level, which were related to six, five, four,
(shopping, nightlife, listening to the radio
two
and music, attending sporting events,
respectively. The amount of free time
going to the cinema, resting and time out,
available
playing video games or online games, and
influenced the frequency of participation
going out for a drink) and positively
in five and eight activities, respectively.
perspective
associations,
and
was
going
to
For
example,
with
and on
and
one
11
spirituality
leisure
activities.
magazines.
leisure
weekdays
and
had
Similar
activities, Sundays
113
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 4.8. Ordinal regression analyses predicting frequency of engaging in leisure activities: parameter estimates.
Exogenous variable Leisure activity
Time perspectives (columns 2-6) Pastnegative
Reading comics
-0.44*
Shopping
-0.21†
Nightlife
-0.14†
Pastpositive
0.42**
Reading books (printed or eBooks)
0.32*
Surfing the Internet
0.44*
Listening to the radio and music
0.46*
0.27*
0.24†
-0.53**
0.75** -0.25†
Sports
-0.23†
Travel and tourism
0.13†
Attending concerts
0.14†
Attending sporting events
0.20†
0.27†
-0.19* -0.37**
0.43**
Attending the theatre or similar activities
-0.42*
Collaborating with associations
-0.25*
Going to the cinema
-0.19†
Going for a walk
0.21†
Watching online videos
0.30†
Playing video games or online games
-0.29†
-0.31*
Using social networks
Resting and time out
Future
-0.25** 0.25†
Playing a musical instrument
Presenthedonistic
0.49*
Watching TV
Talking on the phone and using instant messaging services
Presentfatalistic
-0.25*
-0.43** -0.30†
Going out for a drink
-0.24**
Reading newspapers and magazines (printed or online)
0.19†
Going to restaurants Visiting museums and art galleries Notes: †p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.
114
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Table 4.8. (Continued) Ordinal regression analyses predicting frequency of engaging in leisure activities: parameter estimates.
Exogenous variable Leisure benefits sought (columns 7-11)
Leisure activity Sociability
Physical fitness
Reading comics Shopping
Learning and competence testing -0.69†
Risk taking
0.83***
-0.35*
Nightlife
-0.12*
Watching TV
-0.30**
Reading books (printed or eBooks) Surfing the Internet
Spirituality
-0.29* -0.37†
0.34† 0.58*
Listening to the radio and music
-0.40* -0.30*
Talking on the phone and using instant messaging services Using social networks
-0.38**
Sports
1.47***
-0.52*
Travel and tourism Attending concerts Attending sporting events
-0.24† 0.37*
0.12†
0.40***
Playing a musical instrument
0.38*
Attending the theatre or similar activities
0.48***
Collaborating with associations
0.21**
Going to the cinema Going for a walk
0.28†
Watching online videos
-0.48**
Resting and time out
0.25† -0.29*
Playing video games or online games Going out for a drink Reading newspapers and magazines (printed or online)
0.27†
-0.20*
Going to restaurants Visiting museums and art galleries
0.15† 0.66***
Notes: †p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.
115
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 4.8. (Continued) Ordinal regression analyses predicting frequency of engaging in leisure activities: parameter estimates.
Exogenous variable Leisure activity
Significant control variables (p < 0.1) (columns 12-13) Positive parameter
Reading comics
Negative parameter Female; Home; Income
Shopping
Female
Size
Nightlife
FTS
Age; Female
Watching TV
Home; FTS
Reading books (printed or eBooks)
Work
Surfing the Internet
FTS
Listening to the radio and music Talking on the phone and using instant messaging services
Female
Using social networks
Female; FTS
Sports
FTS
Travel and tourism
Work
Attending concerts
FTW
Female; FTW
Size
Attending sporting events
FTS
Female; FTW
Playing a musical instrument
Work
Female
Attending the theatre or similar activities
Income
Collaborating with associations Going to the cinema
Home Work; Home
Going for a walk
Age; Size Income
Watching online videos
Size
Female; Home
Resting and time out
FTW
Playing video games or online games
FTS
Female
Going out for a drink
FTS
FTW
Reading newspapers and magazines (printed or online)
Work
Female
Going to restaurants
Education; Income
Visiting museums and art galleries
Work; Income
Home
Notes: †p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001. Female: sex (1 = female); Education: education level (1 = master's degree); Work: paid work (1 = yes); Home: living in the family home (1 = yes); Size: family size; Income: family income per capita (€); FTW: amount of free time available on weekdays; FTS: amount of free time available on Sundays.
116
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION 4.4.5.
Relationship balanced
between
time
a
The first cluster (59.69%) was labelled
perspective
non-BTP and included individuals with
and leisure choice
high
scores
in
past-negative
present-fatalistic
perspectives
and (0.14
We conducted a LCCA in order to identify
and 0.35 standard deviations over the
groups with and without a BTP. Five
sample mean, respectively). The second
models were considered, each of which
cluster (40.31%) was a BTP group that
incorporated
between
was characterised by high scores as
homogeneity)
and
one
five
(sample
clusters.
We
regards
future,
past-positive
and
selected the most parsimonious model
present-hedonistic subscales, and low
according
scores
to
the
consistent
Akaike
as
regards past-negative and
information criterion (CAIC). Lower CAIC
present
fatalistic
values indicate a better fit (Wedel and
4.10). Each individual was assigned to a
Kamakura, 2000). The results presented
group
in Table 4.9 indicate that there were two
pattern: 191 were individuals with a non-
clusters.
BTP and 129 had a BTP.
according
perspectives to
his/her
(Table response
Table 4.9. Statistics for the latent class cluster models.
Model
Log-likelihood (LL)
Number of parameters
CAIC(LL)
Classification errors
One cluster
-2267.80
4603.28
10
0.00
Two clusters*
-2219.60
4581.34
21
0.11
Three clusters
-2188.50
4593.59
32
0.18
Four clusters
-2165.78
4622.60
43
0.19
Five clusters
-2148.41
4662.32
54
0.20
Notes: CAIC: consistent Akaike information criterion; *Best model according to CAIC.
Table 4.10. Significance of the indicators and profiles for the two clusters.
Indicator
Robust Wald statistic
Standard deviations from the sample mean p
Cluster 1. Non-balanced time perspective (59.69%)
Cluster 2. Balanced time perspective (40.31%)
Past-negative
5.18
0.02
0.14
-0.20
Past-positive
17.58
0.00
-0.28
0.41
Present-fatalistic
25.56
0.00
0.35
-0.52
Present-hedonistic
10.28
0.00
-0.22
0.32
146.33
0.00
-0.62
0.92
Future
117
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Firstly, the BTP effects on the amount of
4.5.
Discussion and conclusions
free time available on weekdays and Sundays were evaluated using t-tests.
This chapter has reviewed theoretical
The non-BTP group spent more time (p
models derived from consumer behaviour
< 0.05) pursuing leisure activities on
(Bergadaà, 1990; Cotte & Ratneshwar,
weekdays (4.89 hours on average) and
2000, 2003; Davies & Omer, 1996) to
Sundays (7.29 hours on average) than
propose and test an integrated model that
the BTP group (3.69 and 6.52 hours on
analyses how TPs (past-negative, past-
average, respectively).
positive,
present-fatalistic,
present-
hedonistic, and future) and having a BTP Secondly, the scores obtained by the
have an influence on the amount of free
BTP group for four of the five leisure
time available, the leisure benefits that
benefits sought
to be
individuals seek, and how often people
significantly higher than those of the non-
spend time on different leisure activities.
BTP group: sociability (Mnon-BTP = 3.83,
From an academic point of view, the
MBTP = 4.17, t = -4.31, p = 0.00); physical
findings of this study shed light on the
fitness (Mnon-BTP = 3.52, MBTP = 3.84, t = -
role of TP in leisure choices, which is a
2.85, p = 0.00); learning and competence
relevant contribution when bearing in
testing (Mnon-BTP = 3.98, MBTP = 4.27, t =
mind the scarcity of empirical research on
-4.00, p= 0.00); and spirituality (Mnon-BTP
this topic (Philipp, 1992; Shores, 2005;
= 2.93, MBTP = 3.19, t = -2.11, p = 0.04).
Shores
No significant differences were found in
contribution is that, in spite of the
the case of risk taking (Mnon-BTP = 3.46,
growing interest in the field of positive
MBTP = 3.43, t = 0.23, p = 0.82).
psychology as regards associating a BTP
were found
&
Scott,
2007).
A
further
with positive outcomes for individuals Thirdly, the frequency of engaging in
(e.g. subjective well-being) (Boniwell,
22 of the 25 activities was similar in
2012), no previous study has examined
both
were
the relationship between a BTP and
significant differences between the non-
leisure choices. The main conclusions
BTP and BTP groups as regards going out
obtained in this chapter are as follows.
for
groups.
a
However,
drink
10,584.50,
(Mann-Whitney =
-2.21,
p
=
U
=
0.03),
First, with regard to the relationship
nightlife (Mann-Whitney U = 9489, z = -
between TPs and the amount of free
3.58, p = 0.00), and resting and time
time available, our findings are similar
out (Mann-Whitney U = 9588, z = -3.46,
to those of Shores (2005). We can
p = 0.00). Non-BTP group engaged in
therefore conclude that the future TP is
these leisure activities more often than
associated with less free time on both
BTP group did.
weekdays
118
z
there
and
Sundays,
while
the
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION present-hedonistic
a
time owing to the high demands that they
positive effect on the amount of hours
daily impose upon themselves in their
spent
on
work or studies. Whatever the case may
weekdays. Lens, Paixão, Herrera, and
be, the results obtained have allowed us
Grobler (2012, p. 330) have recently
to
hypothesised that future TP ‘may have
understand time is a key predictor of why
less important consequences for leisure
they engage in leisure activities.
pursuing
perspective leisure
has
activities
reach
a
conclusion:
how
people
and social life than for educational and vocational
activities’.
However,
our
Thirdly, some interesting conclusions
results show that this is not the case,
have been reached after analysing the
since being future-oriented is one of the
results
most important predictors in the amount
relationship between TPs and leisure
of free time available, which is a key
activities.
obtained
as
regards
the
aspect in leisure. On the one hand, it is noted that the With regard to the second objective,
past-positive TP is directly associated
which
with the frequency of participation in a
is
between
related TPs
to
and
the
relationship
leisure
benefits
greater
number
of
activities.
It
is
sought, it is possible to summarise the
positively related to six of the 25 leisure
findings obtained as follows: past-positive
activities, some of which may evoke the
TP is strongly associated with sociability;
past (e.g. listening to music and the
future TP is intensively related to physical
radio, or reading books) or are activities
fitness, and learning and competence
that involve the creation and maintenance
testing; and present-hedonistic TP is a
of social networks (e.g. talking on the
key predictor of risk taking. These results
phone
are
services).
completely
features
of
coherent
each
TP:
with
the
past-positive
and
and
and
associated
reward);
and
present-
instant
messaging
Next,
the
present
perspectives
(friendliness); future (conscientiousness seeking
using (i.e.
present-hedonistic
present-fatalistic) with
five
are
positively
activities.
Both
hedonistic (novelty seeker). However, it is
present orientations are associated with
striking that past-positive (happy and
watching TV, as was also reported by Epel
without past regrets) is not associated
et al. (1999); meanwhile, the present-
with spirituality, and that future is the
hedonistic
only TP that is, albeit weakly, connected
shopping, as we expected based on
with this leisure benefit. This could be
previous studies (Karande & Merchant,
explained by the fact that future-oriented
2012).
people have a greater need to disconnect
associated with reading newspapers, and
and seek spiritual benefits in their free
would thus appear to be a TP that reduces
perspective
Future
TP is
is
related
to
only positively
119
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN the frequency of participation in certain
amount of free time available is not
leisure activities (e.g. listening to the
similar to that of non-BTP group, since the
radio and music, resting and time out,
former has less free time than the latter
playing a musical instrument, or playing
on
video games or online games). The
However,
results obtained as regards future TP are
importance on four of the five benefits
opposite to those obtained by Philipp
(sociability, physical fitness, learning and
(1992), who found that future-oriented
competence
people
leisure
while there is no difference in the case of
activities more frequently than other
case of risk taking. Perhaps the capacity
individuals. Two possible explanations for
that BTP group has to adapt to different
this may be that: (1) more than 20 years
situations may be the reason why these
have
(1992)
people are prepared to recognise the
published his work, which may have
various benefits derived from each of the
influenced leisure preferences and the
leisure activities that they pursue. BTP
types of activities pursued; and (2) there
and non-BTP groups participate in almost
are significant differences between the
all leisure activities to a similar extent,
methods
(e.g.
with the exception of going out for a
sample sizes, how the variables were
drink, nightlife, and resting and time out.
measured, or the statistical techniques
These three activities are pursued to a
used). Past-negative is not positively
lesser extent by BTP group.
tend
elapsed
used
to
seek
since
in
many
Philipp
both
studies
both
weekdays BTP
and
group
testing,
Sundays.
places
and
more
spirituality),
related to the frequency of participation in any leisure activity.
The conclusions drawn in the previous paragraph allow us, in part, to refine
On the other hand, it should be stressed
those obtained by Shores y Scott (2007),
that 10 of the 25 activities are related (be
who
it positively or negatively) to more than
future orientations are healthy TPs for
one
shaping our free time. Based on the
TP.
For
example,
past-positive,
consider
that
empirical
TPs
with
having a BTP is what guarantees a more
watching TV. Perhaps each TP differs from
adequate and healthy enjoyment of
each other in the type of TV programs
leisure. In fact, it is probable that this
watched. This suggests that TP not only
capacity to make the most of one’s leisure
influences the decision to engage in a
time (independently of whether one has
leisure activity, but also its content.
more or less free time) is one of the
positively
associated
presented
and
present-fatalistic and present-hedonistic are
evidence
past-positive
here,
reason why numerous previous studies With regard to the fourth objective,
have
unlike what was expected, BTP group’s
between having a BTP and subjective
120
reported
a
direct
relationship
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION well-being.
A
considerable
BTP
therefore
potential
for
offers
frequently used by the TP in question. For
practical
example, advertising in newspapers and
interventions in leisure education or
magazines might
counselling. The focus of leisure time
effective when targeting a public with a
management
develop
future TP, while advertising in social
interventions based on an understanding
networks might be more appropriate as
of people’s TP biases that unconsciously
regards transmitting messages that are
dominate their lives and leisure time.
intended
These techniques may be useful to attain
audience. We can therefore state that TPs
a BTP and for solving the dilemmas of a
are valuable segmentation criteria for
work-leisure
marketers.
techniques
balance
can
(Boniwell
&
for
prove to be
a
more
present-hedonistic
Zimbardo, 2003). The BTP group is also an attractive segment for leisure service
In interpreting the results of this study,
providers. The fact that individuals with
several
a BTP are more likely to seek a large
considered. The first set of them is
number of leisure benefits makes them a
related to the fact that TPs in this
target market when launching new leisure
research have been conceptualised and
products/services, since it is probable
operationalized as personality traits, as
that they will capture the additional
was done in almost all previous studies
benefits that these provides more quickly.
(Guignard, 2014).
limitations
should
Apostolidis, This
&
be
Demarque,
individual-differences
Two important practical implications
approach to TPs thus presents interesting
have also been derived from our synthesis
results regarding TP outcomes in the
of the findings shown in Table 4.11.
amount of free time available, benefits
Firstly, leisure-related
businesses can
sought and leisure activities. However,
obtain information about which leisure
TPs can also be studied from two other
products are more or less appropriate for
points of view that are different from
each
that of personality traits.
TP.
For
example,
past-positive
oriented people seek benefits related to sociability
along
with
competence
testing,
therefore
target
a
publishing industries, companies.
groups, or
learning
and
On
are
Western societies, future TP subscale
book
might be a normative construct (i.e.
music
people may present themselves as having
telephone
high future TP if they seek to gain
and
they
market
for
radio mobile
Secondly,
and
companies
the
one
hand,
in
contemporary
can
approval and, on the whole, people
create advertising messages that are
attribute more value to the high future TP
adapted to each TP and emit them using
target than the low one) (Guignard et al.,
the means of communication that is most
2014).
121
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 4.11. Synthesis of findings: the role of time perspective in leisure choices.
Leisure choices AMOUNT OF FREE TIME AVAILABLE ON… Weekdays Sundays LEISURE BENEFITS SOUGHT Sociability Physical fitness Learning and competence testing Spirituality Risk taking FREQUENCY OF ENGAGING IN LEISURE ACTIVITIES Reading comics Shopping Nightlife Watching TV Reading books (printed or eBooks) Surfing the Internet Listening to the radio and music Talking on the phone and using instant messaging services Using social networks Sports Travel and tourism Attending concerts Attending sporting events Playing a musical instrument Attending the theatre or similar activities Collaborating with associations Going to the cinema Going for a walk Watching online videos Resting and time out Playing video games or online games Going out for a drink Reading newspapers and magazines (printed or online) Going to restaurants Visiting museums and art galleries
Pastnegative
Time perspectives PastPresentPresentpositive fatalistic hedonistic
Future
+
+ +
-
Balanced time perspective
-
-
+ +
+ +
+
+
+
+
-
-
+ -
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
-
+
-
+ + + + +
+ -
-
+ +
-
-
-
-
+
On the other hand, although Zimbardo
2014) may change individuals’ TPs
and Boyd (1999) point out that a TP may
and
become a relatively stable dispositional
Interestingly, Shavit et al. (2014) show
characteristic, recent research findings
that a risky activity (e.g. skydiving)
suggest that environmental factors
affects TP (i.e. people become present-
(Lahav, Benzion, & Shavit, 2011) or risky
oriented) even when people voluntarily
activities (Shavit, Rosenboim, & Shani,
choose to engage in the activity and also
122
consequently
their
actions.
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION when the activity is limited in time and
from
does not require long-term engagement.
further constraint is that the sample is
This
from
suggests
should
use
that
future
experimental
research
a
population
Western
samples.
cultural
A
context:
to
Spain. Research by Hofstede et al. (2010)
analyse to what extent engaging in a
highlight how cultures differ in their time
leisure activity may affect an individual’s
orientation (long-term versus short-term
TP. For example, our results have shown
orientation). These authors have found
that
present-
differences between societies with a long-
hedonistic orientation go shopping more
term orientation, which focus on fostering
frequently, while those with greater past-
future rewards, particularly perseverance
positive
frequently
and thrift; and countries with a short-
engage in activities such as listening to
term orientation, which focus on fostering
the radio and music or reading books. It
virtues related to the past and present, in
would
particular,
students
with
orientation
be
designs
general
greater
more
interesting
to
conduct
respect
for
tradition,
experiments in order to analyse whether
preservation of ‘face’, and fulfilling social
shopping or listening to the radio and
obligations.
The
four
music might modify individuals’ TPs, thus
countries
as
regards
making people more oriented towards
orientation are East Asian (South Korea,
present-hedonistic
past-positive,
Taiwan, Japan and China), and with three
respectively, after having participated in
exceptions (Malaysia, Thailand, and the
these two activities. Future research of
Philippines), all the other South and
this type may help towards a better
Southeast Asian countries appear in the
understanding of which leisure activity
top half of the table (Hofstede et al.,
characteristics can be associated with
2010). Consequently, future research
each TP.
directions could include how TPs affects
or
highest-scoring long-term
leisure choices in East Asian countries and The second set of limitations concerns
cross-cultural
the sample used in this study: a sample
Western versus East Asian cultures).
of
320
Although
Spanish the
university
use
of
a
comparisons
(e.g.
students. relatively
Thirdly, when interpreting the results it
homogeneous sample of students is
is necessary to bear in mind that the
suitable for an exploratory study, and
explanatory power of some models is
while some of the studies reviewed used
relatively low (see Tables 4.5 to 4.7) and
smaller samples (e.g. Epel et al., 1999;
that some leisure activities are never
Karande & Merchant, 2012; Lukavska,
pursued by the vast majority of the
2012; Philipp, 1992), it would be valuable
sample (e.g. reading comics, playing a
to evaluate whether the results presented
musical
here are consistent with those derived
concerts) (see Appendix D). The extent
instrument,
or
attending
123
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN of an individual’s involvement in leisure activities may be influenced by a large number of factors and constraints (Ajzen & Driver, 1991; Godbey, Crawford, & Shen, 2010), some of which have not been considered in this research. Some alternative relationships could also be considered. For example, it is possible that the amount of free time available and leisure benefits sought are mediating variables in the relationship between TPs and leisure activities. That is to say, it could be argued that, in the first stage, TPs determine the amount of free time available and leisure benefits sought, and that these variables may in turn influence the frequency of participation in one type of leisure activity or another. These relationships incorporating
can
only
indirect
be
tested
effects
in
by our
model, but it is obvious that further theoretical development is necessary. Finally, despite the fact that using the ZTPI has allowed us to explore the relationships between five TPs and having a BTP and leisure choices in great detail, recent studies also reveal the possibility of qualitatively different versions of future orientation (Spears & Amos, 2012) or a future-negative orientation (Andretta, Worrell, & Mello, 2014). In future studies it would be interesting to analyse
the
role
of
these
different
versions of future orientation in leisure choices.
124
CHAPTER 5.
conclusions
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS
relevancia que el tiempo tiene a la hora de analizar el comportamiento humano, éste ha sido mucho menos estudiado en marketing que en otras áreas. Una vez
El punto de partida de esta tesis doctoral
identificados los huecos de investigación
ha consistido en presentar una visión
existentes, los tres estudios empíricos
general
realizados dentro de esta tesis doctoral
del
estado
investigación
actual
sobre
el
de
la
tópico
del
(Capítulos
2-4)
se
han
centrado
en
tiempo, centrada tanto en los aspectos
mostrar la utilidad que los aspectos
objetivos como subjetivos, en distintas
temporales
disciplinas
comprender
(economía,
psicología,
sociología,
concretamente,
en
comportamiento
educación,
etc.) el
y,
más
ámbito
del
del
tienen el
a
la
hora
de
comportamiento
del
consumidor y segmentar el mercado. De esta
forma,
las
tres
investigaciones
consumidor.
empíricas han incluido: una aproximación
Partiendo de esta revisión de la literatura
a los estilos de vida utilizando mediciones
(Capítulo 1), se han identificado cuatro
del uso del tiempo dedicado a diferentes
líneas
en
actividades (Estudio 1); una evaluación
comportamiento del consumidor sobre los
de la eficacia del uso del tiempo como
aspectos
del
criterio de segmentación en el ámbito del
tiempo. La primera se encuadra dentro de
marketing turístico (Estudio 2); y un
los
de
análisis exploratorio de la influencia que
y
las TPs tienen en las decisiones de ocio
considera el tiempo como un recurso
(Estudio 3). Además, en cada uno de
disponible por el individuo y, por tanto,
estos capítulos, se ha realizado una
como un factor que influye en las distintas
revisión crítica de la literatura previa y se
etapas
han
de
investigación
objetivos
y
modelos
comportamiento
del
subjetivos
generales del
proceso
consumidor
de
decisión
de
destacado
compra. La segunda se circunscribe a la
contribuciones
denominada
profesionales.
como
psicología
de
las
las
principales
académicas
y
esperas. La tercera se centra en analizar las diferencias en la valoración del tiempo
El primer estudio (Capítulo 2) ha
y el dinero por parte de los consumidores.
mostrado el enorme potencial que las
Y,
la
encuestas de empleo del tiempo tienen a
influencia de la TP (time perspective)
la hora de identificar y describir los
sobre las actitudes y comportamientos de
estilos de vida de los consumidores.
los consumidores.
Aunque
finalmente,
la
cuarta
evalúa
este
información
tipo han
de sido
fuentes
de
ampliamente
A partir de esta revisión de la literatura se
utilizadas en el ámbito de la sociología,
ha concluido también que, a pesar de la
muy
pocos
estudios
dentro
del
127
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN comportamiento
han
por Anderson y Golden (1984), quienes
la
diferencian claramente entre estilos de
heterogeneidad en el uso del tiempo
vida (entendidos, exclusivamente, como
como una posible aproximación a la
patrones de conducta manifiesta) y
segmentación por estilos de vida. En esta
psicografía o estilo cognitivo (que incluiría
primera
los intereses y opiniones).
recurrido
a
del
ellas
consumidor para
aplicación
analizar
empírica
se
han
utilizado los datos procedentes de la Encuesta de Empleo del Tiempo del
Otra contribución de este trabajo, desde
Instituto
el punto de vista de la política social, se
Nacional
de
Estadística
de
España, recogidos entre el 1 de octubre
encuentra
de 2009 y el 30 de septiembre de 2010,
identificado: (1) que dos de los tres
para identificar nueve segmentos o
grupos de mayor tamaño son segmentos
grupos de consumidores españoles
con poco tiempo libre durante los fines
según su forma de usar el tiempo
de semana; y (2) que el segundo de estos
durante
tres
los
fines
de
semana.
en
grupos,
el
el
hecho
formado
de
haber
por
los
Ordenados de mayor a menor tamaño, los
denominados como dormilones y ociosos,
nueve grupos identificados han sido los
aunque sí podría catalogarse como un
siguientes:
y
segmento de ricos en términos de tiempo
ociosos, trabajadores de fin de semana,
libre, está integrado por sujetos que
entusiastas de la lectura y la radio/música
dedican buena parte de ese tiempo al
durante su tiempo libre, manitas del
ocio pasivo (por ejemplo, pasan más de
bricolaje, aficionados al arte con bastante
tres horas viendo la TV y vídeos). Estos
tiempo libre, comprometidos con los
hallazgos siguieren la necesidad de un
cuidados
y
análisis y debate más profundo, ya que el
mezcladores de ocio y estudios. Estos
tiempo de ocio durante los fines de
grupos son diferentes entre sí, no sólo en
semana tiene un gran impacto en el
su
bienestar emocional de las personas.
domésticos,
familiares,
propensión
a
dormilones
eclécticos,
participar
en
cada
actividad y el tiempo asignado a ésta (qué),
sino
también
en
sus
perfiles
Además, la información sobre los ritmos
sociodemográficos (quién) y ritmos de
de actividad es realmente valiosa para las
actividad (cuándo).
empresas relacionadas con el sector del ocio. En este sentido, la investigación
Este primer estudio es relevante desde un
presentada en esta tesis doctoral ayuda a
punto de vista académico, ya que ha
este tipo de negocios a la hora de tomar
propuesto efectuar el análisis de los
decisiones sobre cómo organizar sus
estilos de vida recurriendo a datos de uso
propuestas o actividades de ocio
del
se
durante los fines de semana (tanto en
enmarcaría dentro de la línea propuesta
términos de duración como de horario),
128
tiempo.
Esta
contribución
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION teniendo en cuenta el perfil específico de
Desde un punto de vista académico, el
consumidores que deseen atraer.
segundo trabajo presentado en esta tesis doctoral
El
objetivo
segundo
una
contribución
estudio
innovadora para el marketing turístico,
(Capítulo 3) ha consistido en evaluar
ya que no se ha encontrado ningún
empíricamente la utilidad del uso del
estudio empírico previo en este ámbito
tiempo como criterio de segmentación de
que proponga la utilización del uso del
los visitantes en un destino turístico. En
tiempo
la revisión de la literatura de este capítulo
segmentación.
se han
del
supone
identificado
como
criterio
de
distintas razones
(tales como, la existencia de cierto grado
Adicionalmente, el tamaño y perfil de
de planificación o de un número limitado
los
de actividades alternativas a realizar en el
diferencias
destino) que permiten argumentar que
variables
los visitantes no son arbitrarios a la hora
intenciones de comportamiento futuras)
de decidir cómo usan su tiempo durante
proporciona información útil para que las
su estancia en el mismo y que, por tanto,
organizaciones
en este contexto ‘el tiempo es oro’. Los
configurar las actividades que se ofrecen
resultados obtenidos a partir de los datos
en el destino. Entre las implicaciones
procedentes de 799 visitantes en la
prácticas que se han obtenido cabe
ciudad de Toledo han permitido identificar
destacar
cuatro segmentos de excursionistas
necesidad
(fugaces y compradores, motivados por la
estrategias de promoción del destino,
cultura,
ya
callejeros,
y
guiados
e
grupos
identificados entre
de
dos.
que
de
ellos
resultado
y
primer
reflexionar
éste
está
las
en
las
(gasto
empresas
En
y
e
puedan
lugar, sobre
la las
atrayendo
hiperactivos) y otros cuatro de turistas
principalmente a un grupo de turistas
(callejeros, motivados por la cultura y el
callejeros que no generan ingresos para
descanso,
e
la ciudad (tienen poco valor actual en
hiperactivos). Además, también se ha
términos de gasto) y tampoco parecen
encontrado que los diferentes segmentos
muy útiles a la hora de generar valor en
identificados según el tiempo dedicado a
el futuro (no son los que tienen mayor
la
se
probabilidad de recomendar o revisitar el
diferencian en el dinero gastado en
destino). En segundo lugar, el estudio
distintas partidas y en las intenciones
también ha puesto de manifiesto lo
de recomendar el destino, en los casos
perjudicial que puede resultar, para la
de excursionistas y turistas; y en las
posición competitiva futura del destino,
intenciones de volver a visitar la
seguir
ciudad
relacionados con las visitas guiadas,
guiados,
realización
en
turistas.
el
de
y
noctámbulos
cada
futuro,
actividad
en
el
de
los
incentivando
los
servicios
ya que los excursionistas y turistas que
129
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN dedican más tiempo a esta actividad son
cuarto lugar, una mayor orientación hacia
los que menor probabilidad tienen de
el presente hedonista se traduce en una
recomendar el destino.
mayor cantidad de tiempo libre disponible a diario, una elevada propensión a la
Finalmente, el tercer estudio (Capítulo
búsqueda de beneficios relacionados con
4)
(pasado
la toma de riesgos y una mayor frecuencia
presente
de realización de ciertas actividades como
fatalista, presente hedonista y futuro) y el
ir de compras, utilizar las redes sociales,
hecho de tener una BTP (balanced time
o ver vídeos o películas online. En quinto
perspective) con las decisiones de ocio
lugar, estar orientado al futuro se asocia
(en términos de cantidad de tiempo libre
con una menor cantidad de tiempo libre,
disponible, beneficios buscados con el
tanto a diario como durante los fines de
ocio
de
semana, conduce a una búsqueda más
Los
intensa de beneficios relacionados con el
resultados obtenidos a partir de una
aprendizaje y la adquisición de nuevas
muestra de 320 estudiantes de Grado y
competencias durante el ocio, y actúa,
Máster de la UCLM han arrojado luz sobre
principalmente,
el papel de la TP en las decisiones de
inhibidor para la realización de un gran
ocio. Concretamente, en primer lugar, se
número de actividades de este tipo.
ha encontrado que estar orientado al
Finalmente, en sexto lugar, los hallazgos
pasado
del estudio han permitido concluir que el
ha
relacionado
negativo,
y
pasado
frecuencia
diferentes
las
positivo,
de
actividades
negativo
inversamente realización
de
con
TPs
realización de
ocio).
se la
relaciona
frecuencia
actividades
como
de leer
como
un
elemento
hecho de tener una BTP garantiza un disfrute más adecuado del ocio.
comics, ir de compras o salir de fiesta por la
noche.
una
La TP ha sido ampliamente estudiada en
positivo
el ámbito de la psicología y también
redunda, principalmente, en la búsqueda
existen investigaciones previas que la
de
la
relacionan con diferentes actitudes y
sociabilidad durante el tiempo libre y se
comportamientos hacia la publicidad, las
asocia directamente con la frecuencia de
compras,
realización
ecológicos,
orientación
En
segundo
hacia
beneficios
de
el
lugar,
pasado
relacionados
actividades
con
como
leer
el
consumo
etc.
productos
embargo,
el
ámbito
wasapear. En tercer lugar, la orientación
consumidor, escasas investigaciones
hacia el presente fatalista se relaciona
cuantitativas han analizado el papel de
directamente,
una
la orientación temporal en las decisiones
de
de ocio con un nivel de detalle como el
actividades vinculadas con ir a conciertos
presentado en el tercer trabajo de esta
o tocar algún instrumento musical. En
tesis
mayor
130
frecuencia
ejemplo, de
con
realización
doctoral.
comportamiento
en
libros, hablar por teléfono, escribir SMS o
por
del
Sin
de
Más
del
concretamente,
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION ningún trabajo previo ha relacionado el
mercados. A pesar de las limitaciones de
hecho
las
los tres trabajos empíricos presentados,
decisiones de los consumidores en este
esta tesis abre nuevas e interesantes
ámbito.
las
líneas para futuras investigaciones que,
contribuciones académicas de este
sin duda, son susceptibles de contribuir a
cuarto
una
de
tener
Por
una
estas
capítulo
BTP
dos
con
razones,
también
pueden
ser
calificadas como significativas.
mejor
comprensión
del
comportamiento de los consumidores.
Adicionalmente, los hallazgos del estudio han sugerido importantes implicaciones prácticas para la educación del ocio y el tiempo libre, al permitir poner en marcha
programas
entrenamiento
que
educativos orienten
y a
de los
individuos hacia TPs que permitan un disfrute más sano del ocio. En el ámbito empresarial, las implicaciones para los negocios relacionados con el ocio también son claras. En este sentido, esta última investigación ha proporcionado información a estas empresas acerca de los productos de ocio que son más o menos
apropiados
para
cada
TP.
Además, facilita la creación de mensajes publicitarios adaptados a cada TP que sean emitidos a través de los medios de comunicación
utilizados
con
mayor
frecuencia por la TP en cuestión. Teniendo en cuenta estas implicaciones prácticas es posible concluir que las TPs son bases de
segmentación
valiosas
para
las
empresas de ocio. Por tanto, esta tesis doctoral ha realizado una aportación notable en la investigación de los aspectos objetivos y subjetivos del tiempo en relación con el comportamiento del consumidor y la segmentación de
131
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APPENDIX A: PROPENSITY TO ENGAGE IN EACH ACTIVITY WITHIN CLUSTERS OF SPANISH CONSUMERS
1. Necessary time
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
Cluster 4. Book and radio/musi c lovers during leisure time (9.10%) 100.00%
Sleeping
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
Eating and drinking
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
Other personal care
96.70%
94.79%
95.36%
100.00%
97.40%
2. Contracted time
0.00%
23.29%
Employment
0.00%
0.00%
Study
0.00%
23.29%
Travel related to employment and study 3. Committed time
0.00%
0.00%
100.00%
59.45%
Indicator (incidence rates)
Cluster 1. Cluster 2. People who Sleepyhead pursue s and domestic couch activities potatoes (35.81%) (17.20%)
Cluster 3. Weekend workers (13.14%)
Cluster 5. DIY handypeople (7.27%) 100.00%
76.79%
0.52%
25.97%
73.21%
0.52%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
25.97%
56.79%
0.00%
0.00%
94.27%
100.00%
77.50%
Household management
15.96%
0.00%
0.00%
Food management
84.04%
43.29%
56.79%
80.73%
49.35%
Household upkeep
68.60%
44.11%
38.57%
68.23%
53.25%
Making and care of textiles
42.08%
0.00%
12.50%
34.90%
Gardening and pet care
19.79%
0.00%
13.93%
3.13%
49.35%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
33.12%
Shopping and services
49.74%
0.00%
33.57%
47.92%
48.05%
Childcare
26.78%
0.00%
28.21%
25.52%
1.30%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
12.50%
0.00%
Volunteer work and meetings
25.59%
0.00%
0.00%
Travel related to committed activities 4. Leisure time
52.24%
0.00%
27.86%
99.34%
100.00%
95.71%
Social life
53.83%
49.86%
43.57%
64.06%
0.00%
11.78%
24.64%
24.48%
Resting and time out
21.37%
20.27%
28.93%
26.04%
23.38%
Sports and outdoor activities
55.41%
49.59%
36.79%
55.73%
46.75%
Construction and repairs
Adult household care
Entertainment and culture
Arts Computing Games
0.00% 17.81% 0.00%
0.00% 35.62%
0.00%
30.73% 56.77% 100.00%
0.00%
5.84%
6.49% 44.81% 100.00% 47.40% 0.65%
0.00%
0.00%
15.71%
17.71%
38.31% 39.61%
21.10%
0.00%
38.02%
0.00%
Reading
34.70%
24.66%
18.57%
47.40%
32.47%
Watching TV and videos
93.27%
88.77%
80.36%
90.10%
91.56%
Listening to radio and music Travel related to leisure activities and other unspecified time
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
45.31%
0.00%
54.09%
61.10%
55.36%
72.92%
61.69%
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN APPENDIX A: PROPENSITY TO ENGAGE IN EACH ACTIVITY WITHIN CLUSTERS OF SPANISH CONSUMERS (CONTINUED)
Cluster 6. Art lovers with quite a lot of leisure time (4.79%) 100.00%
Cluster 7. People committed to caring for relatives (4.50%) 100.00%
Sleeping
100.00%
Eating and drinking
100.00%
Other personal care
Indicator (incidence rates)
1. Necessary time
Cluster 8. Eclectics (4.30%)
Cluster 9. People who mix leisure time and studies (3.89%)
Total
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
95.05%
97.89%
100.00%
96.34%
96.65%
2. Contracted time
3.96%
57.89%
71.43%
48.78%
23.84%
Employment
3.96%
53.68%
38.46%
0.00%
13.98%
Study
0.00%
0.00%
37.36%
48.78%
Travel related to employment and study 3. Committed time
0.00%
37.89%
47.25%
0.00%
11.24%
93.07%
100.00%
87.91%
89.02%
88.24%
Household management
35.64%
28.42%
14.29%
24.39%
10.25%
Food management
79.21%
77.89%
65.93%
43.90%
67.75%
Household upkeep
59.41%
66.32%
59.34%
54.88%
57.79%
Making and care of textiles
41.58%
35.79%
36.26%
19.51%
26.20%
Gardening and pet care
29.70%
22.11%
16.48%
6.10%
16.15%
9.89%
17.07%
5.43%
Construction and repairs Shopping and services Childcare
9.40%
0.00%
43.16%
22.77%
40.00%
28.57%
42.68%
35.84%
0.00%
40.00%
40.66%
1.22%
19.31%
Adult household care
19.80%
0.00%
20.88%
0.00%
2.97%
Volunteer work and meetings
15.84%
41.05%
17.58%
23.17%
16.67%
Travel related to committed activities 4. Leisure time
24.75%
55.79%
32.97%
40.24%
37.44%
99.01%
96.84%
100.00%
98.78%
98.96%
Social life
62.38%
53.68%
52.75%
51.22%
52.50%
Entertainment and culture
0.00%
0.00%
16.48%
42.68%
9.92%
Resting and time out
17.82%
16.84%
19.78%
31.71%
22.71%
Sports and outdoor activities
52.48%
34.74%
30.77%
53.66%
49.15%
Arts
44.55%
0.00%
18.68%
29.27%
Computing
26.73%
20.00%
26.37%
43.90%
23.98%
Games
34.65%
0.00%
26.37%
20.73%
13.55%
Reading
40.59%
32.63%
23.08%
31.71%
31.40%
Watching TV and videos
89.11%
83.16%
80.22%
74.39%
88.43%
Listening to radio and music
16.83%
9.47%
17.58%
31.71%
7.32%
Travel related to leisure activities and other unspecified time
48.51%
55.79%
60.44%
73.17%
160
4.06%
58.55%
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION APPENDIX B: LIST OF EMPIRICAL STUDIES ON TOURISM MARKET SEGMENTATION PUBLISHED BETWEEN 2008 AND 2012. TOURISM JOURNALS INDEXED IN 2011 JOURNAL CITATION REPORT SOCIAL SCIENCES EDITION®
Author (Year) Brida, Bukstein, Garrido, and Tealde (2012) Bronner and de Hoog (2012) Chen and Lin (2012) Chiang (2012) do Valle, Pintassilgo, Matias, and André (2012) Dolnicar, Yanamandram, and Cliff (2012) Figini and Vici (2012) Figueiredo, Eusébio, and Kastenholz (2012) Harrington, Ottenbacher, Staggs, and Powell (2012) Herrero, Sanz, Bedate, and del Barrio (2012) Kim and Ritchie (2012)
Title of article Cruise passengers' expenditure in the Caribbean port of call of Cartagena de Indias: A cross-section data analysis Economizing strategies during an economic crisis Segmenting mainland Chinese tourists to Taiwan by destination familiarity: A factor-cluster approach Applying a new model of customer value on international air passengers' market in Taiwan Tourist attitudes towards an accommodation tax earmarked for environmental protection: A survey in the Algarve
Journal name TE ATR IJTR IJTR TM ATR
The contribution of vacations to quality of life Off-season tourists and the cultural offer of a mass-tourism destination: The case of Rimini How diverse are tourists with disabilities? A pilot study on accessible leisure tourism experiences in Portugal Generation Y consumers: Key restaurant attributes affecting positive and negative experiences Who pays more for a cultural festival, tourists or locals? A Certainty analysis of a contingent valuation application Motivation-based typology: An empirical study of golf tourists
TM IJTR JHTR IJTR JHTR
Landauer, Pröbstl, and Haider (2012) Lew and Ng (2012)
Managing cross-country skiing destinations under the conditions of climate change - Scenarios for destinations in Austria and Finland Using quantile regression to understand visitor spending
Masiero and Nicolau (2012) Masiero and Nicolau (2012) Nicolau (2012)
Tourism market segmentation based on price sensitivity: Finding similar price preferences on tourism activities Price sensitivity to tourism activities: Looking for determinant factors Asymmetric tourist response to price: Loss aversion segmentation
JTR
Prayag (2012)
Paradise for who? Segmenting visitors' satisfaction with cognitive image and predicting behavioural loyalty Visitor attendance motivations at consumer travel exhibitions
IJTR
Determinants of spending: An evaluation of three major sporting events
IJTR
Testing heterogeneous image in cultural/non-cultural tourism markets: A latent model approach Assessing the viability of university alumni as a repeat visitor market
IJTR
Evaluation of segment attractiveness by risk-adjusted market potential: First-time vs. repeat visitors Nationality as a segmentation criterion in tourism research: The case of international tourists' expenditures while on trips in Norway Psychographic insights from a South Carolina protected area
JTR
Rittichainuwat and Mair (2012) Saayman and Saayman (2012) Sánchez and Pulido (2012) Schofield and Fallon (2012) Shani, Reichel, and Croes (2012) Thrane and Farstad (2012) Weaver (2012) Wong and Rosenbaum (2012) Xiao-Ting and Bi-Hu (2012) Zakrisson and Zillinger (2012) Alegre, Cladera, and Sard (2011) Alegre, Mateo, and Pou (2011) Barquet, Brida, Osti, and Schubert (2011) Bojanic (2011)
Beyond hardcore gambling: Understanding why mainland Chinese visit casinos in Macau Intra-attraction tourist spatial-temporal behaviour patterns
TM JTR JTR TE
TM
TM
TE TM JHTR TG
Emotions in motion: Tourist experiences in time and space
CIT
Analysing the influence of tourist motivations on tourist expenditure at a sun-and-sand destination A latent class approach to tourists’ length of stay
TE
An analysis of tourists' expenditure on winter sports events through the Tobit censorate model The impact of age and family life experiences on Mexican visitor shopping expenditures
TM TE TM
161
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Choi (2011) Dolnicar, Grabler, Grün, and Kulnig (2011) Ene and Schofield (2011) Fuchs and Reichel (2011) Hyde and Harman (2011)
Implicit prices for longer temporary exhibitions in a heritage site and a test of preference heterogeneity: A segmentation-based approach Key drivers of airline loyalty An integrated approach to consumer decision making for budget city breaks: The role of emotion An exploratory inquiry into destination risk perceptions and risk reduction strategies of first time vs. repeat visitors to a highly volatile destination Motives for a secular pilgrimage to the Gallipoli battlefields
TM TM IJTR TM TM
Kattiyapornpong and Miller (2011) Kim, Kim, Gazzol, Park, Kim, and Park (2011) Kim, Timothy, and Hwang (2011) Konu, Laukkanen, and Komppula (2011) Kruger,Saayman, and Ellis (2011) Lo, McKercher, Lo, Cheung, and Law (2011) Mair (2011)
Social structure and psychographic explanations of destination preference of Australians' travel to South-East Asia Factors affecting the travel expenditure of visitors to Macau, China
Exploring air travellers' voluntary carbon-offsetting behaviour
JST
Moeller, Dolnicar, and Leisch (2011) Needham, Rollins, Ceurvorst, Wood, Grimm, and Dearden (2011) Nicolau (2011)
The sustainability-profitability trade-off in tourism: Can it be overcome?
JST
Motivations and normative evaluations of summer visitors at an alpine ski area
JTR
Differentiated price loss aversion in destination choice: The effect of tourists’ cultural interest Why do visitors go to museums? The case of 921 Earthquake Museum, Wufong, Taichung Demand elasticity estimates for New Zealand tourism
TM
Ryan and Hsu (2011) Schiff and Becken (2011)
Understanding Japanese tourists’ shopping preferences using the Decision Tree Analysis method Using ski destination choice criteria to segment Finnish ski resort customers Segmentation by genres: The case of the Aardklop National Arts Festival Tourism and online photography
Sievänen, Neuvonen, and Pouta (2011) Tangeland (2011)
APJTR TE TM TM IJTR TM
APJTR TM
National park visitor segments and their interest in rural tourism services and intention to revisit Why do people purchase nature-based tourism activity products? A Norwegian case study of outdoor recreation Tangeland and Aas (2011) Household composition and the importance of experience attributes of nature based tourism activity products - A Norwegian case study of outdoor recreationists Weaver and Lawton Visitor loyalty at a private South Carolina protected area (2011) Winter (2011) Battlefield visitor motivations: Explorations in the Great War town of Ieper, Belgium Barbieri and Mahoney Cultural tourism behaviour and preferences among the live-performing (2010) arts audience: An application of the univorous–omnivorous framework Catlin, Jones, Jones, Discovering wildlife tourism: A whale shark tourism case study Norman, and Wood (2010) Collins-Kreiner and Israeli Supporting an integrated soft approach to ecotourism development: (2010) The Agmon Lake, Israel Devesa, Laguna, and The role of motivation in visitor satisfaction: Empirical evidence in rural Palacios (2010) tourism Dey and Sarma (2010) Information source usage among motive-based segments of travelers to newly emerging tourist destinations Dolnicar (2010) Identifying tourists with smaller environmental footprints
SJHT
Gnoth and Zins (2010)
Cultural dimensions and the international tourist role scale: Validation in Asian destinations? Segmentation of different types of Hallyu tourists using a multinomial model and its marketing implications Tourism behaviour in Seoul: An analysis of tourism activity sequence using multidimensional sequence alignments Profiling the segments of visitors to Portuguese protected areas
APJTR
Achieving voluntary reductions in the carbon footprint of tourism and climate change
JST
Kim, Lee, and Chon (2010) Lee and Joh (2010) Marques, Reis, and Menezes (2010) McKercher, Prideaux, Cheung, and Law (2010)
162
SJHT TM JTR IJTR IJTR CIT TG TM TM JST
JHTR TG JST
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Najmi, Sharbatoghlie, and Tourism market segmentation in Iran Jafarieh (2010) Nimrod and Rotem (2010) Between relaxation and excitement: Activities and benefits gained in retirees' tourism Park and Kim (2010) A comparison of different approaches to segment information search behaviour of spring break travellers in the USA: Experience, knowledge, involvement and specialisation concept Park and Njite (2010) Relationship between destination image and tourists' future behavior: Observations from Jeju Island, Korea Shani, Wang, Hutchinson, Applying expenditure-based segmentation on special-interest tourists: and Lay (2010) The case of golf travelers Xia, Evans, Spilsbury, Market segments based on the dominant movement patterns of tourists Ciesielski, Arrowsmith, and Wright (2010) Choi and Lee (2009) Understanding US traveler behavior to Asian countries: A secondary analysis approach Craggs and Schofield Expenditure-based segmentation and visitor profiling at The Quays in (2009) Salford, UK Gyimothy (2009) Casual observers, connoisseurs and experimentalists: A conceptual exploration of niche festival visitors Park and Yoon (2009) Segmentation by motivation in rural tourism: A Korean case study Roca, Villares, and Ortego (2009) Shuo, Ryan, and Liu (2009) Tchetchik, Fleischer, and Shoval (2009) Correia, Silva, and Moço (2008) Dolnicar and Leisch (2008) Dolnicar and Leisch (2008) Dolnicar, Crouch, Devinney, Huybers, Louviere, and Oppewal (2008) Füller and Matzler (2008)
IJTR IJTR IJTR APJTR JTR TM APJTR TE SJHT TM
Assessing public perceptions on beach quality according to beach users' profile: A case study in the Costa Brava (Spain) Taoism, temples and tourists: The case of Mazu pilgrimage tourism
TM
Segmentation of visitors to a heritage site using high-resolution timespace data Portuguese charter tourists to long-haul destinations: A travel motive segmentation An investigation of tourists' patterns of obligation to protect the environment Selective marketing for environmentally sustainable tourism
JTR
TM
JHTR JTR TM
Tourism and discretionary income allocation. Heterogeneity among households
TM
TM
Kim, Kim, Park, and Guo (2008) Litvin (2008)
Customer delight and market segmentation: An application of the three-factor theory of customer satisfaction on life style groups Cave tourism: Tourists' characteristics, motivations to visit, and the segmentation of their behavior Sensation seeking and its measurement for tourism research
Luo and Deng (2008)
The new environmental paradigm and nature-based tourism motivation
McKercher (2008)
Segment transformation in urban tourism
TM
Pestana, Butler, and Correia (2008) Sedmak and Mihalič (2008) Tan and Lo (2008)
Heterogeneity in destination choice tourism in Africa
JTR
Authenticity in mature seaside resorts
ATR
A benefit-based approach to market segmentation: A case study of an American specialty coffeehouse chain in Hong Kong Destination product characteristics as useful predictors for repeat visiting and recommendation segmentation variables in tourism: A CHAID exhaustive analysis
JHTR
Vassiliadis (2008)
APJTR JTR JTR
IJTR
Notes: ATR: Annals of Tourism Research; APJTR: Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research; CIT: Current Issues in Tourism; IJTR: International Journal of Tourism Research; JHTR: Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research; JST: Journal of Sustainable Tourism; JTCC: Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change; JTR: Journal of Travel Research; SJHT: Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism; TE: Tourism Economics; TG: Tourism Geographies; TM: Tourism Management.
163
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION APPENDIX C: QUESTIONNAIRE ABOUT TIME PERSPECTIVE AND LEISURE (SPANISH)
Mi nombre es Juan Antonio García, soy profesor de la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha y estoy realizando un estudio para mi tesis doctoral sobre las actividades de ocio de los estudiantes universitarios. Todos los datos recopilados serán tratados de forma totalmente anónima y no se utilizarán para identificar al encuestado. La cumplimentación de este cuestionario sólo le supondrá 15 minutos. Antes de comenzar a responder es muy importante que tenga presente que no existen respuestas buenas o malas. Por favor, lea con calma las preguntas y responda con total sinceridad a las mismas. Muchas gracias por su colaboración.
1. Piense en sus características personales e indique, por favor, en qué grado cada una de las siguientes
En desacuerdo
Ni en desacuerdo ni de acuerdo
De acuerdo
Totalmente de acuerdo
Pienso a menudo en las cosas malas que me han ocurrido en el pasado Es difícil olvidar las imágenes desagradables de mi infancia Las experiencias dolorosas del pasado permanecen en mi memoria El pasado tiene demasiados momentos desagradables que prefiero no recordar Las imágenes, sonidos y olores de mi infancia me traen recuerdos maravillosos Los recuerdos felices de los buenos momentos están muy presentes en mi mente Tengo nostalgia de mi infancia Me divierten las historias sobre cómo eran las cosas en mi infancia No tiene sentido preocuparme por el futuro ya que, de todos modos, no puedo hacer nada Ya que las cosas serán como tengan que ser, realmente no me preocupa lo que pase Uno no puede planificar el futuro porque las cosas cambian mucho Con frecuencia la suerte es más importante que el trabajo duro Me arriesgo para poner animación en mi vida Es importante poner excitación en mi vida Arriesgarme de vez en cuando hace que mi vida no sea tan aburrida De una vez por todas, voy a disfrutar de la vida tan plenamente como sea posible Termino mis proyectos a tiempo, avanzando de manera estable y continua Soy capaz de resistirme a las tentaciones cuando sé que tengo tareas que hacer Prefiero planificar el día siguiente y cumplir con los plazos antes que pensar en la diversión Cuando quiero conseguir algo, me fijo unas metas y pongo los medios para conseguirlas
Totalmente en desacuerdo
afirmaciones refleja una característica suya. Utilice para ello la siguiente escala en la que 1 indica “totalmente en desacuerdo” y 5 “totalmente de acuerdo”.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
165
JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN
2. Piense en el día de ayer e indique el número aproximado de horas que dedicó a las siguientes actividades. Es muy importante que en total sumen 24 horas. Horas Dormir
▼
Otros cuidados personales (desayunar, comer, cenar, aseo, etc.)
▼
Actividades relacionadas con los estudios (clases en la Universidad, trabajos en grupo, etc.)
▼
Trabajo remunerado
▼
Tareas domésticas (cocinar, lavar, planchar, etc.)
▼
Desplazamientos (a pie o utilizando algún medio de transporte)
▼
Tiempo libre (tiempo dedicado a actividades no incluidas en los apartados anteriores)
▼
3. ¿Cómo considera que fue el día de ayer? Habitual Inusual
4. Piense en el pasado domingo e indique el número aproximado de horas que dedicó a las siguientes actividades. Es muy importante que en total sumen 24 horas. Horas Dormir
▼
Otros cuidados personales (desayunar, comer, cenar, aseo, etc.)
▼
Actividades relacionadas con los estudios (clases en la Universidad, trabajos en grupo, etc.)
▼
Trabajo remunerado
▼
Tareas domésticas (cocinar, lavar, planchar, etc.)
▼
Desplazamientos (a pie o utilizando algún medio de transporte)
▼
Tiempo libre (tiempo dedicado a actividades no incluidas en los apartados anteriores)
▼
5. ¿Cómo considera que fue ese domingo? Habitual Inusual
6. Piense en las actividades que le gusta hacer durante su tiempo libre e indique cómo de importantes
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Poco importante
Algo importante
Bastante importante
Muy importante
Hacer cosas en familia Estar cerca de mis familiares Estar con mis amigos Hacer ejercicio Mantenerme en buena forma física Sentirme físicamente activo Desarrollar mis conocimientos Aprender nuevas cosas Desarrollar mis habilidades y capacidades Saber de lo que soy capaz Crecer y desarrollarme espiritualmente Reflexionar sobre mis inquietudes espirituales Experimentar cosas nuevas Vivir situaciones arriesgadas Atreverme a afrontar riesgos
Nada importante
son los siguientes aspectos a la hora de elegir esas actividades. Utilice para ello la siguiente escala en la que 1 indica “nada importante” y 5 “muy importante”.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION
7. Pensando en el último mes, ¿con qué frecuencia estima que ha realizado las siguientes actividades de
Ninguna vez
Una vez al mes
Varias veces al mes
Una vez a la semana
Varias veces a la semana
Todos o casi todos los días
ocio?
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Hablar por teléfono, escribir SMS o wasapear Escuchar música o radio Viajar y hacer turismo Ir de compras Ir a restaurantes Salir a tomar algo durante el día Ir a conciertos de música Salir de fiesta por la noche Ir al cine Jugar a videojuegos Navegar por Internet Utilizar las redes sociales Ver vídeos o películas online Ver la televisión Ir al teatro u otros espectáculos similares Tocar algún instrumento musical Ir a museos o exposiciones de arte Asistir a espectáculos deportivos Hacer deporte Pasear y caminar Leer libros (eBook y/o en papel) Leer comics Leer prensa (revistas o periódicos online y/o en papel) Colaborar con asociaciones No hacer nada, relajarse o descansar
8. ¿Qué estudios está cursando actualmente? ▼
9. Campus de la UCLM en el que cursa esos estudios. ▼
10. ¿Dónde se aloja a diario durante este curso académico? Domicilio familiar Piso alquilado/compartido Residencia universitaria
11. ¿En qué localidad está viviendo a diario durante este curso académico?
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JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN
12. ¿Cuántos habitantes tiene esta localidad? Menos de 2.001 habitantes Entre 2.001 y 5.000 habitantes Entre 5.001 y 10.000 habitantes Entre 10.001 y 20.000 habitantes Entre 20.001 y 50.000 habitantes Entre 50.001 y 100.000 habitantes Más de 100.000 habitantes
13. Para finalizar, indique, por favor, sus características sociodemográficas. Respuesta
168
Sexo
▼
Edad
▼
¿Realiza algún trabajo remunerado?
▼
Número de personas en la unidad familiar (incluido usted)
▼
Ingresos netos mensuales aproximados de la unidad familiar
▼
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION APPENDIX D. FREQUENCIES AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR LEISURE ACTIVITIES
Leisure activity
Talking on the phone and using instant messaging services Listening to the radio and music Travel and tourism Shopping Going to restaurants Going out for a drink Attending concerts Nightlife Going to the cinema Playing video games or online games Surfing the Internet Using social networks Watching online videos Watching TV Attending the theatre or similar activities Playing a musical instrument Visiting museums and art galleries Attending sporting events Sports Going for a walk Reading books (printed or eBooks) Reading comics Reading newspapers and magazines (printed or online) Collaborating with associations Resting and time out
Never (1)
Once a month (2)
Percentage More than once a month Once a but less week (4) than once a week (3) 1.25% 1.25%
0.00%
0.31%
0.31%
1.88%
2.19%
38.44% 11.56% 15.00% 8.13% 81.56% 13.75% 45.31% 51.56%
40.31% 30.00% 26.88% 8.44% 13.44% 18.75% 28.44% 7.81%
0.31% 2.81% 9.69% 4.38% 73.75%
More than once a week but less than once a day (5)
Daily or almost daily (6)
Mdn
5.63%
91.56%
6
4.38%
26.88%
64.38%
6
13.75% 35.94% 30.00% 31.88% 2.19% 29.06% 18.44% 11.25%
5.00% 14.69% 19.06% 28.13% 1.25% 26.25% 7.19% 6.25%
1.88% 6.88% 8.75% 21.88% 0.94% 11.56% 0.63% 13.44%
0.63% 0.94% 0.31% 1.56% 0.63% 0.63% 0.00% 9.69%
2 3 3 4 1 3 2 1
0.94% 1.56% 7.19% 2.81% 16.88%
2.19% 3.13% 16.25% 6.56% 5.00%
2.50% 3.44% 18.75% 6.25% 2.50%
14.38% 10.00% 27.50% 17.19% 1.56%
79.69% 79.06% 20.63% 62.81% 0.31%
6 6 4 6 1
85.00%
5.63%
0.31%
3.44%
2.50%
3.13%
1
76.25%
17.50%
4.06%
0.94%
0.94%
0.31%
1
59.38%
16.56%
10.63%
9.69%
2.81%
0.94%
1
21.25% 8.44% 26.56%
9.69% 6.56% 8.13%
16.56% 17.19% 17.19%
11.88% 12.81% 11.88%
22.50% 24.06% 18.75%
18.13% 30.94% 17.50%
4 5 3
87.50% 14.38%
3.44% 5.63%
1.88% 13.75%
4.38% 9.38%
1.88% 25.00%
0.94% 31.88%
1 5
76.56%
11.56%
4.06%
4.38%
2.81%
0.63%
1
6.88%
21.56%
26.25%
13.44%
4
3.44%
28.44%
Notes: Mdn: median. The grey shaded cells mark the highest percentage for each leisure activity.
169
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION APPENDIX E. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR TIME PERSPECTIVES AND LEISURE BENEFITS SOUGHT
Variable Time perspectives Past-negative Past-positive Present-fatalistic Present-hedonistic Future Leisure benefits sought Sociability Physical fitness Learning and competence testing Spirituality Risk taking
Minimum
Maximum
M (SD)
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.27
4.79 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
2.73 4.02 2.25 3.39 3.55
(0.84) (0.71) (0.86) (0.90) (0.76)
1.37 1.00 1.79 1.00 1.00
5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
3.96 3.65 4.09 3.04 3.45
(0.71) (1.00) (0.64) (1.09) (0.90)
Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation.
171
THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION VITA
Juan A. García is a PhD candidate in the Department of Marketing at the University of Castilla-La
Mancha
interests
include
(Spain).
His
consumer
research behaviour,
environmental psychology, and time studies. His research has been published in several Spanish and international journals such as Current Issues in Tourism, Cuadernos de Economía y Dirección de la Empresa, Journal of Language and Social Psychology,
Innovar,
Psyecology,
Tourism
Management, Universia Business Review, or Scan to discover his research!
Universitas Psychologica. More
information
about
his
research
is
available
at
http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juan_Garcia51/publications Department of Marketing, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avenida Real Fábrica de Sedas s/n, 45600 Talavera de la Reina, Spain. Email:
[email protected]
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