THE PHENOMENON OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN’S SPIRITUALITY.

A thesis presented for the requirement for PhD, Doctor of Philosophy at Queensland University of Technology

By Anna Giesenberg DipKGT, B.Ed.E.Ch, M.Ed.

Supervisor: Associate Professor Dr John Lidstone

Associate Supervisor: Dr Peter Bond

 Anna Giesenberg, 2007

Giesenberg, Anna (2007) “The Phenomenology of Preschool Children’s Spirituality” An abstract of a PhD study looking at young children’s spirituality. School of Cultural and Language Studies in Education, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. Spirituality is discussed as seen in literature from the disciplines of psychology, religion, education, nursing, politics and philosophy. Special emphasis is placed on how spirituality is viewed in regard to young children. From the disciplines mentioned, an overall definition of spirituality – at least for adults - is derived: “Spirituality is an innate ability to show awareness or consciousness of the surrounding world shown through wonder, a sense of compassion, and love towards this world and everything in it, and for some people a relationship with a transcendent being, who can also be immanent in the individual.” Findings are described from a field study of 12 months duration where 56 children, aged 3-7 years, from 4 different early childhood settings were followed on a fortnightly basis. The children were able to express aspects of spirituality in their play, discussions and artwork, such as paintings and drawings. The children were asked to paint and draw their experiences of selected pieces of chamber music, of a beautiful day, of love, and of dreams. In addition children were observed in their interactions with peers. The data were analysed using a combination of Grounded Theory methodology and Phenomenology. The main finding is that young children “live in” their spirituality, and that young children are very aware of their surroundings and are able to express abstract concepts such as love, beauty, wonder and compassion. Young children’s spirituality differs from adults in one major aspect: that they do not express a relationship with a transcendent being. It appears that spirituality may be innate as described by Montessori (1949), Hegel (1807) and Descartes (in Luria & Vygotsky, 1998). Suggestions for dealing with young children and their spirituality are made for the early childhood educator. Suggestions for further studies related to young children’s spirituality are also made. Hegel, G.W.F. (1807). The Phenomenology of Mind. Translated by J.B. Baillie, 1931. London: George Allen & Unwin LTD, second edition, printed 1977. Also available on: http://www.class.uidaho.edu/michelsen/ToC/Hegel%20Phen%ToC.htm Luria, A.R. and Vygotsky, L.S. (1998) Ape, Primitive Man and Child. Essays in the History of Behaviour. Translated by Evelyn Rossiter. USA: Paul M. Deutsch Press. Montessori, M. (1949). The Absorbent Mind. Oxford, UK: Clio Press. (1988 reprint).

Figure 1: The Quampie Story (Martin 2006). Reprinted with permission of the author.

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A man told his grandson: “A terrible fight is going on inside me – a fight between two wolves. One is evil, and represents hate, anger, arrogance, intolerance and superiority. The other is good, and represents joy, peace, love, tolerance, understanding, humility, kindness, empathy, generosity, and compassion. This same fight is going on inside you, inside every other person, too.” The grandson then asked: “Which wolf will win?” The old man replied simply: “The one you feed”. Anon. (http:/www.religioustolerance.org/negative.htm)

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP:

The work in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or diploma at any higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously submitted or written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signature ___________________________________ Date __________________

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Acknowledgments:

Kristian Giesenberg John Lidstone Peter Bond Karen Martin Felicity McArdle Shan Sharp John Fanshawe Rosemary Perry Susan Wright Staff, Parents and children at Brisbane Montessori School Nundah Kindergarten Kurilpa Childcare Centre Gangani Kindergarten

Articles and conference presentations made by Anna Giesenberg in relation to the research presented in this thesis:

Giesenberg, A. (1997). “The Child’s Right to Spiritual Development. Article 27.” Paper presented at the First Asia-Pacific Conference on Children’s Rights: Children’s Rights: The Next Step. Conference Papers, Vol. 1. Brisbane 2-5, April, 1997. 124-144. Giesenberg, A. (2000a). Spiritual Development and Young Children. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal. 8,2. 23-37 Giesenberg, A. (2000b). Young Children and Spirituality. Bedrock. Oct/Nov 2000. 2022. Giesenberg, A. (2000c). Divine: Young Children and Spirituality. Paper presented at the Association of Woman Educators, Biennial National Conference, Cairns. 28-30 September 2000. Giesenberg, A. (2001). Young Children and Spirituality. Montessori Matters. Winter 2001.13-14. Giesenberg, A. (2002b). Research Ethics into Children’s World. Paper presented at A Symposium on Ethics in Early Childhood, Creche & Kindergarten Association of Queensland, Townsville. 28-29 July 2002.

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Index Page Mirraboopah’s model of a person’s spirituality Hungry wolves Statement of original authorship Acknowledgments Index List of Appendices List of Figures List of Illustrations List of Tables

i ii iii iv v viii ix ix xi

Chapter 1:

1 1 3 4 4 5 7 7 9 9 10 10 14 16 20 26 29 30 32 33 33 41 43 46 50 52 54 57 58 60 63 64 66

Chapter 2:

Introduction to study. 1.1 Personal Background 1.2 Aim of study 1.3 Phenomenology as Research Method 1.4 The Participants 1.5 Spirituality in many areas 1.6 A definition of spirituality 1.7 Overview of the Thesis Literature review. 2.0 Introduction to disciplines describing spirituality 2.1 Psychology and spirituality 2.1.1 Clinical-psychological Spirituality 2.1.2 Humanistic psychology and spirituality 2.1.3 Spirituality and consciousness 2.1.4 Connections between spirituality and psychology 2.2 An holistic model of the human being 2.3 Religion and spirituality 2.3.1 Spirituality in various religious beliefs 2.3.2 Religious spirituality, a summary 2.4 Spirituality in politics and philosophy 2.4.1 Spirituality in politics 2.4.2 Aboriginal landrights and spirituality 2.4.3 New Age spirituality 2.4.4 Gendered spirituality 2.4.5 Spirituality in Phenomenology 2.4.6 Spirituality and Philosophy 2.4.7 Spirituality, Consciousness and Soul 2.5 Nursing and spirituality 2.5.1 Spirituality in general nursing 2.5.2 Spirituality in death, dying and grief 2.6 Spirituality in Near-Death-Experiences and reincarnation 2.6.1 Spirituality in Near Death Experiences 2.6.2 Spirituality in reincarnation outside religious beliefs 2.7 Education and spirituality 2.7.0 Why education is a major discipline dealing with spirituality 2.7.1 Spirituality in educational research v

69 69

Chapter 3.

Chapter 4

2.7.2 Teaching strategies 74 2.7.3 Wonder as a spiritual characteristic 78 2.7.4 Spirituality in the Montessori educational setting 81 2.7.5 Spirituality in Steiner schools 84 2.7.6 Spiritual education in Sunday schools 89 2.8 A summary of spirituality in schools 91 2.9 Towards Defining Spirituality 2.9.0 Introduction 92 2.9.1 Psychology and spirituality 92 2.9.2 Religion and spirituality 93 2.9.3 Spirituality in politics and philosophy 94 2.9.4 Spirituality in nursing, death, NDEs and reincarnation 95 2.9.5 Education and spirituality 96 2.9.6 Defining spirituality 97 Research Method 3.0 Introduction 98 3.1 Choosing a methodology 98 3.2 The selected sites for the study 101 3.3 The participants 102 3.4 In the field 103 3.4.1 Major challenges 106 3.5 Data analysis 107 3.6 Methodologies: Phenomenology and Grounded Theory 109 3.6.1 Grounded Theory 110 3.6.2 Phenomenology 110 3.7 Collecting the data: from the children 113 3.7.1 Using Music 115 3.7.2 Asking children to paint or draw “love, “a dream”, and a “beautiful day” 116 3.7.3 Observing the children at play 119 3.8 Collecting the data: From the parents and the teachers. 121 3.8.1 Rating Scales for parents 121 3.8.2 Conversations with parents 122 3.8.3 Collecting the data: From the teachers 123 3.9 The Psychology of Children’s Paintings and Drawings 123 Young Children and Spiritual Behaviour. 4 Introduction 125 4.0 Rating Scales 125 4.1 Watching a natural phenomenon 126 4.2 Showing love towards another person 128 4.3 Showing awareness of mysterious things 129 4.4 Expressing hope about the future 130 4.5 Wondering about things he/she doesn’t understand 131 4.6 Expressing joy 132 4.7 Talking about God or Supreme Being 133 4.8 Talking about heaven or life after death, or previous lives 134 4.9 Displaying creative abilities 135 4.10 Listening carefully to self and others 138 4.11 Talking about ‘soul’ or ‘consciousness’ 140 4.12 Showing interest in world events & their effects on people 141 vi

4.13 Showing interest in life and death 4.14 Concluding remarks about Rating Scales Chapter 5. Data from the Children 5.0 Introduction to Children’s Data 5.1 The Children 5.2 Children’s spirituality and music 5.3 Concluding remarks about children’s experiences of music 5.4 What is “Love” for the young child? 5.5 Concluding remarks about ‘love’ and spirituality 5.6 Dreaming. 5.7 Concluding remarks about dreams and spirituality 5.8 It’s a beautiful day! 5.9 Concluding remarks about beauty and spirituality 5.10 Spirituality in play. Compassion Joy Wonder and Awareness Imagination Contemplation Love Calm and Consideration 5.11 Concluding remarks about play and spirituality 5.12 Spontaneous artwork 5.13 What the teachers saw 5.14 The dark side of spirituality Chapter 6 Children, Spirituality and the Parents. 6.0 Approach to conversations 6.1 Music 6.2 Love 6.3 Dreams 6.4 Beauty 6.5 Parental definitions of spirituality 6.6 Spiritual characteristics as seen by the children’s parents 6.7 Dark side of spirituality 6.8 The importance of religion 6.9 Life and Death 6.10 Reincarnation 6.11 Children’s artwork 6.12 Concluding remarks about parent conversations 6.13 A revised definition of spirituality Chapter 7 Findings, Implications and Further Study 7.0 Introduction to chapter 7.1 The phenomenon of young children’s spirituality 7.2 Implications for educators of young children 7.3 Suggestions for further study into the area of young children’s spirituality A revised Rating Scale 7.4 Conclusion Illustrations for chapters 4, 5 and 6 are inserted following page 268. vii

142 144 145 146 150 156 157 162 163 168 168 173 174 177 178 180 183 185 187 189 189 190 191 193 196 197 205 211 215 219 226 236 239 245 248 250 255 256 258 258 262 264 266 267

Appendices

269

References:

369

List of Appendices:

269

Appendix 1:

Traits and Characteristics of Spirituality (table)

270

Appendix 2:

Religion and Spirituality (text) A.2.1 Introduction A.2.2 History and linguistics of spirituality in Christianity A.2.3 Christian theologians and spirituality A.2.4 Feminist Christian spirituality A.2.5 Judaism and spirituality A.2.6 Islam and spirituality A.2.7 Hinduism and spirituality A.2.8 Buddhism and spirituality A.2.9 Taoist spirituality A.2.10 Aboriginal spirituality A.2.11 Atheists and spirituality A.2.12 Spirituality in prayer and meditation A.2.13 Religious spirituality, a summary

272 273 276 281 282 286 289 293 299 304 308 311 313

Appendix 3.

Developmental Theories Explained (text) A.3.0 Introduction A.3.1 Self-awareness A.3.2 Social development A.3.3 Moral development A.3.4 Emotional development A.3.5 Cognitive development A.3.6 Creative development A.3.7 Faith/Belief development A.3.8 Spiritual development A.3.9 Te Whariki - another developmental illustration

314 314 316 320 323 327 330 334 337 343 347

Appendix 4.

Developmental theories with relevance to spirituality (table) Letters from centres participating in the study

350 356

Letter to parents introducing study, and corresponding consent form

360

QUT Human Research Ethics Committee’s approval of study

363

Appendix 8:

Guiding questions for interview with parents

365

Appendix 9:

Rating Scale: Young Children’s Spirituality (Parents) Rating Scale: Young Children’s Spirituality (Teachers)

366 367

Appendix 5: Appendix 6:

Appendix 7:

viii

List of Figures: Page:

Figure 1:

The Quampie Story

i

Figure 2:

A model of spirituality (Farran et al. 1989, p. 187).

10

Figure 3:

Benner’s model of spirituality (1982, p. 175).

11

Figure 4:

A Model of the human with spirituality in the centre (Chandler et al. 1992, p. 171).

12

Figure 5:

Helminiak’s (1996, p. 10) model of the human.

14

Figure 6:

A holistic model of the Human Being.

28

Figure A1:

The ladder of Karma (Coward, 1995, p. 7).

292

Figure A2:

Yin and Yang with the embryo of the other within each. (Britannica, 1988, vol. 12).

Figure A3:

Figure A4:

300

Developmental theories in areas that influence a person’s spirituality.

315

An example of a whariki, a mat loosely woven together

348

List of Illustrations: (names in brackets are the names of the child artists) 1 2 3 4 5 6

Shariah Law in Nigeria Example of Keycard Music goes Round and Round (Dominic) Love is “People Hugging Together” (Jade) A Kind Monster (Saskia) Tree and the Sun (Alick)

Illustrations 7-87 are clustered together following Chapter 7 7 8 9 10 11+12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Musical Circles (Melitta) Vivaldi’s Music (Ji-Shen) Pirates (Julian) Sad Music (Virginia) Sad and Happy Faces (Virginia) Ebony’s Sad Friend and Anna (Ebony) Self Portrait (Keshu) “Africa People” (Cedric) A Band Playing Music (Jane) An Alien (Darren) Fairy Saving her Fiends (Susan) Pink and Black Music (Morgan) Pink Music (Faith) ix

Inserted between pages 36-37 108-109 116-117 118-119 118-119 120-121 268

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72

Sunny Music (Kate) A rainbow (Robert) Whales (Jason) Whales (Racheal) Angry People (Sheree) Birthday Singing (Annabel) Spotty Song (Monique) A Rollercoaster (Jason) A BIG Monster (Ji-Shen) “Me and my Mother” (Malcolm) My Mum. “She loves me”. (Ellen) My Mum. “She loves me”. (Robert) My Dad. “He loves me”. (Annabel) My Dad. “He loves me”. (Kirsten) My Family. (Miriam) My Dad, Fireworks, Rain and Ashley. (Paige) A Rainbow. (Keshu) A “Blutterfly”. (RT) A Rainbow. (Ebony) A Rainbow. (Murray) Me and My Family at the Park. (Beatrice) A Room for Animals to Hide From the Storm. (Jasper) My House in a Storm. (Cedric) My House and Me. (Ida) My House with Lights Inside. (Daniel) My House Where My Dad and Mum Live. (Damien) A Scary Sceleton. (Monique) A Ferocious Raptor (Racheal) A Monster in my Bedroom. (Ellen) A Dream about Monsters (Faith) Fairy Land. (Jane) A Magic Night. (Elizabeth) “Me Fishing”. (Jason) My Mother and the Baby. (Hannah) The Vet. (Veronica) A Beautiful Day. (Hannah) A Pink Rainbow. (Faith) A Rainbow. (Robert) Me Playing. (Virginia) Love Hearts. (Kate) Me and my Mother. (Kieran) Gumtree. (Keshu) Sunset at the Beach. (Jason) An Orange Alien. (Malcolm) A Big Baddie Man. (Jordan) A music Picture with the Phone Ringing. (Paige) Killing the Baddies. (Kieran) Birthday Presents, Rockets and Missiles. (Jordan) Buildings Falling Down. (David) Angry Spiders. (Sheree) A Peacock. (Catherine) A Dancing Dinosaur. (Snow) x

73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87

Houseboat. (William) My Brother: “I Love You”. (Faith) “When People Love, They Smile”. (Kate) “Kirsten and Me”. (Hannah) My Mum, ‘cause I love her”. (William) A Wedding at Night Time. (Jane) Wedding Picture. (Saskia) Rain and a Loveheart. (Kinsey) A dream. (RT) Trees. (Mary) A Green Bug. (Snow) Beautiful Rain. (Annabel) The Garden in the Rain. (Annabel) Chicken Pox. (Kinsey) “Love is Colours”. (Julian)

List of Tables: page Table 1: Rudolf Steiner’s theory of the ‘whole person’

87

Table 2: Parental responses to Rating Scales

127

Table 3: Ages of children participating in the study

146

Table 4a & 4b: Children’s chosen topics for artwork

147 148

Table 5: Drawings/Paintings on Various Tasks Given in the Study

149

Table 6: Spiritual Traits and Characteristics observed in the Children

176

Table A.1: Buddhist view of the human

xi

297

CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION TO STUDY. “ “… spirituality is an important aspect of human life, related to, but different from religion.” (Nash, 2002, p. 137)

1.0

Introduction.

In this chapter I outline the reasons for the present study. The aims for the study are described and the rationale for the combined use of the qualitative research methods of Phenomenology and Grounded Theory are presented. Some existing definitions of the concept ‘spirituality’ are presented, derived from research disciplines such as education, nursing, psychology, psychiatry, politics, philosophy and religion. Finally I present an outline of the thesis and its chapters.

1.1

Personal Background.

I am a preschool teacher with a Diploma of Kindergarten Teaching (1981) from my native Denmark, a Bachelor of Education, Early Childhood from Melbourne University (1989), and a Master of Education from Queensland University of Technology in Brisbane (1997). I have experience in teaching preschool, kindergarten, early years of primary school in both mainstream and special needs schools, and I have taught and tutored adults at TAFE and university in the field of early childhood education and educational psychology. I have worked as Service Manager of a large Family Day Care scheme. My main experiences have been in early childhood teaching in Denmark, Victoria, Queensland and New South Wales. Currently (since early 2006) I am a preschool teacher in a long day care centre in northern New South Wales. I am multi-lingual: I speak, read and write English, Danish and German, and I can communicate to a reasonable level in Signed English (Sign Language). I also read Norwegian and Swedish. These linguistic abilities give me access to a wide range of literature, much of which is not readily available in English. Being able to express myself in other languages allows me to reflect on my thoughts and express my ideas in different ways. It regularly makes me think of the etymological sources of the words I use when I write. It is not just a matter of finding the right words and phrases in English, it is also a matter of expressing thoughts in the most precise way, similar to the reflections made by Mor-Sommerfeld (2005) and Ehrich (2003) when they give suggestions to the researcher writing about ethnographic and phenomenological studies. I write directly in 1

English, but my field notes are occasionally written in Danish, depending on which word/s would be more descriptive for the situation at the time.

While writing my Master’s dissertation on “Preschool Children’s Concepts of God” (Giesenberg, 1996) I was surprised and mystified by the knowledge these 3-5 year old children had about things celestial without they having been taught anything by their parents or immediate surroundings. This prompted me to look at the concept of spirituality. The resulting literature search revealed that disciplines as varied as nursing, education, psychology, psychiatry, politics, philosophy and various world religions have looked at aspects of spirituality within their fields.

The literature search suggests that ‘spirituality’ is not a concept limited to religious life. Rather, various concepts of spirituality permeate a person’s whole life. With this in mind, it is important to note that “subjective and personal elements in the study of religion are inevitable” (Gross, 2000, p.175). I grew up with a Lutheran background in Denmark. My parents were missionaries in Nigeria while I was a young child. Throughout my life I have had strong links with Christianity: Lutheran, Anglican, and Uniting Church. I am a Christian, and I believe in an omnipotent, omniscient and omnipresent God. However, during the period of research and study of young children’s spirituality, I have come to the conclusion that the teachings I received during my childhood, youth and young adulthood, are not conclusively the ‘truth’ as this may be rendered in some Protestant denominations. For example, I am no longer convinced that God is necessarily male or possesses gender. I have become increasingly more open to the beliefs and spiritualities of other philosophies, be they religious, political or humanist. In addition, I have become wary of any form of fundamentalism, regardless of the viewpoint of a given religious or political belief. Thus, I am very aware of any subjective views I may hold in the discussion and analysis of the present study. I aim to present young children’s spirituality in this light: that I do not pretend to be objective and value neutral, but that I am aware of my personal standpoint. In the analysis and writings about the data I will endeavour to “bracket” these viewpoints as recommended in phenomenological writings (Stewart & Mickunas, 1990). There may be situations in which I change my point of view, as stated above, in the current study. Here I receive support from Hegel’s (1807, p. 453) statement that “changing the point of view is not a contradiction”; rather it is a development of my knowledge from an earlier stage through the analysis of the data before me, that has made me change my mind.

2

Where references are made to a historical time I use “C.E.” for “Current Era” and “B.C.E.” for “Before Current Era”, keeping in mind that the calendar in use throughout much of the world is derived from an arbitrary starting date with the birth of the Jesus denoting year one (Britannica, 1988, see section 2.3.2).

1.2

Aim of the study

The main research question is

“What is the nature of spirituality in preschool children?”

With this question in mind I set out to work out a) how to find an answer to this question, and b) how to present findings to early childhood teachers and others so they can recognise spirituality in the children they may encounter.

My main aim is to find information that can give preschool teachers some ideas of how to deal with young children and their spirituality in an early childhood setting. I have found that there are several related questions which require answers. Some of these are listed below. •

How is spirituality defined in the literature? (With specific emphasis on children’s spirituality).

•

Is young children’s spirituality different from that of adults?

•

How do young children show spirituality?

•

How relevant might knowledge about young children’s spirituality be for a child’s ‘significant adults’ (parents and teachers)?

•

Are children restricted in their expression of their spirituality, such as Hay (1985) claims adults are, calling it a ‘social taboo’ to talk about spiritual matters?

Lindsay (2002) suggests that there may be ‘spiritualities’, when considering that all world religions, many disciplines (for example psychology, education, and nursing) and many other beliefs (for example political views and philosophy) all consider ‘spirituality’ in their various areas. The present study is but a small attempt to consider the spirituality, or spiritualities, of preschool children.

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1.3

Methodology: a combination of Phenomenology and Grounded Theory.

My experience in collecting data for my Master of Education research into “Preschool Children’s Concept of God” (Giesenberg, 1997) prompted me to propose a study in which I would be participant observer in early childhood settings. Data collection as participant observer is a very efficient, though time consuming, method when working with young children (Corsaro, 1981; Hatch, 1990). From the literature regarding studies about adult spirituality, I found that some researchers had played music for the participants and measured their brain waves during this experience (Mathew, 1998) and interviewing these adult participants. Using this idea, and keeping in mind that young children’s vocabulary is limited compared with adults, I came up with the idea of asking the children to paint and draw pictures for me while listening to music, thereby using an expressive medium with which most young children are familiar (Bindl, 1965; Giesenberg, 1996; Kjellgren, 1987; Tamminen, 1991). I interviewed parents and had countless brief conversations with parents and teachers during my field visits in each setting (FN, 1999). In section 1.4 below I explain some brief details about the participants and the early childhood settings they attended.

Initially I had the thought of formulating a theory of young children’s spiritual development using the analysis method of Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990; 1994). Major changes in my professional and personal life which included an interstate move caused me to change this idea. I was also in the unenviable situation of having to change PhD supervisory team twice due to factors beyond my control. Ultimately I was advised to look at the research method of Phenomenology (Stewart & Mickunas, 1990; Moustakas, 1994; van Manen, 1984). This was indeed very good advice as I was then able to describe the phenomenon of young children’s spirituality as presented in the data I had already collected.

1.4

The participants.

Fifty-seven (57) children aged 3 years to almost 7 years from four early childhood settings were followed over a period of one school year with fortnightly field visits to each centre. I was participant observer (Hatch, 1990; Mandell, 1988), and I observed the children during play, participated in their play, and had many conversations with the children, their teachers, and their parents. The children drew and painted pictures while listening to music 4

and were given tasks such as ‘what is a beautiful day’, ‘draw a dream’, ‘draw/paint love’. I had informal conversations with all parents on a regular basis when I met them in their child’s setting, and I had planned audio-taped conversations with 26 parents, who gave their time to talk with me in a one-to-one situation.

Throughout this thesis only one actual first name of a child is being used at the request of that child’s parent. For the remaining children, either their middle names or substitute names have been used. In the majority of cases, parents have requested which substitute name to use for their child. Parent’s initials are used where excerpts from parent interviews are quoted.

1.5

Spirituality in many areas.

Research disciplines as varied as education, nursing, psychology, psychiatry, politics, philosophy and religion have all looked at the concept of spirituality. Many writers (Appendix 1) suggest that there are characteristics or traits of spirituality like love, joy, compassion, awe, wonder, care and sense of beauty. Below are very brief summaries of how spirituality is regarded within each discipline. A more thorough discussion of the literature within each discipline can be found in Chapter 2.

Spirituality can be seen as a part of a person's psychological make-up (Belzen, 2004; Chandler, Holden & Kolander, 1992; Farran, Fitchett, Quiring-Emblen & Burk, 1989; Genia, 1995; Helminiak, 1996; Heron, 2003; Jacobi, 1968; Jung, 1920, 1933; Pate & Bondi, 1995; Peck, 1978; Wilber, 1980), or a kind of consciousness, which is most likely guided by the non-dominant right hemisphere of the brain (Mayer, 2000; Newberg and D’Aquili, 2001). To include spirituality as a discipline within psychology and psychiatry may be one way in which people who claim no religious affiliation can study and understand their own beliefs, and why a possible development happens as it does for the individual.

In a religious sense spirituality is holistic and involves the total being of a person (Britannica, 1988; Cowan, 1992a, 1992b; Fischer-Schreiber, 1996; Fox, 1990; James, 1981; Khadke, 1983; Levy, 1995; Nelson-Jones, 2004; Rahula, 1978; Roof, 1994; Smith, 2002; Wilber, 1980). It is larger than theology and beliefs or a set of values. It is expressed in everything a person does, and it involves the person's relationship with the chosen 5

transcendent being. Spirituality is 'being' as in the necessity to breathe, and religion is 'doing' as in pledging allegiance to a chosen belief (Benner, 1992; Ryan & Malone, 1996; Silberman, 2003). Religious spirituality is important for the believer when social, political and environmental issues are considered, as well as in the individual's perceived place in the community, privately, locally, nationally and globally.

Spirituality in phenomenology and philosophy is seen as a dialectic interaction between opposites (Berdyaev, 1935; Hegel, 1807; Stewart & Mickunas, 1990). It cannot be contained in the form of religion, or be free from thought. It is wider than religion and encompasses a person’s whole culture and cultural history. Spirituality controls, restrains and guides a person, and is not limited to saints, ascetics and elders; rather it is part of every person.

Spirituality in nursing is to show empathy with the patient, be there and listen, and show compassion whilst acknowledging the patient’s and relative’s feelings of hope (Becvar, 1998; Burkhardt, 1989; Fina, 1995; Lancaster, 1997; Sulmasy, 1997). Spirituality in Near Death Experiences (NDE) and Reincarnation seems to be of the highest importance with each described as highly spiritual experiences (Rinpoche, 1992; Shroeder, 2001; Sutherland, 1992). Both areas emphasise the need to be loving and compassionate towards fellow human beings, to search for truth within oneself and to be less inclined to acquire material goods. This search can be a religious one, but this is not a requirement. In fact, most NDEers, which is the term used by Sutherland (1992) for people who have had a Near Death Experience, (an NDEer), leave their institutionalised religion/s because they are seen as too rigid for true spiritual development (Sutherland, 1992).

In education, spirituality is seen as a quest for knowledge and meaning making. It manifests itself through wonder, imagination and storytelling. It makes a person conscious about and aware of everything and seeks to make meaning from the answers one gets when wondering (Beck, 1990; Carson, 1956; Coles, 1992; Engel, 1995; Fowler, 1981; Hyde, 2003; Liddy, 2002; Montagu, 1989; Montessori, 1992; Steiner, 1988).

In the present study, I have concentrated on researching the positive side of spirituality as described above. However, there appears to be a negative side to spirituality as well. This encompasses areas like bullying, teasing, sibling rivalry, anger, jealousy, hate, warmongery, and envy (Linke, 1998; Prasz, 2003; Rigby, 1996) as exemplified in the story 6

of the wolves with which this thesis begins (p. ii). Muscari (2006) says that spiritual wellness is shown through the capacity for compassion, love, altruism, forgiveness, joy and fulfilment, and that it is an antidote to fear, anxiety, self-absorption, anger, cynicism and pessimism. Silberman (2003) and Weaver, Pargament, Flannelly and Oppenheimer (2006) warn against concentrating only on the positive aspects of spirituality and religion. They advocate that all studies looking at spirituality should at least recognise that there is also a negative aspect of spirituality and religion. However, Nelson-Jones (2004) advocates acknowledging humankind’s innate goodness and not just focusing on aggressive and destructive tendencies. So in the present thesis I have, only where appropriate, referred to the negative side of spirituality, both in the literature review and also in the data analysis.

1.6

A definition of spirituality

From the literature reviewed in Chapter 2, the following initial working definition of spirituality was formulated based on literature about predominantly adult respondents:

Spirituality is an innate part of a person. It is an awareness or consciousness of the surrounding world, a sense of compassion and love towards this world and anything in it shown through wonder. It may involve a relationship with a transcendent being, who can also be immanent in the individual. Most often in Western societies this being is called God.

1.7

Chapter Overview:

With the main research question “What is the nature of spirituality in preschool children?” in mind, the present thesis is laid out as follows:

Chapter 2 is a detailed discussion of some of the existing literature about spirituality in areas like nursing, education, psychology, psychiatry, politics, philosophy and various world religions. In this chapter, I introduce a model of the human being where spirituality is at the core of the person (Figure 6, p. 28), and where several developmental areas are seen as influencing a person’s spirituality. From the discussion of the literature, summaries of spirituality within these fields are presented at the end of Chapter 2.

7

In Chapter 3, I discuss theories in the following developmental areas: Self Awareness, Social, Moral, Emotional, Cognitive, Creative, Faith/Belief, and Spiritual. These theories are all set up schematically in Appendix 2. These sections correspond with the model of a human being referred to earlier. Each developmental area can also be illustrated using an idea from the New Zealand early childhood curriculum Te Whariki (Ministry of Education, 1996; Figure 10, p. 173). This loosely woven mat represents in the human some developmental strands, which are clear and well researched, and others are dull and require further research like the area of spirituality. This could also be expressed in the words by Hegel (1807, p. 89): “The particular individual is incomplete mind, a concrete shape in whose existence, taken as a whole, one determinate characteristic predominates, while others are found only in blurred outline”.

In Chapter 4 the research methodology adapted and developed for this study is presented. There is a description about the methodologies Phenomenology and Grounded Theory and how I use both in analysing and describing the findings about young children’s spirituality. I describe the experience of being participant observer in the early childhood settings following 57 children over a period of a full school year. I encountered some challenges and I tell the story of how these were overcome.

The following three chapters give examples of the data collected in three major sections: Chapter 5 contains the comments parents provided on the Rating Scales (Appendix 7) distributed early in the study. Chapter 6 presents the observations, stories and discussions about the spirituality of the children given by the children themselves. Chapter 7 tells the same story seen from parents’ points of view. The three chapters are richly illustrated with pictures and excerpts from conversations and observations with children, parents and staff in the four early childhood settings. For technical reasons, all colour pictures are placed in a section together at the end of the thesis just before the appendices.

In Chapter 8 I summarise the findings about the phenomenon of young children’s spirituality in this study. I give suggestions about how an early childhood teacher can use the information when working with young children. I also present some ideas for further research into young children’s spirituality.

Throughout the thesis ages of children are abbreviated thus: Karen who was 3 years and 6 months is referred to as Karen (3y6m). 8

CHAPTER 2.

LITERATURE REVIEW

I seek not to instruct but only to lead, to point out and describe what I see. (Husserl, in Stewart and Mickunas, 1990, p. 131)

2.0 Introduction to disciplines describing Spirituality.

The purpose of this chapter is to outline the definitions of spirituality as it has been described within many different theoretical perspectives, such as psychology, various religions, Aboriginal spirituality, education, New Age, gender views, nursing, philosophical and political views. Each of these perspectives has its own underlying beliefs, assumptions, methodologies, biases and audiences. There appears to be some confusion about the concept of spirituality and, at times, very little agreement about the definitions between or even within disciplines.

The literature review presents views about spirituality from several disciplines, which have had a major impact on conceptualising and defining spirituality. In the context of this thesis, discipline is defined as “a set or system of rules and regulations” and “a branch of instruction or learning” as indicated in the Macquarie Concise Dictionary (2001, p. 316). One section deals with the discipline of Psychology (in 2.1), particularly clinical psychology and humanistic psychology with a section about the importance of consciousness from a psychological viewpoint. Based on this section of the literature review, a holistic model of the human being, which includes a spirituality aspect, will be introduced in Section 2.2 (Figure 6, p. 28). This model will be referred to regularly in this thesis. The next section deals with the discipline of Religion (in 2.3), which includes Christian beliefs about spirituality, along with the perspectives of other religions, such as Buddhism, Taoism and Islam, and the importance of prayer and meditation. A major section deals with the disciplines of Politics and Philosophy (in 2.4), mainly grass root politics, gender specific views, Aboriginal land rights, consciousness, phenomenology, and New Age spirituality. Next is a section reviewing spirituality in the discipline of 9

Nursing (in 2.5) followed by a fifth section about Near Death Experiences (NDE) and Reincarnation (in 2.6). The sixth and last discipline Education (in 2.7), has particular reference to whether or not spirituality should be taught in schools, how the concept of spirituality is dealt with, particularly in Montessori schools and the concept of Sunday Schools. There may be other disciplines where spirituality is seen as important, but those mentioned are those advising this study.

With so many and varied disciplines discussing spirituality, the task of defining and conceptualising the concept is challenging. Each major section has a summary of what spirituality is under that subheading. In the final section of the chapter, Section 2.9, these summaries are compared in order to arrive at a definition of spirituality which underpins the present research.

2.1

PSYCHOLOGY AND SPIRITUALITY

2.1.1

Clinical-Psychological Spirituality.

Spirituality as a partly psychological phenomenon is receiving increasing attention particularly from a clinical-psychological perspective (Adams, 1995; Benner, 1992; Chandler et al., 1992; Farran et al., 1989; Genia, 1995; Kelly, 1995; and Peck, 1978). These writers describe the importance of a stable spiritual outlook in order for a person to live a healthy and balanced life. When the balance is disturbed by illness or stress situations, for example, the person may need help to re-create a healthy existence (Miller, This figure is not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library

1990).

Farran et al. (1989) give examples of how the therapist can counsel the unhealthy person from a spiritual perspective. They recommend that a therapist assesses the

Figure 2 A model of spirituality (Farran et al. 1989, p. 187

10

person in areas such as meaning, belief, authority, fellowship, emotion and experience. They, like Nye and Hay (1996), claim that spirituality is not necessarily a religious matter, but something that is generic to all people. This view, that spirituality is a dynamic part of a person’s overall development is also expressed by Giesenberg (1996). In the model of the human being by Farran et al. (1989), spirituality is different from religiosity, i.e. the spiritual dimension is about the ‘state of being’, whereas the religious dimension is a ‘state of doing’ (Farran et al. 1989, p. 187). In Figure 2 they describe a person’s spirituality as two concentric circles with the larger circle being the spiritual dimension embracing the inner circle which is evenly divided between the psychological, physiological and sociological dimensions with constant interaction between dimensions. Farran et al. (1989) claim that it is important to focus on both what happens in a person’s life, and

how

the

individual

interprets

the

experiences and constructs meaning from them, i.e. a constructivist developmental view, where spiritual growth and development occur across

This figure is not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library

the life span.

In

contrast,

the

Christian

psychotherapist

Benner (1992) claims that no spiritual quest can progress very far without taking a religious stand, and that a person must develop a

Fig. 3. Benner's model of spirituality, 1992 p.175

relationship with a higher transcendent power. He writes that the term 'spirituality' is often used to refer to non-traditional and non-institutionalised religiosity, or to Eastern or mystical experiences, excluding Christian understandings. Benner claims that the broad use of the term makes it almost meaningless. He attempts to define spirituality as a yearning to find our place, our roots as humans. He claims that all people are created spiritual beings, thereby agreeing with Montessori (1955), Lillard (1973) and Chandler et al. (1992) that spirituality is an innate part of human life. Benner (1992) notes that not all spirituality is religious, and not all religious spirituality is Christian. His model of spirituality (Fig. 3 above) includes Christian spirituality, religious spirituality and natural spirituality. Having briefly explained each aspect, Brenner claims that spirituality is that 11

which draws people out of the self, and includes a response to God’s call. He also says that spiritual growth starts from within a person’s heart and that it belongs to an archetypal memory that we, as human beings, possess. Benner writes about adults, but Giesenberg (1996, p. 61) found such a view expressed by a child saying “God is inside you in your heart”. According to Benner (1992) such a claim can be explained as a psychological quest. Benner believes that psychological and spiritual quests are interconnected and calls human beings ‘psychospiritual beings’ (p. 177) where no problem is purely spiritual or purely psychological. He states that psychological and spiritual aspects of human functioning are inextricably interconnected. Any separation between the two is artificial and destructive to the true understanding of either. This could, perhaps, be called a further development of Montessori’s metaphor of the ‘spiritual embryo’ (1949; 1955).

Chandler et al. (1992) look at spirituality based in psychological theory. They agree with Benner (1992) and Peck (1978) that spirituality is an important part of people’s

This figure is not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library

general well-being. Chandler et al. (1992) see spiritual wellness as an emerging area of interest in counselling. They say that spirituality is often regarded as intangible or even inappropriate for health educators and counsellors, but that it is a natural part of

Figure 4: A model of the human with spirituality in the centre (Chandler et al. 1992, p. 171).

being human. Their model of holistic wellness is a circle, like that of Farran et al. (1989). This circle includes the areas of intellectual, physical, occupational, social and emotional domains having placed spirituality in the centre of the circle (Chandler et al., 1992). They believe that the capacity to develop in both spiritual and personal areas is present in a person from birth, thus connecting very well with Montessori’s (1949, 1955) metaphor of a ‘spiritual embryo’. Chandler et al. (1992) give suggestions on how a counsellor can assist a client in achieving spiritual wellness, which they claim is a part of the human that needs to be attended to and fostered as much as the mind and body. 12

Emerging from the literature reviewed so far are similar viewpoints: that spirituality is considered as an important part of human life and development, particularly in relation to the psychological self and that spirituality may be present in a person throughout life. However, it seems that for many writers the actual concept of ‘spirituality’ is too elusive to define in clear terms.

Gobbell (1980) gives a possible explanation to the elusiveness of a single definition of ‘spirituality’. He claims that the language around the concept confuses people and obscures what spirituality means to the individual person. Spirituality is for every person under constant reconstruction according to personal circumstances, and other people cannot construct a person’s spirituality. However, people can assist one another in the construction of their spirituality without imposing a specific type upon the other person. The Dalai Lama (2000) claims that each individual person on this earth has two levels of spirituality: one concerning the person’s religion and religious culture, and the other concerning the person’s mental state, psychological and emotional well-being. He says that there are as many spiritual and religious beliefs as there are people quoting the figure of five billion. This is similar to Giesenberg’s (1997) view that everyone, regardless of faith background, has a spiritual dimension that is dynamic and changing, just like the cognitive or emotional dimensions which change according to circumstances. Gobbell (1980) disclaims that spirituality can be measured and that a person can possess smaller or bigger ‘doses’. He says that spirituality is a matter of ‘being’ (p. 413), a view similar to that of Farran et al. (1989), and he also claims that there is no such thing as an ‘ideal’ spirituality.

The clinical-psychological texts reviewed above appear to agree that spirituality is an innate human dimension that interacts with a person’s overall ‘being’, and can influence this person’s ‘doing’. They agree that a healthy adult person displays a search for meaning in life and that this meaning making may or may not be religious in nature. Although each individual constructs a personal spirituality according to Gobbell (1980), there seem to be certain similarities in the development of healthy spiritual life. A person’s overall being can be illustrated graphically where the spiritual aspect is an all 13

embracing or central part of various domains such as cognitive, psychosocial, occupational, physical, and emotional domains. Such graphical descriptions of a person’s spirituality appear to be ideal when considering what spirituality might be.

2.1.2. Humanistic psychology and spirituality.

Helminiak (1987) is a psychologist with a theological background. He believes, as do previous writers, that spirituality is an important part of human development. He also believes that spirituality meets the demanding criteria that qualify it as a science which should be a specialisation within psychology (Helminiak, 1996). He explains his view by describing a model of four viewpoints of the human: 1) The positivist viewpoint of the ‘fact’ sciences: physics, biology, psychology and sociology; 2) The philosophic viewpoint which concerns normative or prescriptive beliefs and values. Helminiak places spirituality in this section; 3) The theist viewpoint concerns theology and a deity; 4) the theotic viewpoint where humans are seen to possess qualities that are usually considered to belong only to a deity. Helminiak (1996) distinguishes between human and divine aspects in spirituality and then provides a human account, which he explains as a kind of human consciousness. Here a person is aware of the world and the universe where experience, understanding, judgment and decision are dynamic, open-ended, selfregulating and self-determining dimensions of being a human. This appears to be another way of suggesting that spirituality comes from within a person, as implied by Benner (1992) and that spirituality is under constant reconstruction as claimed by Gobbell (1980).

Helminiak’s

(1996,

p.

10)

graphic

illustration of a person (Figure 5) is three concentric circles with spirit in the outer

This figure is not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library

circle, psyche in the second circle, and organism in the central circle, thus indicating that spirit is an all-embracing part of a human, similar to the model by Farran et al. Fig. 5. Helminiak’s (1996, p.10) model of the human. 14

(1989; Fig 2). In contrast, Chandler et al. (1992, Fig 4) place spirituality in the centre of their model. Helminiak’s (1996) major difference is that psyche has its own circle, where only Farran et al. (1989) included the psychological aspect in their model. Helminiak (1996) claims that authenticity is the key to human advance in embracing the universe and therefore important in the debate between psychology and spirituality. His conclusion is similar to Chandler et al.’s (1992) that wellness for people includes spiritual wellness, where beliefs area taken into account.

Miller (1990) shares Helminiak’s (1996) view that spirituality must not be overlooked in general human development. He writes as a psychologist working with people addicted to drugs and alcohol, and he says that spiritual concepts have for a long time been relabelled to remove their transcendent dimension, thus causing addiction researchers to act as if spirituality plays no role in their clients’ lives (Miller, 1990). He maintains that studying spirituality in the context of addiction problems may be uncomfortable for religious believers and non-believers alike, but that it is important so that data are not continually overlooked. As a scientist, for example, one need not suspend a belief system, but one ought to be prepared to question and test one’s beliefs. Describing the work of Alcoholics Anonymous, Miller (1990) emphasises the importance put by this organisation on spiritual and religious beliefs in the recovery of clients. He calls for instruments that can test spirituality in the lives of clients and how it impacts on the onset, course and treatment of addictive behaviours. Perhaps the models of Farran et al. (1989) or Chandler et al. (1992) mentioned earlier may be suited for Miller’s (1990) specific area of interest. However, Miller appears to have no definition of spirituality except to say that religious and spiritual beliefs play an important role in recovery from addiction.

Spirituality and beliefs do appear to have important impacts on the overall well-being of a person, including the psychological aspect. However, to become aware of spirituality as one’s ‘being’, as contrasted with religion as one’s ‘doing’, it seems that consciousness plays an important role.

15

2.1.3. Spirituality and consciousness.

In the debate between psychology and spirituality the concept of consciousness is mentioned regularly (for example by Benner, 1992; Helminiak, 1987, 1996; Jones, 1994). Helminiak (1996) claims that in this debate it is important to distinguish between the human and the divine. The divine aspect of spirituality is a strong concept in Hinduism and Buddhism (see 2.3.6 and 2.3.7), where a person’s ultimate consciousness is being regarded as divine in Nirvana. Helminiak (1996) suggests that the human part should be called consciousness as another name for the religious concept of the human spirit. Lonergan (1957, in Helminiak, 1987) further divides consciousness into four levels: empirical, intellectual, rational and responsible. The empirical level is where a person senses, perceives, feels, and moves. At the intellectual level the person inquires, understands, and works out presuppositions and implications. The rational level is where a person reflects over evidence and passes judgment, and on the responsible level the person works out actions that must be taken in regard to that person’s affairs.

These four levels of consciousness could appear as concerning only an individual person. However, Helminiak (1996) also says that the reach of human consciousness is unlimited: it can encompass the universe, it includes awareness of other people, and it distinguishes humans from other species. Consciousness as described by Lonergan (1957, in Helminiak, 1987) is seen as a specific human capacity.

When considering the development of consciousness, Subbotsky (1992) suggests that there is no linear development stage-by-stage. Rather it is an increasing differentiation between domains of realities. Individual consciousness is seen as a heterogeneous and pluralistic integrity, which happens throughout a person’s life, similar to Erikson’s (1963) ontogenetic psycho-social development theory (Appendix 4,5).

In regard to human consciousness Edelman (1992), a brain researcher, has found two types: primary consciousness and higher order consciousness, which he places in various 16

parts of the human brain. He finds it daunting that consciousness does not seem to be a matter of behaviour and claims that consciousness just exists. In his distinction between primary and higher order consciousness he says that most mammals and some birds also have the primal consciousness, but that humans are the only ones who have higher order consciousness. It appears that Steiner’s (1965; 1988, Table 2 p. 87) view on consciousness has a similar division between human and animal consciousness. Primary consciousness involves memory, mental images, bodily functions, a knowledge of ‘self’ as a physical being and physical interaction with the surrounding world. Primary consciousness could be seen as a parallel to Lonergan’s (1957, in Helminiak, 1987) empirical level mentioned earlier. Higher order consciousness is first and foremost the human capacity for acquiring language and the corresponding understanding and conception of language (Edelman, 1992; Goodenough, 1990). It also involves the person’s understanding of ‘self’ as a social being. Edelman (1992) says that once a self is developed through social and linguistic interactions on the basis of primary consciousness, a world is developed that requires naming and intending (see also Vygotsky, 1978, Appendix 4,4). This world will reflect what a person remembers, including imagined events. The three levels of intellect, rationale and responsibility in Lonergan’s (1957, in Helminiak, 1987) could be paralleled with Edelman’s (1992) higher order consciousness.

Along this line of thinking, Chalmers (1996) a cognitive scientist and artificial mind researcher, suggests that awareness is also included in consciousness. Awareness means to have access to information, from which a person, or an animal, can direct behaviour depending on the information received from one’s memory and the environment. Consciousness is always accompanied by awareness, and consciousness is reportable mainly through language. Like Edelman (1992), Chalmers (1996) also distinguishes between animals and humans in his discussion of what consciousness is. He lists several conscious experiences such as visual, tactile, taste, pain, mental imaginary, conscious thought, and sense of self. These experiences are fairly similar to Buddhist views of some elements of a human as described in Table A.1 in Appendix 2. Chalmers (1996) also says that the problem of consciousness is at the border of science and philosophy but that it is not open to investigation by usual scientific methods. 17

This problem of investigating consciousness carries over into the discussion of awareness, consciousness and their links to spirituality. Mathew (1998), a psychiatrist who like Miller (1990) works with people who have joined Alcoholics Anonymous, claims that all human behaviour has neuro-physiological corollaries and that spirituality is unlikely to be an exception. According to Mathew (1998), consciousness is a function of the frontal lobe of the brain, and that often it involves emotions, including spiritual experiences. He claims that spirituality is a system of thoughts that affirm the existence of immaterial reality that is imperceptible to the senses, and it is a specific human characteristic (Mathew, 1998).

Mathew (1998) describes a study where participants were given spiritual experiences in a laboratory setting. The experiences included were designed so brain functions could be measured. They included ability to experience and express emotions, enjoyment of music, poetry and art, emotional responses to novels, music, poetry and movies, and ability to enjoy scenery. The two cerebral hemispheres of the human brain appear to dominate specific areas such as the usually dominant left hemisphere working mainly in linear, analytic, detailed strategies mode, where language, science, logic and attention to details are situated. The right non-dominant hemisphere uses mainly holistic, synthetic and configurational strategies, such as imagination, emotions, melodic speech and perception of the environment. Mathew (1998) found that almost all reactions to spiritual experiences were recorded in the right non-dominant hemisphere of the brain, although the technical analysis of musical experiences took place in the left dominant hemisphere. Some gender specific texts (for example Carr, 1986; James, 1996) look at spirituality as being different for men and women, and Mathew’s (1998) distinction between dominant brain functions appears to be significant when considering spirituality. Cotton (1995) discusses how neuroscience has two distinct mental cultures - being emotional and intellectual worlds which, respectively, the right and left brain controls. He further says that the dualisms identified are explained using the left/right brain functions: science (left), art (right); yang (left), yin (right) (see also Appendix 2.8); Confucian (left), Taoist (right); Old Testament (left), New Testament (right).

18

Wanting to test how spirituality might influence people, and using the MMSS test (see below), Mathew (1998) conducted a cross cultural study about spirituality involving more than 1000 people in the USA and India. An Indian test, the Mathew Materialism Spiritualism Scale (MMSS) looks at God, religion, mysticism, spirits, character and psi. God is belief in any chosen higher power, religion examines the perceived value of religion and religious practices, mysticism evaluates belief in experiences such as vision, sense of presence, spirits studies belief in the survival of soul after death, character evaluates ethical standards, and psi relates to belief in paranormal experiences (Mathew, 1998, p. 2-3). The MMSS treats spirituality as a lifestyle based on a belief system, and a person’s spiritual experiences appear to be at the centre of a person. Mathew’s (1998) findings from this study suggest that older people and females earned higher spiritual scores regardless of their religious beliefs, i.e. Christian, Hindu or Jew, or their nationality. He also claims that children were more spiritual than adolescents and adults, but fails to give ages and numbers of children involved in the study. However, this observation coincides with Tamminen’s (1991; discussed in Appendix 3.6, Appendix 4, 16) study of religious thinking in children, where younger children were found to report religious experiences more often than older children.

Combining results from the two studies just described, Mathew (1998) suggests that the non-dominant right hemisphere of the brain is possibly involved in mystical and spiritual experiences. He further says that to have concerns for the environment, a person must have the ability to feel compassion for other creatures and make this feeling conscious. Such feelings of compassion belong in the non-dominant right hemisphere of the brain. In Appendix 2.2, Fox’s (1990) view on compassion as a spiritual characteristic is discussed in detail. In further texts it will appear that compassion is constantly viewed as an important part of a person’s spirituality.

According to Younger and Younger (1978) consciousness is many layered. Carl Jung (1875-1961) studied these layers intensely. His terms of personal unconscious, collective unconscious and archetypes are of particular interest to the concept of spirituality. The personal unconscious concerns forgotten and repressed memories, the collective unconscious represents basic human mental abilities related to universally experienced 19

situations, things that most people ‘know’ even though they have never been taught about them and archetypes are subconscious God images (Jacobi, 1968; Jung, 1920, 1989; Price and Haynes, 1997). Jung (1920) claims that a person’s soul corresponds with the personal unconscious and that belief in spirits corresponds with the collective unconscious. Both types of unconsciousness carry with them something of supernatural character. With the right sort of stimulation supernatural experiences can become conscious experiences for the person. This view corresponds with Mathew’s (1998) claim that in the system of spiritual thoughts, there is an immaterial reality that is imperceptible to the senses.

Price and Haynes (1997) suggest that the right type of stimulation to find out about one’s unconscious is to analyse one’s dreams. This is in line with Lawlor’s (1991) view regarding Australian Aborigines, who see the unconscious and the conscious as part of normal experiences, comparing them with the dark and light phases of the moon: both are always present. Consciousness is a field of activity where dreaming occurs, whether a person is asleep or awake.

Spirituality then, can be seen as a part of a person’s psychological make-up, or a kind of consciousness, which is most likely guided by the non-dominant right hemisphere of the brain. Where a person is in an extreme unbalanced situation spiritually, the individual may be at risk of becoming dependent on drugs and alcohol (Mathew, 1998). To include spirituality as a discipline within psychology may be one way in which people who claim no religious affiliation can study and understand their own beliefs, and why a possible development happens as it does for the individual.

2.1.4

Connections between spirituality and psychology.

Based on texts by writers such as Genia, a developmental psychologist who considers herself a religious person (Genia, 1995) and the claim by Zinnbauer, Pargament, Cole, Rye, Butter, Belavich, Hipp, Scott and Kadar (1997) that religions and spirituality have often been used interchangeably and thus confused concepts in the area, it appears that there is a tension between religion and spirituality on one side, and psychology and psychotherapy on the other side. This tension may well stem from Freud’s (1927, in 20

Bettelheim, 1984, p. 35, Freud’s emphasis) clear view that psychoanalysis had to be a “ ... new profession protected from physicians and from priests. I want to entrust it to a profession that doesn’t yet exist, a profession of secular ministers of the soul, who don’t have to be physicians and must not be priests”. London (1986, in Jones, 1994) has the view that psychologists are a secular priesthood. This is a term corresponding with Freud’s (1927, in Bettelheim, 1984) term Seelsorger, a German word meaning carer of the soul, and for which there is no equivalent English word. The closest English term may be that of spiritual counsellor. (The word can be directly translated into the Danish word sjælesørger, which is a term commonly used for a priest or pastor in Denmark, [Høst, 1965; Collins, 1995]). The linguistics in Freud’s view very clearly point to a connection

between

the

areas

of

religion/spirituality

and

the

areas

of

psychology/psychoanalysis, regardless of Freud’s distinction as to who can practise psychotherapy.

It seems that the tensions continued into the training of psychotherapists according to Bergin (1980). He wrote then that there are, among other issues, two broad dominant classes of values among mental health professionals, which both exclude religious values and beliefs. One is clinical pragmatism, which concentrates on treating psychological problems as a pathological issue, the other is humanistic idealism based on philosophy and social reform. Bergin (1980) called for psychotherapists to acknowledge their personal beliefs and values and incorporate these in their work and also to acknowledge that 30% of the US population expressed a strong belief in religious matters. This call for acknowledgement of personal values is also expressed by Zinnbauer and Pargament (2000) in their four approaches to counselling religious clients: Rejectionist, Exclusivist, Constructivist, and Pluralist. Hall, Dixon and Mauzey (2004) found that counsellors are inadequately trained to assist clients with their spiritual and religious issues. Most counsellors found themselves to be under-prepared and in need of additional training during and after undergraduate training as counsellors. Following his earlier work, Bergin (1990) conducted a study of mental health professionals in regard to various values themes such as self-awareness, forgiveness, human relations, and spirituality and religiosity. He found that therapists were generally more aware of their personal values than in the previous study (Bergin, 1980) and that they were able to incorporate these 21

when working with clients. In regard to spirituality/religiosity values, Bergin (1990) notes that this was the most difficult part for therapists to address. He reviews some of the studies on the impact of religiosity and concludes that there are conflicting results, so people with differing biases can select the evidence they prefer.

Genia (1990, 1995) agrees with Bergin (1980, 1990) that psychotherapists have not been adequately trained in counselling religious clients. She claims that psychotherapists have traditionally seen religious issues as a cause for clients’ neurotic and self-deceptive behaviour (Genia, 1995, p. 1). In her book about religious development she distinguishes between ‘secular psychotherapy’ and ‘religious counselling’, easily comparable with the linguistics explained earlier about Freud’s 'secular priesthood’. Genia developed a psycho-spiritual stage development theory (Appendix 4,22) with five stages: Egocentric faith; Dogmatic faith; Transitional faith; Reconstructed faith; and Transcendent faith with each stage illustrated by a case story and followed by suggestions on how the therapist can assist a client to reach the next stage. She seems to use ‘religious’ and ‘spiritual’ interchangeably in her stage development theory in both the 1990 and 1995 texts.

In the last chapter of her book, Genia (1995, pp 105-117) describes some of the traits of an adult spiritually mature person: 1) transcendent relationship to something greater than oneself, 2) life style and moral behaviour is consistent with spiritual values, 3) commitment without absolute certainty, 4) appreciation of spiritual diversity, 5) elimination of egocentricity, magical thinking and anthropomorphism (i.e. belief that God has human features, likes and dislikes), 6) belief that reason and emotion are both essential, 7) a mature concern for others, 8) display of tolerance, human growth and celebration of life, 9) acknowledgement of the reality of evil and suffering, 10) understanding of an overarching meaning and purpose, and 11) room for both traditional beliefs and private interpretations. In conclusion Genia (1995) as a psychotherapist, who has a personal Christian belief, warns religious people and groups that pretending to possess infallible knowledge about faith thwarts the spiritual development of other people. This is supported in a small way in Giesenberg’s (1996) study which showed that those children who knew most about God were the children who had had least information and teaching about the topic. 22

The observation that psychotherapists lack training in counselling their religious clients (Bergin, 1980, 1990; Genia, 1995) was also made by Pate and Bondi (1995). They look at the ethical standards required from psychotherapists that they respect their clients’ culture, gender and social contexts, as well as their spirituality and religions. Seen in a multicultural context Pate and Bondi (1995) claim that religious beliefs are as important as for example ethnicity, gender and social issues in the counselling situation. They define spirituality as a view of one’s place in the universe and as being a more inclusive concept than religion. Therefore, the psychotherapist must be trained to consider clients’ religious and spiritual values as important aspects of their personalities and that attitudes are shaped by their dominant culture. Psychotherapist training should include sections on the importance of spiritual and religious values for clients, using student experiences and case studies to illustrate the cultural importance (Pate and Bondi, 1995). Zinnbauer and Pargament (2000) issue a similar warning that therapists must acknowledge their own value and belief systems before attempting to guide clients. Sometimes a therapist has to refer clients to other therapists who may be in a better position to understand a client’s specific religious and spiritual background.

The apparently ‘fuzzy’ situation about spiritual and religious matters within psychology and psychotherapy was taken up by Zinnbauer et al. (1997) in their article “Religion and spirituality: Unfuzzying the fuzzy”. They say that there is inconsistency in the use of the terms religiousness and spirituality, and that there is no consensus about what the terms actually mean. They have also noted that the terms are often used interchangeably by individual authors such as in Genia (1995) above. This confusion is explained by an apparent division between religion and spirituality which has occurred in the last 25-30 years (Zinnbauer et al. 1997). As a consequence spirituality began acquiring distinct meanings as linked with personal beliefs, and religiousness belonging to established institutions. This appears to be a parallel definition to the explanations offered by Benner (1992), Gobbell (1980) and Farran et al. (1989) that spirituality is ‘being’ and religion is ‘doing’.

23

The study by Zinnbauer et al. (1997) involved 347 adults from various belief groups who were asked to reply to a survey on their self-rated religiousness and spirituality. Their groupings of people were ‘spiritual and religious’ (74%), ‘spiritual not religious’ (19%), ‘religious not spiritual’ (4%), and neither spiritual nor religious’ (3%). All participants were asked to reply on questions such as their belief in God or a Supreme Being, and the importance of God in their lives. The researchers found that there was a significant correlation between self-rated spirituality and level of income, frequency of prayer, experience of being hurt by clergy, New Age beliefs and practices, group experiences related to spiritual growth and mystical experiences, as well as a significant positive correlation between church attendance and intrinsic religiousness. This is explained as an individual being oriented toward a unification of being, taking seriously the command of brotherhood, striving to transcend all self-centred needs, and refrain from judging other people, first explained as intrinsic religion by Allport (1966). However, Zinnbauer et al. (1997) refrain from defining spirituality and recommend that the two areas of religiousness and spirituality should remain one area of study within the social sciences. They do not specifically mention the discipline of psychology as Helminiak (1997) does, but they do call for further study in order to define spirituality.

The dilemma between psychology and religion is also explored by Jones (1994). He explains that in all investigations of spirituality and religion, psychological scientists and practitioners act out of their entire web of understandings of the world, others and themselves. He claims that psychologists have in the past had an overly narrow professionalism refusing to look beyond that which can readily be measured or observed in human behaviour. His view is that it is time for psychologists to become aware of theology, spirituality and religious beliefs and that theologians must become aware of the importance of psychology in people’s spiritual lives and not only look at religious psychology. Jones calls for a relationship between the two disciplines based on mutuality and respect. He describes commonalties and distinctions between religion and science, and says that both disciplines have areas that overlap. Both attempt to shape, heal or reform human life and neither can avoid metaphysics or ethics. Genia’s (1995) work mentioned earlier is an example of how the two disciplines can combine and work towards healing clients’ lives by re-establishing balance after stress situations. 24

Throughout the text Jones (1994) points out areas where the two disciplines can support the research and work of the other. He says that everyone has biases consisting of moral, religious and metaphysical beliefs which the individual brings to his or her professional work, but that “ . . it is our biases that allow us to perceive and understand anything at all, and that . . . the most limiting and dangerous biases are those that are unexamined and hence exert their effect in an unreflective manner” (Jones, 1994, p. 197). Principe (1983) agrees in this matter by saying that researchers are better off acknowledging their own value systems, philosophies and theologies and reckon with these rather than pretending that they do not exist.

Spirituality can also in this section be explained as an important part of the human life being an innate aspect of the person. It manifests itself by the individual showing various traits of transcendence, awareness, commitment, appreciation of other beliefs and spiritual diversity, concern for others and providing an overarching meaning and purpose in life. Spirituality has strong links to religion, but it is not necessary to be religious in order to be spiritual. The well-balanced religious and spiritual person usually shows traits which are characteristic in intrinsic religion. However, all the literature reviewed so far talked about spirituality in adults with only Mathew (1998) referring to children but failing to say anything about children in particular. Spirituality in children as seen by various writers will be discussed in 2.7.

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2.2

An Holistic Model of the Human Being

The models of spirituality as part of a person as pictured graphically by Benner (1992, Fig 3), Chandler et al. (1992, Fig 4), Farran et al. (1989, Fig 2) and Helminiak (1996, Fig 5) all give important views on how spirituality can be illustrated. Benner (1992) included spiritualities only, with Christian spirituality being the central part of his model, a view which could be called ‘Exclusivist’ (Zinnbauer & Pargament, 2000). The three other models included psychological, sociological and physiological aspects of a person’s life. With the growing awareness in the psychological literature that spirituality exists as discussed in the previous section, it is considered important that spirituality must be included in a holistic model of a human being. Such a model must include all areas of a person’s life, and refrain from illustrating spirituality as belonging to one faith tradition only. Benner’s (1992) model of spirituality was therefore rejected because it concentrated on religious spirituality only omitting other areas of human life. However, Benner’s (1992) claim that a person is a psychospiritual being is seen to be of importance as it indicates that psychology and spirituality interact within everyone.

Helminiak’s (1996) graphic illustration of a person as consisting of three concentric circles with spirit in the outer circle, psyche in the second circle, and organism in the centre indicates that spirit is the all embracing part of the human. This is similar to the model by Farran et al. (1989) where a person’s spirituality is described as two concentric circles with the larger circle being the spiritual dimension embracing the inner circle which is evenly divided between the psychological, physiological and sociological dimensions with constant interaction between dimensions. Although these two models include other aspects of human life, they also indicate that spirituality is the all embracing part of a person. In contrast, spirituality is placed in the centre of a human as in the model by Chandler et al. (1992), with the physical, emotional, social, occupational and intellectual aspects of a person included as well like pieces of a pie. With spirituality in the centre it seems to indicate that spirituality is an innate part of a person, and that it influences other aspects of the person’s life. Mathew (1998) appears to agree with

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Chandler et al. (1992) that spirituality is at the centre by saying that spiritual experiences appear to be the centre and hub of a person.

By reviewing these four models of a person (Benner, 1992; Chandler et al., 1992; Farran et al., 1989; Helminiak, 1996, Figures 2, 3, 4 and 5), it was considered appropriate to develop a holistic model of the human being which includes aspects from all three models as pictured in Figure 6 (p. 28). The concentric circles from Helminiak’s (1996) are included, but with spirituality in the centre as in the model by Chandler et al. (1992). It includes the various domains of a person’s life as illustrated by Farran et al. (1989) and Chandler et al. (1992), with some additions based on professional knowledge about general human developmental theories (see Appendix 2 for an extensive list of such theories). Benner’s (1992) view that a person is a psychospiritual being is included by using broken lines between the different parts of a person, thereby indicating that all areas of development within a person interact. There is one solid line in the model surrounding the total human and distinguishing the person as an individual.

Spirituality is at the centre of the model, where all developmental domains meet. In individuals the spiritual self can occupy a smaller or a larger part, but regardless of size it will always be there as the centre of a circle. It can be compared with constructing a circle using a compass: the compass point for the needle in the exact centre will remain even if one cannot see it. Newby (1996) claims that the spiritual self is the inner person as it exists behind the persona, rather than being merely apparent. The spiritual self is considered to be the core of being where all other areas of the individual meet (Chandler et al., 1992; Mathew, 1998). The psychological self is between the spiritual self and the physical self divided by broken lines. The interaction between the spiritual self and the psychological self indicates that individuals perform actions that can be explained using spiritual and/or psychological terminology. Likewise there is a broken line between the psychological self and the physical self, thereby indicating that some actions are easy to observe, document and explain as objective behaviours, but other actions are more internal and subjective. The outer part of the individual is the physical self which is what other people initially see. Meeting in the spiritual centre are the developmental domains:

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social, emotional, cognitive, faith/belief, self awareness, creative, and social. These are placed in random order in the figure with broken lines between domains indicating that each domain cannot be regarded as an isolated part of a person, they all interact.

In the forthcoming discussions of other literature dealing with spirituality there will be frequent references to this model.

Figure 6 Giesenberg’s holistic model of the Human Being.

Centre: Spiritual Self Dark grey: Psychological Self Outer Circle: Physical Self Social

Faith/ belief

Cognitive

Creativity

Self Awareness

Moral

Emotional

The blank text box illustrates unknown parts of a human being that are yet to be discovered and described. All sections have broken lines to indicate there is interaction between the various areas of a person. The only full line is the line at the very outer circle to indicate that the person is an individual in his or her own right.  Anna Giesenberg

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2.3

RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY.

All world religions have a rich and detailed pool of literature where the sacred texts, devotional writings, histories, interpretations of the sacred texts and guidance books of right conduct are available to those who follow that religion or are interested in knowing more about a religion. Some of this literature is discussed in detail in Appendix 2. All the religions mentioned in this thesis are described in Britannica (1988) where several pages are devoted to detailed discussions of each major world religion. The individual volumes describing a religion are listed in the reference list at the back of this thesis.

2.3.1 Spirituality in various religious beliefs

Christianity In Christian spirituality there is a direct relationship with God as a numinous being with Jesus and the Holy Spirit as the other two parts of the Christian Trinity. The individual believer worships God in awe and often has a firm belief in Jesus as a personal saviour. Christian spirituality involves feelings such as compassion and love towards fellow human beings. For the Christian, spirituality is a part of life and as such must include all aspects of life like economics, relationships, politics, sexuality, and science. The Christian spiritual person strives towards self-transcendence, understanding of own unconscious and a unity with God, Jesus and the Holy Spirit, the Trinity, as the chosen belief (Carr, 1986; Fox, 1990; Grønbæk, 1962; NIV, 1985; Principe, 1983; Ryan & Malone, 1996; Schlosser, 2003; Sheldrake, 1992; Spong, 1991; Tillich, 1952; Zwartz, 2004).

Judaism Jewish spirituality encircles a believer's whole existence in remembering God, or Yahweh, and in caring for his creation. It is part of everyday life, socially, politically, environmentally and psychologically. The Jewish believer is observant of all rules of keeping oneself and one’s surroundings pure so one can worship God at any time with a pure mind and body. The importance of the Sabbath and prayer helps the believer in getting closer to God (Davies, 1956, Isaacson, 1999; Josephus, 1890; Lawton, 2003; Levy, 1995; NIV, 1985; Parrinder, 1982; Riskin, 1992; Rose 1992; Sabbah & Sabbah, 2002; Shulman, 1960; Silberman, 2003; Smart, 1996).

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Islam In Islam there is cohesion of a total lifestyle, which has resulted in a way of life where Islamic spirituality permeates the everyday life of the faithful. Zimmerman (1986) explains it as religion residing in the heart of the believer. The faithful Muslim lives his or her faith in all that is said and done. Islamic spirituality appears not to be a private belief, although the believer often prays to Allah in privacy. It is a total way of life, permeating all the believer does, privately, socially and politically (Ammar, 1995; Bennett, 1997; Carey, 1996; Ernst, 2003; Kato 1999; Khadem, 2004; Koran, 1930; O’Hagan, 2004; Parrinder, 1982; Smart, 1996; Zimmerman, 1986; Zwartz, 2004).

Hinduism Where Christianity, Judaism and Islam are monotheistic and historical religions, Hinduism has several deities. The beliefs in Karma, samsara, caste and the deities, and the daily prayers and practice of yoga, indicate that the Hindu religion is a complete way of life influencing diet, occupation, sex roles, ethical conduct, ritual practices and beliefs. Hindu spirituality is a culture strongly intertwining religious practices and social beliefs. Hindu spirituality is 'doing' and living the beliefs of Karma with the help of preferred deities in everyday life in the hope of obtaining an even better existence in the next life (Bhagavadgita, 1993; Cerminara, 1967; Cole, 1983; Coward, 1995; Duncan & Derrett, 1986b; Klostermaier, 1995; Miltenburg, 1990b; Parrinder, 1982; Younger & Younger, 1978; Zwartz, 2004).

Buddhism Buddhism is concerned with the believer's total being, both mentally and physically. Buddhist spirituality is seen as an integral part of the believer's everyday life, with guidelines regarding all aspects of life. There is no deity to worship, but the Buddhist must adhere to the four noble truths which are the truths that form the basis for all further Buddhist conduct in life. To reach the ultimate goal of enlightenment the Buddhist must follow the eightfold path and always strive to find the truth of everything (Crow, 2000; Dalai Lama, 1996, 1999; Goleman, 1980; Nelson-Jones, 2004; Parrinder, 1982; Rahula, 1978, Shearer, 1992; Smith 2002; Suzuki & Oiwa, 1996; Strahan, 2004; Wiejers, 1990; Zwartz, 2004).

Taoism In Taoism the believer observes wu-wei, the non-action in which no-one can get hurt through inadvertently doing the wrong thing. The believer lives spontaneously with nature and resists 30

unnecessary government and rules. Everything must be in balance with nature: Yin and Yang, including what one eats, drinks and does. Through meditation and observance of the Tao one will eventually reach immortality which is the highest attainment possible (Bloomfield, 1983; Cooper, 1992; Crow, 2000; Fischer-Schreiber, 1996; Foster, 1987; Macmanaway, 2001; Palmer, 1998, 2001; Tao, 2003).

Australian Aboriginal Aboriginal spirituality includes an esoteric knowledge of the rituals, stories, and sacred places throughout tribal lands. All aspects of the Aboriginals’ lives have a numinous meaning. They often have an experience of the wholly other (Otto, 1923, Appedix 4, 17) as a presence in their surroundings. They do not own the land, as white people understand land ownership. Rather they have by their ancestor spirits been given the rights to use the natural resources of a particular part of the land as determined through their spiritual connection with this land. In this regard the Aborigines are a unique group of people because they are spiritually possessed by the Dreaming (Cowan, 1992a) and therefore also by their land (Brennan, 1998; Carey, 1996; Charlesworth, 1997; Clark, 1986; Cowan, 1992a & 1992b; Derrington, 2000; Hume, 2002; Lawlor, 1991; Mountford, 1981; Stockton, 1995; Swain, 1991).

Atheists For the religious believer and the atheist alike there is a need to find meaning with things unexplainable, including spirituality and transcendent matters. According to Roof (1994) the belief, that there exists nothing metaphysical governing the world, creates a void. Roof says this void is often filled by the atheist engaging in social justice issues. He further claims that for some people the spiritual search includes reclaiming authority over oneself. For the atheist this includes the denial of a God, which must first be defined. It appears that an atheist also has a spiritual dimension, although this dimension must first go through a definition and rejection of God as a transcendent being (Acherman, 1981; Nietzsche, 1892; Oser, 1991; Robinson, 2001; Roof, 1994; Strahan, 2004; Zwartz, 2004).

Prayer and Meditation Prayer and meditation are seen as important spiritual links between a believer and the chosen deity or deities. There is communication between them, and as with all communication there are varieties of prayer ranging from cries for help, quiet thankfulness, angry accusations asking 'why', outpourings of opinions between friends, to intercession for other people 31

(Ammar, 1995; Bloomfield, 1983; Dalai Lama, 1996; Doran, 1988; Duncan & Derrett, 1986a & 1986b; Fischer-Schreiber, 1996; Gondarra, 1996; Grønbæk, 1962; Jacobs, 1986; Levy, 1995; Palmer, 2001; Parrinder, 1995; Rahula, 1978; Roof, 1994; Smart, 1996; Ungunmerr, [1988, in Stockton, 1995]; Wijers, 1990; Younger & Younger, 1978; Zinnbauer et al. 1997).

2.3.2

Religious spirituality, a summary.

To reach a combined definition of spirituality in a religious sense it is important to remember the caution about the English word spirituality being derived from the Christian church and should therefore be used with care when other religions are discussed. King (1996) maintains that any use of the word must be coherent with the language and beliefs of the people, the religions and the relationships with the deities being described. The changes and various circumstances that people constantly face as in for example the Buddhist understanding of a person (Table A1), influence a religious definition of spirituality. Keeping this warning in mind and drawing on the detailed discussion about religious spirituality in Appendix 2, the following summary of religious spirituality is suggested:

Spirituality in a religious sense is holistic and involves the total being of a person. It is larger than theology and beliefs or a set of values. It is expressed in everything a person does, and it involves the person's relationship with the chosen transcendent being/s. It involves meditation and prayer where the person prays for self and others. Religious spirituality involves all developmental domains as illustrated in Figure 6 (p. 28). In the spiritually and psychologically healthy person, there is balance between domains. Religious spirituality is also important for the believer when social, political and environmental issues are considered, as well as the individual's perceived place in the community, privately, locally, nationally and globally. The religion is intrinsic as described by Allport (1966).

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2.4

SPIRITUALITY IN POLITICS AND PHILOSOPHY.

In this section several diverse aspects of spirituality are explored: Spirituality within Politics, Aboriginal Landrights, New Age Philosophy, Gendered Spirituality, and Philosophy, particularly in regard to Phenomenology, Consciousness and Soul. Considering texts reviewed earlier it is clear that some writers consider politics a very important part of spirituality. These writers include Levy (1995) on Jewish spirituality, Ammar (1995) on Islamic spirituality, Fox (1990) and Benner (1992) on Christian spirituality, Younger and Younger (1978) on Hindu spirituality, Rahula (1978) and Smith (2002) on Buddhist spirituality, and Brennan (1998) on Australian Aboriginal spirituality. All these writers deal with various religious beliefs, under which spiritual umbrellas they all claim that politics belong, because politics and spirituality are parts of people's overall existence. Politics and spirituality are therefore the first area to be discussed under the present sub-heading, with specific focus on grass-root politics. Following this overview of politics, a more specific area in politics and spirituality is discussed: that of Australian Aboriginal landrights. The remaining part of this section deals with the relationship between spirituality and philosophy such as New Age spirituality, spirituality and gender, and spirituality in philosophy. Under the philosophy heading are phenomenological philosophy, and the philosophy of consciousness and soul as distinct from how consciousness and soul were discussed earlier in regard to psychology. This last area seems to be of particular interest when considering the importance religion place on a person’s soul as discussed in Appendix 2. 2.4.1

Spirituality in politics.

From the discussion in the previous section about spirituality and religions it can be concluded that religious spirituality should, and for many people also does, influence their thinking regarding political issues. Spretnak (1986) says that 94% of the population in USA believe in God or a universal spirit, which is higher than Roof's (1994) figure of 80% mentioned in section 2.3.9, and the Australian figure of approximately 72% (AusStats, 2003; Strahan, 2004). These figures indicate that, although only about 10% of the population in both countries are regular worshippers in their chosen religion (Carey, 1996; Castles, 1993; Roof, 1994), spiritual or religious beliefs are considered important for the individual, a claim that also corresponds with the findings by Zinnbauer et al. (1997) in regard to people's spiritual belief. In her work with Green politics in the USA Spretnak (1986) found that people are generally very interested in spirituality as a part of politics. She suggests five points that must be 33

considered in regard to Green politics: 1) show of respect and honour of the religious pluralism in society; 2) show an appropriate attitude and resonance towards those who have a religious belief; 3) a Green party must resonate with the people whose political attitude support the party, for example during elections by their votes; 4) the political program should encourage people to think about matters raised rather than pushing a package at them; and 5) there must be a clear program outlining the principles of environmental politics, for example, ecological wisdom, social responsibility - personal, local, national, and global - grassroots democracy, non-violence, decentralisation of political and economic power, and post patriarchal consciousness (Spretnak, 1986). In such a political program Spretnak warns against watering down the spiritual aspect, justifying her warning by pointing out how many people actually believe in God or a higher spiritual power. Dorr (1984) shares this view in saying all people have an urge to articulate and reflect on fundamental beliefs, and that part of these beliefs is one's political views. They must correspond with one's religious beliefs for the individual to function as a human being. The Western concept of separate religious and political spheres is a relatively new one according to Firth (1996, p. 71), but one that needs to be addressed so that people’s religious beliefs do not become “a mere spiritual aroma of a given economic and political system”. In her brief history of the relationship between politics and religion in the Western world, Spretnak (1986) claims that politics usually leave out the spiritual aspect of people's lives. Baby boomers seem to agree with this view (Roof, 1994). This population group, defined by Roof as those born between 1946 and 1964, a total of 76 million Americans, has had several political and spiritual choices. The 60s had the Hippie movement with alternative lifestyles, protest marches against the Vietnam War and supporting the anti-segregation laws (King, 1963: I have a dream). The 70s had evangelical and charismatic revival, the withdrawal from Vietnam, and the Watergate scandal; the 80s had a variety of New Age movements, the Star War (as initiated by President Reagan) and increasing awareness of global pollution and political instability worldwide (Roof, 1994). The 90s saw a collapse of big companies, the fall of the Soviet block, and an alarming resurgence of Neo-Fascist movements. Currently, in the “nought-ies”, there is war in Afghanistan and Iraq as a response to and retaliation for the terrorist attacks in the USA of September 11, 2001; in Bali, October 2003 and October 2005, and the continual retaliation between the Israeli and Palestinian peoples (ABC TV; SBS TV). It appears that the negative side of spirituality in regard to warmongery is being encouraged too much globally (refer to the Buddhist eightfold path number 5 of ‘right livelihood’ where it is not permissible to earn one’s living through the production and trade of arms, Section 2.3.7). 34

The baby boomers interviewed by Roof (1994) appear to all be on a spiritual journey looking for meaningful ways to fill a void they claim is left by the actions of political and social institutions which focus mainly on monetary gains. Firth (1996) is also critical of the way politics and spirituality are split up, and he says that it is a fairly new phenomenon to the Western world. Historically the main religions have seen Christianity in the West, Buddhism in the East, and Islam somewhere in between. Each religion has split into smaller entities, often divided by national borders. In the political form states have either supported or suppressed a religious belief, differentiated between religions by having an established church, or defined religion by giving rights to free worship of any group which is further specified as a religious group (Firth, 1996). In the preface to the anthology The Politics of Women's Spirituality the editor Charlene Spretnak (1982a) claims that both politics and spirituality are concerned with power. The power exerted depends on a person's mind-state, for example anxious, fearful, greedy, or hostile. It is expressed in the dominating political and religious systems. Along this line of thought Nasr (1975, in Firth, 1996, p. 59) claims that "Western countries have lost their spiritual traditions, have a secular theory of law, have an illusory notion of freedom through excessive individual self-expression, and debase humanity with a vulgar immoral consumption technology - including a deplorable use of the drug alcohol". The power struggle between politics and spirituality is felt by many of the baby boomers in Roof's (1994) study. Their search for alternative spiritual values other than those provided by established churches has resulted in a spread of their political votes across a wider spectrum than their parents used, including Green Politics (Spretnak, 1986). Muslim countries appear to be some of those countries where the religious system takes over the political power and subsequently population groups like women, or those who dress in Western clothes, are subjected to oppression by the rulers (Firth, 1996). This appears to be an area which could be interpreted as a dark side of spirituality, and which is expressed in the concept of Shariah Law as in Illustration 1. (Britannica, 1988; Giesenberg 2002a). Shariah Law in Nigeria is described by Suhuyini (2007) as an economic and social class barrier with wealthy Muslim leaders directing where and between which groups an uprising should take place, masking such actions as a religious issue, while at the same time enriching themselves. These Muslim leaders often “own” a mosque and the poor in the neighbourhood go there to pray and recognise the “owner” as boss-man and be manipulated by him in elections (Suhuyini, 2007). Illustration 1: Shariah Law in Northern Nigeria (Inserted over the page) 35

English (2003) and Khadem (2004) report that an opposite reaction happens in Western countries against those Muslim women who choose to wear the hijab. The Danish political party, Enhedslisten (Enhedslisten, 2003), supports a political system in which the individual has the right to choose religious belief, dress code, education and political affiliation, but with respect to people with opposing views. The German political party, Die Grünen (Bündnis 90; 1998), holds a similar view. In England, Green Politics claim to be holistic, where all aspects of human living must be taken into consideration, avoiding making simplistic solutions to complex problems (Kemp and Wall, 1990). The phenomenon of the religious system taking over the political system occurs in other countries as well. Sölle (1990) coins a new phrase Christofascism which she claims is an instrumentalisation of religion to engender hatred in supposedly mainly Christian countries. She is particularly critical of some American Christian groups' politics in regard to social welfare issues, unemployment, racism, abortion and women's roles in the family: Those who support the liberation and equal education of women, and support the more unfortunate in society, are seen to be anti-biblical (Sölle, 1990). This is an interesting point given that Jesus said that those who help the sick, visit those in prison or give clothes and food to the needy will be rewarded for their deeds (NIV, 1985, Matt. 26, 34-40). There is in Australia a similar political trend to ignore or criminalise those who wish to better the conditions for asylum seekers in Australia’s detention centres (Arthur, 2002; Morandini, Harrison & Arthur, 2002; Ozdowski, 2002). The most worrying part of the concept of Christofascism according to Sölle (1990) is that this type of religious suppression politically and socially is followed voluntarily by its adherents, a finding shared by Andrews (1999). It appears to be a grass root movement, whereas the Muslim countries referred to earlier appear to have 'top-down' religious governments, although there is a strong advertising aspect involved through television in the 'Electronic Church' (Sölle, 1990).1 The British equivalent of the Electronic Church appears to have less advertising for a particular ‘brand’ of belief with Bruce (1995) outlining the rules set down by the BBC that such broadcasting must be ecumenical in its form. A particular popular aspect of the British Electronic Church is the emphasis on singing: religious songs and hymns in programs such as Songs of Praise (broadcast on ABC TV in Australia on Sunday mornings). Bruce (1995) suggests that the British religious TV and radio programs are a supplement for people who already believe, and that the American programs are missionary

1. The Electronic Church can in Australia be seen on Channel 10 very early on weekday mornings. Spong (1991) recommends trying the experiment of turning off the sound during such a program. The body language of the preacher very rarely conveys the message of God’s love. Rather the facial contortions and violent gestures convey a message of violence.

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endeavours. However, there are some Christians who try to work with the oppressed groups in society, Salvation Army being one group. Another example is a community group in inner Brisbane, Australia, which helps the homeless, the marginalised in society and bringing opposites together, for example landlords and tenants in the hope of making rental properties affordable for the marginalised groups (Andrews, 1999). Andrews (1999) argues for a political concept which he calls Christi-Anarchy, in which everyone is asked to show the love and compassion of Christ and to stand together in order to rectify injustices in society and to work together for social justice. The concept of Christi-Anarchy is thus the directly opposite concept of Christofascism. It is feeding the wolf of love, compassion, generosity, joy, empathy, understanding and tolerance (p. ii). Spretnak's (1986) Green politics appear to have a seemingly more positive outlook, although there is strong criticism regarding the present political systems particularly in USA and Germany. She says that to get a full understanding of Green politics it is important to consider Indigenous peoples and their spiritual connection with the land. Spretnak (1986, p. 18) quotes a Hopi man saying: "Almost everything we do is a religious act, from the time we get up to the time we go to sleep. How can the white man ever understand that?” Yunupingu (1996) claims that the Australian Aborigines were the original greenies. Firth (1996) supports that Indigenous groups such as the Australian Aborigines and the Native Americans at long last appear to have some right to their religious sites, and applauds the political, albeit limited, action to inhibit commercial development of these sites. Clark (2003) reports that the current Australian Prime Minister does not appreciate the culture of the Australian Aborigines, and because they no longer ask for an official apology for the treatment they have had over the past centuries, he may think he has won the debate. This seems to limit the rights of Aborigines even further. Spretnak's (1986) critique of current Western political systems consists of three rejections with corresponding alternatives: 1) rejection of anthropocentric orientation of humanism; rather that Nature is in control; 2) rejection of the values of modernity; rather value freedom and tradition, individual and community, science and nature, women and men; and 3) rejection of patriarchal values and a mechanistic world view; rather harmony with nature and a return to pre-Christian and pre-Greek beliefs. This last statement appears to be contradictory to the view that Green politics has as the first of four core values the aim of moving towards promoting the teaching and practices inherent 37

in every religious tradition that furthers inner personal growth leading to wisdom (Spretnak, 1986). This should include Christianity, but this religion is to be bypassed by going to the pre-Christian beliefs. The statement also contradicts the claim that Green political programs must show respect and honour the religious pluralism in society if one major group is to be rejected (Enhedslisten, 2003; Rockefeller, 1992). However, inner growth should result in people cultivating wisdom, loving kindness, compassion, joy, equanimity, and body wisdom in music, dance and rituals. This list of inner growth elements is very similar to Beck's (1986) list of spiritual traits mentioned in Appendix 1, as well as many of the characteristics that a religious believer should have. It also includes compassion, which is the spiritual characteristic that Fox (1990) claims is the most important of all spiritual characteristics. A second core value in Green politics is to enhance ecological wisdom (Spretnak, 1986). In this area the most important aspect is to protect the environment. This is an area about which Ammar (1995), Levy (1995), the Dalai Lama (1996), Fischer-Schreiber (1996), Roberts (1990, 1997b), and Fox (1990), respectively Muslim, Jew, Buddhist, Taoist and Christians, wholeheartedly agree. People must work towards ecological wisdom and acknowledge the interrelatedness of creation and creation spirituality according to one's religious belief. Suzuki (1999) calls this The Sacred Balance, and gives the scientific background on what happens in nature. He explains that all living creatures have an innate instruction to show love towards one’s offspring, using people and some animals as examples. He warns against becoming alienated from nature, because alienation causes people to misuse and abuse the earth. Suzuki asks whether this abuse is because people have lost their religion. A third core value in Spretnak's (1986) spiritual dimensions of green politics is the relationship with other people, particularly equality between the men and women. This is of particular concern in education, where Spretnak mourns the loss of talent, intelligence and creativity among many women due to limited educational possibilities. In regard to equality for the two genders, Spretnak (1986; 1991) claims that there is in the cognitive and behavioural sciences a skewed view regarding sex differences, with men supposedly more competitive and aggressive than women, but there is no corresponding recognition of similarities of the genders in these sciences. However, Die Grünen (Bündnis 90, 1998) and Enhedslisten (2003) both advocate policies to work for equality between men and women. There should be no competition between the genders, rather a complete balance as in yinyang with each gender holding within it part of the other.2 There appear to be links between 2 For example: there is in male singing voices a span from the deepest bass voice to the highest falsetto, and similarly in female voices from the deepest baritone to the highest soprano. This seems to be just one example pointing towards there being no clearly defined line between male-ness and female-ness.

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this view of political spirituality and the discussion of left and right brain hemisphere dominance between the genders (Chalmers, 1996) with Zohar and Marshall (2000) questioning the view of this kind of brain research. In the spiritual aspect of relationship between people, Spretnak (1986) also touches the issue of abortion, which she sees as a spiritual matter. She claims that forcing a woman to either have an abortion, or to give birth to a child, is equally violent towards the woman. In each individual case there must be careful consideration regarding possible suffering of the child and the woman. An interesting observation in regard to abortion is made by Tuttle (1986) who says that it was not until the mid-1800s that abortion was made illegal. Until then abortion was the woman's choice until the time of 'quickening' when the first movements by the foetus are felt by the mother. Roof (1994) says that in regard to the abortion issue, those baby boomers who are born-again Protestants are strongest against abortion, whereas the strongest support comes from those without religious affiliation, and from mainline Protestants and Jews. Historically Jewish tradition has been that during a period of strong persecution abortion was, if not encouraged by the religious leaders, then met with understanding and compassion (Levy, 1995). Spong (1998) questions the claim that abortion is murder as defined by the Ten Commandments, raising issues such as incest, rape, and illness in relation to unplanned pregnancies. Maguire (2001) discusses the views of ten world religions about the right to contraception and abortion. He concludes that religions have been part of the problem throughout the world and says that religions have to be part of the solution as well. Maybe Christofascism (Sölle, 1990) is also found among those who are strongest against abortion in view of Sölle’s claim that the moral scandal of modern time in USA is the abortion of unborn life; rather it should be the starvation of a million children in the Third World. However, with the murders of abortionist doctors in the USA by, in one instant, a Protestant minister (Bluey, 2003a; 2003b; Lifton and Mitchell, 2000), such Christofascism appears to be very strong indeed. Spretnak's (1986) fourth and last core value in Green politics is social responsibility. This involves an area such as non-violence. It should here be noted that all religions discussed in section 2.3 saw peace and compassion as an important spiritual matter. In regard to young children Myers (1997) advocates a spirituality of caring, thus showing young children that they are part of a community connected to others and the cosmos. She says that a spirituality of caring is political in this sense. Other social responsibility issues are water conservation and land preservation, also discussed by Roberts (1990) in the Australian context of erosion, saline problems and agricultural cultivation, and what the Christian church should do about the problem. Social responsibility in Green politics is also about taking a stand in regard to 39

taxation and even distribution of goods, and elimination of nuclear weapons and the arms race (Bündnis 90, 1998; Enhedslisten, 2003; Murchie, 2002; Spretnak, 1982b, 1986). Maybe it would do the whole world good to consider and follow Buddha's rule of Right Livelihood where it is not permissible to earn a living producing and trading in arms (Rahula, 1978). Armstrong (2003) says that the Western world has failed to take religious beliefs into consideration when making international policies, and that the current world situation in regard to terrorism is largely a result of this failure. Perhaps the best solution to terrorist problems is the mass destruction of weapons worldwide – this would then be of assistance to more people earning a living according to Right Livelihood. The specific area of social justice is discussed in detail by Dorr (1984) who, as a Christian, claims that to be truly spiritual, a person needs to have balance in three major areas. The areas are: To act justly in regard to showing a commitment to rectify injustices, and be politically aware of how one can interact with institutions to enhance social justice; To love tenderly by showing good interpersonal relationship skills, be loyal even in a friend's difficult times, and be morally committed to lasting personal relationships; and lastly; To walk humbly with God through prayer and by retaining a childlike sense of wonder and awareness about the world. So for Dorr (1984) spirituality is how a person lives in the world, i.e. the person’s being and how he or she reacts to what happens in the world. This is very much in line with the psychological definition of spirituality, which is that spirituality is being and religion is doing (Benner, 1992). Despite contradictions in Spretnak's (1986) text, there is a strong spiritual thread throughout. She says that it is strange that politics have become so distant from spirituality when the statistics say that only 6% of people do not have a belief in God or a universal spirit with the current Australian figure being approximately 27% (AusStats, 2003). Maybe the distance between spirituality and politics in the Western World comes from Firth's (1996) claim that religion is used as a rallying point against unpopular decisions and stressful conditions - it is an adherent in personal crisis, but not something that carries over in a person's public sphere. Rizzuto (1979) calls the God in such a religion a teddybear, whom one hugs when the crisis is there, but puts away in the attic while things go smoothly. If spiritual and political changes are to take place such as suggested by Spretnak (1986), the first requirement is that people must become aware of the need to change. Riddle (1982) claims that in every change process is a political dimension, the knowledge about - what needs to be changed and a spiritual awareness - how - to go about changing. The knowledge brings on a new responsibility and a commitment to examine one's spiritual philosophy 40

regarding the guidelines about the task ahead. Riddle (1982) agrees with Spretnak (1986) that political systems do not adequately address the needs of all population groups. She suggests that a method of governing through consensus should be adhered to, involving all groups, where all groups have an opportunity to voice their opinion so mutually agreeable decisions can be reached. There appears to be a lack of more up-to-date text regarding spirituality and politics – the current focus is mainly on social justice issues rather than a connection to transcendent issues such as spirituality. So spirituality in regard to politics appears to also concern what a person does privately and publicly, both among people and in relation to nature. It is awareness of one's responsibility as a citizen in the global village (Andrews, 1999; Dorr, 1984; Fox, 1990; Roof, 1994; Suzuki, 1999) and it has strong adherence to the person's chosen religion. 2.4.2

Aboriginal landrights and spirituality.

When looking at Australian Aboriginal spirituality (see 2.3.9) it is clear that Aborigines place an enormous importance on their spiritual ties with their tribal lands, and the land of their Dreaming (Charlesworth at al., 1990; Cowan, 1992a, 1992b; Lawlor, 1991; Stockton, 1995). The struggle for land rights is not only a matter of economics and politics. Land rights concern the cultural and spiritual ties of displaced peoples in their own country (Brennan, 1998; Gilbert, 1996; Lawlor, 1991; Roberts, 1997a; Tweedie, 2001). Brennan (1998, 2005) discusses the history of various agreements between governments and various Aboriginal groups in Australia in regard to land rights, and that one particular theme seems to run through all government guidelines. That theme is that for any Aboriginal group to lay a claim on any land, the group must be able to show that the people were the traditional owners of the land. This requirement mirrors the European way of thinking: that land is owned by people. It fails to take into consideration the Aboriginal view that people are owned by the land by virtue of their ancestor spirits, the continuous Dreaming and their respect and care for the natural environment in which they live (Cowan, 1992a; Lawlor, 1991). The requirement is also quite difficult for some Aboriginal groups to fill due to White Australia's practice of removing Aborigines from their tribal lands to missions and settlements until the early 1970s in the erroneous belief that such practice would assimilate Aborigines into the dominant white society (Carey, 1996; Clark, 1986; Tweedie, 2001). This practice meant that many Aborigines today feel that they have lost part of themselves and their spirituality because they are now living in urban centres without the daily contact with their tribal lands (Derrington, 2000; Stockton, 1995; Tweedie, 2001). 41

There is, in the land rights debate, an important issue of 'value' of the land seen in regard to, for example, mining and grazing (Cowan, 1992a). This is the European way of valuing land, contrasted with the Aboriginal view of the land as important for the Dream Journey, as well as issues mentioned above. The Dream Journey is a highly spiritual ritual in which the Aborigines cooperate with nature and go out to worship and make contact with the spirits of the land, sometimes to sacred sites at a far distance from the settlement in which they live (Stockton, 1995). Despite the difficulties, several Aboriginal groups have in the past 25-30 years, and particularly since the Mabo and Wik court cases were heard in the High Court of Australia, successfully laid claims on tribal lands (Baldock, 2001; Brennan, 1998, 2005; Gilbert, 1996; Stockton, 1995; Tweedie, 2001). Unhindered by, for example, mining companies, these groups of Aborigines now have the opportunity to recreate their spiritual ties with their lands. In addition they need to find a balance in living in a twenty-first century community with the technology, the governing system, the welfare and the multicultural issues in Australia as a whole (Baldock, 2001; Journey, 1998; Roberts, 1997a; Tweedie, 2001). They face a difficult task, both in finding their spiritual and tribal roots, and also in rebuilding their law, which forms an important part of the continuous Dreaming (Brennan, 1998; Charlesworth, 1997). As explained earlier, the Aboriginal law was given to the Aborigines in the Dreamtime and it concern ethical, social, religious, environmental, ceremonial and ritual areas, in short all aspects of human life, including the spiritual aspect (Charlesworth, 1997; Cowan, 1992a, 1992b; Lawlor, 1991; Stockton, 1995; Tweedie, 2001). Brennan (1994, in Roberts, 1997a; 2005) says that indigenous Australians need to be convinced that they have a real choice in regard to land rights and land claims, so they can live as respected members of a distinct people within Australia. This may be a valid comment to make, but official statistics say that there are Aboriginal children who live in third world conditions in Australia, officially 'the lucky country' (Deane, 1997; Dodson, 1997; Mayo, 2001, in Tweedie, 2001). In this regard Gilbert (1996), an Aboriginal artist and poet, asks that the spirituality of the "Christ Fella" prevail, so that his message of serving may reach all those in need, and not only reach those people, including some Christian Aborigines, who sit in nice churches strumming their guitars and singing happy songs to Jesus. Gilbert (1996) wants his people to be aware that their tribal spirituality can be combined with the message of the Christ Fella. This view is also expressed by Sumner (in Tweedie, 2001). Ungunmerr (1988, in Stockton, 1995) links the concept of dadirri as contemplation and waiting with Gilbert's (1996) Christ Fella's message of peace and caring, thus combining Christian 42

spirituality with Aboriginal spirituality. Ungunmerr (in Derrington, 2000) says that the greatest gift she, as an Aborigine, can give to fellow Australians, is dadirri. She advocates that people should not feel threatened by silence, but that one should be at home in the silence of the contemplation of the land and the stories of the peoples belonging to the land. Yunupingu (1996) says that his roots as an Aborigine mean that when he dies he will be reunited with his ancestors. This makes him feel as a link that started 60 000 years ago. He further claims that Aboriginal spirituality is in the land. This is a special goodness which is also included in the rocks, the beauty of the landscape and the nature, a goodness which enables the Aborigines to breathe, live and enjoy life. Knowing about the land is passed on from parents to children through generations and often this knowledge is expressed in the songs and myths about Dreamtime. These strong spiritual ties with the land mean that the political struggle for land rights is as much a spiritual problem as it is a political problem for Australian Aborigines. Yunupingu (1996) claims that the land is now hurting from the careless treatment it gets from those who say they own the land. He mentions clearing land for grazing, mining and urban upbuilding. The Aborigines lived as guardians with the land according to their Dreamtime laws. If the European invaders could only have left the land as it was, instead of using the land just because it was there, then there would not be the environmental disasters Australia faces now (Roberts, 1990, 1997a, 1997b; Yunupingu, 1996; Tweedie, 2001). Roberts (1990) calls for the Christian church, regardless of denomination, to take a stronger stand in regard to environmental issues, and not consistently pretend that these issues are not spiritual matters. Spretnak (1986) said that green politics is a spiritual matter. This is also expressed by Yunupingu (1996, p. 10): “Everyone knows that. The Greenies will tell you that. Aboriginal People do not have to go to the Greenies - we were the original Greenies" (Yunupingu's emphasis). In regard to Aboriginal land rights, spirituality is a very important and overarching factor which guides any claims that are put on tribal lands. The guidelines for land right claims as outlined by Brennan (1998, 2005) require that there must be a spiritual and cultural link with the land in question. 2.4.3

New Age spirituality.

New Age is defined by Dawn Hill (1991) as the astrological Age of Aquarius predicted to be a Golden Age, which follows the passing Age of Pisces, the age of evolution of intellect, individuality and technology. An astrological age consists of about 2000 years in earth-time, and due to the lack of records it is not possible for modern astrologers to determine precisely 43

when the Age of Pisces actually began, nor when it finishes, and the Age of Aquarius begins. Some New Agers (this term is used by Hill [1991] to identify believers) predicted that the Age of Aquarius dawned on March 21, 2000, others claim that the date is around 2570 (Weldon & Wilson, in McRoberts, 1989). There is an overlapping period between two astrological ages of approximately 30 years each way (Hill, 1991) called a ‘cusp’, and therefore, according to the first prediction, New Age is considered to have begun to dawn in the late 1960s. Although there appear to be many texts written about New Age, like the number of books on the reading lists in Hill (1991) and Ferguson (1987), it is difficult to determine what New Age spiritual beliefs actually are even within the movement itself. Hill (1991) explains that New Age is an open book, which is still in the process of being written, because New Age is what the individual follower makes it to be. Along this line of thought, Heelas (1998) claims that there is a strong need for in-depth research regarding New Age philosophy as well as its impact on individuals and their communities. He gives specific suggestions about how to do such research with an emphasis on ethnographic participant observer methodology in, for example, week-end seminars held for those interested in New Age philosophy. McRoberts (1989) makes a comparison between New Age and Christianity, and although his viewpoint is strongly biased towards the latter, his analysis explains the philosophy of New Age quite well. The New Age world view is, according to McRoberts (1989), that the Universe is one essential, undifferentiated whole, where God is impersonal and exists in everything, and where humans are believed to have evolved to a position of supremacy above other parts of existence. Because humans have a part of God within the individual, they are considered to be primarily good. Whatever happens in history is directed by humans, not by God or a transcendent being. To find God one can choose any religion, because all religions come from the same source, namely God. When searching for the God within, the individual needs a transformation of consciousness guided by spirit guides. This will happen through many lives in reincarnation. Ultimately, through heightened consciousness in meditation humans eventually become God (McRoberts, 1989). Despite the frequent referrals to God, New Agers claim that the movement is not religious. However, there are New Age groups which have spread world wide, including in Australia Scientology, Moonies, Eckankar, est, Transcendental Meditation, and New Age Testament of Light (Carey, 1996). Some of these claim the right to be considered a religion in the sense described by Firth (1996) where a secular state gives rights to free worship of any group which is further specified as a religious group. 44

On the philosophical level New Age appears to cover a wide variety of beliefs, ranging from ancient Goddess beliefs to an incorporation of Eastern and Western mysticism (Boyd, 1994; Button and Bloom, 1992; Ferguson, 1989; Hill, 1991; McRoberts, 1989; Roland, 2000; Roof, 1994; Starhawk, 1982). There is a strong emphasis on getting to know oneself and one's spiritual strengths, and getting to know the God or the Goddess within, mainly through meditation, rituals, spiritual music and therapy (Bruce, 1998; Ferguson, 1987; Macmanaway, 2001; Suzuki & Oiwa, 1996). The most important values such as equality, showing love, kindness, respect for nature, and authenticity are comparative with those of the major religions (for example Fox, 1990; Cowan, 1992a; Rahula, 1978, Younger & Younger, 1978), and politics (for example Dorr, 1984; Spretnak, 1986; Tweedie, 2001). They correspond with the spiritual traits and characteristics referred to by for example Beck (1986), Nye and Hay (1996) and Farran et al. (1989). New Age movements also stress universal consciousness, transcending and respecting cultures differing from one’s own, ecological millennialism and occasionally feminist themes (Carey, 1996; Chatterjee, 1997; Ferguson, 1989; Roland, 2000). In his essay "Is spirituality possible without religion", Boyd (1994) says that New Age beliefs are a product of Post-modernism, which would like to see the excesses in lifestyle and the world view of the 18th century Enlightenment becoming obsolete. In contrast New Age appears to gravitate towards pre-modern rather than post-modern thinking. The New Age beliefs focus on spirituality as seen by ancient people and Eastern mysticism, such as Hindu and Buddhist religions with belief in reincarnation and finding the ultimate self/God in one’s consciousness, and are surprisingly similar to the notions of Karma and Nirvana. Carl Jung's psychology about archetypes, collective unconscious and mandalas (Jacobi, 1989, Jung, 1989) is also used by many New Agers (Ferguson, 1989). It appears that regardless of the terminology used, New Age philosophy concerns an individual's spirituality and quest to find meaning with life through 'right thinking' and 'right action'. These are also aspects of Hinduism, Taoism and Buddhism, which are some of the world's oldest religions, and therefore are not 'New Age'. Boyd (1994) warns that spirituality must not be separated from religion, and that to elevate spirituality at the expense of religion carries the danger of self-inflation. However, it is important to keep in mind the distinction between spirituality and religion as explained earlier. The New Age philosophies of God within, and that eventually the follower will become God, seem to confirm that such selfinflation could indeed take place, regardless of the philosophy of New Agers being caring, kind and considerate to fellow beings, animals or humans alike. However, New Age is not entirely a personal quest for spiritual meaning. There appears to also be a strong emphasis on 45

equality between genders, as well as an equally strong emphasis on awareness of ecological and environmental issues (Ferguson, 1987; Hill, 1991; McRoberts, 1998), similar to the Green politics discussed earlier. In Roof's (1994) study about baby boomers' search for spirituality, the author claims that several of these seekers hold the views that there is an immanent as opposed to transcendent view of God, and that there is a strong anti-institutional stance towards religion. He found, as did Bruce (1998), that those who are most inclined to be New Age believers are well educated, middle class people who are very disappointed by their traditional religions, mainly Christian or Jewish. Roof (1994) also mentions that there are several self-help books available for the New Ager which appear to be similar to the books about prayer which Kress (1998) reviewed. For a New Ager spirituality is primarily a quest to find one's inner self through meditation and awareness, as well as performing the right actions in regard to other people and the environment, i.e. a combination of ‘being’ and ‘doing’. 2.4.4

Gendered spirituality.

When considering Mathew's (1998) description of which areas of the human brain appear to be where a person's spirituality rests, i.e. primarily seen as right brain hemisphere functions, it would be reasonable to ask whether there is a gender difference in how spirituality manifests in a person's behaviour. Traditionally women are seen as caring, nurturing, submissive, emotional and depending, typically non-dominant right brain hemisphere functions, whereas men are strong, aggressive, rational and logical with these areas controlled by the dominant left brain hemisphere (Berliner, 1995; James, 1996; Mathew, 1998; Newberg & D’Aquili, 2001). In this section male and female spirituality are explored. There appears to be only limited materials available about gender spirituality from religions other than Christianity (Carr, 1986; Durka, 1989; Fox, 1990; James, 1996; Knuth, 1998) with the exception being Wilber (1997) who writes as a Buddhist psychologist. Most of the writers discussed so far have been men writing about spirituality in a global sense without discussing whether there is a gender difference in spirituality. Heron (2003) questions whether spirituality studies are really global, i.e. applicable to both men and women, because the majority was conducted by men. There are some exceptions though. In Appendix 2 some feminist theologians’ views on spirituality are explored. Carr's (1986) sees women's spirituality as a deeply personal belief which reaches into the individual woman's 46

subconscious, but which can be consciously oriented towards the social context of the everyday world. Durka (1989) looked at three female historical mystics, Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179; Hart & Bishop, 1990), Julian of Norwich (1342-1416), and Theresa of Avila (1515-1582), and through their similarities Durka claims that contemporary women also have a source of female spirituality, and that women need not rely only on male historical sources when they wish to explore their gender's spirituality. Spretnak (1986) touches on a gender specific spirituality when she claims that in Green politics there must be equality and mutual respect between the sexes. She says that men have traditionally held all positions of power, including in churches and politics, thus implying that historically women have been ignored and suppressed by men. This view is shared by Heron (2003) who states that when women have been articulate in their spirituality, men became restive and put a stop to women’s spiritual writings. However, it appears that there are very few writers who have defined a specific male spirituality. Heron (2003), James (1996) and Wilber (1997) claim that there are differences in men's and women's spiritualities. Wilber (1997) describes the development of spirituality and a person's self as generally happening in similar gender-neutral ways for both men and women. Nevertheless, Wilber says that men tend to develop through an emphasis on agency, rights, justice and autonomy, whereas women develop through communion, responsibility, relationship, care and connections. Wilber (1997) explains his theory of men's and women's spiritual development as a balance between the behavioural and biological differences, cultural influences, social upbringing, and intentional actions in areas of human behaviour. Explaining the gender differences in these four areas, Wilber (1997) claims that female spirituality involves a capacity to embrace all living beings in communion whereas male spirituality is more an agency and a 'big-picture' view. He warns that by simply possessing female communion, or having a 'big-picture' view, is not enough to make a person, male or female, a spiritual being, and then proceeds to explain his theory of spiritual development for both sexes (Wilber, 1997). Again balance is considered important as in the yin-yang symbol. Wilber's (1997) theory of spiritual development is seen in relation to the behaviour, social, cultural and intentional areas of human life. The development follows a line where initially one's ultimate concern is basic needs, for example food, then becoming pre-rational and egocentric, then going from self to group, then learning to take a more universal perspective, then becoming aware of global issues, and lastly developing an awareness of all beings, from which a transpersonal spiritual stage will begin. One writer in particular, James (1996), has studied masculine spirituality only in a Christian context. He says that it is very difficult to write about this topic because it is not accepted that 47

men have different requirements, unless specific biological issues are discussed. However, he claims that women are ahead of men in discovering their unique gender spirituality by the nature of feminist movements in recent decades. James suggests that it is time for men to find their spirituality in group therapy and retreats similar to how women have found theirs with an emphasis that such searches must be undertaken in men-only groups. James (1996) says that men need to address topics like: their understanding of God as father, their fear of the feminine, the domination by tradition-centred males in literature about theology and spiritual direction, their suppression of emotions like tenderness and love, their misunderstanding of relationships, men's need to control, the valuation of hierarchy and the fear of spontaneity. Listing masculine traits such as competitiveness, independence, linear thinking, control and order, James (1996) suggests that in the search for a masculine spirituality men need to examine carefully, how patriarchal Western society has enhanced these masculine traits and concurrently suppressed the corresponding female traits of cooperation, interdependence, creativity and spontaneity. Such dualisms were also noted by three feminist writers, Carr (1986), Durka (1989) and Edwards (1995). Durka (1986) lists some of these dualisms, for example creator/creature, humanity/nature, mind/body, reason/emotion, subject/object, life/death. Each of these dualisms has at some stage been correlated with the dualism of male/female as also observed by Fox (1990). Carr's (1986) list is specifically gender divided with male characteristics being intelligent, powerful, brave, good, strong, and the corresponding female characteristics being emotional, weak, fearful, sinful and child-like. Edwards (1995) goes back to classical Greek culture where it was first proposed that a person consists of mind and body with women being identified with body and men with mind and spirit. Because the body (the feminine) was considered inferior to the mind (the masculine), women were considered inferior to men, and thus had to be submissive (Edwards, 1995). However, it is not only female writers who criticise such division between the sexes in regard to their supposed gender characteristics. Fox (1990) lists a whole page of dualisms which are being questioned today, including creative/stifling, work/play, employable/un-employable, and clean/dirty. He then suggests that to become truly spiritual, a person must look carefully at such dualisms and consider whether it would be more compassionate towards humankind if they were changed to become partners by saying 'both-and' instead of 'either-or' (Fox, 1990). Cerminara (1967) claims that the present bi-sexual division is only a phase in the development of humanity, which will possibly become androgynous on a spiritual level, meaning that a person’s spirit was initially sex-less, and will become so again through the process of reincarnation.

48

James (1996) agrees with Fox (1990) that in a healthy masculine spirituality it is important to say 'both-and' in regard to dualisms such as those mentioned above. For this to take place the patriarchal paradigm dominant in the Western world, particularly in Christian societies, must be questioned insofar as this particular world view does not teach men to have a spiritual life (James, 1996). Men are not taught that it is acceptable to have and show feelings, including loving and worshipping a divinity. Therefore spirituality for men is usually reduced to religious practice. But often, according to James (1996), religious practice is dominated by culturally dominant male assumptions so there are no options left for men to explore their spirituality. Their worship is at a risk of consisting only of mind and body and not including their spiritual selves, i.e. excluding the spiritual core of a person as illustrated in Fig. 6 (p. 28). James (1996) claims that every human being, including men, is a unified relationship of the three dimensions of body, mind and spirit. Such unification requires that the development of the whole person is valued, for example, intellectual, social and emotional development. This view could be illustrated like the holistic model of the human being in Figure 6. Men and women alike question the patriarchal paradigm, including the religious dimension as manifest in the discussion regarding female priests. Edwards (1995) warns that in feminist spirituality women must be careful not to replace their caring and compassionate way of relating with their surroundings with traditional masculine leadership and dominance. This would mean to adopt the aggression that James (1996) says men should abandon, and thus the dominating is just done by a different group with no real advantage gained. Edwards (1995) wants everyone, male and female, to reach a level of consciousness where compassion is the important factor, and where other people are valued equally, similar to Fox's (1990) view that compassion is the only way in which spirituality can fully develop. Along this line of thought Porter (1989), Spretnak (1982) and Tuttle (1986) claim that it is a loss to spiritual teaching generally, that men and women are not represented equally in the Christian church. In the texts discussed so far it appears that men and women complement each other in a spiritual sense by some characteristics being more common among men and others more common among women. Sheldrake and Fox (1997) say men and women alike have within them the core of spirituality represented by the opposite sex, and that there is no specific gender spirituality. Christian mystics in Medieval times often used metaphors about spirituality and beliefs which are considered to be images belonging to the mystic’s opposite gender. A current age feminist writer Knuth (1998) agrees with Sheldrake and Fox (1997) that there is no such thing as gender specific spirituality, having critiqued texts dealing with supposedly male spirituality. Knuth (1998) claims that the best spirituality is that which desires to make holy love among people: to love one’s neighbour as oneself, and for this one can be male or female. 49

Gendered spirituality, then, means to embrace all the spiritual qualities of care, mutuality, cooperation, commitment, love and compassion. Men and women should incorporate the qualities of analysis and 'big-picture' views while working towards justice and equality with compassion for all human beings. Gendered spirituality also means to accept that gender specific limitations, biological and cultural, do not necessarily destroy a relationship with the chosen Supreme Being. 2.4.5

Spirituality in Phenomenology.

According to Stewart and Mickunas (1990) phenomenology refers to the process of the development of the absolute mind. They use Hegel’s (1807) definition of mind as the mind coming to self-awareness through successive stages in which all reality is accounted for, in short: all reality is mind (emphasis: Stewart & Mickunas, 1990, p. 16). Hegel (1807) explains this development as a constant dialectic interaction between two opposites where two absolute opposites are immediately posited as one and the same reality. Hegel uses (among several other illustrations) the example of God’s love vs. human suffering and the labour of the negative. He also explains that such opposites are always equal and compares this with the north and south poles of a magnet. This seems to correspond with the Taoist principle of Yin and Yang as explained in section 2.3.8. Another example is that what one person takes for high sensibility, another person may perceive as high irritability, and an irritability of the same degree (Hegel’s emphasis, Hegel, 1807, p.305). To Hegel the development of spirit ultimately ends with a complete understanding of God, being the Christian God. He elaborates his findings through detailed historical analysis of particularly Greek mythology, with some references to animalistic religions and Eastern religions, where the path to complete self-awareness goes through the cumulative knowledge in a given culture. Along this train of thought, Søren Kierkegaard (in Stewart & Mickunas, 1990, p. 68) claims that to “be a self, … means to be grounded in the power that created it, namely God. … Transcendence must be included in all human values and relationships.”

The opposite

viewpoint to these religious philosophers can be shown in Nietzsche’s (1892) atheistic belief that there are no absolute or eternal values; each individual must create his [sic] own values in relation to the tasks he sets for himself (in Stewart & Mickunas, 1990, p. 68). Nietzsche claims that man, and only man, decides what is valuable, meaningful, or true. (See also Appendix 2, section A.2.1.11: Atheists and spirituality). Fox (1990) also discusses opposites and ultimately their dialectic interaction. He advocates that a truly adult spiritual journey is to 50

move from dualisms to dialectic, i.e. accept that there must be balance between male/female; dark/light; I/you; we/they; body/soul; good/evil; be/do; management/union; sharing/keeping; win/lose; rich/poor etc. Fox (1990) invites people to think of such dualisms as “both - and” rather than “either - or”, which is generally what we, in the Western societies, are brought up to think as correct. This is also in line with the Taoist philosophy of Yin and Yang as explained in Appendix 2, section A.2.9.

In phenomenological philosophy there is a debate between faith and unbelief, theism and atheism, and thereby also a debate as to the importance and influence of a person’s spirituality in an individual’s life. Stewart and Mickunas (1990) explain that spirit is actuality, but not a substance. It is a continuously self-executing ordered structure of acts, where spirit is a unity of a person’s lived experiences, which then makes these concrete experiences. They refer to Husserl’s work (1931, in Stewart & Mickunas, 1990) where anything, of which a person is conscious, is phenomena which can be studied. This includes experiences and objects: natural objects, mathematical entities, values, affective states, volitions, moods, desires, feelings. All these are Sachen (things) of which one is aware, that is they are phenomena. In the present study the emphasis is on spirituality. Stewart and Mickunas (1990, p. 104) determine these values as the aesthetic, juridical, and epistemic values which illuminate the lower values (sensory feelings of pleasant/unpleasant) and tie humans in mental relations, educational advances and cultural creations. They claim that such spiritual values are the very bonds and fabric of society. Berdyaev (1935, p. 18) says that “the spiritual life is a historical life, for the latter is concrete in character. But the exterior reality of history is only the image of spiritual life under the conditions of time and divisibility.” A similar view is presented by the phenomenologist Schutz (1970, in Stewart & Mickunas, 1990), who claims that the social world is based on intersubjectivity between individuals in a given society. This intersubjectivity happens in a historical context by which Schutz means a Geschichte (story), which is historically based, but not necessarily in chronological order. Rather, it is history lived in the cultural structures of moral codes, economic situations, religious practices, language, art, education and philosophy, i.e. all cultural structures manifested in the imprint of cumulative knowledge from previous generations in a person. Hegel (1807, p. 405) claims that spiritual life requires the principle of individuality to give it life and movement, and in individuality finds its realisation. However, Baillie says in his translator comments to Hegel’s (1807) “Phenomenology of Mind” that no man [sic] can escape from the limitations of his own individuality, thus implying that an individual’s 51

spirituality has limitations.

Scheler (1972, in Stewart & Mickunas, 1990) claims that spirit has a dual task: a negative one in which spirit must control and restrain a person, and a positive one in which the spirit guides the impulses of the person. Spirit is an immediate co-experiencing unity of all lived experiences, thereby making it concrete and not formal. Spiritual acts are experienced as enacted. Spiritual ideas must be incorporated into a vital sphere, which comprises all functions of life, for they depend on the energy of this sphere to be realised. This is consistent with Hegel’s (1807) view that all spiritual development is a constant dialectic interaction between two opposites as discussed above.

It would appear that spirituality is a universal phenomenon found in all societies and cultures, and also in the various world religions discussed in section 2.3. “Religion and Spirituality”. The Russian phenomenologist Berdyaev (1935, p. 17) claims that “spiritual life is lived outside time, space, and matter, although it is bound to them as symbolic images of the interior divisions of spirit”. This is consistent with the claim made by Australian Mirraboopah (2002) that spirit has no time, age or colour, and with the observation made by Schutz above. Spirituality is being – not a mass of codes, habits and customs (Berdyaev, 1935). This corresponds with the observations made by Ryan and Malone (1996) on the linguistic roots of the term spiritual (see section 2.3.1), and that religion is ‘doing’.

So spirituality in phenomenology is a dialectic interaction between opposites. It cannot be contained in the form of religion, or be free from thought. It is wider than religion and encompasses a person’s whole culture and cultural history. Spirituality controls, restrains and guides a person, and is not limited to saints, ascetics and elders; rather it is part of every person.

2.4.6

Spirituality and Philosophy.

As a very broad outline, philosophy and philosophers have in the past half century dealt with many problems with language, symbolism, and communication. Renaissance philosophy worked with questions about nature, the physical world and its objects. In the Enlightenment, philosophy was about the human mind, the rise of ideas and concepts. Some philosophers looked at politics and social communication (Britannica, 1988). According to Scheibel (1995) 52

humankind has wondered about existential questions since the mist of history.

Both of the ancient world’s best known philosophers, Plato and Aristotle (400-300 BCE [Kemerling, 2001]), stated that “Philosophy begins in wonder” (Stewart & Mickunas, 1990, p. 5, and Matthews, 1980, p. 2), and there seems to be a lot to wonder about. Much later in the twentieth century, Russell (1959, in Matthews, 1980) made the claim that philosophy may not be able to answer questions. However, philosophy has the power of asking questions which increase the interests of the world and thus show the strangeness and wonder lying just beneath the surface of common daily life. From several texts in which spirituality is discussed, one of the most commonly mentioned spiritual traits is that of wonder (Carey, 2003; Myers, 1997: Nye & Hay, 1996; Siejk, 1995; Smart, 1996; Witmer & Sweeney, 1992). Wonder is also an important factor for scientists as described by Sheldrake (Sheldrake & Fox, 1997), a scientist in biology and biochemistry. He once asked his scientific colleagues why they did what they did. Their answers were that they very early had some primal moment of wonder, which made them go into science. (“Wonder” is further discussed in section 2.7.3). Closely connected to ‘wonder’ is the concept of mystery, and Stewart and Mickunas (1990, p. 79) say that mystery is closed to scientific analysis and that the appropriate response to mystery is wonder, which leads to wisdom.

Matthews (1980) writes about philosophy and the young child and teaching college students about young children’s philosophical thoughts. He claims that puzzlement and wonder are closely related and that it often takes place in everyday situations, and by children as young as 3y4m. Matthews and his students in philosophy found that young children seem to delight in questioning, and the realm of playful possibilities in everyday situations. Scheibel (1995) recommends that children have a subject in schools where philosophical topics are discussed. He warns against a teacher directed discussion with the teacher providing knowledge, but that the teacher and the students must be part of a unity where mutual respect in the discussion is important, and that everyone benefits from discussing what it means to exist. Hegel (1807) said that philosophy deals with existence in its very notion, thereby it happens every day. He further claimed that in any other science “... try as much as they like to get along by ratiocination or raisonnement without philosophy, they are unable to keep alive without it, or to have any spiritual significance and truth in them” (Hegel, 1807, p. 126 – Hegel’s emphasis). This corresponds with Sheldrake’s findings with his science colleagues mentioned above. Along this line of thought Berdyaev (1935) says that there cannot be an autonomous 53

philosophy emancipated from ‘life’. He claims that “philosophy is a function of life which knows life and sheds light upon it” (Berdyaev, 1935, p. 3). Further on he says that spirit is “being” – that spirituality and the spiritual life are immanent in man and not transcendent (p. 51) thereby corresponding with claims made earlier that spirituality is innate and part of living and breathing.

Stewart and Mickunas (1990, p. 102) explain philosophy as a spiritual process or activity, because only spirit can act, everything else is merely functions. They further claim that the very core of human personhood is the activity of philosophising and that a person is not free to philosophise or not. Each person philosophises, either consciously or through inheriting his philosophy from his tradition. This claim corresponds with the model of the human being (Figure 6 p. 28) where the core is a person’s spiritual self – the ‘core of human personhood’. They also say that a person’s spirit does not possess faculties or characteristics such as reason or vitality. A person’s spirit is a co-experiencing of all lived experiences, and cannot become intentional object for formal investigation. Along this line of thought, Berdyaev (1935) says that there is no degree in the level of a person’s spirituality that can be measured and that a person’s spirituality is a mystery.

Spirituality in philosophy is thus closely connected with everyday life. A person must philosophise, alone and together with other people, about everyday things and events in order to remain a spiritual person and continue wondering and asking questions about life in general, while at the same time accepting that spirituality is a mystery that is nonquantifiable.

2.4.7

Spirituality, Consciousness and Soul.

In addition to the psychological concept of consciousness discussed earlier in section 2.1.3, there is also a philosophical aspect to consciousness. If indeed a person consciously philosophises or wonders about everyday experiences, then the concept of consciousness is an important aspect in spirituality. Stewart and Mickunas (1990) say that ‘consciousness’ is never experienced as a thing, but that it is an activity, and that the active role of consciousness is a necessary condition for the unity of all experience. Hegel (1807) claims that there are two opposites of consciousness: an active and a passive consciousness. They are only opposed to each other at the surface and are in fact in balance with each other. This 54

balanced consciousness observes what happens around the individual and this is the reality for that person, even when this might initially be thoughts only. Such thoughts may also concern spiritual conditions. Stewart and Mickunas (1990) distinguish between reflective and pre-reflective consciousness and give an example of counting: that when counting, a person is first aware of the objects being counted. If one makes a mistake, then the attention is directed towards the action of counting. However, a person does not deliberately refocus the attention, which indicates that in the individual, the active and passive consciousness is in a dialectic interaction within that person.

Helminiak (1984, p. 213) lists seven types of consciousness: 1) unconsciousness, 2) internal knowledge, 3) awareness of anything, 4) awareness of feelings, thought and volition, 5) totality of impressions, thoughts and feelings, 6) normal waking stage, and 7) double consciousness. He sets these types of consciousness into an evolutionary framework of their historical usage (psychoanalyses, behaviourism, phenomenology, religious, and transpersonal psychology), and their essential aspects (reflective and non-reflective), and arrives at human consciousness. Helminiak (1984, p. 226) claims that consciousness is subjectivity itself, and that “consciousness or spirit as immediate presence to oneself is an insightful and useful concept”. It appears that Helminiak in this last remark equates consciousness and spirit.

Moore (1992) states that in our spirituality we reach for consciousness and awareness and the highest values. But to do that in the best possible manner, it is necessary that people utilise both parts of the brain. Fox (1990, p. 87) illustrates these brain areas in a list with two columns: the left lobe being the active, Yang, logical thinking, mechanistic part; and the right lobe being passive, Yin, feelings, and organic. Both columns have several more dualisms listed. Again it seems that everything in a person‘s life must be in balance as in the Yin and Yang concept explained earlier. Newberg and D’Aquili (1998) also look at left/right brain functions, and like Mathew (1998, section 2.1.3) they found that brain activity is more active in the right lobe of the brain when a person experiences something of spiritual character like seeing beauty or listening to gentle music.

Stewart and Mickunas (1990, p. 65) state that “the body is man’s [sic] basic mode of being in the world” and further on page 66 they say that “there is an intimate connection between consciousness and the body”. This could be disputed in Buddhist philosophy. According to Buddhist philosophy it is better for a man to take his physical body as the ‘self’ rather than 55

mind, thought or consciousness, because the body seems to be more solid than the latter (Rahula, 1978). Considering the constantly changing combination of elements and aggregates in Buddhism (Table 1, p. 54), a person’s body does look like the more permanent self, rather than the person’s consciousness.

When looking at a person’s soul, Moore (1992) claims that soul is more concerned with relatedness than intellectual understanding, and that soul is always in process, which ties in quite well with the Buddhist philosophy about consciousness constantly changing. In regard to what the soul is, Crick (1994) describes, in detail, research about visual awareness. He equates awareness and consciousness, and claims that once people fully understand the visual awareness system, then the more fascinating aspects of “soul” will be easier to study. Crick’s (1994) hypothesis about ‘soul’ is that the language of the brain is based on neurons, and that it is possible eventually to determine exactly what ‘soul’ is. In his introduction to the text about visual research, he states that there is in the Western world a belief that ‘soul’ is a metaphor, but that one should try and imagine that “whatever he [Crick] may say, Mabel, I know I’m in there [in the brain] somewhere, looking out on the world” (Crick, 1994, p. 7).

In a fable recited by Seaward (1997, p. 173), the Gods had finished creating the heavens and all creatures on earth. They then focused on the creation of humanity and discussed where to put the soul. One God asked, “Where shall we put the spirit?” A second God replied “We cannot put it in the depths of the ocean, because they will build a craft and find it.” A third God said “We cannot put it in the heavens above, because they will build a craft and find it there as well.” The first God said: “We will put in within the heart of each person, because they will never think to look there.” The Gods all agreed. (Maybe this is why some texts about spirituality have the word ‘heart’ in them, for example The Heart of Learning. Spirituality in Education; by Glazer, [1999], Spirituality. The Heart of Nursing, by Ronaldson, [1997]).

Moore (1992) states that a person’s soul provides a strong sense of individuality, but that the soul is not a person’s ego. Rather, it is the infinite depth of the person’s identity and a part of the soul of the world: Anima Mundi (Moore, 1992, p. 268), i.e. the person’s culture, history and cumulative knowledge, similar to the thoughts by Berdyaev (1935) discussed in section 2.4.5 above. Jung (1963) says that consciousness began its evolution from an animal-like stage which he explains as being the unconscious, similar to the physical evolution of 56

mankind. No-one is from birth a tabula rasa (= a blank slate), but is equipped with an innate ability to use all human instincts and higher functions, the person’s Anima Mundi (Jung, 1963, p. 237). Moore (1992) further claims that soul is always in a speculative mode, watching the discovery of truth, while knowing that subjectivity and imagination are always at play. He says there are several forms of spirituality, which are all important when allowing for a healthy soul to develop. If spirituality loses contact with soul and the person’s cumulative knowledge and culture, then spirituality becomes rigid, simplistic, authoritarian and moralistic (Moore, 1992). He states that the “problem is never spirituality in itself, which is absolutely necessary for human life, but the narrow fundamentalism that arises when spirituality and soul are split apart” (Moore, 1992, p. 240). He also states that the wellbeing of a person’s soul is dependent on relationship among people. He uses the child rhyme of making a church with one’s hands to illustrate that everyone has an inner multiplicity of the soul: “Here’s the church and here’s the steeple. Open the door, and here are all the people” (p. 240).

Spirituality in regard to soul and consciousness is then the dialectic interaction between these factors: soul and consciousness. Each is necessary and there must be balance between them. Soul and consciousness are interconnected and cannot be separated in a person’s spirituality, just like Yin and Yang cannot be separated. Likewise, a person’s spirituality cannot be separated from the culture and cumulative knowledge in which that person lives.

Ultimately in philosophy, and also in the present study of young children’s spirituality, it is essential to acknowledge one’s own ignorance ie. docta ignorantia (a doctrine of ignorance): “it is essential to have great humility and a greater consciousness of the limitations of our own nature, without extending them to human nature in general” (Berdyaev, 1935, p. 13-14).

2.5

NURSING AND SPIRITUALITY.

In addition to disciplines already discussed, for example psychology, religion and philosophy, nursing is a discipline in which spirituality is also beginning to be seen as being important. There is strong emphasis in looking at patient care in a holistic manner (Becvar, 1998; Burkhardt, 1989; Fina, 1995; Lancaster, 1997), including the spiritual dimension. Religion and spirituality are used interchangeably in several texts (Bambery, 1997; Charnes & Moore, 1992; Fina, 1995), with Bush (1997) commenting that nursing professionals are 57

beginning to recognise a difference in the two concepts. Some authors look at the benefits for patient and health professionals alike in nurturing a healthy belief and spirituality (Sulmasy, 1997). Sloan, Bagiella and Powell (1999) question the research methods and findings of studies saying that religious belief and spirituality are beneficial to patient health. Only one text (Fina, 1995) deals with children and this is most often in relation to their parents’ beliefs and religion. All other texts deal with adult spirituality, mostly from a Judeo-Christian or a humanist perspective. In the following, spirituality will be looked at in general nursing and in relation to death and dying.

2.5.1

Spirituality in general nursing.

Burkhardt (1989) laments the fact that there is a lack of consistent and clear understanding of what spirituality is in the nursing profession. She offers three descriptive characteristics of spirituality: Inner strength, Unfolding mystery, and Harmonious Interconnectedness to self, others, divinity or higher power, and the environment. There is also a list of characteristics of the spiritual person (Appendix 2, 7). Bush (1997) explains spirituality as the need to find meaning, purpose and fulfilment in life, the need for hope, a will to live, and the need for belief and faith in self, others and God. However, the majority of texts reviewed seem to take spirituality as a given concept without any attempt to define what it is. Sloan et al. (1999) criticise this very point in their review of studies dealing with the beneficial factor of religion and spirituality in patient health and recovery after illness. They state that the varieties of studies conducted define these concepts differently. They call for a better definition of the terms so that future studies in the area can have an equal starting point and thus give a more convincing argument that religious belief and spirituality are good for the general health and recovery of patients. However, Newberg and D’Aquili (2001) claim that men and women from mainstream faith backgrounds generally live longer, have fewer strokes, less heart disease, better immune system function, and lower blood pressure than the population at large. Newberg and D’Aquili (2001) also state that mental health is generally better for a believer in a faith tradition, contradictory to the theories that Sigmund Freud put forward about religious beliefs (Wollheim, 1971).

Newberg and D’Aquili (2001) suggest that these generally better health outcomes in religious patients could be due to religious communities frowning upon promiscuous sex, drugs, alcohol abuse, and other risky indulgencies, and by encouraging a lifestyle of moderation and 58

stability. They conclude that any behaviour that consistently lets a person meditate and let go of stressful situation will have a similar effect on a person’s health and wellbeing. Witmer and Sweeney (1992) have looked at a person as part of society claiming that a person has five life tasks: spirituality, self-regulation, work, friendship and love which are influenced by life forces such as family, religion, education, community, media and government. When all these tasks and life forces work together harmoniously, the person has optimum health. It is the task of the health professional to understand these dynamics in order to provide holistic care and counselling for a patient or client.

Becvar (1998) claims that part of a nurse’s role is to facilitate harmony and balance for the patient. This is also stated by Crow (2000) and Sulmasy (1997) as being an important role for the physician and the rest of the health care team. They give examples of how to achieve harmony and balance for the patient even through the suffering and pain of the patient. Sulmasy (1997) warns health care professionals (meaning physicians, nurses, therapists and others) not to get into a power role in relation to the patient, because of one’s knowledge in a given field. He is aware of the draining effect on the professional in looking after patients and advocates that the professional, in order to give the best possible care to the patients, also takes care of personal spirituality, i.e. taking care of the “Wounded Healer” (Sulmasy, 1997, p. 109). Burkhardt (1989) maintains that to deal effectively with a patient’s spiritual needs, the nurse must invest portions of self. To do this in the best possible way for both nurse and patient, the nurse must seek to live in healing ways with self and others, to have a balance in one’s life. Cummings (1999) calls this to ‘preserve own integrity’ and gives ideas on how nurses can maintain effective functioning in difficult care situations with seriously ill patients. Cummings (1999) stresses the importance of developing strategies of coping with work-related grief and finding meaning in the work of caring for dying patients.

Sulmasy (1997), Sosa (2000) and Lancaster (1997) all claim that touch is important in the spiritual care of both mentally ill and physically ill patients with Lancaster giving the warning that for some patients touch may be unwelcome. Simpson (1999) explains the concept of Therapeutic Touch (TT) which, she claims, can be done by anyone willing to learn the techniques involved. She emphasises that TT is not a cure, but an attempt to assist a patient’s natural healing ability. TT increases the patient’s ability to relax, reduces anxiety and changes the perception of pain. There is some religious connotation to touch and the laying on of hands, but TT is not a religious concept, with Simpson (1999) claiming that the 59

beneficial outcomes are due to the intent of the healer to help and meet the needs of the patient. Thereby TT could be seen as a spiritual path because it has connections with the healer’s meaning and purpose.

Lancaster (1997) emphasises that it is important to listen to the patient. She says that by giving one’s full attention to the patient, the nurse is providing spiritual care. Sulmasy (1997) advocates that silence from the health professional, with appropriate body language showing that one listens, can be very helpful for a patient trying to verbalise thoughts and doubts. He also says that there are times when the honest “I don’t know” answer is the best way to help a patient, provided that the health professional tells the patient that he or she will attempt to find an answer if at all possible. Sharp (1996), as a chaplain, says that the listener must avoid suggesting solutions. The most important thing is to hear out the patient even when this might make oneself uncomfortable. He suggests asking the question “What is this like for you” (Sharp, 1996, p.111) and then taking the time and compassion to listen to the answer, both from the patient, but also from within oneself. He also suggests that partners in any relationship should listen to one-another and discuss what they should do in preparing for the inevitable separation when one partner dies.

2.5.2

Spirituality in death, dying and grief.

Carroll (2000) claims that Western society does not deal with death very well. She questions the obsession with attempting to cure diseases as if death could be prevented and asks what one would do at the age of 150 years or at 250 years. She says that Americans think death is optional. When looking at documentaries about medical research, one could be tempted to think that death could in fact be made obsolete through such research! The sub-title of Carroll’s (2000, p. 59) essay is: ”Life is a gift – don’t question its length”. This philosophical statement is an underlying message in many of the texts discussed in this section. Another message relates to it in a young child, who has had a Near-Death-Experience, telling the interviewer that “You will see. Heaven is fun” (Morse, 2002). Ørskov (1998) describes a program put in place by Kræftens Bekæmpelse (a Danish cancer research organisation) in which schools are taught strategies whereby children’s loss and grief can be met by staff at the schools. Ørskov (1998) writes that often it is adults who have the greatest problems in dealing with death and grief, and that children have a natural and inherent ability to grieve and share grief with others. 60

Nicholas and Lister (1999) work as art therapists with childhood leukemia patients. They describe how young children can show their feelings in paintings and drawings where they are unable to express these verbally. They also describe how their work affects themselves as people and emphasise that it is important to deal with the philosophical issue of mortality. Mortality is equally important to adults, as they grow older, but particularly to health care professionals in their daily work. Nicholas and Lister (1999) are particularly aware of the effect that the death of a child has on workers who have children themselves and praise the efforts these workers show together in dealing with such losses – their work-related grief.

Bertman (1999) stresses that grief is not a pathological but a life-cycle event for both the patient and the care giver or therapist. Each must discover meaning and not having it imposed upon in relation to grief. She says that grief is crazy-making. It feels like a psychosis is implosive, explosive, arbitrary, unjust, but basic to humans just like love and joy. Along this line of thought Lazare (1999) claims that everyone will experience suffering as part of being human. He stresses the importance of showing compassion, generosity, giving and receiving forgiveness, while offering and accepting apologies to alleviate suffering. Sulmasy (1997) says that suffering is an ineluctable part of being human. He states that the physician can treat pain and disease, but cannot treat suffering other than showing compassion. This is very much in line with the Buddhist concept of dukkha which is the suffering of impermanence (Rahula, 1978) meaning that life in itself is impermanent. There are several theories of the grief process, which are well documented by Kübler-Ross (1969), Sherebrin (1999), Lamers (1999) and Pastan (1999).

Lancaster (1997) discusses how nurses can be of assistance to a dying patient. She recommends that nursing staff, in providing holistic care, should also be prepared to share life experiences with the patient. Whilst being aware of the professional demands of the physical care of the patient, the nurse may also be given, by the patient, the privilege to be chosen as a listening ear. However, nurses meet grief and loss regularly in their work when a terminally ill patient dies. This can be a difficult situation to face as the anonymous author of the poem “Hello David” (Anon. 1999, 369-370) says when nursing a wounded soldier in Vietnam: “I will stay with you and I will hold your hand. I will stay with you and watch your life flow through my fingers into my soul. I will stay with you until you stay with me. Goodbye, David – my name is Dusty. I am the last person you will see. I am the last person 61

you will touch. I am the last person who will love you. So long, David – my name is Dusty. David – who will give me something for my pain?” Perhaps the anonymous poet could find an answer with Sharp (1996, p. 162) who suggests that to avoid burnout the carer focuses on “what am I learning about myself and human nature”, when working with seriously ill patients whilst at the same time providing care and compassion.

Lancaster (1997) emphasises that nurses are not expected to fill the duties of a trained minister, but are required to assist patients to access one if needed. Fina (1995) explains this requirement in detail in her work as a surgical liaison nurse at a large paediatric hospital. Fina seems to concentrate on the spiritual and religious needs of the children’s parents. She describes the procedures at the paediatric hospital in regard to the emergency baptism and circumcision of infants. She claims that sometimes the reality of the seriousness of a child’s illness may not fully register with parents until the matter of baptism has been brought up, even when surgeons and other medical staff have already explained the risks involved. Fina (1995) recommends that a chaplain is called on early in a child’s stay in hospital so that parents have the opportunity to voice fears, concerns and lay the groundwork for future support, both for parent and child. She gives some case study examples of how nursing staff can help alleviate spiritual distress, claiming that any variation from what a patient (and parents) can expect can provoke such discomfort.

Allen (1982) claims that spiritual development is often accelerated in dying children, giving the example of a young child comforting her mother saying that God would now care for her. Another child at three years of age was fully aware that she was dying. She said that she was going to heaven with Jesus that night. Sutherland (1995; 1997) gives several examples of this kind of spiritual knowledge in children and their parents about the impending death of a child. Some of her examples are similar to Fina’s (1995) and Allen’s (1982) descriptions of spiritual distress for parents, where the dying child was able to comfort the parents. Coles (1992) claims that everyone, including children, when facing death, displays a spiritual inwardness which Coles says is inexplicable. His study concentrates on children aged 8-12 years, whereas Sutherland’s (1995; 1997) studies include babies and young children. Buchholz (1997) looks at the effect that death of a twin has on siblings. She gives examples of twins where one twin had died soon after birth, and others where one twin was stillborn. The living children were never told about them being twins. They seemed to always be searching for someone and only after being told that their twin had died did they stop 62

searching. Buchholz claims that children have a form of conscious self prior to birth, which could explain the distress of the living child when the twin couldn’t be found anywhere. Once aware of the fact that their twin had died, the living child was able to understand the situation. Lamers (1999) stresses that children should be involved in the care of a dying parent or sibling where possible. Through such involvement they will be able to cope better when the inevitable death happens.

Bush (1997) looks at the importance of hope for the dying patient. He says that when a patient gives up hope and the will to live, there is nothing nursing staff can do even if the illness may not be terminal. Along this train of thought, Witmer and Sweeney (1992) say that spiritual and religious beliefs are intertwined with optimism. Hope can concentrate on thinking of the best possible outcome of a situation. Myers (1997) states that hope is the assured sense that one can transcend the present situation and keep us going without despair. The nurse’s task is to assist the patient in regaining hope by being there, by listening, by holding a hand, by showing compassion (Sulmasy, 1997). Bambery (1997) calls for nursing staff also to show a similar compassion to the relatives of a dying patient using her own, to a certain degree unpleasant, experiences as an example for how relatives should not be treated.

Spirituality in nursing shows empathy with the patient, be there and listen, show the last love like the anonymous nurse to the dying soldier (Anon, 1999), and show compassion whilst acknowledging the patient’s and relatives’ feelings of hope. The nurse must remember to care for personal spirituality as well, so that one does not burn out in the course of daily work.

2.6 SPIRITUALITY IN NEAR-DEATH-EXPERIENCES AND REINCARNATION.

When looking at death and dying two distinct areas emerge as very important in relation to spirituality: those of Near-Death-Experiences and Reincarnation. Each of these areas is under the scrutiny of research as to their relevance and reliability by Stevenson (1997, in Williams, 2003e) and Sutherland (1995; 1997). In the following these areas will be discussed with the major emphasis on beliefs outside institutionalised religion.

63

2.6.1

Spirituality in Near-Death-Experiences.

Near-Death-Experiences (NDE) have been recorded for millennia (see for example Moody, 1978; Plato, 427-347 B.C.E.; [in Lee, 1982]; Rinpoche, 1992). Contemporary experiences seem to become more common which could be explained by the more advanced resuscitation technology now available (Badham, 2000, in BBC News, 4/2/2000).

NDE are most

commonly described as an experience of the person (=the NDEer) leaving the physical body and watching the surroundings. The descriptions of what happened at the moment of death are always very accurate in regard to details, for example medical staff and other people present, resuscitation technique/s used, what people wear and say at the time, or two coins lying on the flat top of a tall cupboard out of sight from floor level. After this the person goes through a tunnel towards a light. This passage could be faster or slower, sometimes the person is carried by a being who is described as caring and loving. When reaching the light there is usually a person or a group welcoming the newcomer. Most often these people are known to the NDEer as previously deceased family members, but sometimes their identity is worked out later, particularly where the NDEer is a very young child. The people may take the NDEer to the light source, or it may come to them. The light source is always described as incredibly loving and compassionate. Depending on the cultural background of the NDEer, the light source is described as God, Jesus, Buddha, or Mohamed with Williams (2003j) claiming that religious dogma means nothing on the other side. The NDEer may view past life and the significance of various episodes. There may be a call from ‘the other side’ to come back, or the NDEer may be asked whether they wish to go back. Following this decision, the NDEer returns to the physical body, often with a long period of illness and recuperation to follow (Atwater, 2003, in Williams 2003b; BBC News, 2000; Cosic, 2000; Lee, 1987; Moody, 1978; Rinpoche, 1992; Sutherland, 1995; 1997; Williams, 2003m). Williams (2003a) says that NDEers who are atheists have experiences similar to those who have a spiritual belief prior to the NDE, but sometimes with a period of sleep or a period with unpleasant beings prior to meeting the source of light (Montgomery, in Williams, 2003a). Although this sounds unpleasant, the majority of all NDEers report the NDE as a pleasant experience. Sometimes there is a sense of regret that one returns to mundane earthly life with Roland (2000) telling of a doctor who often has had to help patients accept that they must die. Rarely did he have to get someone to accept life with these patients being those with an NDE. The most common response from the NDEer is that the person has become aware of the futility in pursuing material goods. Rather, the NDEer most often begins a lifestyle of serving 64

others in helping professions, or in voluntary organisations, or in a quest of communicating spiritual knowledge to other people. They all view life from a different perspective. The result of an NDE is usually that the person involved will seek to live a more fulfilling life than prior to the experience. The person will seek spiritual experiences, often outside institutionalised religion, which is now seen as rigid and impersonal. They are more loving and compassionate and they question the dogmas of institutionalised religion knowing that in the afterlife the most important thing is that one has shown love towards other people, regardless of cultural or religious background (Moody, 1978; Morse, 2000; Rinpoche, 1992; Roland, 2000; Sutherland, 1995; Williams, 2003a,b,d,i,j,m). Some are reluctant to talk about their experiences having been met with ridicule and incredulity from peers and family when they have done so (Sutherland, 1995). This is most often the case in NDEers who had the NDE as children. They very often learned to keep their experience and the knowledge gained from it to themselves as their stories were either ridiculed or dismissed as plain imagination.

Newberg and D’Aquili (2001) suggest that NDE takes place in that part of the brain which they call OAA (Orientation Association Area), having localised this area during their research about the biology of belief. This area, when receiving electrical stimulation, triggers visual memory images, which are then remembered. This suggestion implies that the brain is dying and the neurotransmitters are shutting down. Ritchie (2003) questions this theory due to NDEers having almost identical experiences and their heightened spiritual awareness upon return. NDEers refute that their experiences are the result of hallucinations – because how can so many people possibly have the same kind of hallucinations considering the vast differences in backgrounds? Ritchie (2003) and Williams (2003f) also compare experiments with hallucination drugs and NDE and conclude that the drug-induced experiences are often confused, fearful and paranoid, whereas the vast majority of NDE are positive. Most NDEs take place at a time where ECG results show a straight line with no brain function at all in the NDEer, thus indicating that there are no electrical impulses to even show that the neurotransmitters are closing down. Among other NDE theories, Ritchie (2003) also explains Darwin’s Theory, Temporal Lobe Theory, and Memory of Birth Theory. He concludes that it is up to the sceptics to prove that NDEs do not happen, saying that just because something cannot be adequately measured it does not mean that it does not exist. It appears that such research is taking place with O hAnluain (2002) reporting that two British scientists were seeking research grants to undertake scientific studies of NDEs. There seems to be no studies

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reported where patients’ NDE show any effect on health care professionals other than the desire for some to study NDE in general.

2.6.2

Spirituality and Re-incarnation outside religious beliefs.

The concept of reincarnation is that a person’s soul or spirit is born again in the life of another person (Cerminara, 1967; Roland, 2000; Shroder, 2001; Sutherland, 1995; Williams, 2003h) or maybe in an animal (Plato, in Lee, 1987). Some texts refer to reincarnation as the karmic belief as illustrated in section 2.3.6 on Hinduism, but without any reference to Hindu holy texts (Butterworth, 1966, in Williams, 2003.l).

Rinpoche (1992) refers to a Gallup poll saying that nearly one in four Americans believe in reincarnation. This is consistent with Roof’s (1994) findings with 28% of baby boomers believing in reincarnation. Bruce (1995) claims that the New Age belief in reincarnation asserts the individual’s importance of “me”, and that through reincarnation the “I” will either get a reward for previous lives, or a chance to have a better life without being subordinate to God. He argues against this belief from a Christian viewpoint, saying that there is no reincarnation belief in Christianity.

This is disputed by Williams (2003k; 2003l), who concedes that although the Christian church today does not officially have a belief in reincarnation, this was not always so. The findings of the Nag Hammadi texts in Egypt in 1945 (Giversen, 2000), and the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947 (Davies, 1956; Eisenman, 1996) as well as references to biblical texts show that reincarnation was a strong belief in Judaism and early Christianity (Randrup & Bagchi 2006; Teekamp, 1999; Williams2003k,l). Williams uses the early Christian texts to argue that reincarnation was indeed part of the general beliefs of the time, and that it should be part of Christian dogma still.

Rinpoche (1992) has met people who say that because they have no recollection of previous lives, the concept of reincarnation of the soul does not exist. However, Plato (in Lee 1987) explains the reason behind the apparent lack of remembering past lives through the experiences of the soldier Er in his NDE. Er was shown the afterlife following a battle in which he was mortally wounded. Having seen the Heavens and what happens to the souls there: choosing which body to return to in the next life, he was then taken to the Forgetful 66

River. The fellow souls drank from this river, but Er was forbidden to drink from it so that he could tell people on earth about the afterlife. The conclusion is that it is not safe for a person to remember past lives, but that one should believe that the soul is immortal, capable of enduring evil and good, and always pursue justice with wisdom. Williams (2003g) explains that the lack of memory about a pre-birth existence is a way for the soul to rediscover how to return to God. People need to remember that they are spirits in union with God. The forgotten memory of pre-birth experiences is also important, as it would be most unpleasant to know about a previous life by being for example Adolf Hitler according to Williams (2003g).

However, there is a growing body of documented evidence about people who report that they remember past lives with Cerminara (1967), Rinpoche (1992), Shroder (2001), Stevenson (1997, in Williams, 2003e) and Cayce (1990, in Books on Christian Reincarnation, 2003) giving several examples, which they have verified as being correct through independent sources. Williams (2003g) says that there is evidence that memories of past lives appear in young children born in Western societies where reincarnation is seen as an alien concept. These children are often told that their memories are imaginary, and thus not encouraged to tell other people about their experiences. Although Western thought owes a lot to Greek thinking (Lee, 1987; Williams, 2003k) with the belief in an afterlife and the return of souls to the earth, the dominance of the Christian church prevails with the official disbelief in reincarnation. The gnostic church (Britannica, 1988; Nag Hammadi, in Giversen, 2000; Origen, 183-253 C.E. in Williams, 2003k) show very strong teachings about reincarnation, but this was made a heretic belief by the Church of Rome in 543 C.E. (Britannica, 1988). In the spirit world time does not exist, which can be an explanation to NDEs apparently taking several days before the soul’s return to the physical body, and it also explains why there can be long time spans between a person’s lives (Barnum, 1996; Brennan, 1992; Cerminara, 1967; Williams, 2003h). An example of such a long time span is given by Rinpoche (1992), who tells of an English man in the 1900s who claimed to have lived the life of a soldier in the ancient city of Petra in Jordan. BBC flew him to Jordan and with archaeologists he was able to give information which the archaeologists were yet to find out, about the diggings in Petra. Many of the examples given by Cerminara (1967) also refer to reincarnation of people from ancient cultures being born into the twentieth century.

The reincarnation of the soul is an opportunity for a person to learn about the eternal lessons of love and wisdom. Williams (2003h) compares reincarnation of the soul as the soul’s 67

opportunity to advance, in what could be called a school of life, to the ultimate existence with God through instruction in spiritual growth. This instruction is most commonly achieved though the teachings of institutionalised religion as described earlier, through meditation and through prayer. Steiner (1970) seems to be the only author who deals with the instruction of the reincarnate soul in children, although he advocates that there should only be foundational teaching taking place during childhood. Only in adolescence is the soul ready to fully develop on the basis of earlier teachings.

Several researchers are studying the concept of reincarnation with Stevenson (1997, in Williams, 2003e) seemingly having some of the most convincing arguments that reincarnation does take place. He looks at birthmarks on people who claim that they have been reincarnated. The birthmarks correspond with the fatal wounds that the previous person received, and most have been confirmed through autopsy reports and the recognition of family and friends by the person claiming to be reincarnated. Shroder (2001) describes trips he has been on with Stevenson in the field talking with people who have been reincarnated, particularly children. Many of these children claim to be someone else and often to the distress of their biological parents who most often are totally unaware of the previous life of their child. In some instances the reborn soul is that of a person of the opposite sex, thus creating identity problems for the living person (Stevenson, in Williams, 2003h).

Much research is still needed in regard to reincarnation. Brennan (1992) explains two distinct areas of reincarnation research: that of establishing the fact of reincarnation such as Stevenson’s (in Shroder, 2001) and that of using the unconscious to give evidence about reincarnation through hypnosis for healing of psychiatric problems (Woolger, 1987, in Brennan, 1992). Both areas are continually being studied and their impact on spirituality in general in the Western world is yet to be determined.

Spirituality seems to be of the highest importance in NDE and reincarnation with each described as highly spiritual experiences. Both areas emphasise the need to be loving and compassionate towards fellow human beings, to search for truth within oneself and to be less inclined to acquire material goods. This search can be a religious one, but this is not a requirement. In fact, most NDEers leave their institutionalised religion/s because they are seen as too rigid for true spiritual development.

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2.7

EDUCATION AND SPIRITUALITY.

2.7.0

Why education is a major discipline dealing with spirituality.

The last major discipline discussed in this literature review, in which spirituality can be seen as an important aspect, is in education. The focus is on the research of spirituality in schools, and how spirituality in a Western society like Australia is taught in religious schools, mainstream schools, including Montessori and Waldorf (i.e. Steiner) schools, and Sunday schools as offered by many denominational Christian churches. According to the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) it is very clear that children have a right to spiritual development (Crompton, 1998; Gearon, 2006; Giesenberg, 1996; Ozdowski, 2002; Schweitzer, 2005; Taylor, 2000). Teachers and other adults may not be aware of children's innate spirituality as illustrated in Figure 6, (p 28). There may be an understanding of children's search for meaning that children are capable of understanding much more than generally believed if taking conventional child developmental theories into consideration, and that imagination and wonder are some of the most important spiritual traits that the child possesses. However, for mainstream Australian schools there appears to be only little material available about the aspect of spirituality in schools. The emphasis is on religious education as defined by various belief systems, and the impact of (or lack of) teaching values in Australian schools (AusStats, 2002; B. Hill 1991; Nolan, 1992) now a Federal Government priority (ABC TV, 2006, 2007). In order to determine what significance spirituality may have in education generally it is therefore necessary to look at studies from countries with a similar cultural and religious fabric to Australia's, mainly UK and USA. 2.7.1

Spirituality in educational research.

Best (1996) briefly describes the history, particularly in secondary schools, of the requirement that ‘moral and spiritual development’ (OFSTED, in Best, 1996, p. 3) must be judged in British schools. He questions what moral and spiritual development might mean, and suggests that the Office for Standards in Education was itself not clear about that requirement and what the required standard should be for spiritual and moral development. Best questions the historical assumption in the British schooling system that spiritual and moral issues appear to be best discussed and lead by the RE department in a school. He also questions that to some people spiritual and moral development appear to be inseparable. Best 69

(1996, p. 3) claims that to be able to educate the ‘whole’ child a teacher needs to know about all areas of the child’s development, and that the area of spiritual development is often considered to be a religious or dogmatic issue. He then leads his discussion into a description of how the text Education, Spirituality and the Whole Child (Best, 1996) is organised with papers on research, theory and education in regard to children’s spirituality (some children were as young as 4-5 years old in British schools) from a conference held in London in 1994. In the concluding pages, Best (1996, p. 344) asks for a common ground for schools to “reconcile different faith positions in order to adopt a planned, rational and effective wholeschool policy on spiritual development”. He calls for a schooling system where the development of the ‘whole’ child is taken into consideration, and uses great educators like Froebel, Pestalozzi, Rousseau, A.S. Neill, and John Holt as examples of visionaries who saw the importance of educating the ‘whole’ child. Taggart (2001) also looks at spirituality as an aspect of a holistic education. He looks at the philosophies of John Dewey (1859-1952) and George Hegel (1770-1831) and says that for educators to provide a spiritual education to students, they need to have a social vision and an artistic soul. Dowling (2005) says that spirituality is about the development of a sense of identity, self-worth, meaning and purpose and about the development of a child’s spirit. She gives examples of how teachers of young children can enhance these areas in young children’s spirituality (these examples are further discussed in section 2.7.2). At the same time Dowling (2005) warns adults not to emphasise too much on consumerism for young children with toys and other possessions, not to push formal education too early, rather allow young children to develop their abilities through play, and not to rush young children into a premature adulthood with make-up, jewellery and sexually provocative clothes. Nye and Hay (1996, p. 145), who, at that time, both worked on the Children's Spirituality Project at Nottingham University, maintain that spirituality research "is in the unenviable position of needing to make a start without having a clear starting point". In this standpoint they appear to agree with Best (1996). Nye and Hay (1996) propose a set of three interrelated themes of spiritual sensitivity: awareness, mystery and value sensing, where there are subcategories of spiritual traits or characteristics such as 'flow', 'awe & wonder', 'imagination', 'meaning' and 'ultimate goodness'. This list of traits is similar to those charted in Appendix 1. Nye and Hay (1996) believe that children have an innate spiritual capacity, which takes different and changing forms in a child's life as other capacities develop. This corresponds with Montessori's (1949) metaphor of a 'spiritual embryo' which constantly develops, with Steiner's (1965; 1988) belief that the spirit of a person finds a human body in which to live prior to birth and then develops according to the environment the child grows up in, and with the claim by Chandler et al. (1992) that spirituality is innate in people before birth. This belief 70

in an innate spirituality interacting with a person's developmental domains is illustrated in the holistic model of a human being in Figure 6, (p. 28). Nye and Hay (1996), Kibble (1996), Dowling (2005) and Newby (1996) suggest ways in which spiritual development can be addressed in educational settings. In their view spirituality is a developmental domain that should be encouraged and approached in a variety of ways and not only in religious education classes. Nye and Hay (1996) set some conceptual boundaries about the term 'spirituality', and how to introduce spirituality into an educational setting, as is required by law in English schools (Dowling, 2005; Taylor, 2000). Nye and Hay (1996) say that spirituality is not entirely a religious issue, but an area of development that must be included as a cross-curricular item, comparing it to mental development occurring in other areas than just mathematics. They suggest that spiritual education could help children investigate their identity and meaning making not only in a cognitive sense. Nye and Hay (1996) suggest that the spiritual trait of wonder changes and matures as a child grows in cognitive knowledge. For example the turn of a tap to produce water may cause a very young child to wonder, whereas an older child (and an adult) may wonder about the vastness of the universe. Coles (1990) also saw that all areas of their existence influence children’s spiritual lives, including in schools. His text about children's spirituality is based on data he had gathered from children in USA (including Alaska and Hawaii), South Africa, Middle East, Europe and South America. He had originally discussed and talked with individual children and groups of children about moral, political and religious issues over several years. Prompted by Anna Freud and Erik Erikson (Coles, 1990; Yancey, 2001), he went through his collection of data obtained from Jewish, Christian, and Islamic children, as well as from children from secular backgrounds, and noted any conversations about spirituality. He visited children in their homes, in their schools and went on trips with them thus indicating that talking about spiritual matters can occur anywhere. This appears to be in line with Nye and Hay (1996) above. Coles (1990) mentions one child who described Jesus as a teacher and how this child felt teaching should occur: like Jesus did, only these days he would use technology and science like computers and transport to reach more people than he did in Palestine walking around and talking to and with people. The children's ages were 8-13 years in Coles' (1990) study, and their understanding of spirituality appears to be significant. Coles does not attempt to define developmental aspects of children's spirituality. He describes various areas such as children's understanding of God; their spirituality seen from psychological, philosophical and visionary viewpoints; salvation; righteousness; soul-searching, and the child as pilgrim. One parent in Giesenberg's (1996, p. 136) study described children's questioning about God and 71

spiritual matters as 'soul searching at an early age'. This soul searching can take place in any setting at any time, and therefore also in the school. Another text dealing with children's spirituality in a school setting is Myers (1997). Where Coles (1990) describes the phenomenon of spirituality, Myers (1997) suggests how adults can nurture a child's spirituality in mainstream nursery schools particularly in the United States. She places spirituality in that which is described by Vygotsky (1978) as the 'zone of proximal development', ZPD. Adults are responsible for monitoring what a child can and cannot do. Through regular rituals guided by adults the child experiences transcendence and further learning in new situations in the child's community. This ties in very well with Belzen’s (2004) and Carr’s (1986) claim that the development of spirituality is part of a person's culture. Myers (1997) is aware that spirituality is often discussed using religious language such as the "S" words: "soul, spirit, sacred and sin", and that it is not acceptable practice in a mainstream setting where the religious is separate from the secular. However, the mainstream school, both in Australia and the United States, is often part of a child's cultural setting, and some children do not have access to a religious setting. By placing spirituality as part of the ZPD, Myers (1997) implies that spirituality is a constantly developing concept, similar to Gobbell's (1980) view that a person's spirituality is constantly changing, and the Buddhist view that a person’s aggregates and elements are constantly changing (Table A.2.1 in Appendix 2). It also ties in with Wolf's (1996) view that a teacher is a significant adult assisting children in shaping their own spirituality, with Carson (1956) advocating that adults should wonder together with the child using nature walks and weather phenomena as ways of wondering together. Froebel (1900) looked at spirituality from a Christian perspective. He incorporated his belief into the philosophy of a Kindergarten, where young children are placed in an environment suited for young children, and given support and the freedom to develop individually, so that they will then become healthy adults who can contribute to society in a meaningful way. Froebel (1900) advocated that no-one should say that children will not understand about the spiritual aspect of life, because that would be to deprive them of their greatest good. He further said that religion is not something fixed, but it is an ever-present tendency to progress towards spiritual unity with God, which includes young children’s ways of expressing themselves. Such expressions take place in everything children do: play, helping adults in their work, wonder about their world, observing nature, being creative and inquisitive. Montagu (1989) believes that children’s needs are directed towards satisfaction and fulfilment in a supporting environment. This includes basic physical needs like shelter, food, rest, activity and so on, and behavioural needs like love, friendship, wonder, creativity, 72

joyfulness and more (Appendix 1). He describes all these needs as being neotenous (i.e. present during foetal life) thereby linking with Montessori’s (1955) view that people are born with a spiritual embryo. Hay (1985), Robinson (1977), and Hay and Heald (1990) describe and discuss religious and spiritual experiences from data gathered from over 5000 adult people in Britain. Some of these experiences were similar to the children's experiences described by Coles (1990) in the US and Israel and by Grønbæk (1962) in Denmark. Many of these experiences were from people who reported incidences (80%) where they felt a spiritual or transcendent presence (Hay & Heald, 1990). The majority of people refrained from talking about their experiences because they feared that they might be seen as crazy, and about half never or seldom go to church. People who have had NDEs as described in section 2.6.2 mirror this fear. In the text the authors say that considering the relatively common occurrence of such experiences, spirituality should be part of teaching in schools, regardless of what may be considered acceptable in a mainstream setting such as indicated by Myers (1997). Hay (1985) argues that because science is taught using direct experiences, so spirituality should also draw on the experiences of children in the class. Hay is very aware of a 'cultural taboo' in regard to discussing spiritual matters in mainstream settings. He compares teaching spirituality to children in the school setting with the enhancement of self-esteem and teaching of moral values which should happen in schools in a humanistic education.1 Hay (1985) suggests that the use of 'guided imagery' could be a useful way of getting children to think of their spirituality. He also suggests that in teaching about spirituality there will be children in the class who know from their own experiences what the teacher is talking about, particularly in the younger grades. This is consistent with Tamminen's (1991) Finnish study, in which he found that the youngest children (6-7 years) in the longitudinal study (1974-1986) reported transcendent and spiritual experiences more often than did the older children. So maybe the younger children do have more spiritual experiences than do older children and adults. Maybe their 'spiritual embryo' (Montessori, 1949) is still fairly intact in its earliest form, and the children are capable of explaining their spiritual experiences without feeling too inhibited by Western cultural taboos, which dictate that one does not discuss beliefs and religion (Hay, 1985; Johnson, 1986; Montagu, 1989; Myers, 1997). Champagne (2004) conducted a study about young children’s spirituality in which sixty children from three daycare centres were observed. She found that there are three spiritual 1

Spencer (1870) uses the exact same argument for more moral education in schools: that because science is taught, so should morals be taught in schools. It appears that change happens slowly in the education system! 73

modes of being: the sensitive, the relational and the existential mode of being. She claims that spirituality is a basic dimension of children’s being with affection, forgiveness, sympathy, symbols and imagination forming important parts of these modes of being. Champagne (2004) concludes that spirituality inhabits the being and is expressed through the being. She suggests that, by rediscovering childhood spiritual liveliness, adults can come closer to God’s mystery. In education then, it appears that there is no specific definition of spirituality as discussed in earlier sections of this literature review. The writers of the texts discussed in this section seem to assume that spirituality exists, and that it must be nurtured, cared for and educated by adults working with children. In contrast, Champagne’s (2004) article states that adults should learn from children to rediscover childhood spiritual liveliness. The assumption that spirituality exists could be compared with Edelman's (1992) and Hegel’s (1807) claims about consciousness: it just exists. The questions now arise: How does a teacher enhance children’s spirituality? What can teachers do in mainstream settings? 2.7.2

Teaching Strategies.

When a teacher decides to use any technique to enhance students’ spirituality, it is important to examine personal bias. Sheldrake (1999) claims that all experience is determined to a degree by surrounding culture. Following this train of thought, Markham (1999) says that everyone is tradition-constituted, and therefore one cannot be neutral. Dillard, Abdur-Rashid and Tyson (2000, p. 448) claim that “post-hegemonic research … is a revealer of things past hidden … [including] the oft silenced spiritual voice’. These authors are all cognisant that everyone has hidden biases and that by being aware of these, one can draw strength from one’s culture, tradition and research background. Markham (1999) warns against watering down one’s spiritual beliefs to make them fit every belief system in the classroom, such as Erricker and Erricker (1999) recommend. A teacher must keep in mind the warning that spirituality is different from dharma is different from dukkha is different from dreaming (see Appendix 2, section A.2.3). Siejk (1996) states that teachers often choose to play it safe by operating outside one’s biases, or to avoid cultural and religious taboos (Erricker & Erricker, 1999; Hay, 1985; Johnson, 1986; Lawton, 2003; Myers, 1997). Principe (1983) states that if something is open to question, it is better to acknowledge that fact than pretending it does not exist. Jones (1994) strongly advocates examining one’s biases, as they are intrinsic to one’s professional activities, a view shared by Strauss (1987) and Lawton (2003). Strauss 74

recommends using one’s experiences critically, as there could be potential gold there. So, by being aware of personal biases in regard to spiritual beliefs and practices, one is in a strong position from which one can guide children in their spiritual development. Fraser and Grootenboer (2004) agree with this view and say that in New Zealand schools teachers need to develop both personal conceptual and pedagogical knowledge about spirituality for them to address spirituality in their programs. They further explain the Maori concept of well-being or hauora which comprises of four elements: the physical, the mental and emotional, the social and the spiritual. All four aspects are necessary for strength and symmetry and there are reciprocal influences between each one. Perhaps this can be compared with the model of the human as set out in Figure 6, (p 28), although this model leaves out the social aspect by looking only at the individual. These elements are included in the concept of New Zealand’s early childhood curriculum Te Whariki which is discussed in detail in Appendix 3, A.3.9. In regard to the 'guided imagery' technique when teaching children to be aware of their own spirituality, Raban (1990) gives practical ideas about how to use the technique. She uses Jung's (Fordham, 1953, in Raban, 1990, p. 219) term 'transcendent function' about imagery, which ties in well with the notion of spirituality as a trait where a feeling of a transcendent being is present (Elkins et al., 1988). The Australian Aboriginal Dreamtime tradition described in Appendix 2 (A.2.9) is a form of guided imagery where the spiritual teaching of the Aboriginal culture is embedded in children from an early age. Raban (1990) recommends using the rich story material in various religions’ traditions as the basis for the teaching of spirituality through guided imagery. She describes how she uses the technique by telling a story to the children while they are seated/lying comfortably around the classroom. At the conclusion of the story she gently brings the children back to the setting, where they then do a creative activity such as painting, drawing or writing about the images they had while thinking about the story. While the children work independently, the teacher has an opportunity to discuss individual children's work and note the thoughts and feelings the exercise may have provoked in the child. Rew (1989) recommends a similar guided imagery technique for teachers of student nurses to enhance their intuition and awareness of patients’ needs. Raban (1990) emphasises that it is important for a teacher to evaluate the technique prior to using it: it may be uncomfortable for the teacher personally, and then the teacher should refrain from applying the technique in the classroom. The use of stories is also strongly recommended by Fraser and Grootenboer (2004), Taggart (2001), Dowling (2005) and Lawton (2003) who all say that in using any inspirational story, or for Lawton (2003) particularly the religious stories in a person’s religious culture, children are exposed to the examples of how spirituality can be cultivated in regular classrooms.

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Stories can be used in other ways in the education and development of children’s spirituality such as is the case in Waldorf schools. Steiner (1970a; 1970b; 1988) recommends the use of stories in education. His reason for using stories is that middle childhood children learn best by using their imagination, thus developing their souls and spirits, and therefore storytelling must be used in all curriculum areas (Barnes, 1991; Schwartz, 1996; Steiner, 1970a; 1970b; 1988). See 2.7.5 for more information about Waldorf or Steiner Schools. In the book Nurturing the Spirit in Non-Sectarian Classrooms Wolf (1996) gives several ideas on how to enhance spiritual development in the mainstream classroom using the Montessori philosophy (see 2.7.4) as the underlying base. Ideas include stories, games, symbolism and many other techniques to help children appreciate stillness, wonder, simplicity, peace, compassion and care. Wolf also advocates telling parents that spiritual education is important. Nurturing the spirit includes the experience of silence and reflection, a reverence for nature, an appreciation of the interconnectedness of all things, and the cultivation of peacefulness, compassion, generosity and love. In this she echoes Carson (1956) who recommended that adults take time to show children nature, even at unusual times like the moon light over the ocean at midnight. McLeod (2007) tells about a conference where the Dalai Lama spoke about Educating the Heart. The basic message is to educate a society, and thereby also children, in showing compassion and tolerance towards everyone, not just those close to oneself or those with similar views. If a person is full of anger and hatred towards others (ie feeding the evil wolf, quote p. ii) that person cannot reason. The Dalai Lama explained that tolerance is a sign of strength. Combined with compassion it can ultimately result in respect and concern for others. McLeod (2007) gives examples on various teaching programs with mother/baby dyads visiting schools teaching students how to bond with a very young child and how this bonding assisted bullies in stopping the actions. King (1985) also suggests practical ways of teaching spirituality in the classroom. However, she first defines spirituality at three different levels. First, spirituality is the lived reality of a person, a way in which a person lives and understands the world in the religious, historic, and ethical sense. It is the fulfilment of the ideal the person is seeking. Second, spirituality is the recorded ideas of philosophies and religions, which provide insight and guidance for people. Third, spirituality is the scholarly studies of the first two levels, which look at spirituality across all areas of people's lives (King, 1985). Having reflected on these three levels, King then says that in the global area the United Nations needs to also work for the spiritual wellbeing of people as well as working for global physical and mental wellbeing. This is in 76

part addressed in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989, Article 27,3), where it is stressed that children have a right to spiritual development (Crompton, 1998; Gearon, 2006; Giesenberg, 1996; Taylor, 2000). Giesenberg (1996) gives suggestions on how a mainstream teacher can nurture spiritual growth in young children across the curriculum by remembering that a person is a whole being involving mind, body and spirit. This view is further illustrated in Figure 6, (p. 28). Oman and Thoresen (2003) suggest that people need role models in all areas of development, including the development of one’s spirituality. They elaborate on the social cognitive theory based on observational learning developed by Bandura (1986, in Oman & Thoresen, 2003) with attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. They claim that by adhering to such a learning theory, teachers can teach students important spiritual skills. However, teachers (and parents) of young children need to also be aware of enhancing and developing their own spirituality so that they have the necessary personal resources to enhance the spirituality of the children in their care (Catalfo, 1997; Eyre, 1999; Muscari, 2006). King (1985) appears to have written one of the earliest texts advocating that spiritual awareness should be fostered across the curriculum. This view was discussed earlier when Nye and Hay's (1996) text was reviewed, and King (1985) also gives practical suggestions about how to address spirituality in the school. Among these are encouraging children to question themselves, for example 'Who am I?' 'Who do I relate to?' and 'How do I relate to others?' The children should, among a list of other ideas, have opportunities for quiet reflection where they can practice inner listening. This could well link with Raban's (1990) and Hay's (1985) 'guided imagery'. Dowling (2005) and Muscari (2006) also recommend that children should be allowed to have quiet moments and places where they can contemplate and reflect about the world in which they live. Further ideas include that children should be encouraged to explore the nature of human fulfilment, personal wholeness and integration, to cultivate a sense of exploration, adventure and quest, and to develop a sense of wonder as suggested by Latham (1996) and Siejk (1995). The New South Wales Curriculum Framework for Children’s Services: The Practice of Relationships (2000) requires that children attending early childhood settings have access to beautiful things – music, language, dance, song, poetry, painting and craft – and to have provisions for moments of peace and quiet. The framework sees spirituality as a reverence for life and the appreciation of beauty in nature and in creative endeavours. The authors see children as having an innate sense of awe and appreciation of the surrounding world and that adults must support further development of these characteristics. Zohar and Marshall (2000) claim that the wondering questions very young children ask adults like “Who am I?” “Why was I born?” “Where do I come from?” 77

“Where does the world come from?” and “Why do people behave as they do?” are deep spiritual questions which show young children’s spiritual intelligence as described by Zohar and Marshall (2000). 2.7.3

Wonder as a spiritual characteristic.

Proffitt (1998) says that the human spirit needs wonder in order to appreciate the surrounding world. She defines wonder as a need to find out: ‘curiosity’; or as a noun: ‘wonders of the world’; and why things are as they are, e.g. why robins’ eggs are blue and not purple or pink. Proffitt claims that educators should pay closer attention to the concept of wonder in order to educate the inner person of the child. Through wonder a person delights in finding out things, and the human spirit needs delight according to Proffitt (1998). Siejk (1995) explores the importance of wonder in spirituality. She claims that people's questions will not go away, regardless of the knowledge one may acquire. Siejk appears to use the term religious knowledge as other authors use spiritual knowledge, a phenomenon also observed by Zinnbauer et al. (1997) and Genia (1995) referred to earlier. In regard to religious knowledge Siejk (1995) says that no group should claim absolute possession of religious knowledge, thus agreeing with Kinerk's (1985) view that it is impossible to exhaust and express the total reality of religious experience. Siejk (1995) states that stimulating wonder is the work of all educators, including the religious educator. It is important to stimulate wonder and questioning, so one’s own and others’ biases can be examined, so values can be refined and ideas and biases can be evaluated, as suggested by Jones (1994) above. Religious educators should encourage believers to discover, understand and decide for themselves, thereby setting conditions for dialogue between religions. In this dialogue it is important to listen to oneanother, and not act on biases which people often don't acknowledge (Appendix A.2.). It appears that Siejk (1995) believes that wonder in a religious (spiritual?) sense is restricted to religious education, thus disagreeing with Nye and Hay (1996), Beck (1986, 1990) and Dillard, Abdur-Rashid and Tyson (2000), who see wonder (and other spiritual traits) in all areas across a curriculum. Wonder, as described by Beck (1986, 1990), Carson (1956), Elkins et al. (1988), King (1985), and Siejk (1995), appears to be one of the most frequently recurring spiritual characteristics that is noticed by educators, theologians, religious leaders and psychotherapists alike (Appendix 1). In the Australian context Latham (1996) recommends that teachers foster and preserve wonderment in children, saying that the ability to wonder assists a child in understanding and coping with their place in the world. She is certain that wonder is like a muscle that must be used constantly in order to remain healthy. Adults, however, 78

often halt a child's natural questioning and wonder by giving simplistic answers to their queries, and by failing to listen to children's stories when they wonder about their world. Steiner (1965) strongly suggests that adults should use language that is beyond the children's own language development, because children understand more than they are able to express themselves, a view also held by Donaldson (1982). Latham (1996) referring to Gardner (1993, in Latham, 1996, p. 13) says that young children have, before the age of four, formed theories and are delighted to tell these through the use of stories. This ability of using stories is described in depth by Engel (1995) in her theory about the development of self through storytelling (Appendix 4, 1; Appendix A.3.1). Children's stories and their sense of wonder are often eliminated by the time they are nine according to Anya, who is six years old and is quoted by Latham (1996, p. 14) saying: "I think around age nine your imagination goes. Adults don't seem to use it as much as children. So when you're around nine and teachers don't ask for it anymore, it just jumps outside your body and goes. It just turns out the light and goes to sleep". Raban's (1990) 'guided imagery' technique may well be a way to awaken the sleeping imagination and the wondering for the school aged child, whereas the meditation techniques recommended by Buddha may help the adult (Rahula, 1978). In Waldorf (i.e. Steiner) schools children's imagination is not allowed to 'go to sleep'. The imagination is consistently utilised through storytelling across the curriculum in the middle childhood years (Barnes, 1991; Dowling, 2005). Latham (1996) suggests various ways in which a teacher can further keep the imagination awake and alive: 1) believe in children as responsible and eager learners, 2) value children's beliefs and ideas, 3) create a wonder filled environment, 4) expose children to new and varied experiences, 5) the teacher must him- or herself have a sense of wonder and see oneself as a life long learner, 6) allow sufficient time for exploration, discovery and reflection. These recommendations are ideas that in most classrooms should be used across a curriculum, and therefore tie in well with Dowling’s (2005), Fraser and Grootenboer’s (2004), King's (1985), Myers' (1997), Nye and Hay's (1996), and Wolf’s (1996) ideas of encouraging spiritual development in all learning and teaching areas in schools. Brian Hill (1990), like Latham (1996), writes from an Australian background. His specific interest is the secondary school and teacher training, whereas Latham's (1996) is early childhood. Hill (1990) defines spirituality as a part of human beings making meaning within their web of concepts. He refrains from listing characteristics of spirituality like Beck (1985) does, because there are many ways to describe what happens within the individual, and in the grey areas where people do not agree there are too many reasons to dispute details (Hill, 1990). He describes individuals as pieces of the human continent where curiosity, wonder, 79

fear and faith are spontaneous reactions to the world, particularly for young children, but also for many adults. Steiner (1913; 1988) says that a person's soul is a drop from the ocean of God where the soul must be nourished using a child's way of learning through imitation, imagination and activity. Ultimately people search for significance, and this is because humans are homo religiosus who have a capacity for transcendence (Hill, 1990). Homo religiosus is the term Erikson (1958, in Wulff, 1991, p. 384) used about the rare individual who manages to reach a level of integrity unsurpassed by fellow human beings, be this a result of wisdom coming with age, or through a crisis. According to Erikson only people like Martin Luther and Mahatma Ghandi reached such levels. Hill (1990) further believes that people have an extraordinary level of transcendence from birth, and that the marks of the spirit are present from birth. This connects well with Chandler et al.'s (1992), Montessori's (1936, 1949), Nye and Hay's (1996) and Steiner's (1913; 1965; 1970a; 1988) beliefs that spirituality is an innate part of human life. This is also consistent with Tamminen's (1991) finding that younger children have more religious and spiritual experiences than do older children and adults. It is also consistent with Montagu’s (1989) view that spiritual characteristics are neotenous in the child. Hill (1990) suggests that new knowledge should be presented to students so it encourages growth of self-confidence, critical reasoning, empathy, informed decision-making, so it allows for personal reflection, enjoyment and wonder. So wonder is again mentioned in regard to spirituality. Hill (1990) states that children may be nearer to understanding religious realities than most of their elders.

He refers to Goldman's (1964) study of religious thinking in childhood and

adolescence, where Goldman claims that children up to the age of 9 years are pre-religious and thus incapable of understanding many religious concepts. Hill (1990) suggests that anyone believing Goldman's (1964) claim should visit classes in other subjects than religion and remind themselves of how much children are actually capable of understanding (p. 19). Giesenberg's (1996) study clearly shows that even very young children understand much more than Goldman (1964) claims they do. Hill quotes Wright (1957, in Hill, 1990, p. 20): "Children growing up close to a [sic] nature are perfectly good plums. Send them to school and you get perfectly good prunes... What are we turning out with all our magnificent equipment? Slums of the soul" and Hill states that it is the adults' job to clean up that slum. So there appears to be an underlying tone of warning in the texts reviewed here. As stated in the introduction to this section (2.7), it is considered important that teachers and other adults are made aware of 1) children's central spirituality as illustrated in Figure 6 (p. 28); 2) children's search for meaning; 3) their capability to understand much more than generally believed; 4) and that imagination and wonder are some of the most important spiritual 80

characteristics that the child possesses. If adults ignore this warning, children may well end up as 'good prunes' that have no imagination and wonder left. The warning is similar to Genia's (1995) warning that religious people and groups pretending to possess infallible knowledge about faith thwart the spiritual development of other people. In conclusion Hill (1990) states that the innate spirituality requires social stimulation to be fully realised and that it takes years to become fully developed. This is easily compared with Montessori's (1949) prerequisites needed for the spiritual embryo to develop, and Steiner's (1965) claim that a child's spirit needs a supportive environment and freedom to develop during sensitive periods as described in detail in the coming sections (2.7.4 and 2.7.5). Wonder and imagination are in this section seen as the most important spiritual characteristics a child possesses. They must be nourished and developed by caring adults in a suitable environment for children, and some of the most appropriate techniques for this development to take place are storytelling and honest answers to children's questions. 2.7.4

Spirituality in a Montessori educational setting.

Maria Montessori (1870-1952) was born in Italy and became the first woman to graduate from Rome's university as a medical doctor in 1894 (Shephard, 1996; Standing, 1957). She observed and taught young children carefully over several years and used the metaphor that everyone is born with a 'spiritual embryo' that develops and grows similarly to the physiological embryo (Montessori, 1992). The closest definition of spirituality in Montessori's (1949, 1955, 1964, 1992) writings is that it is nebulae which have the power to develop spontaneously with the physical embryo, and it appears that spirituality is innate in a person. Montessori came to this conclusion by using her observations of children, her qualifications as a medical doctor and her knowledge in the area of embryology: that the brain nerve centres for directing an organ are formed before the actual organ and the connecting nerves are formed (1992). Her claim in regard to a spiritual embryo is that a person's spiritual sphere is formed before a person is consciously aware of spiritual matters (Montessori, 1949, 1992; Lillard, 1973). Montessori describes the spiritual growth in children in detail along with her unique pedagogical techniques of enhancing the development of children's overall psychical and physical growth (Montessori, 1949; 1964). With some modifications these techniques are used extensively in Montessori schools throughout the world today (Chattin-McNichols, 1992; Kramer, 1988; O'Donnell, 1996; Shephard, 1996; Wolf, 1996). Maria Montessori uses the term 'spiritual embryo' frequently in her writings (Montessori, 81

1949, 1964, 1992; Cavaletti, 1983; Lillard, 1973; Standing, 1957). She compares it to the human physiological embryo where the two embryos together have the potential to develop into a complete human being provided that two conditions are met. One is a dependent relationship with the environment, including both people and things, and the other is freedom to develop within this environment using self-correcting materials. One might ask whether there are more kinds of embryos in a person when considering the claim in Buddhist thinking that a person has several kinds of consciousnesses (Table 1, p. 54). Montessori (1949) observed sensitive periods in a child's life where certain aspects of spiritual development can take place. If a child for some reason cannot follow a given sensitive period, then the opportunity for a natural acquisition of that spiritual aspect is lost, which Montessori claims will result in a disturbing effect in psychic development and maturity. She uses the comparison of an old woman with failing eyesight knitting a sock and losing stitches. The sock will become a sock, but not a strong and perfect garment. So it is with a person. The child will become an adult, but if sensitive periods have been missed, then he or she will not be as strong and healthy psychologically as would otherwise have been the case (Montessori, in Standing, 1957). Montessori (1955) identified several principles of natural laws governing a child's psychic growth. One of these principles is work: the constant activity that the young child engages in when working with material provided, playing, moving, and interacting with the environment and other people in social situations. Elkind (1988), in his book The Hurried Child. Growing Up Too Fast Too Soon, criticises the work principles in Montessori’s philosophy and claims that it is contributing to the tendency of hurrying children along to become adults to soon before they are able to manage the demands of adulthood. Other principles are the power of will, the development of imagination and creativity, as well as the need to be independent, the development of intelligence, and the power of attention to things unknown and the concentration required to consolidate and develop the child's own personality. The psychic principles are seen by Montessori to be inborn powers that develop through the child's interaction with the environment. Her observations of young children showed that children have a remarkable power of attention and concentration which appear almost as a form of meditation (Shephard, 1996). They also have "a considerable autonomy and independence of judgment and an expectant faith that remains open to truth and reality" (Lillard, 1973, p. 45). In the area of spiritual and emotional development Montessori found that a child must be assisted by caring adults in developing a capacity for love and moral sense (Cavaletti, 1983; Kramer, 1988; Seldin, 1998; Standing, 1956; Wolf, 1996). However, there appears to be no definition of spirituality in Montessori's (1936, 1949, 1955, 1964) texts, only very definite assertions that spirituality exist in the young child. The closest definition of the 'spiritual embryo' may be that she explains it as 82

"nebulae which have the power to develop spontaneously [with the physical embryo]..., but only at the expense of the environment - an environment rich in greatly different forms of civilisation. That is why the human embryo must be born before completing itself and why it can reach further development only after birth." (Montessori's emphasis, Montessori, 1955, p. 60). This coincides with Steiner's (1965; 1988) view that a child's spirit can only develop well if the right support is available in the environment at the right times (see Table 1 below). Considering Montessori's (1992) philosophy that everyone is born with a 'spiritual embryo' it seems logical to explore how spirituality is viewed in a Montessori school setting. Wolf (1996) writes as a Montessori trained educator and says that spirituality can be found in each person and in the universe surrounding people. It cannot be perceived by physical senses or proven by intellectual powers. It calls people to 'a sense of awe and wonder characterised by a reverence for the earth and all its creatures and a desire to live in harmony with all of nature' (Wolf, 1996, p. 10). Wolf then explains that spirituality is the way people are, but it is different from religion, which is what people do according to their religion's recorded ideas. This claim could be compared with Benner's (1992) 'being' and 'doing', and King's (1985) 'lived reality' discussed in Appendix 2. Wolf (1996, p. 14-15) suggests that the most common virtue of the world's six major religions is to 'do to others what you would have them do to you' (NIV 1985, Matthew, 7,12). She then lists the parallel sayings from Buddhism: "Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful" (Udana-Varga 5,18); Hinduism: "Do not unto others what would cause you pain if done to you" (Mahaoharata 5, 1517); Judaism: "What is hateful to you, do not do to others" (Talmud, Shabbat 3 id); Taoism: "Regard your neighbor's gain as your own gain and your neighbor's loss as your own loss" (Tai Shang Kan Ying p'ien); and Islam: "No one of you is a believer until he desires for his brother that which he desires for himself" (Sunnah) (Wolf, 1996). In these six quotations Wolf (1996) sees the base for the spiritual characteristics of love, compassion, forgiveness, honesty, truthfulness, and kindness. This list mentions many of Beck's (1985) traits, and also Fox's (1990) emphasis on compassion. In the Montessori school environment Wolf (1996) states that schools must explain to parents their philosophy regarding spirituality, and how caring for and nurturing the child's spirit are accomplished in that particular setting. Wolf's book concerns the nurture of the spirit in a regular classroom program based on Montessori's ideas. She claims that there generally is too little emphasis and acknowledgment of the spiritual aspects so important to Montessori and often mentioned in her writings. Many of the ideas of stimulating spiritual development in the 83

Montessori school in Wolf's texts are similar to those of Hay (1985), Hill (1990), King (1985), Latham (1996), Myers (1997), Proffitt (1998) and Taggart (2001) for the mainstream schools. Wolf (1996) recommends quiet areas and times for contemplation, using art as a means of communication (compare Raban's, 1990, 'guided imagery'), encouraging wonder, and argues that teachers must also be aware of their own spirituality in order to guide children in the development of their spiritual potential. Spirituality in the Montessori philosophy is regarded as an innate part of every human being. It must be nurtured and cared for. It manifests in everything a person does if the right stimulation has taken place at the corresponding sensitive period. 2.7.5

Spirituality in Steiner schools.

The Austrian born Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925) had interests in literature, medicine, philosophy, physics, religion and art and was the editor of the collected works of Goethe during 1889-1896 (Britannica, 1988; Carroll, 1998). He developed the philosophy of anthroposophy, which he explains is the science of spirituality (Morehead, 1999; Steiner, 1913, 1965, 1970a, 1970b, 1988). A person is born with a reincarnated spirit considered to be a drop of water from the ocean of God which finds a human body to dwell in (Steiner, 1988). Using the specific anthroposophic terms of the physical body, the etheric body (a person's conscience), the astral body (a person's sentient body) and the Ego (a person's self), Steiner developed an educational philosophy where each of these parts of a person is developed at the correspondingly appropriate times. Through education, meditation and well balanced environmental influences a person will reach the ultimate conscience and then be ready for the next incarnation (Steiner, 1913, 1965, 1970a, 1970b, 1988). The specific pedagogical guidelines were the basis on which Steiner (1970a; Barnes, 1991) started the first Waldorf school in Stuttgart, Germany at the Waldorf-Astoria cigarette factory in 1919. The guidelines are used in more than 500 Waldorf or Steiner schools throughout Europe, USA, Canada and Australia today (Barnes, 1991; Carroll, 1998). Anthroposophy is a philosophy based on the idea that the human intellect has the ability to contact spiritual worlds. Originally humanity had participated in the spiritual world through a dreamlike consciousness, which now is available to people through spiritual perception (Britannica, 1988). Explained in Steiner's (1924, in Anthroposophy, 1998) own words "anthroposophy is a path of knowledge which guides the spiritual in the human being to the spiritual in the universe". The dreamlike consciousness of these ancestors existed as the higher triad of Atma, Buddhi, and Mana (Steiner, 1913; 1988). During the Lemurian Age the 84

triad combined with the four lower principles of human nature: the physical, the etheric, the astral bodies, and the Ego to form human beings. These spirit ancestors lived in a country between India and Australia in primeval times (Steiner, 1913, p.13). This could perhaps be compared with the Australian Aboriginal Dreamtime. Table 1 (p. 87) shows the relationships between the specific types of bodies and spirits. The elements of a human being are developed through an educational philosophy that corresponds with the anthroposophic philosophy. For example, it is not considered appropriate to start the education of the etheric body until a child has begun changing teeth at around 6-7 years of age when the physical body is ready (Steiner, 1965). Steiner (1913; 1965; 1988) believes that everybody has an immortal soul or spirit, which is reincarnated similar to the Hindu beliefs of Karma (Carroll, 1998, Steiner, 1988, Section 2.3.6). The soul is reborn in a physical form, and develops best through good care and education based on principles according to the science of spirituality, which is anthroposophy. Steiner (1988) claims that anyone, who is interested in the mysteries of the spirit, must observe the young child. The quiet child is considered to have a body that restricts the spirit, whereas the active child's body has an interactive spirit. This contrast is due to the spirit being used to a pre-earthly consciousness prepared according to the spirit's Karma and according to the result of previous lives. So when a spirit has to descend to earth, it must choose a body with hereditary conditions coming from previous generations where it will then live its next life on earth. Steiner (1970a) claims that the spirit is given to a child before birth when it unites itself to the physical embryo. This might be similar to Montessori's 'spiritual embryo' and there is a parallel to the Australian Aboriginal beliefs in spirit children, which look for a kind mother, or a strong father (Lawlor, 1991; Mountford, 1981) as discussed earlier. Further to the teaching about the spiritual triad and the fourfold earthly bodies, Steiner (1913; 1965; 1988) believes that human beings consist of spirit, soul and body (Barnes, 1991).

The educational principles important in Waldorf schools are centred around the appropriate times where a child is considered to be able to understand various concepts (Barnes, 1991; Carrol, 1998; Mollet, 1991; Steiner, 1965; 1970a; 1970b; 1988). The consistent warning in Steiner's own texts is that the educator must be aware of not doing damage to the child's spirit, because this is the child's soul, the part of the individual which will live on in reincarnation. The etheric and astral bodies are innate in the physical body, (Table 1) but the 85

actual development of each has the correct time when each is ready through the influence of the ego (Steiner, 1965; 1970a; 1988).

The first educational period is early childhood, which according to Steiner (1965; 1970a; 1970b; 1988) lasts till around the child's 7th year when the change of teeth occurs. During this period the best way a child learns is through imitation and example. Using an example of a child witnessing an adult argument, Steiner (1965) warns that the child receives lasting damage to the soul, because he or she will perceive that this is the way to solve problems, and will then imitate the behaviour. Rather, the child's teachers and parents should at all times show, through examples, stories, music, art activities, song and dance correct inappropriate conduct towards the way they would prefer the child to behave. Toys are to be of a kind which will enhance the child's imagination, i.e. not bought dolls and cars, but rather materials with which the child can create whatever items are needed to imitate behaviour (Astley and Jackson, 2000; Barnes, 1991; Steiner, 1965; 1970a; 1970b; 1988). This emphasis on teaching by example is similar to the social modelling approach outlined earlier based on Bandura’s social learning theory (Oman and Thoresen, 2003).

At the beginning of middle childhood (6-7 years) the child's etheric body is ready to be further developed, as it has now formed the necessary basis by the child's observations and imitations in early childhood (Steiner, 1965). This is similar to the physical body being ready to develop further at the time of birth (Table 1). The strongest medium for learning during this period of a child's life is the use of imagination (Astley and Jackson, 2000; Barnes, 1991; Mollet, 1991; Steiner, 1965; 1970a; 1970b; 1988). The teacher's task is to transform everything the child needs to know into a language of imitation using the wealth of stories, myths and legends available to the teacher from any source (Astley and Jackson, 2000; Barnes, 1991; Steiner, 1988). Barnes (1991) claims that all curriculum areas can be taught through the use of stories, and Mollet (1991) gives a specific example of teaching fractions to a grade 4 class using the story telling method. The use of art, dance, drama, stories, gardening and practical handicrafts are considered to be appropriate methods to use during the period where the etheric body is developing. Winters (2001) criticises what she calls a ‘gnomeculture’ in Waldorf kindergartens. The gnomes are used to illustrate many points during the day: emotions and reactions, to diffuse children’s questions about difficult topics, and occasionally become threatening. Winters claims that imagination can be used against reality and that sometimes children are not treated very well at all in a ‘gnome culture’. 86

Different types of body.

Three births.

Composition:

Characteristics:

Transformed to:

Physical Body

Physical birth. Formed in womb, protected by mother.

Matter. Shared with matter, plants, animals.

Grows with adequate nourishment according to biological rules.

Spiritual Man. 'Atma'.

Etheric Body or Life Body. Development can be compared to hour hand on a clock.

Astral Body or Sentient Body. Development happens relatively quickly. Compare to minute hand on a clock.

Ego.

Innate. Born at the oncoming of second teeth. Protected by the provision of a caring environment. Develops during middle childhood.

Grows and reproduces through inner saps and fluids: E.g. black bile, yellow bile, blood, phlegm. Shared with plants and animals.

Consists of temperament, memory, character, habits.

Innate. Born at the onset of puberty. Protected by a caring environment. Develops during adolescence.

Senses like pain, pleasure, passion, develop through learning. Shared with animals.

Senses.

Innate. Develops throughout life and influences all three other bodies.

Only humans have an Ego.

The vehicle of the higher soul of man.

The spiritual soul. Conscience. * The 'Buddhi'. The life-spirit. Intellectual soul 'Mana'. Sentient soul. The spirit self.

Mana

Innate. The Ego's work on the Astral body through learning and enriching one's life with higher ideas and perceptions.

Buddhi

Innate. The Ego's work on transformation of habits on Etheric body.

Atma

Innate. Working with transformation of physical body.

The 'Self'. Everyone can call a table 'table', but no-one else but 'I' can use this name to identify another person.

* Consciousness is formed by the Ego's work on the etheric body through incarnation after incarnation. Karma.

Table 1: Rudolf Steiner's theory of the whole person, as derived from some of his writings about Anthroposophy and educational theory (Steiner, 1913; 1965; 1970a; 1970b; 1988).

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In adolescence the child's astral body is ready to be developed further, also through the use of art, dance, drama, stories, gardening, practical handicrafts and trade skills. It is the time when the individual spirit manifests itself through contemplations based on the foundation made by the maturation of the physical body and the etheric body (Steiner, 1965; 1988). The child is more independent, and the personality becomes stronger. The child is increasingly more capable of creating or finding its own stories which will develop the astral body to its highest. The teacher and parent guide the child or youth to where the stories are to be found based on their knowledge of that child's physical and etheric bodies’ development (Barnes, 1991; Steiner, 1988). When working in a classroom Steiner (1988) strongly suggests that a teacher must carefully observe the children and determine their personalities, as these influence a child's spirit. Steiner's (1988) description of personalities are based on the balance of the four bodily fluids, yellow bile, black bile, blood and phlegm (Table 1) as described by the Greek doctor Hippocrates (5th century B.C.E.). Where a certain type of body fluid is dominant a certain personality type shows, respectively choleric, i.e. hot-tempered and goal oriented, melancholic, i.e. philosophical and very orderly, sanguine, i.e. confident and fun loving, and phlegmatic, i.e. peaceful and in control2 (ABC's, 1990; Littauer, 1992; Lund, 1993). The individual soul is in anthroposophy considered to be one drop from the ocean of God (Steiner, 1913; 1988). This immanence of God is developed through meditation and careful guidance in storytelling (Astley and Jackson, 2000), perhaps similar to the guided imagery described by Raban (1990). Ultimately a person, regardless of age, reaches total conscience in Buddhi (Steiner 1913) by using the science of anthroposophy. It appears that a program for Waldorf schools, operating fully in accordance with Steiner's ideas, should contain elements from Christianity, Buddhism and Hinduism. Carroll (1998) appears to distance himself from the mystical side of anthroposophy, but emphasises that the most important part of Waldorf education is to show children love, and to give children a love to learn through the use of singing, dance, arts, storytelling, chemistry, biology and physics. Another critique of the Waldorf schools and anthroposophy comes from Steiner's contemporary Carl Jung (1933), who says that the interest in the anthroposophic movement comes from people searching for a soul. By wanting to be scientific and rational they show interest in anthroposophy which claims to be a spiritual science, but which according to Jung (1933) is a religious movement pretending to be scientific. This view is to a certain extent supported by Carey (1996) who classifies anthroposophy as primarily a sectarian Christian belief. McDermott and Oberman 2

For in-depth description of personality types according to Hippocrates’ philosophy, Littauer (1992) is recommended.

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(1996) say that Waldorf schools teach racism by using Steiner’s philosophy that all human races are consecutive reincarnations of one another. Steiner’s (1923, in McDermott and Oberman, 1996; Steiner 1923/1980) explanation is that the black (African) races are humankind’s early childhood, the red and yellow (Asia) races are adolescence and youth, and the white (European) race is maturity (McDermott and Oberman, 1996). This view was held by Rudolf Steiner in 1923 and re-published by the Rudolf Steiner Verlag in 1980 (Steiner, 1923/1980). McDermott and Oberman (1996) are very concerned about a particular Waldorf school in a black community in the USA, and the effect Steiner’s racist views can have on the students attending a Waldorf school. Sikkes (1995) who lives in Holland, along with Resnick and Arian (Natural Jewish Parenting, 1999) who are American Jews, share these concerns. In the preceding discussion of Waldorf schools it can be seen that Steiner places strong emphasis on the correct way of enhancing the growth of a child's spirit, despite my concerns about his apparent racist views. He quotes Goethe saying "Consider what but consider how even more" (Goethe, in Steiner, 1970a, p. 35). This is a clear parallel to Riddle's (1982) view that what in politics is what needs to be addressed, and the how is the spiritual aspect of how to go about getting things done. Steiner (1965, p. 26) also claims that "we can never repair what we have neglected as educators in the first seven years". Therefore the development of a child's spirit, body and soul is important in all areas of growth. The 'drop of God' could perhaps be the centre of a person as illustrated in Figure 1. Spirituality in anthroposophy and Waldorf schools then, is the soul of a person, the 'drop of God', which is developed through correct teaching and examples. This soul lives forever and through many reincarnations eventually becomes a person's life-spirit. 2.7.6

Spiritual education in Sunday schools.

The concept of Sunday school originated in Gloucester, England in 1780 on the initiative of Robert Raikes (1736-1811; Britannica, 1988). Raikes was a philanthropist and newspaper publisher who wanted to ensure that children employed in factories, could be deterred from a life of crime if they received basic and religious education on Sundays, when they were not working in the factories. Initially Sunday schools gave instructions in basic numeracy and literacy, but within a few years Sunday schools became closely associated with churches, particularly Protestant churches in Europe, North America and also Australia. From the initial idea of general education, Sunday school became a setting, which gave instruction in religious education only. Sunday school is generally taught by lay members of a congregation using the catechism, the Bible and set materials developed by individual denominations 89

(Britannica, 1988; Cram, 1996) like those of Danmarks Folkekirkelige Søndagsskoler (Lissen, 2003; www.soendagsskoler.dk) and the Uniting Church in Australia (JBCE, 1989). When considering Sunday schools it would appear that spirituality would certainly be nurtured in the context of a given religious tradition, particularly Protestant Christian traditions. Buckland (1988) recommends that teaching children in a denominational setting must take the children's developmental understanding into consideration. He mentions Goldman's (1964) religious development theory (Appendix 4,15). Buckland (1988) warns that by taking Goldman's religious development theory for granted, the Christian church has generally lost a rich opportunity in reaching children at their level of understanding, thus agreeing with Brian Hill (1991) that Goldman's (1964) findings may not be appropriate. Buckland (1988) suggests that adults wanting to teach children in the church must be aware of children's capacities for storytelling, as well as their capabilities in showing wonder, love, trust, patience and forgiveness (see also Latham, 1996, above, and Engel, 1995, Appendix 4,1). These spiritual characteristics are real experiences for the children in their everyday lives and are comparable to Hay's (1985) view mentioned earlier that such spiritual experiences are just as real as experiences in science education and the teaching derived from these. Buckland (1988) suggests that to have spiritual beliefs within the church, Sunday school and the Christian faith, there must be mixture of knowledge and relationship. For some children the knowledge comes first, for others the relationship, and to really build up a faith one needs to bridge the gap from knowledge to a felt spiritual experience. It then follows that teachers must be prepared to provide a learning environment where spiritual development can take place, similarly to the environment which enhances a child's cognitive and physical development (Latham, 1996; Markham, 1999; Myers, 1997; Wolf, 1996). Cram (1996) agrees with Buckland (1988) that children know a lot about spiritual matters and that they start thinking theologically at a very early age. Cram had a conversation with a 12year-old boy, who claims that babies know everything and that one just needs to ask the right questions to get what they know 'out'. The boy also stated that God is a baby, implying God's omniscience is similar to a baby's. Maybe this could be compared with Montessori's metaphor of a spiritual embryo in the young child. When Cram questioned whether the child had ever discussed his God concept with his Sunday school teacher, he said: "No, never. They just tell me what to think" (p. 64). Following this statement by the child, Cram (1996) strongly suggests that children's spiritual knowledge comes out in settings where their knowledge is taken seriously and adults take time to listen to the child's theology unfolding. It is also consistent with Genia's (1995) warning that no one group has a right to say that the group possesses infallible spiritual knowledge as such claims often thwart the spiritual 90

development of other people. Beck (1999) cites a pamphlet published by the British Humanist Association saying that religious believers, agnostics, atheists and theists all believe that ‘all can agree that the ‘spiritual’ dimension comes from our deepest humanity’ (Beck, 1999, p. 165). Beck warns that such statements are too inclusive, because each group has vastly different definitions of spirituality, and that moral education and citizenship education must not be pursued at the expense of the teaching of religious education. In regard to religious education Durka (1989) claims that in the last few decades churches have commenced educating people of all ages, as implied by Buckland (1988) above. She questions whether there is a difference in men's and women's religious experience, and claims that women's viewpoints have been neglected in this education, thus silencing women in the religious education area. Durka (1989, p. 41) suggests that religious education should emphasise 'connection over separation, understanding and acceptance over assessment, and collaboration over debate' and thereby help women, men, and children toward power and greater integrity. Such education would facilitate the development of minds and spirits, and a more genuine conversation about spirituality will be able to emerge. By drawing on the example of the spirituality of Hildegard of Bingen, Julian of Norwich and Teresa of Avila, Durka (1989) shows that spirituality is a part of daily life, not apart from it, and therefore women's spirituality is an important aspect of religious education. Such a daily spirituality requires attentiveness to the context of people's lives, to the wholeness of things, and recognition that human beings are participants in the ongoing creation of the world. This feminist spirituality (which men can also have) is being aware of not only beauty and goodness, but also of tragedy and evil, and the need for repair of the world - ecologically, economically, politically, and spiritually. In education, including Sunday school, then, spirituality is the manifestation and growth of an innate capability in children (and adults). Children wonder and study their world and ask questions in their zone of proximal development. Spirituality is the ability of a child to express in stories and art what he or she knows about transcendent matters. One of the most important aspects for teachers and adults to remember is to allow children time to contemplate and wonder about the surrounding world, allow them time to express their views and questions, allow the children to work out answers for themselves, and remember to listen to the children. 2.8

A summary of spirituality in schools.

So far in this chapter many different viewpoints of spirituality have been explored. There 91

appears to be some commonalities in the definitions. The most common ones are an emphasis on spirituality as an awareness or consciousness of the surrounding world, a sense of compassion and love towards this world and everything in it, a sense of wonder, and a relationship with a transcendent being, who can also be immanent in the individual. Most often in the Western tradition this being is called God. In the final section of this chapter the various summaries of definitions from sections in this chapter will be compared with the aim of arriving at an operational definition of spirituality which supports the present research.

2.9

TOWARDS DEFINING SPIRITUALITY.

2.9.0

Introduction.

This section briefly sums up the definitions of spirituality presented in the literature discussed and reviewed throughout the previous part of Chapter 2. The heading "towards defining spirituality" using "-ing" is purposefully chosen, as the task of defining the concept of spirituality is ongoing. There is no claim in this thesis that the definition at the end of this chapter and the holistic model in Figure 6 (p. 28) are the only possible explanations of the concept of spirituality. However, throughout this thesis there is an assumption that spirituality is an innate and central part of an individual, and that the phenomenon is best illustrated using a model such as the one represented in Figure 6.

2.9.1

Psychology and spirituality

Spirituality is seen as an important and innate part of the whole person, and as such must be nurtured and nourished in a supportive environment throughout life (Chandler et al., 1992; Farran et al., 1989; Genia, 1995; Gobbell, 1980; Helminiak, 1996; Montessori, 1949; Myers, 1997; Nelson-Jones, 2004; Steiner, 1965 & 1970a; Wolf, 1996).

Spirituality can be illustrated graphically as a circle where various developmental domains such as social, occupational, intellectual, physical and emotional areas share even parts of the circle with a central spirituality circle touching all other areas of the person (Chandler et al., 1992, p. 171). The circle can include a person's psychological, physiological and sociological 92

aspects having constant interaction with the spiritual aspect in an all-embracing outer circle (Farran et al., 1989).

Spirituality is further defined as a part of a person's psychological make-up or a kind of consciousness (Jacobi, 1968; Jung, 1920, 1938; Mayer, 2000; Peck, 1978; Wilber, 1980). As a psychological discipline spirituality can assist people in studying and understanding spiritual beliefs and development (Belzen, 2004; Genia, 1995; Hall et al., 2004; Helminiak, 1996; Pate & Bondi, 1995).

Spirituality in psychology can be explained as an important part of human life. It manifests itself by the individual showing various traits of transcendence, awareness, commitment, appreciation of other beliefs and religions as well as spiritual diversity, concern for others and providing an overarching meaning and purpose in life.

Spirituality has strong links to

religion, but it is not necessary to be religious in order to be spiritual, because spirituality is more inclusive than religion (Hyman and Handal, 2006; Pate & Bondi, 1995). The wellbalanced religious and spiritual person usually shows traits which are characteristic in intrinsic religion.

Spirituality then can be seen as a part of a person's psychological make-up, or a kind of consciousness, which is most likely guided by the non-dominant right hemisphere of the brain (Newberg and D’Aquili, 2000). Where a person is in an extreme unbalanced situation spiritually the individual can become dependent on drugs and alcohol. To include spirituality as a discipline within psychology may be one way in which people who claim no religious affiliation can study and understand their own beliefs, and why a possible development happens as it does for the individual.

2.9.2

Religion and spirituality.

Spirituality in a religious sense is holistic and involves the total being of a person. It is larger than theology and beliefs or a set of values. It is expressed in everything a person does, and it involves the person's relationship with the chosen transcendent being. Spirituality is 'being' as in the necessity to breathe, and religion is 'doing' as in pledging allegiance to a chosen belief (Benner, 1992; Ryan & Malone, 1996). Religious spirituality involves all developmental domains as illustrated in Figure 6 (p. 28), and in the spiritually and psychologically healthy 93

person there is balance between domains. Religious spirituality is important for the believer when social, political and environmental issues are considered, as well as in the individual's perceived place in the community, privately, locally, nationally and globally.

Spiritually well-balanced people, who are also religious, usually show traits which are characteristic in intrinsic religion, such as being oriented toward a unification of being, taking seriously the command of brotherhood, striving to transcend all self-centred needs, and refraining from judging other people (Allport, 1966).

2.9.3

Spirituality in politics and philosophy.

Spirituality in regard to public politics concerns what a person does privately. It is awareness of one's responsibility as a citizen in the global village and compassion towards all people and the environment (Dorr, 1984; Fox, 1990; Spretnak, 1982b). It has strong adherents to the person's chosen religion.

In regard to Aboriginal landrights, spirituality is a very important and overarching factor which guides any claims that are put on tribal lands. It is up to White Australia and various governments, state and federal, to come to terms with such a thought, which is far from European way of thinking. There is a dawning understanding of the importance of Aboriginal spirituality though: The guidelines for land right claims as outlined by Brennan (1998) all require that the spiritual and cultural link with the land in question must be taken seriously.

For a New Ager spirituality is a quest to find one's inner self or the immanent deity through meditation, heightened consciousness and awareness. The believer must conduct right actions in regard to other people and the environment, because everyone and everything are important for the total wellbeing of the global village (Ferguson, 1987; Hill, 1991).

Gendered spirituality means that everyone, men and women, should embrace the “feminine qualities” of mutuality, cooperation, commitment, love and compassion. At the same time men and women should incorporate “masculine qualities” of analysis and 'big-picture' views while working towards justice and equality in compassion for all human beings (Heron, 2003; James, 1996). Gendered spirituality also means having a consciousness about gender specific limitations, biological and cultural, which must not destroy a relationship with the chosen 94

Supreme Being.

Spirituality in phenomenology and philosophy is seen in many texts as a dialectic interaction between opposites (Berdyaev, 1935; Hegel, 1807; Stewart & Mickunas, 1990). It cannot be contained in the form of religion, or be free from thought. It is wider than religion and encompasses a person’s whole culture and cultural history (Belzen, 2004). Spirituality controls, restrains and guides a person, and is not limited to saints, ascetics and elders; rather it is part of every person. Spirituality in philosophy is thus closely connected to everyday life. A person must wonder and philosophise, alone and together with other people, about everyday things and events in order to remain a spiritual person and continue wondering and asking questions about life in general, while at the same time accept that spirituality is a mystery that is non-quantifiable.

Spirituality in regard to soul and consciousness is seen as the dialectic interaction between a person’s soul and consciousness (Crick, 1994; Hegel, 1807; Helminiak, 1984; Moore, 1992; Newberg and D’Aquili, 1998). Each is necessary and there must be balance between them. Soul and consciousness are interconnected and cannot be separated in a person’s spirituality, just like Yin and Yang cannot be separated in Taoist thinking. Likewise, a person’s spirituality cannot be separated from the culture and cumulative knowledge in which that person lives.

2.9.4

Spirituality in Nursing, Death, NDEs and Reincarnation.

Spirituality in nursing is to show empathy with the patient, be there and listen, show the last love like the anonymous nurse to the dying soldier (Anon, 1999) and show compassion whilst acknowledging the patient’s and relatives’ feelings of hope (Sulmasy, 1997). The nurse must remember to care for personal spirituality as well, so that one does not burn out in the course of draining daily work.

Spirituality in NDE and Reincarnation seems to be of the highest importance in these two areas with each described as highly spiritual experiences. Both areas emphasise the need to be loving and compassionate towards fellow human beings, to search for truth within oneself and to be less inclined to acquire material goods. This search can be a religious one, but this is not a requirement. In fact, most NDEers leave their institutionalised religion/s because they 95

are seen as too rigid for true spiritual development.

2.9.5

Education and spirituality.

It appears that in education there is no specific definition of spirituality. There is an assumption that spirituality just exists, and that it should be nurtured, cared for and educated. This assumption could be compared with Edelman's (1992) claim about consciousness: it just is. However, wonder and imagination are seen as the most important spiritual characteristics a child can possess. They must be nourished and developed by caring adults in a suitable environment for children, and some appropriate techniques for the development of these spiritual characteristics to take place are storytelling and honest answers to children's questions.

In the Montessori philosophy spirituality is regarded as an innate part of every human being (Montessori, 1939). It must be nurtured and cared for. It manifests in everything a person does throughout life if the right stimulation has taken place at the corresponding sensitive period (Standing, 1957).

In anthroposophy and Steiner schools the soul of a person or the 'drop of God' (Steiner, 1913) is the person's innate spirit. This spirit is developed through correct teaching and examples. The soul lives forever through incarnation and eventually becomes a person's life-spirit.

Spirituality in education manifests itself through wonder, imagination and storytelling whether this happens in a mainstream school, in a church school or in a Sunday school. It makes a person conscious about and aware of everything and seeks to make meaning from the answers one gets when wondering. Spirituality, according to this perspective is a quest for knowledge and meaning making (Beck, 1990; Champagne, 2003; Coles, 1990; Dowling, 2005; Engel, 1995; Fowler, 1981; Froebel, 1900; Montessori, 1939; Montagu, 1989; Muscari, 2006; Steiner, 1988).

In education, including Sunday school, then, spirituality is the manifestation and growth of an innate capability in children. Children wonder and study their world and ask questions in their zone of proximate development (Myers, 1997). Spirituality is the ability for a child to express in stories and art what he or she knows about transcendent matters. Some of the most 96

important aspects for teachers and adults to remember are to allow children time to contemplate, wonder and become increasingly aware of the surrounding world, allow time to express their views and questions, allow children to work out answers for themselves and remember to listen to one another. A related aspect for adults is to allow themselves to rediscover childhood wonder and lively spirituality (Carson, 1956).

2.9.6

Defining spirituality.

The summaries of the definitions in the psychological, religious, philosophical, political, nursing and educational areas all have underlying themes. These themes are briefly summarised by King (1985) thus: Firstly, spirituality is the lived reality of a person, the way in which a person lives and understands the world in a cultural, religious, historic, and ethical sense. Secondly, spirituality is the recorded ideas of philosophies and religions, which provide insight and guidance for people. Thirdly, spirituality is the scholarly studies of the first two levels, which looks at spirituality across all areas of people's lives.

Based on the literature from a range of disciplines it appears that, in adults at least, spirituality can be defined as follows:

Spirituality is an innate part of a person. It is an awareness or consciousness of the surrounding world, a sense of compassion and love towards this world and anything in it shown through wonder. It may include a relationship with a transcendent being, who can also be immanent in the individual. Most often in Western societies this being is called God.

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CHAPTER 3.

RESEARCH METHOD.

“När man möter en sådan mångfald av begrepp, är det lätt att gripas av förvirring och osäkerhet. Vilka termer är tillräckligt entydiga? Vilka termer kan man använda för att undvika missförstånd eller felaktiga tolkninger? Finns det begrepp som är bättre än andra i exakthet, vidd, nyansering och begriplighet?” Tamm, 1986, p. 8. (When meeting such a quantity of concepts, it is easy to be to become confused and unsure. Which terms are sufficiently unambiguous? Which terms can be used to avoid misunderstandings or wrong interpretations? Does a concept exist which is better than others regarding precision, knowledge, shading and understanding? AG’s translation from Swedish)

3.0

Introduction

This chapter outlines the research method used in the study about the phenomenon of young children’s spirituality. The approach to the study is described from the initial idea to the finished product. A host of challenges were met. Some of these were changes in study mode from full time to part time student due to changes in personal work situations and subsequent moves from town to town, including moving interstate. There were also the changes in supervisor teams twice for reasons beyond my control. The four centres, where the sample group comes from, are described as well as the way in which these centres were selected. In total 57 children from 55 families participated for the period of twelve months, and 26 parents agreed to giving more information in informal conversations. I explain the use of a combination of the Phenomenology and Grounded Theory research methods, and how each of these methods was essential to reach the conclusions made in the study.

3.1

Choosing a methodology

Considering the difficulties in defining the term ‘spirituality’ from the literature available, it was clear from the outset that the study had to be a qualitative, descriptive study. There are no specific tools for determining young children’s spirituality, such as there is when looking at adults’ spirituality (for example Elkins et al., 1988; Fowler, 1981; Mathew 1998).

Elkins et al. (1988) developed an inventory with 85 items that asked a participant about his or her understanding of nine components of spirituality: Transcendent Dimension, Meaning and Purpose, Mission in Life, Sacredness of life, Material Values, Altruism, 98

Idealism, Awareness of the Tragic, and Fruits of Spirituality. With this study Elkins et al. (1988) wanted to develop an instrument to determine the humanistic side of spirituality, one which included any person, and not just people who adhere to a specific religion. The study was conducted with 24 adults nominated by a panel as being “highly spiritual” (Elkins et al, 1988, p. 15) and with 96 graduate students in psychology. The spirituality of children is not mentioned at all in this study.

In another study looking at faith development and belief, Fowler (1981) and his associates conducted audio taped semiclinical interviews with 359 people, of whom 25 were children aged 0-6 years, and 29 were children aged 7-12 years. The typical adult interview took about two hours, maybe two-and-a-half hours with 35-40 pages of transcribed pages. Fowler does not state how long the interview with each child was.

Mathew (1998) used the Mathew Materialism Spiritualism Scale (MMSS), a 96-item questionnaire measuring six different dimensions: God, Religion, Mysticism, Spirits, Character and psi (i.e. belief in paranormal experiences). A group of adults (no number given) in the USA responded to a modified version of the MMSS, and more than 1000 people in India. The results were similar in both countries: older people and females earned higher spiritual scores regardless of whether they were Jews, Christians, Hindu, Indian or American. Self-control and lack of impulsitivity correlated positively with spirituality, and children were more spiritual than adolescents or adults. However, Mathew fails to mention the ages of the children involved, or the number of children in the study. Mathew then describes a laboratory study in which 61 volunteers participated. Their cerebral functions were measured using non-invasive positron emission tomography (PET) while they listened to music. The results showed that non-analytic enjoyment of music is associated with activity in the non-dominant right hemisphere, which is where imagination, emotions, intuition, social/emotional nuances and other holistic, synthetic and configurational functions are activated. The technical analysis of music showed activity in the dominant left hemisphere, which is the area for logical thinking. There is no mention of children participating in this last study.

The three studies mentioned are representative of studies about spirituality, religiosity and beliefs. However, none of the studies were particularly informative about young children’s spirituality. There could be several reasons for this. Fowler’s (1981) semiclinical interviews are inappropriate for young children, who need to get to know a 99

person before they will talk with that person and give answers that are the child’s own and not answers the child expects that the adult wants (Beekman, 1983; Erricker & Erricker, 1996; Giesenberg, 1996; McCreery, 1996). Mathew (1998) and Elkins et al (1988) used detailed surveys with adult spiritual concepts. To administer such surveys require that the participants are able to read and understand the concepts and the language used in the survey. This is not necessarily the case with young children, who would require someone to read the survey for them, and whose vocabulary may be limited to around 2000 words at around 4y6m of age (Dale, 1976).

I saw the phenomenon of young children’s spirituality as an un-mapped, partly unknown area of young children, a strand in the Whariki without a clear colour. I had to find a methodology which would help in exploring that area. My study had to be a qualitative, descriptive study, where I would spend enough time in the field with the children to gain their trust, so they would give me information in play situations, discussions, and during craft activities. It was also necessary to be able to meet the children’s parents often enough for them to feel comfortable about having me visiting their children’s early childhood setting. I had personal experience that being participant observer in a preschool over a period of several months worked well with young children (Giesenberg, 1996). With that experience, I then proposed a study in which I would be participant observer in the field for at least 12 months with regular visits to selected early childhood settings meeting the children and their parents.

I knew that it could, for an adult, be seen as a disadvantage to take children’s ideas, beliefs, activities and experiences seriously (Brooker, 2001; Robinson, 1977; Waksler, 1986). Waksler describes two main biases that the adult researcher must be aware of when working with children as informants. One is that children are generally seen as “unfinished, in process, not anywhere yet” (Waksler, 1986, p. 73) and therefore their views can be overridden by the adult, merely because “I am an adult”. The second bias is that adults generally see children as being routinely wrong, in error, and that they don’t understand (p.76). Waksler claims that adults routinely discount children’s views when these challenge the views of the adult. She says that it is risky to take children’s views seriously, because it allows the children to contend with adult views on an equal basis, and the “winner is not predetermined” (p. 77).

100

With Nye and Hay’s (1996) statement in mind that there is no starting point in identifying children’s spirituality, I was certain that I had to start with the children themselves. I had to let the children be my teacher as they are the experts about their experiences (Burns, 1990) and look at the children’s views as the most important views. Montenaro (1999) urges adults to become aware that a child is a great person inside a small body, and that this will change the adult’s attitudes towards the child. Nye (1999, p. 60) claims that adults lack the means to interpret children’s spirituality and that the adult wishing to study children’s spirituality must ‘look between the lines’ when observing children’s behaviour and building up trust with the individual child in a study. I aim to tell about the phenomenon of some young children’s spirituality, and hopefully change the mind of some adults who may think that young children have less knowledge, are less serious than adults, or are less important than adults (Waksler, 1986). However, the interpretations of the children’s views in the present study are mine as an adult researcher.

3.2

The selected sites for the study

I wanted to visit centres where there would be children attending from a variety of cultural and religious backgrounds, and, if possible, centres with a philosophy where spirituality would be seen as important without comparing the settings, but with the possibly wider scope of backgrounds from which the children came.

Having obtained the ethical clearance from the University Human Research Ethics Committee at the Queensland University of Technology (Appendix 7) I contacted a total of seven early childhood settings. The initial contact was by telephone to the director or principal of the setting, followed by a personal visit where I brought a letter with me in which I briefly outlined the basic idea of the study. The only exception to this approach was that I visited a Taoist temple in the Brisbane area and discussed my thoughts about the study with a priest there. She put me in contact with a Buddhist preschool teacher who worked in a long-day care early childhood setting. The contact to her workplace was through this teacher personally.

The seven settings were three centres with predominantly indigenous children, two mainstream settings, one in which the Buddhist teacher worked, a Jewish kindergarten and a Montessori school. Of these seven, four centres agreed to participate. The three 101

centres which declined to participate were all Indigenous. In two of these centres staff wanted to participate, but the management committees declined, and one centre’s staff thought that the study involved me teaching religion to the children, despite my emphasis that the children were to be my teachers.

The four settings, which agreed to participate were a “Cycle 1” class (= the youngest composite class) in a Montessori school, a Jewish kindergarten, a community kindergarten, and a community long day care centre (Appendix 5). The children ranged in ages from 3-7 years with the majority being up till 5 years of age. Two settings were in densely populated suburbs of Brisbane and two were in outer suburbs of Brisbane. There was a spread of belief systems: Buddhist, Hindu, Jew, Muslim, Christians of various denominations, and several parents who said they had no specific belief (FN, 1999). The ‘gatekeepers’ (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992) for these four settings had all agreed to allow me to come, and my task was now to approach parents and gain their consent so that I could obtain information from their children.

3.3

The participants.

I visited each centre once per fortnight over a period of a school year with two visits scheduled every week. The first couple of visits in each place were challenging, as I wanted to introduce myself to as many parents as possible, and explain to them why I was at the centre (FN, 1999). I handed out a letter of introduction about my study and a consent form for each child in the class (Appendix 6).

In the introductory conversations I explained to each family about my study of young children’s spirituality. I briefly mentioned that there are theories about adult spirituality, but very few about children’s spirituality, and that there were some theories that claim that spirituality is an ‘adult only’ phenomenon (for example Genia, 1995, Helminiak, 1987, and Peck, 1978). My study would be to examine young children’s spirituality, and, if possible, describe the phenomenon of spirituality in young children. My approach was to become a participant observer (Burns, 1990; Glesne & Peshkin, 1992; Mayall, 2000). I wanted to observe children at play, play music for the children and have them draw or paint what they thought the music looked like, and ask them to draw pictures about ‘love’, ‘a beautiful day’, and ‘dreams’. I explained that each participating family would get a brief paper about the findings on the completion of the study, and that a 102

child at any time could be withdrawn from the study. One parent was particularly interested professionally as a clinical psychologist, and I was able to provide this parent with a detailed reference list of texts available on adults’ spirituality. Several parents expressed satisfaction with the statement that they could withdraw their child any time. As it turned out, no parents withdrew due to dissatisfaction with the study, my approach and interaction with the children, or my presence in their child’s early childhood setting (see also 3.8.1).

In total I received 65 completed consent forms, and 8 children left the study during the period I was in the field. Seven children left because the family moved out of the area of their setting, and one child moved to the next class because she turned 8 years of age. Twenty-six (26) parents gave further information in informal conversations with 23 of these conversations being audio-taped with the parents’ consent. The remaining three parents preferred that the conversation was not taped, but agreed to notes being taken (FN 1999). All 26 conversations were guided by the questions listed in Appendix 8. Forty-two (42) parents returned the Rating Scale (Appendix 9). The main discussions about findings from the children and parents are discussed in Chapters 4, 5 and 6.

3.4

In the field.

During the visits in the field I participated in any activity planned for the children on a given day as participant observer. Beekman (1983) states that to study children’s worlds it is best to participate in the daily life and interests of the informants and that one has to go inside the child’s landscape. Such a research method is described by Burns (1990), Glesne & Peshkin (1992), and Tuckman (1999) as ethnographic research. So I participated with the children in the playroom, at lunch time, in the playground, or when they went on excursions. I always carried a small belt bag containing a small tape recorder, note book and pen for observations made with the children, thereby leaving my hands free to participate in the children’s play, whether this was in the sandpit, at the puzzle table, or building blocks, or to make notes when required. I asked the children to draw or paint pictures about “a dream”, or about “love”, or “a beautiful day”, with these topics coming directly from ideas in the literature about spiritual traits (Appendix 1). When playing music for the children, I would use the main tape recorder or CD player in the setting, thus leaving my little tape recorder free to record conversations with the children. The note books for observations, the Field Notes (FN, 1999) and audio tapes 103

were all clearly labeled with the centre’s name, so I could keep notes, recordings and observations from the four centres separate (FN, 1999). Occasionally children would take on a gatekeeper’s role (Mandell, 1988), and ask me why I was writing things down or taping their conversation, and they always accepted my explanation that I wanted to remember what they told me, or what they played.

Three of the four centres asked me at times to do relief teaching, which I willingly did, even though it did initially confuse some of the children as to whether I was there to talk and play or whether I was there to be the teacher. However, they soon found that when the regular classroom teacher was present, I would use my tape recorder and special notebook, and when the teacher was away, I would instead be the teacher. On actual field visits, I had to be constantly aware of my role as participant observer, avoiding situations where I would wear a ‘teacher hat’ when I should be a researcher. I would let the regular staff in the classroom deal with disciplinary matters between children, and assist children in tidying up where I had been playing as well. At the same time I had to be aware of my role as an adult with duty of care responsibilities if a child was at risk of getting hurt. Such situations and dilemmas are well described by Corsaro (1981) and Corsaro & Molinari (2000). During a normal field visit, when the children were engaged in teacher directed group situations, I would often lend the classroom assistant a hand with cleaning tables ready for lunch, sweep the floor, cut up fruit for snack, set out beds for rest time or similar practical tasks. Such activities gave me the opportunity to have conversations with the assistant and sometimes also with a parent on duty. In one setting we went on an excursion by train to Boondall Wetlands Reserve, where we had a picnic lunch and a ranger showed us around. We also saw how the rangers moved fish stock from one area to another. This experience operated a lot in the children’s conversations with me over the next few weeks, and it was a privilege to be part of that experience.

After a visit I spent time in the car writing notes about that day’s visit in a separate journal for each setting (FN, 1999) and noting any highlights or difficulties encountered on a given day.5 I noted items such as conversations with parents and staff, how the day had gone in general, any changes in the routine of the setting, if there was a reliever present, and any arrangements I had made for detailed discussions with parents. One minor challenge was to organise parent conversations to suit the times that parents could 5 Including one day where I got a traffic fine for pulling into a bus lane earlier than allowable on my way to one of the centres! 104

talk, and another was to ensure that the Rating Scales (Appendix 9) were returned. In section 3.8 below, I describe in more details how data from parents was collected. I did occasionally have the practical problem of not quite dry paintings sticking together in the car on the way home from a centre, and then having to carefully moisten them to separate them without disturbing the motifs.

Coming home I wrote up the day’s observations with decoding, possible actions, and concluding remarks as shown in the example below. It shows a one-page anecdotal record where some are 3-5 pages long with transcribed audio taped conversations. In addition to these observations, I have written brief descriptions on the back of most paintings according to what the child told me about the artwork.

People:

Centre: L

Malcolm (4y11m). Claire (teacher), Date: 2.11.1999

Anna G. (researcher).

Setting: At the table making Challah (the special

Type of observation/sketch: Anecdotal Record.

platted Shabbat bread made every last day of the kindergarten week as part of the children's Shabbat

C:PHDOB130

celebrations).

Observation: M is the last child having a turn of platting the dough rolls - the other children have already gone to the bathroom to wash their hands. Claire is guiding him which of the three dough rolls to use and where to put it. She explains that some people are really clever and can make Challah bread using six rolls of dough, and M comments that it must be hard. AG asks him if he helps making the Challah at home. M answers that they only do it when his father is at home, and that's when they have real Shabbat: "because he know how to read the Hebrew". Claire asks him how they celebrate Shabbat, and whether his grandparents come over sometimes to be with them. "Yeah, sometimes they do". By then the Challah bread is finished and M runs to the bathroom to wash his hands, not answering the whole of Claire's question about how they celebrate Shabbat at home. Decoding: M is very interested in the task of making the Challah - he is careful in the actions he uses and follows Claire's comments when platting the dough rolls (ZPD). He is also aware that using six rolls instead of the three he is using must be very hard. Although he has to concentrate on the platting of the dough rolls, he is able to keep up a conversation about how his family celebrates Shabbat. He volunteers the information that they can only celebrate Shabbat properly when his father is at home, because the Hebrew language is important in this connection, and his father is the person in the family who knows Hebrew. He does not answer Claire’s entire question about how they celebrate Shabbat at home, but says that the grandparents sometimes come and celebrate with them.

105

Possible Action: Discuss with parents M's awareness about the importance of Shabbat and the Hebrew language. Determine M's involvement in the family's Shabbat preparations. Clarify for self the symbolism of the various Shabbat celebrations to aid AG's understanding of the Jewish faith as a different faith to her own Christian Faith. Keywords:

awareness, ZPD, Shabbat, Hebrew, Jewish.

I collected a total of fourteen 90 minutes audio tapes with child conversations and parent interviews. All these tapes had to be transcribed. Delamont (1992) says that the transcription of audiotapes is time consuming – at least 7-8 hours of transcribing for one hour of recording. I found that this is indeed very true. With my work commitments (see 3.4.1 below), I decided in the end to ask a friend with secretarial skills to help me out. To help her I managed to borrow a Dictaphone which allows the listener to decrease the speed of the tape turning, thus being able to touch type while listening instead of constantly turning the tape recorder on - then off - then rewind and then listen again. Having my friend doing the transcription turned out to be a very fruitful decision, as I then had both the transcriptions and the tapes. On occasions I still listen to the tapes as I read through the transcriptions to get the ‘feel’ of the conversation back. In the analysis I needed to listen to the intonation of the voices, the pauses in the conversations when a parent considered answers or studied their child’s artwork, and the occasions when a child came in and told the parents about the particular work. However, the hard timeconsuming work of actually transcribing the tapes was done for me. 3.4.1 Major challenges During the time in the field I distributed newsletters to the families stating how the study was progressing. The last newsletter at the end of the school year explained that I had to stop my visits due to obtaining full time work 1500km away from Brisbane, the first full time job I was able to get in over 6 years. Various challenges arose after that with distance to university library and supervisor team being only one of them. The full time work turned out to be a 55 hours per week job with a high level of responsibilities, so the time and psychological reserves for analysis and writing suffered. Two job changes and two subsequent moves interstate and 6 years later saw me only 300km from the university. However, changes in other people’s lives left me with no university supervisor team twice. Despite these challenges I continued writing (including three journal articles, Giesenberg 2000a, 2000b, 2001), reading about the topic, analysing the data, and presenting papers at conferences. There were changes in my family life as well 106

with the addition of three grandchildren. I also had a most inspirational and spiritual journey to the Plateau, Adamawa and Gongola states in northern Nigeria with one of my sisters and my mother visiting places where I lived as a very young child (Giesenberg, 2002a). These experiences and challenges were all part my professional and personal journey and the final product was ultimately influenced by this journey. During one of the moves a box of articles relating to spirituality (“St-Z”) went missing. There is room for a lot of short journal articles in one A4 box! Fortunately I had catalogued all my articles (as recommended by Strauss & Corbin [1990] for memos and key words; here used for articles as well). With brilliant assistance from the university library, I was able to retrieve these articles, including some in Danish and German. During each move, I made sure that I had with me in the car the computer back-up disks of all my work, data, and the boxes with key word files described in the following section. However, the physical data consisting of children’s paintings, drawings and observations I had made, as well as audiotapes and transcribed conversations had to go in the removalist truck. I consider myself lucky that only one little A4 box with professional articles went missing!

3.5

Data analysis.

During the early reading of texts about spirituality, particularly Sutherland’s (1995) study about Near-Death-Experiences, I discovered that Sutherland had used Glaser and Strauss’s (1967) method of Grounded Theory as this had given her the particular guidelines for analysing and organising her vast data set. I looked at the texts about Grounded Theory, and found that there are indeed thorough guidelines in the organisation and analysis of qualitative data in Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Glaser, 1978; Strauss & Corbin, 1990; and Strauss, 1987). By using the methods of analysis described for Grounded Theory I was able to code, categorise, write memos, and determine the phenomena within young children’s spirituality. I have given all these notes and memos headings according to the phenomena identified, and following Wolcotts’s (1990) advice they are stored alphabetically in a memo file. Likewise, all observations, as described earlier are copied in as many copies as the keywords I identified in a particular observation and stored alphabetically. Some researchers may find it more practical to store all such information in an electronic retrieval system as suggested by Tesch (1990), Fielding (2001), Fielding and Lee (1998) and Richards and 107

Richards (1998). However, I prefer to be able to spread the relevant references around me, on the floor or the desk, and then find a particular painting or drawing and the corresponding observation and study it all as a whole. Lincoln (1998, in Charmaz, 2000) comments that when working with the deepest part of human existence, one would not want to turn the meditation work over to a machine. I agree with this statement: I want to see the whole picture of the phenomenon in front of me, not just pieces of information as it happens in sections on a computer screen.

In regard to theoretical sensitivity (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990) which refers to the researcher’s professional knowledge, I have always been an avid reader, including general literature and novels. The phenomenological research writer Moustakas (1994) refers to the literature, which the researcher reviews in relation to the topic being studied. This literature includes technical and research literature with van Manen (1984) also recommending a researcher to read novels and poetry. Early in my post graduate studies I established a retrieval system about the professional topics I was reading about, including work related texts, and not use only scattered notes on any piece of paper or old envelope lying about. Such memos are stored in my “gold nugget” box (taken from the daily vocabulary in the gold mining town, in which I lived and worked) and they are great fun to read later and enter in the keyword file described earlier, but I keep the initial note as well. I set up a keyword system in which I list on 3x5 cataloguing cards all the texts containing references to a keyword, where I find it being particularly interestingly discussed. In the margin of the text I put a little ’x’ where the word is to be found. Illustration 2 shows the set-up of these keyword cards, using “Love” as an example. Illustration 2: Examples of keyword cards with references to texts containing a particular word. (Inserted over the page)

I use both sides of the cards, so one little card has many references listed, including some with references to observations of children or conversations with parents. Then when writing about a topic, I can find a text, the page numbers underlined, and check the context in which the keyword was used, or an observation or transcription of a conversation, and determine the relevance to the writing in progress. Over the years I have been able to use these keyword references in coursework assignments, in journal articles, for writing conference papers, for presentations at seminars, for general 108

searches for topics which I had a particular interest in and for this thesis. Again, some researchers would prefer to use computer software systems that will find keywords in relevant texts (Pfaffenberger, 1988; Richards & Richards, 1998). However, software programs have a drawback: when finding keywords they pick up every time a particular word is used, not when the researcher finds the word relevant.

In a similar manner I have catalogued on 5x8 cards all my journal articles as explained in section 3.4.1 above, so I can find them quickly – except when some go missing during a move! The catalogue cards include sections on author, title, journal, www address, publisher, library call numbers and pages, as well as the keywords I have identified during the reading of the text, and a brief abstract of the text.

Initially my aim for the study was to develop a theory of young children’s spiritual development (Giesenberg, 2000) similar to what is described as spiritual development in adults by Helminiak (1987, Appendix 4, 23) and Peck (1997, Appendix 4, 26) using Grounded Theory as the main method for analysis and descriptive writing (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Later, during the course of the present study, I was advised to take a look at Phenomenology (Ehrich, 2003; Merriam and Associates, 2002; Stewart & Mickunas, 1990; van Manen, 2003; Section 2.4.5), as this research method and philosophy could be helpful as well in describing a relatively new area of study such as the phenomenon of young children’s spirituality. In the course of the study I have used a combination of the two methods.

3.6

Methodologies: Phenomenology and Grounded Theory.

I explain the two methodologies in separate parts, being well aware that most researchers would most commonly adhere to one methodology. After a period of frustration of not being able to find an adequate way of describing the findings in the study using Grounded Theory due to my own belief journey, and the fact that I had to interrupt the field visits due to a geographical move, I was advised to look into the area of Phenomenology (Ehrich, 2003; Merriam and Associates, 2002; Moustakas, 1994; Stewart & Mickunas, 1990; van Manen, 1984, 2003; Section 2.4.5). In my personal belief system, I had moved from having the opinion that my protestant Christian belief of my childhood, youth and young adulthood was totally ‘right’, to the belief that every faith and belief system has elements of what I would call the ‘ultimate truth’ in them. 109

3.6.1 Grounded Theory

Briefly described: In Grounded Theory the researcher aims to determine a theory from data collected in the field using a very detailed and thorough approach in coding and analysing the data as explained by Glaser and Strauss (1967), Strauss (1987), Strauss and Corbin (1990), and Dey (1999). The researcher looks for categories and patterns, while using the techniques of open coding, axial coding and selective coding (Strauss, 1987; Strauss & Corbin, 1990) which will assist in formulating a theory about the research topic. There are detailed guidelines in how to manage and analyse the collected data with coding the data and a constant comparison of these. My approach in analysing and coding the data is described in detail above (section 3.5).

Grounded Theory calls for the researcher to be holistic (Charmaz, 2000; Dey, 1999). There is emphasis on participant observation, also called naturalistic inquiry (Dey, 1999), where the researcher collects data, writes field notes and aims for saturation. The researcher must continuously code and sort the data according to the properties identified and put together the data in different ways in order to make connections between the categories (or phenomena) identified in the data. When a researcher finds that the data collected are becoming more of the same through constant comparison of the data and memos available, a point of saturation is reached (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Due to the major challenge of having to move away from Brisbane and thus not being able to conduct more field visits (section 3.4.1 above); I became geographically limited in going back to the field and seek complete saturation. Therefore the aim for the completion of the study changed from formulating a theory of young children’s spiritual development, to determining the phenomenon of preschool children’s spirituality.

3.6.2 Phenomenology.

Phenomenology is a methodology that allows a researcher to go beyond the limits of materialistic or naturalistic realities (Stewart & Mickunas, 1990). It calls for a researcher to wonder about experiences, to study lived experience, and to seek to understand the essence or structure of a phenomenon (Merriam, 2002; Stewart & Mickunas, 1990; van Manen, 1984). It is a program for a systematic investigation of any phenomenon of which a person may be conscious. 110

In Hegel’s Phenomenology of Mind (Hegel, 1807) it is stated that thoughts appear to consciousness as presentations or ideas. In Phenomenology every form of human awareness can be interpreted. It includes description and interpretation, it is being (sein) rather than being conscious about the surrounding world, and sein precedes thinking about the world (Ehrich, 2003). This corresponds with the claim made in the literature review that spirituality is to live (from spirare = to breathe, see Appendix 2, section A.2.2).

Phenomenology addresses “questions about common, everyday human experiences ... believed to be important sociological or psychological phenomena of our time or typical of a group of people“ (Tesch, 1984, in Merriam and Associates, 2002, p. 93). Considering the definition of “Spirituality” in this study as concluded in Chapter 2,

Spirituality is an innate part of a person. It is an awareness or consciousness of the surrounding world, a sense of compassion and love towards this world and anything in it shown through wonder. It may include a relationship with a transcendent being, who can also be immanent in the individual. Most often in Western tradition this being is called God,

it would appear that spirituality is an important psychological phenomenon. However, this definition is derived mainly from texts about adult spirituality with a few exceptions like Montessori (1949), Myers (1997) and Steiner (1965). The aim of the present study is to determine the phenomenon of young children’s spirituality. The question arises then: Is the definition typical for young children as well? From observing young children over several years, I have found that children are indeed aware of the world around them. They show love, compassion, care and empathy and similar spiritual characteristics towards their world (FN, 1999). Many children have knowledge about a transcendent being and are able to express this knowledge (Bindl, 1965; Harms, 1944; Giesenberg, 1996; Goldman, 1964; Kay, 1997; Kjellgren, 1987). But an important question is: do children have an actual relationship with a transcendent being as defined in my definition about adult’s spirituality – or is young children’s spirituality different from adult’s spirituality in that particular aspect.

Stewart and Mickunas (1990) say that phenomenology does not limit investigations to those realities that are objective in a materialistic or naturalistic sense. Berdyaev (1935) 111

claims that spiritual life is not a reality of the same order as physical or psychological life, but even then it is of the natural world. He states that a person’s spiritual life is a historical life, dealing with the culture and historical background in which the individual lives. If this is true in young children’s spirituality as well, then a researcher must look at the cultural context in which the child is at the time of the research. It is necessary to take into consideration the children’s early childhood setting, their peer group, their family, their play, and their artwork. It is also important to consider their cognitive, emotional, moral, creative, self, social, physical and faith development while realising that no one theory does it all. Each individual theory is an incomplete structure: any given theory is a strand in the Whariki (see Appendix 3.9) or a section of the human being as illustrated in Figure 6 (p. 28). In describing young children’s spirituality, it would appear that there could be a historical context of cumulative knowledge, which is not necessarily a sequential context, but one in which there is a Geschichte (a story). This Geschichte consists of previous and current generations’ systems of meanings, language(s), philosophy, religion, education, art and their cultural structures (Berdyaev, 1935; Hegel, 1807; Stewart & Mickunas, 1990).

All data in phenomenological research have equal value at the initial analysis stage, and are then clustered into themes while removing repetitious statements (Merriam et al., 2002), similar to the coding referred to in Grounded Theory above. Merriam et al. (2002) claim that the phenomenological interview is the primary method of data collection, where other writers also emphasise diaries, and written texts from the participants as equally important data (Ehrich, 2003; Moustakas, 1994; Stewart & Mickunas, 1990; van Manen, 1984; Woodruff Smith, 2003), thus indicating that the studies referred to had adult participants, and not young children as is the case in the present study. Beekman (1983) and Fahlman (2002) write about children’s experiences in their phenomenological writings: that they observed children, played with them, and looked at paintings and drawings made by the children, which is exactly what I did during my field visits.

When looking at data in Phenomenological research, Moustakas (1994, p. 58-59) suggests nine core principles that the researcher should consider: 1) focus on the appearance of things, 2) phenomenology is concerned with wholeness, 3) seek meaning from appearances through personal intuition and reflection, 4) describe experiences and thus keep the phenomenon alive for the reader, 5) keep the research personal, 112

autobiographical and with a dimension of discovery, 6) subject and object are integrated – the researcher’s perception is important, as is the participants’ perceptions, 7) the intersubjective reality is part of the phenomenological process, 8) the data of experience, the researcher’s own thinking, reflecting and judging are primary evidences of scientific investigation, and 9) the focus of the study must be formulated in the research question in order to capture the reader’s attention immediately. One main focus in Phenomenology appears to be the point that the researcher’s reality and perception of the phenomenon being investigated is as important as that of the participants, whereas in Grounded Theory the data gathered to the point of saturation are of the utmost importance in formulating a theory.

van Manen (2003) writes about using phenomenology when researching pedagogic tact in schools. His list of questions (2003, p. 169) can be adapted for use when investigating spirituality (the term ‘pedagogic tact’ is substituted with ‘spirituality’) as follows: What are aspects of spirituality? How does spirituality manifest itself? What does spirituality do? How does spirituality do what it does? What is the significance of spirituality for teaching?

The phenomenological Geschichte referred to above requires a story about the children’s experiences when they painted, drew, played and talked with me in their preschool settings. So how can one collect the information required to describe such a Phenomenological story? From Beekman’s (1983) and van Manen’s (2003) studies it appears that the data collection methods with participant observation recommended for Phenomenology are very similar to data collection in Grounded Theory, which was the initial research methodology. The following sections describe the approach I took in gathering this information while in the field.

3.7

Collecting the data: From the children.

I wanted to observe the children during play; play music for them and having the children draw or paint their impressions of the music and ask the children to paint or draw pictures of “love”, a “dream”, and a “beautiful day” as described in 3.4 above. Under each sub-heading I have written a brief rationale based on the literature about why this type of data was considered particularly important in relation to spirituality. During my fortnightly visits in each setting, I gained valuable insight into the children’s 113

culture at their preschool. I took part in their daily activities and I observed them and played with them, just as Dey (1999) recommends for Grounded Theory, and Beekman (1983) recommends for Phenomenology. Initially I also wanted to show the children reproductions of famous artwork, for example Rembrandt and da Vinci, like Coles (1992), Mathew (1998), Montessori (1936) and Wolf (1996) did, and have them tell me what they saw in a particular piece of artwork. Due to the challenge of having to move away from the Brisbane area described earlier, I was unable to pursue this last idea. It was also impossible to return to the field and fill in gaps in the data I did collect (FN 1999), but as will become evident in chapters 4, 5 and 6, I obtained a rich data “pool” from which I am able to describe young children’s spirituality.

The children’s artworks were coded into themes of the content: what the children told me about the pictures as illustrated in Tables 4a and 4b. I also made an interpretation of a child’s drawing stage as determined by Lowenfeld (in Brittain, 1968), Lowenfeld and Brittain (1987, in Schirrmacher, 1988), and Thomas and Silk (1990) with the broad categories

of Random

Scribbling, Controlled Scribbling, Named Scribbling,

Preschematic Drawing, and Schematic Drawing guiding my interpretations. Such drawing stages, or schemas (Gardner, 1980), give the researcher a small insight into the child’s general cognitive development (Appendix 4, rows 12 and 13). Where relevant, I have indicated these drawing stages. Gardner (1980) claims that process in development, and also in drawing, illuminates how the individual makes progress in the various domains provided by the child’s society, or the culture that person lives in (Berdyaev, 1935). It could also illustrate the religious beliefs a child has (Bindl, 1965; Goldman, 1964; Tamminen, 1991). See section 3.9 below for more information about the psychology of children’s drawings and paintings.

Many of my observations of the children taken during play situations and peer interactions are in the style of “anecdotal” records as identified by Veale and Piscitelli (1988) and Gronlund and Engel (2001). In the Macquarie Concise Dictionary (2001) an anecdote is explained as “a short narrative of a particular incident or occurrence of an interesting nature”. van Manen (2003, p. 116) recommends the use of such anecdotal records in Phenomenological writing, because they can help to “make comprehensible some notion that easily eludes us”. According to van Manen (2003) anecdotes are used to attract the reader’s attention to the issue being discussed, causing the reader to reflect on the significance of the issue. They involve the writer and the reader personally, who 114

may be transformed, touched, shaken or taught by the story. Other observation methods used are the running record, where I noted as close to verbatim as possible what the children said and did and audio taped conversations, which were then transcribed (Gronlund & Engel, 2001; Veale and Piscitelli, 1988).

I used a modified idea from Mathew (1998, Sections 2.1.3, and 3.1) of playing music for the children and then having them draw or paint what the music was like, while I made notes of their comments or reactions in anecdotal or running observations (Gronlund & Engel, 2001; Veale & Piscitelli, 1988). Mathew (1998) used sophisticated diagnostic equipment and measured the participants’ brain waves while playing music, where he concluded that the participants did have what he described as a heightened spiritual experience supported by the readings from the brain waves. I used the children’s artwork and verbal comments. In the following section this approach is described in more detail.

3.7.1 Using Music.

In three centres I initially used music that the children had heard before: Tchaikowsky’s “Swan Lake”, ABC’s Lullabies, and Terry O’Connor’s “Childlight”. I felt it was a matter of allowing the children to get used to the idea of listening to some familiar music, and to getting used to me at the same time. We would sit at a table with the music playing nearby, sometimes with the tape recorder directly on the table we were at, and use felt-tip coloured pens and A4 paper. I was surprised over the children’s choice of motifs they drew in these situations. I would also have my audio tape recorder and my notebook ready.

In the centre where Childlight was often used as background music during snack time, I had the thought that perhaps the children would associate the music with food. Many of the children painted nature items, for example rain, water, trees, flowers, a rain forest, and birds. Some painted shapes and colours and told me the music was a specific colour, and Dominic (5y6m) told me that the music went round and round and round as shown in the illustration below. Other children painted people and one child did an aboriginal painting of a crocodile. Illustration 3: Dominic’s (5y6m) illustration of O’Connor’s Childlight, which goes ‘round and round and round”. (Picture is inserted over the page). 115

Swan Lake inspired children to draw fairies, butterflies, monsters and a robot, and “Mummy and Me”. The youngest child in that group drew “the music when it stops”. The Lullabies had a similar spread of motifs: nature, people, and colours or “named scribble”, but no one drew any motifs relating to rest time, which was situations when these two pieces of music were used as background music in their respective centres.

With these observations and the corresponding artwork from the children, I decided that I would extend the collection of information by using music that was unknown to the children. Mathew (1998) had used gentle classical music in his research, and I had a tape with gentle chamber music where a recorder was the soloist instrument: Mikala Petri’s (1980) Recorder Concertos: Vivaldi/Sammartini/Teleman/Händel.

I generally found that the children would spend longer time doing their artwork when listening to this music, than they did with the familiar pieces of music (FN, 1999). They would incorporate the rhythm of the music in their movements while drawing and they would comment more often about the music having colours. However, their choices of motifs were similar: nature, weather, people, shapes and colours. In Chapter 5 I discuss these findings in detail and their relationship to young children’s spirituality.

3.7.2 Asking children to paint or draw “love”, “a dream” and “a beautiful day”

With most of the literature about spiritual traits or characteristics (Appendix 1) stating that showing love, or loving kindness, is an important spiritual characteristic, I decided to use the approach of asking the children directly to paint or draw what ‘love’ is. I used no special aids with these observations apart from my audio recorder and my notebook. The children worked mainly at the painting easels in their setting and painted on A3 paper or sometimes A2 paper. In one setting the children painted seated at a table using A4 paper and very fine brushes.

About half of the children’s artwork and their corresponding comments regarding ‘love’ showed that the children associated love with relationships between people. Most often this was between the child and the child’s parents. At times it included siblings or grandparents, and on one occasion the painting included the child’s teacher. One of these paintings was used as the cover illustration on the journal Bedrock (Giesenberg, 2000b), which I was both pleased about and humbled over - pleased for the child artist’s 116

sake - humbled that a piece of data from my study had received such recognition from the journal editor. Other main topics were nature phenomena like rain, rainbows, animals, including a ‘blutterfly’, and storms. Some paintings featured love hearts, and some children made the statement that ‘love’ is colours. In Chapter 5 I describe these findings in detail with my interpretations about the children’s spirituality in regard to ‘love’.

Illustration 4: Love is “People hugging together” by Jade (4y0m) (Picture inserted over the page)

Dreams are seen as part of a person’s personal mythology and how mythology in general affects a person’s behaviour (Sartore, 1991). He explains that myths attempt to explain how nature works, and that myth, religion and fairy tales are the cultural DNA dealing with basic human issues in life and death, lifestyle, values and priorities. Sartore claims that dreams, ritual and perceptions affect thought. Price and Haynes (1997) see dreams as a way of reflecting on a day’s events and using this reflection to learn from the events and become better equipped psychologically to deal with something similar at a later time. Subbotsky (1992) sees the world of dreams as a different reality to the waking life: dreams are strange and illogical, but also magic. In our dreams we continue to strive for our goals and fear failure. But in our waking life we also dream: we can sit and watch nature and become magically transformed and lost in thought (Subbotsky, 1992). Price and Haynes (1997) regard dreams as a symbolic part of a person’s spiritual journey and claim that often spiritual development is being repressed in Western societies, because dreams are being rationalised to at best amusing throwback to primitive times, or at worst to a realm of demons. In their guide to understanding dreams, Price and Haynes suggest that the person writes down the dream, or draw it. They claim that it is the therapeutic value that is important in drawing the dream and not the technical abilities of the process, as this can distract from the dream itself.

With some of the literature emphasising that dreams are important parts of a person’s spirituality as outlined above, I decided to use Prince and Haynes (1997) suggestion of drawing. I consequently asked the children to draw a dream for me. We used felt tip pens and A4 paper, and the children told me about their pictures. In one setting the children wanted to paint rather than draw - the teacher had just provided some new

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paints that they were yet to use - so I quietly put my A4 paper and the felt tip pens away and followed the children’s lead (FN, 1999).

Many of the pictures about dreams depict natural phenomena: moon, stars, sun, rain, and animals. Some had monsters in them, both ‘good’ monsters and ‘bad’ monsters. A great deal of the pictures feature people: most often family members, but also friends, me as the researcher, and the teacher. One child drew her imagination; another drew his cat in heaven, “because it is dead”. Chapter 5 has illustrations and interpretations about these fascinating pictures.

Illustration 5: Saskia’s (4y8m) dream about a kind monster (Picture inserted over the page)

“Beauty” is defined in the Macquarie Concise Dictionary (2001) as the quality or characteristic which excites an admiring pleasure, or delights the eye or the aesthetic sense, and beautiful is having or exhibiting beauty. Schirrmacher (1988) emphasises that it is important for young children to be exposed to aesthetics as part of their daily activities. Adults around them must allow children the time to wonder about and contemplate what they see, hear and touch. At the same time the adults must be aware of not imposing personal preferences. Schirrmacher (1988) recommends setting up the children’s classroom in aesthetically pleasing arrangement in ways that are non-cluttered and orderly, using plants and displays with fragile art objects as well as the educational equipment required in the classroom.6

Montessori (1949; 1955) used reproductions of great painters like Rembrant and da Vinci in her classrooms, and claimed that by seeing such art around them, the children developed a sense of beauty, and that it was a way in which the spiritual embryo would develop further. Moore (1992) claims that a person’s soul is nurtured by beauty - it is a necessary part of ordinary life, even if it can be considered mundane, such as enjoying the fresh smell of clean clothes on a clothes line. Bowley and Townroe (1953) claim that young children are extraordinarily perceptive of beauty, which is a view shared by Haiman (1991). He also states that once a child’s emotions have been aroused in regard to the beautiful, the excitement of the new and unknown, and feelings of love, sympathy, 6

This corresponds with Montessori’s (1949) observation that young children have a sensitive period where order is developed. 118

admiration and pity, then such feelings will have lasting meaning for the child. Moore (1992) appears to have a similar view that a person’s soul is nurtured by beauty, which is a necessary part of ordinary life. See also section 2.4.7 on Soul.

These statements about children’s sense of the aesthetics, and Maslow’s (1964, Appendix 1) inclusion of beauty as one of the being-values for an individual had me wondering if there is a connection between the concept of “beautiful” and young children’s spirituality. I asked the children to make me pictures of a beautiful day. In three settings the children painted, and in the fourth setting they drew pictures for me. When I asked the children to paint or draw a ‘beautiful day’, I had my note book and my audio recorder at hand.

The vast majority of the children’s artwork included nature items: sun, rainbows, plants, animals, and one included a little orange alien on a beanstalk. The second largest section included people: the child artist, a family member or myself as the researcher. Five paintings depicted fire, ghosts, monsters, baddies and dragons. Two paintings were of special days the child had been part of: one was about the excursion to the Boondall Wetland Reserve (see 4.4 above), the other was about a fun day at the centre with someone selling lunches and the merry-go-round.

Illustration 6:

Alick’s (4y6m) tree with leaves, a fireplace and an orange sun

(Picture inserted over the page)

In Chapter 5 I look at these paintings in detail, including those about monsters, ghosts, baddies and fires, which to the adult reader may seem to be in contrast with the characteristics of spirituality as identified in Appendix 1.

3.7.3 Observing the children at play.

One of the major early childhood educators, Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) argued strongly that young children should play in a setting that would allow them to grow and thrive, i.e. in a Kindergarten (a German word meaning a children’s garden). In that setting they would learn skills that would assist them throughout life (Froebel, 1900). In the century and a half since Froebel’s educational philosophy about kindergartens was first implemented, numerous studies have been undertaken in regard to the importance 119

of play in children’s development in several of the developmental areas mentioned in Appendix 3. Examples of such studies are published in text collections like Bruner, Jolly and Sylva’s (1978) PLAY, Its Role in Development and Evolution, and in Saracho and Spodek’s (1998) Multiple Perspectives on Play in Early Childhood Education.

The importance of play in spirituality is highlighted by writers like Berryman (1997), Cram, (1996), Dowling (2005), Elkind (1988), Hyers (1996), Kjellgren (1987), Muscari, 2006; Myers (1997), Smith (1941) and Subbotsky (1992). They all claim that for a child’s spirituality to grow and develop, a child must be allowed to play and contemplate the situations the child may be in at a given time. Hyers (1996) argues that play continues throughout a person’s life, and that without play a person’s spirit becomes dull and loses spontaneity. Vygotskij (1982) says that in play the child is free, and that play is the young child’s main activity. Haiman (1991) adds that for a child to develop sense of wonder (see 2.7.3) the child must be allowed to play. Vandenberg (1998) claims that play is not only about developing skills, acquiring information, or exercising cognitive functions. It is also about being and not being, about real and not real, thus tying in with the claim that spirituality is ‘being’ as discussed in the literature review.

In all four settings I observed the children at play. They allowed me to observe their play, and often they would invite me to join them. At times they asked me to go away, thus exercising their right to be their own gatekeepers, which I did, and then I observed or participated in another play situation elsewhere instead. The play observations are anecdotal, running records, and taped conversations depending on my level of involvement in the play: sometimes I watched, other times I was part of the game. Other times again I was the big person who could push the smaller ones on the swing:

Observation Carl (4y3m) has asked AG to push him on the swing: "Can you please push me on the swing?" He repeated 'please', "'cause if you want something you have to say 'please'. That's what my mummy says". AG pushes him on the swing for a while, occasionally letting the swing slow down as they are talking. They talk about 'please' and 'thank you' - C brought up the topic. AG suggests that it is a 'courteous' thing to do to say 'please' and 'thank you'. C wants to know what that word means. He smiles, as AG says that it is another word for 'polite': "I know that word!"

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After a while AG sits down on the edge of the swing area, taking out her notebook, writing in it. RT (4y6m) comes over and sits down on the swing next to C’s swing. They both swing slowly back and forth. C:

Are you writing down what we talk about?

AG:

Yes, because I want to remember what you tell me about 'please' and 'thank-you'. Why do you say those words sometimes?

C:

'Cause you want something - then you say please - and when you get it you say thank you. That's politely.

AG:

Do you only say those words when you want things or get things?

C:

No - just now I don't want something - I just wanted you to push me, and you did!

AG:

That's right -

In Chapter 5 I present a detailed analysis of what Carl told me in this observation and further on in that conversation. Here it serves as an illustration of how the children allowed me to participate in their activities in a setting. 3.8

Collecting the data: From the parents and the teachers.

I wanted to ensure that I got the best possible data base to work from in my study by including information from other sources than the children themselves. I wanted to include the children’s parents and teachers as well. Research methodology writers like Delamont (1992), Burns, 1990), Strauss and Corbin (1990, 1994) and Glesne and Peshkin (1992) call this method ‘triangulation’. However, Wolcott (1990a) advises the researcher to emphasise that, even when using such methods, the data sources are limited. As indicated above (3.3) thirty-one parents gave further information in informal conversations, and forty-two returned the Rating Scale (Appendix 9) from a total of 56 families, whose children participated throughout the time I spent in the field.

3.8.1 Rating Scales for parents

In child observation a Rating Scale is considered a quick and accurate method of ‘painting a picture’ of a child at a given point in time (Veale & Piscitelli, 1988). The Rating Scale in this study (Appendix 9) was designed using the literature about spirituality as discussed in Chapter 2, despite the majority of literature dealing with adult spirituality. The design allowed busy parents to rate the number of times by a tick when 121

they observed a particular behaviour in regard to their child's spirituality. It also allowed for parents to write an anecdotal record relating to the behaviour if they so wished. Some parents ticked behaviours as they noticed them in their child, other parents wrote anecdotal observations for each item on the Rating Scale, and yet others used a combination of the two methods.

The only parental concern I encountered throughout the time in the field was from a parent in response to the Rating Scale. He had the perception that the study was nonreligious, and therefore he queried the inclusion of the statement “Talking about God or Supreme Being” (Appendix 9). He was also concerned that perhaps I was teaching the children religious concepts. I was able to show him the paintings and drawings made by his child in relation to music experiences and in play. I emphasised that the children were my teachers - I was there to learn from the children. I explained to him that a large part of the literature about adult spirituality seems to concern religious spirituality, and that my aim was to determine young children’s spirituality. Following this conversation he was happy for his child to continue in the study (FN, 1999). In Chapter 4 the findings from the Rating Scales are discussed in detail with references to the literature as relevant.

3.8.2 Conversations with parents

In qualitative studies the researcher is often advised to interview participants (see for example Hatch, 1990; Moustakas, 1994; Pressley, Van Etten, Yokoi, Freebern, and Van Meter, 1998; Strauss & Corbin, 1990, 1994; Tuckman, 1994; van Manen, 1984). The interviews should be audio taped when possible, and then transcribed which has also happened in this study (see 3.4 above).

Although parents were not the actual participants in this study, I wanted their input as well in regard to young children’s spirituality. The main reason was that the parents knew their children much better than I could ever do, and another was that parents would be able to discuss some of the issues raised in the literature with the adults’ level of understanding and corresponding vocabulary (see 3.1 above). I found that the conversations with parents, both the informal quick ‘hello’ type conversations when I met parents at their children’s settings as they were bringing or picking up their children, and the planned conversations which were audio-taped if parents gave their consent for 122

this to happen, turned out to be valuable sources of data. The quick conversations were noted in my Field Notes (FN, 1999). Twenty-six parents gave further information in informal, but planned conversations where we had made a mutually convenient time to meet. During these discussions the parent had the opportunity to look at the artwork, and we talked using the guiding questions in Appendix 8 as a framework for the conversation. Some of the discussions took place in the child’s home, a couple took place in the parents’ workplace, and the majority took place in the individual settings that the children attended.

van Manen (2003) uses interviews, daily accounts and stories in determining themes in his studies, and gives the researcher ideas about how to isolate such themes in the material available: the wholistic, the selective, or the detailed approach. In Chapter 6 I follow some of this advice and draw out information the parents gave me during these conversations.

3.8.3 Collecting the data: From the Teachers.

The data collected from the teachers is mainly in the form of anecdotal notes in my Field Notes (FN, 1999). One teacher completed a Rating Scale (Appendix 9) for the children in her setting, and the remaining three teachers gave me verbal information about some of the points on the Rating Scale. One of the teachers mentioned that she felt inadequate in giving me the information asked for in the Rating Scale, as she felt that it was up to the parents to note such things in their children (FN, 1999). In one setting there was a change of teacher for a period of four months as the regular teacher was on leave, so that limited the data from the teaching staff in that setting. Wolcott’s (1990a) caution that data sources are sometimes limited turned out to be so in regard to data from teachers.

3.9

The Psychology of Children’s Paintings and Drawings.

Further to 3.7 above about how I have interpreted the children’s artwork in relation to drawing stages and the children’s choice of motifs, I here provide a brief outline of a small selection of some of the literature available on the psychology of young children’s paintings and drawings.

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Cram (1996) claims that documents like drawings are knowledge when working with children: they are not precursors to the child’s knowledge. Lewis and Greene (1983) say that a picture is worth a thousand words, but when telling the story of childhood, pictures give voice to words that will never be spoken. Children may use one colour only, or they may use all the colours available. Lewis and Greene (1983) give hints on what choices of colour may mean, but warn the analyser not to expect to be 100% correct, as analysis differs from one researcher to the next. Bachmann (1985) states that in young children’s artwork, realistic colour choices are not important, nor should a researcher be concerned with perspective, size proportions, or backgrounds in a child’s pieces of artwork. Rather, the important features in young children’s art are usually those the child paints first or those that are biggest, a point also made by Gardner (1980). Lowenfeld (in Brittain, 1968) sums this up by saying that the child draws only what is significant at the time - whether a person is a complete person to the adult eye, or whether the drawn person only has a head and legs and arms. Thomas and Silk (1990) call such people ‘tadpole’ people, thus indicating that there is still cognitive development to take place, but that the basic foundation is present. Further to young children’s drawings of people, Schirrmacher (1988) points out that the correct placement of body parts in a drawing is not important for the artist. Rather, it is the fact that the parts, the child find important at the time, are included.

Vygotskij (1982) says that young children, in producing a drawing, often incorporate gestures of what the chosen art object can do, for example by symbolising the sting of a mosquito: the child will stab the air or the paper with the pencil during the drawing process. I saw this phenomenon several times while collecting data. In one instance a child (Ji-Shen, 3y10m) painted a BIG happy monster for me and jumped up with arms stretched out, brush in hand, while telling me that the monster was BIG. Another child painted a detailed grid on his paper. This was roads, but then he quickly painted all over the grid saying a storm had wrecked the roads, and that had made the men sad, because ‘they love making roads’ (Cedrick, 5y2m).

In the following chapters (Chapter 4, 5 and 6) I present examples and analysis of the data collected. Chapter 4 gives the data from the parents in relation to the Rating Scales. Chapter 5 discusses the data from the children represented by observations and artwork. Chapter 6 presents the data from the conversations with parents where they elaborate on information given in the Rating Scales and view their child’s artwork. 124

CHAPTER 4.

YOUNG CHILDREN AND SPIRITUAL BEHAVIOUR

“Spirituality inhabits the being. It is expressed through the being. …. Caring for the spiritual life of children might in turn enhance our awareness of our own spiritual life.” Elaine Champagne (2003, p.52): “Being a Child, a Spiritual Child.”

4.

Introduction

This chapter describes the data provided by parents in response to the Rating Scale as presented in Appendix 9. Each item on the Rating Scale refers to a spiritual behaviour observed in adults as identified in the literature discussed in Chapter 2. The items were included in the Rating Scale with the intent to identify whether such behaviour is also part of children’s spirituality. The data and literature inform the interpretation of the data. Parent responses to the Rating Scale are discussed. Each individual item on the Rating Scale is a sub-section, which has a brief introduction to the phenomena seen from the literature about adult spirituality. Examples from parental responses are used to highlight particularly interesting or similar spiritual traits in young children.

For technical reasons all illustrations of children’s artwork are clustered together at the end of Chapter 7 following page 268.

4.0

Rating Scales.

All parents of the 57 participating children were given a copy of the Rating Scale (Appendix 9) about two months into the data collection year. Forty-two (75%) of these were returned, which is considered to be a high response ratio (Burns, 1990). The Rating Scale was designed so parents needed only to tick when they observe a particular behaviour in regard to their child's spirituality thereby rating the frequency of the behaviour occurring. It also allowed for parents to write an anecdotal record relating to the behaviour if they so wished. Some parents ticked behaviours as they noticed them in their child, other parents wrote anecdotal observations for each item on the Rating Scale, and yet others used a combination of the two methods. Some parents noticed all behaviours in their child, many several times during the week in

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question, and other parents recorded some behaviours only, whilst commenting to the teacher or researcher that the response might be different in another week (FN, 1999). In reality the Rating Scale became an observation checklist for parents. However, the term Rating Scale will be used throughout the thesis.

An overview of responses to the Rating Scales is presented in Table 2 (over the page). It should be noted that due to the different ways in which parents recorded their child's behaviours, it is not possible to calculate the number of ticks in relation to how many children displayed a particular behaviour. For example, several parents ticked relevant behaviours and wrote comments such as a lot, several times, often. Such comments were only counted as one tick as there was no indication of actual numbers.

In the following discussion each item on the scale will be looked at, starting with a brief introduction of why this item was included on the Rating Scale as a specifically spiritual item as identified from the literature. Examples from the responses are used to highlight particularly interesting or similar spiritual traits in young children.

4.1

Watching a natural phenomenon.

This item was included to illustrate a person's awareness and wonder. As earlier indicated in the literature, wonder is considered to be an important spiritual trait (Beck, 1986; Beekman, 1983; Carson, 1956; Dalai Lama, 2000; Latham, 1996; Montagu, 1986; Nye & Hay, 1996;, Sheldrake & Fox, 1997). Sheldrake (in Sheldrake and Fox, 1997, p.157) says that "the philosopher, the poet and the scientist all begin with wonder", and Carson (1956) recommends that adults share the young child's wonder, thereby, as an adult, rediscovering the joy, excitement and mystery of the surrounding world.

When a person is aware of the world, such awareness is often characterised by a complete absorption in the situation. This is described by Csikszentmihalyi (1992, 1997) as a FLOW experience where the person is merging action and awareness, and worries and concerns are temporarily suspended, but where memory and behaviour may later change through the accessibility of new information (Chalmers, 1996).

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Behaviour observed (Headings from Rating

Times

Number of

Scale, Appendix 6)

observed (ticks

children

or comments) Watching a natural phenomenon

89

35 children

Showing love towards another person

184

42 children

Showing awareness of mysterious things

41

22 children

Expressing hope about the future

62

26 children

Wondering about things he/she doesn't

100

35 children

Expressing joy

137

41 children

Talking about God or Supreme Being

36

22 children

Talking about heaven or life after death or

29

20 children

Displaying creative abilities

164

37 children

Listening carefully to self and others

112

34 children

Talking about 'soul' or 'consciousness'

1

1 child

Showing interest in world events & their effects

46

19 children

55

33 children

understand

previous lives

on people Showing interest in life and death TABLE 2. Parental responses recorded by the number of 'ticks' or comments on the returned Rating Scales, and the number of children displaying the behaviours.

Most parents (35 out of 42) responded that they had observed their children watching a natural phenomenon. The most common phenomena were watching rainbows, sunsets or sunrises, and stars and the moon, directing the parents' attention to the phenomena. One parent told about sitting with his child (Damien, 4y0m) under an umbrella in light rain watching a rainbow and the lights being turned on on the Story Bridge (a main bridge over the Brisbane River). This child is normally a very active child, at least in his preschool setting (FN, 1999), but on this occasion he sat with his

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father for almost 20 minutes being very still for most of the time just watching. Another child Sheree (3y4m) watched the family’s guineapig giving birth and wondered about this experience for several days. These examples seem to be FLOW experiences such as Csikszentmihalyi (1997) describes.

Many of the parental observations about their children being aware of natural phenomena include animals - observing their children watching and being acutely aware of birds, plants, "Jewel Bugs" (most likely Hibiscus Harlequin Bugs), green tree frogs and moth eggs on a window pane. Racheal (5y10m) wondered about the feelings of horses in the paddock after a cold night. Such observations were common for all age groups of children in the study, ranging between 3y2m to 6y6m.

4.2

Showing love towards another person.

Throughout the literature reviewed there is strong emphasis that love and a person's ability to give and receive love are important parts of that person's spirituality (for example Appendix 1; Allport, 1966; Champagne, 2003; Cram, 1996; Dalai Lama, 1996, 2000; Farran et al., 1989; Fox., 1990; Gilbert, 1996; Grønbæk, 1962; Haiman, 1991; James, 1981; James, 1996; Lindsay, 2002; Maslow, 1964; Montagu, 1989; Muscari, 2006; Nye & Hay, 1996; Peck, 1978; Rahula, 1978; Robinson, 1977; Smart, 1996; Sutherland, 1992; Wilber, 1997).

Such love includes a sense of compassion towards other people (Dalai Lama, 2000; Edwards, 1995; Fox, 1990; Rahula, 1978; Silverman, 2000; Steiner, 1913), and a strong commitment to care for the world in an ecological and political sense (e.g. Coward, 1995; Roof, 1994; Sölle, 1990; Yunupingu, 1995). In the Rating Scale the concept of 'love' was phrased to involve only a relationship with other people.

All parents (42/42) reported their children showing love towards people, usually themselves or siblings. Responses such as hugging us all the time, kissing & hugging, very affectionate and cuddles every day were used often. This is also the section with most ticks (184 in total). Alick (4y6m) commented to his mother that she was very lucky having three boys to hold hands with when walking, and that she would never run out of hands to hold. This is also the section where parents reported their children

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showing compassion towards other people. RT (4y8m) covered his younger brother of 2y1m with a blanket when he had fallen asleep on the floor, and Angus (6y0m) fetched a glass of water for his sick brother while telling his mother to stay with the sick brother. Situations, in which the children had shown love towards other people outside their immediate family, included the child's teacher and friends with Jane (6y4m) taking almost 45 minutes to complete writing a letter to her teacher saying that she loves the teacher.

Considering that spirituality is being aware of the world and its needs (Fox, 1990), such awareness has implications for the children's actions: they care for one another and show gentleness, love and compassion towards peers and family members. In the Rating Scales there seems to be a trend that spirituality, as an awareness or consciousness of the surrounding world expressed through love and compassion, is a generic part of a person regardless of age. One aspect of a child's understanding of 'love' is the realisation by the child that other people show love as well. This aspect was expressed by Annabel’s (4y2m) mother who wrote that Annabel is "internalising the fact that our love for her will remain no matter what happens". The responses from parents about the spirituality trait of love confirm one of the aspects in the definition of spirituality underpinning this study: That spirituality is a sense of compassion and love towards this world and everything in it.

4.3

Showing awareness of mysterious things.

The concept of mystery was included in the Rating Scale as an important spiritual item relating to how people handle things that cannot be explained. Myers (1997) says mystery is something, which is beyond what we can name and understand at any given time, and it cries out for a spirited and open-minded exploration. In a religious sense it is that awe and wonder a person feels towards a chosen divinity (Otto, 1923), and reported in children through Bindl's (1965) study of 8205 children's religious experiences as discussed in the literature review earlier. Nye and Hay (1996) claim that mystery is a jolt to a person's ability to perceive patterns and categorise into manageable chunks. They suggest that it is important, also for children, to ponder about the meaning of a person's existence: Who am I? Where do I belong? To whom

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or what am I connected?

However, it is also important to ponder about the

surrounding world through wonder (Siejk, 1995).

The responses in this section were generally reported by ticks only (41) from parents of 22 children. Comments were made about fairies, monsters, imaginary friends, and ghosts. Annabel (4y2m) was very concerned about monsters in the dark and Virginia’s mother commented that her Virginia (4y4m) was in "a magical age" where creatures hatch out of seedpods. Two parents mentioned religious belief in this section with Jarrod (5y2m) praying often and Daniel (4y2m) constantly asking questions about God and Jesus. Another two parents said their children were very curious about the world and would ask questions about electricity and wind. There were no comments about the meaning of a person's existence. This could indicate that young children may not be as interested in existential questions as some adults are reported to be (Helminiak, 1996; Peck, 1998; Roof, 1994).

4.4

Expressing hope about the future.

As with all other items on the Rating Scale being considered important aspects of adult spirituality, hope about the future was included in an attempt to determine the importance in children's spirituality. Beck (1986), Silverman (2000) and Smith (1941) consider hope to be an important part of a person's spirituality and religious beliefs. Seeing hope from a psychological perspective, Farran et al. (1989) define hope as sources from which a person has gained courage and beliefs. They also see hope as spiritual growth, which has led a person to expand or alter spiritual functioning. In a nursing context, hope is seen as the care shown by others towards the sick person (Dyson et al., 1997), and the immeasurable energy exchanged between an individual and the environment. Myers (1997) claims that young children nurture their understanding of hope in the context of their immediate family. This happens regardless of an experience being negative, because the child has sufficient energy to search for positive aspects, i.e. gaining hope that "one can transcend the present situation" (Myers, 1997, p.15).

Twenty-six children were said to have expressed hope about the future (62 ticks). Several comments related to the children growing older and choosing a career.

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Morgan (4y0m) wants to become an actor or a magician. Gordon (4y0m) wants to be a driver of an excavator or a chef. A dedicated young soccer player, Angus (6y0m) wants to become so good at the sport that he'll be as famous as Michael Jordan. Three children (William, 6y8m, Hannah, 5y0m and Jane, 6y4m), who all had pregnant mothers, expressed their thoughts about the coming babies and how they were going to help their mothers. Dominic (5y6m) expressed hope in his daily prayers and asked when Jesus is coming home, as well as wanting no pain or war for anyone.

With almost two thirds of the children having expressed hope about the future, both in the context of growing older, but also in a more altruistic and religious sense, it seems that this spiritual trait is also important for young children, as well as it is for adults as mentioned in the literature.

4.5

Wondering about things he/she doesn't understand

As earlier described (section 2.7.3) wonder and imagination are seen in the literature as the most important spiritual characteristics a child possesses (e.g., Hill, 1990; Nye and Hay, 1996; Siejk, 1995). The ability to wonder about one's world assists children in understanding and coping with their place in the world (Latham, 1996); they should be allowed time to reflect, enjoy and wonder (Hill, 1990); and comprehend that life is sacred and wondrous, even in non-religious settings (Elkins et al., 1988).

Berryman (1997) sees wonder as contemplation paralleled with Csikszentmihalyi's (1992) FLOW theory in which an experience is worth having for itself. King (1985) recommends that children should be allowed to practise acts of awareness to develop the sense of wonder. Carson (1956, p. 42) wants every child to have a sense of wonder "so indestructible that it will last throughout life, as an antidote against boredom ... the sterile preoccupation with things artificial [and] the alienation from the sources of our strength". Carson believes that by preserving the sense of wonder and awe in a child, the child gains a reserve of strength, which will last throughout life. The majority of these writers refer to children's ability to wonder while recommending that adults allow themselves to wonder together with children (Carson, 1956; Dowling, 2005; Latham, 1996).

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This section on the Rating Scale had a total of 100 ticks from 35 of the 42 children with parents making comments like "always asking questions" and "a constant state" being common. Kirsten’s (6y6m) mother wrote that her daughter was constantly asking questions about things happening, noticing many things that the parent as an adult would take for granted. It could be that the parent, through working with the Rating Scale, realised that questioning is not only a matter of intellectual development, but also has importance in spiritual development.

Children wondered about human development from birth to old age:
"Was I in your tummy when I was a baby" (Ji-Shen, 3y10m)
"Not wanting me [parent] to grow old like Granny Rose" (Hazel, 4y6m)
Gordon (3y10m) watched an ultra sound on TV and wanted to know how doctors can see inside people.
Ji-Shen (3y10m) wondered about how it can rain when it is dark, and also asked about planets and meteorites.
Saskia (4y8m) wondered about witches, which “aren’t real, but I am scared of them - they will make me die”.

It appears that children in the study are wondering a lot about the world around them. It also appears that parents are doing their best to wonder together with the child, as well as giving explanations where appropriate, just as suggested in the literature mentioned above.

4.6

Expressing joy.

Joy and the expression of joy are seen in the literature as important spiritual characteristics. Haiman (1991) emphasises the importance of children feeling loved so that they can freely express joy and wonder together with trusted adults. This is a similar view to that of Kavelin-Popov, Popov and Kavelin (1995) who claim that joy comes from what is happening inside a person. Csikszentmihalyi (1992) says that happiness is a condition, which must be prepared for and nurtured. He also says that joy, concentration, absorption and a sense of accomplishment are parts of a person's best moments in life (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). Silverman (2000) recommends that a person should accept gifts and compliments with joy and avoid saying “but” as if one

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is putting a condition to the compliment. Goleman (1980) describes joy as a healthy psychological factor in Buddhist philosophy, and the Dalai Lama (2000) claims that material goods alone cannot provide full satisfaction or joys for the individual (Wijers, 1990). Goleman (1996) advocates for the use of emotional intelligence, in which he includes joy, and explains what physiological impact joy has on a person’s body with a sense of quiescence which gives the body rest, thus causing readiness and enthusiasm for tasks ahead. With these thoughts about joy as a spiritual concept within both children and adults, parents of children in the present study were asked to note their children's expressions of joy.

The 137 ticks about expressing joy constitute the third most frequently noted behaviour in 41 children. It was a surprise to me that the remaining child was not reported by her parents as having expressed joy. I have several times noticed this child (4y8m) express joy; smiling and playing well with peers at the preschool she attends (FN, 1999). For the group as a whole, comments such as a lot, expresses joy easily and often and constant state were common in the replies. Music and singing were mentioned for Beatrice (5y6m) and Faith (4y6m). Gordon (3y10m) loves watching cartoons on TV, particularly some he had not seen before. Being together with family members or looking forward to father coming home from work were also common among the children's expressions of joy. Beatrice’s mother commented on the Rating Scale in regard to her daughter’s humming: “she seems to connect with deeper state of herself.”

Gordon (3y10m) had expressed joy on the accomplishment of climbing a tree, which was seen by the parent as a difficult task. It seems that this mastery was similar to FLOW as described by Csikszentmihalyi (1997). Dominic (5y6m) talked about being a sunbeam to everyone, and he did indeed come across as a constantly aware and happy child in his preschool setting (FN, 1999).

4.7

Talking about God or Supreme Being

Several of the texts discussed in the literature review refer to spirituality as a religious trait, where a person forms a relationship with a divinity and shows an altruistic conduct and commitment to improving life for others, the environment and oneself

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(for example Ammar, 1995; Carr, 1986; Coward, 1995; Dalai Lama, 2000; Doran, 1988; Foster, 1987; Fox, 1990; Kato, 1999; Lao Tzu, 1989; Levy, 1995; Palmer, 1998; Rahula, 1978; Smith, 1974; Smith, 2002; Younger & Younger, 1978).

Tamminen (1991), Bindl (1965), Harms (1944), Giesenberg (1996) and Kjellgren (1987) report children as having a strong concept of God, in these instances the Judeo-Christian God, but not necessarily having an actual relationship with the chosen divinity. Goddard (1964) reports that children in the age group 3-5 years ask the most questions about God, with Allen et al. (1982) claiming that children have a natural interest in God and an inborn sense of the divine and the numinous.

Approximately half the children (22/42) were reported to talk about God at home with a total of 36 ticks. Some parents commented that their child wanted to know anthropomorphic facts about God: where God lives, and if his footprints are in the clouds, or if he sits on top of the car. In a more abstract way, Annabel (4y2m) is encouraged to think that God loves her unconditionally welcoming all children. Paige (4y4m) believes that when a deceased friend is feeling better, he will be with God. A much younger child, Sheree (3y4m) had asked her mother who God is, which prompted a long conversation in which the child "showed great understanding & capacity for spiritual things". It appears that, according to the Rating Scales, Sheree is the only child in the study who could be described as building up a relationship with God - and she is also the youngest child. Later her mother told me that spirituality is very much a personality issue, and that it incorporates a person’s ‘soul-ishness’ (INT 13). Building a relationship with a divinity could be confusing for one Hindu child, Keshu (4y0m), who is being taught that God has many faces and lives within all of us, (see illustration in section 6.8) and that the important thing is to try to be a better person.

4.8

Talking about heaven or life after death, or previous lives.

In both Eastern and Western religions there is a belief in life after death with the main Eastern religions also emphasising a belief in life before birth (for example Ammar, 1995; Carr, 1986; Cerminara, 1967; Coward, 1995; Doran, 1988; Eason, 2005; Foster, 1987; Fox, 1990; Jones, Wainwright & Yarnold, 1989; Kato, 1999; Lao Tzu, 1989;

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Levy, 1995; Palmer, 1998; Rahula, 1978; Smith, 1974; Smith, 2002; Younger & Younger, 1978). Buddhist and Hindu belief is that death is a stage in transmigration, i.e., there is a chain of births and deaths with the hope that a person will eventually escape from this routine and get to Nirvana, a place of eternal bliss (Parrinder, 1995). This view is also put forward in anthroposophical writings: that a person's astral body has evolved in pre-existent lives and unites with the body between conception and death (Steiner, 1970, section 2.7.5). Some writers claim that Christian doctrine in the 20th century fails to recognise that Biblical Scriptures support reincarnation, that people have lived before, and that they will live again (Cerminara, 1967; Randrup & Bagchi, 2006; Teekamp, 1999; Williams, 2003c,k,l). Tamminen (1991) found that children from the age of 7 years believe in life after death with a concrete view of heaven. This last statement was found by Giesenberg (1996) to be true for younger children (3-5 years) as well.

In the present study 20 children were reported to talk with parents about heaven, the death of a family pet, burial and previous lives. In total, 28 incidents were counted. The children asked questions like "How do you know about heaven?" (Saskia, 4y8m) or "Will the [dead] butterfly become alive again?" (Kieran, 6y0m). Gordon (4y0m) saw a huge drill at some roadworks and commented: "that's how they dig holes for people to be buried in" and Angus (6y0m) said that when you die you go to America.

One very interesting aspect of comments made by one parent was the case of the child talking about a pre-existent life. In regard to the Rating Scale, Morgan (4y0m) talked to his mother about "Before I was born, I was in heaven" or "When I was a soldier". This point is further discussed in section 6.10.

4.9

Displaying creative abilities.

The Lama Sogyal Rinpoche (Miltenburg, 1990a) says that creativity is at the very core of spirituality. In quoting Buddha, the Lama Sogyal Rinpoche says that people should examine creative ideas themselves and through this process find the truth themselves. He then explains that in Buddhism creativity has three levels of enjoyment with the first being the absolute truth, the second is the field of enjoyment where everything is (art, music, creativity), and the third is the manifestation, the

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bridge between idea and action. This has a parallel in psychology, where Vygotsky (1990) claims that creativity is a necessary force of human existence, describing children's imaginary play both as an 'echo' of what they hear and see around them, but also as the reworking of such impressions. He says that without creativity a person cannot adapt to new ideas and a changing environment, that imagination is the basis of creative activity and part of all cultural life, including art, science, and technical activity. Csikszentmihalyi (1997) also emphasises the importance of enjoying what one does, suggesting that a person would not invest psychic energy - a necessary force - in pursuing new ideas, if it was not because the person had 'fun' doing it.

A Buddhist scientist, Fritjof Capra, says that "there is no science without creativity. Creativity is at the very core ... you don't create ex-nihilo ... but you create new patterns of ideas, new connections" (Capra in Maas, 1990, p. 327). This is totally in line with Gardner's (1996) view that a creative individual solves problems or poses new questions in a way which is initially unusual, but which will eventually be accepted within at least one cultural group. Newby (1996), in advocating a secular concept of spirituality, says that a person needs to have a meaningful life-narrative. This narrative requires beauty, coherence and creativity gained through struggling towards achievements in self-transcendence. Some texts tend to talk about creativity in an adult sense (for example Cameron, 2002), where Berryman (1997) compares creativity, contemplation, FLOW (Csikszentmihalyi, 1992) and play in children. Berryman (1997) says that creativity can be observed through the way in which children show puzzled faces, frowns of concentration, twisting a lock of hair, tapping feet, and the look of amazement when insight comes. Montagu (1989) claims that childhood is the period in a person’s life with maximum creativity. He defines creativity as a dialectic result between the child and the environment. In this encounter the child actively participates in the environment to the extent as the environment is allowing. Montagu further advocates that children should be allowed to daydream, as this is an important precursor for creativity in later life. Cameron (2002) gives several ideas about how an adult can work on improving any creative activities, which may lie dormant and unused since childhood, and Dowling (2005) provides corresponding ideas about enhancing children’s creativity in relation to the young child. Dowling is particularly concerned with the tendency to hurry children

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along when they are taught something new. She advocates that young children should be allowed time and opportunity to use their new-found abilities in a creative way.

The point "Displaying creative abilities" was included on the Rating Scale to determine whether this concept is part of young children's spirituality, or whether it is more a part of adult spirituality. With 164 ticks from 37 children creative abilities are certainly aspects of children's spirituality, being the second most frequently recorded behaviour parents noticed in their children.

Parents wrote comments such as draws often, loves art, has a vivid imagination, and in his/her play. There are specific examples of play situations which correspond well with Vygotsky's (1990) views of creativity: for example, making a horse from a chair (Veronica, 5y6m), making a tree and a nest from modelling clay (Angus, 6y0m), organising dollies for an imaginary feast (Sheree, 3y4m) and making mud pies (Drew, 4y10m). Other comments included telling about children's construction of things using recyclable materials and the parents' amazement at what their children could do with simple materials. All these examples show that parents were very aware of their children's creativity.

Specific examples centred around children's play with RT

(4y8m) always chatting to himself, deciding on which Super-Hero costume to wear when he goes out to save the world, and others playing with Lego and other toys. Two parents referred to creativity in a musical sense with Jane (6y4m) making a tune on the electric keyboard and playing this twice for the parent and Saskia (4y8m) is often tinkling on the piano (Saskia is also having music lessons, FN, 1999). Children also displayed creativity in everyday activities such as cooking (Drew, 4y10m), reading and writing (Racheal, 5y10m) and helping with the setting up and decorating the garage for a barbecue (Gordon, 3y10m). It appears that parents of children in this study do allow their children to test out their skills as recommended by Dowling (2005).

It appears that creative abilities certainly form a part of young children's spirituality, perhaps linking with the child's awareness and wonder of the world and everything in it as suggested in the definition of spirituality.

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4.10

Listening carefully to self and others.

Newby (1996) states that to achieve full spiritual development, a person must have a life-narrative which is meaningful to the individual, and which makes sense in a cultural context as well. Engel (1995) incorporates a person’s development from birth in the meaning-making of the person’s self through stories. She emphasises the importance of listening. Initially the baby listens to others about the baby’s self and later the child participates in making the story. With the world cultures and religions being in close contact due to advances in technology and more contact between the peoples of the world, Newby (1996) says that the mature person must critically respond to the many stories, myths, and sagas available. The person must decide which ones mediate truth - similar to the view made by the Lama Sogyal Rinpoche (Miltenburg, 1990a) above. Newby (1996) and Silverman (2000) claim that a mature person is one who has a story to tell of effort, failure, learning, pain and success. In line with this, Hyers (1996) suggests that through comedy, a person's spirituality and self are developed through the stories one hears. This also happens through the stories one tells about oneself: the embarrassing, stupid and unfortunate, but also funny, moments we tell about when together with friends, calling this the "ultimate human transubstantiation" (Hyers, 1996, p.101).

Siejk (1995) suggests that children should be encouraged to share their stories, thus promoting discovery, understanding and decision. This requires that adults working with children engage in attentive listening in silence to the children and allowing the children to critically reflect on and clarify ideas. Engel (1995) says that a listener has an important impact on the story teller in regard to the way one responds. For example, is it more important to correct the child's grammar or to find out more details about the events of the story? Myers (1997) emphasises that adults must respect children's feelings of the moment and help them name these feelings, with Cram (1996) and Eason (2005) advocating that adults must listen to children's knowledge taking care not to draw conclusions too soon in a conversation with children.

All these texts refer to the ability to listen to others. But spiritual development is also about listening to oneself and to one's chosen divinity - to meditate. In a religious

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sense meditation and prayer are seen as very important spiritual links between a believer and the chosen deity (Dalai Lama, 1996, 2000; Hay, 1985; Kinerk, 1985; Rahula, 1978; Section 2.3.11). Kelly (1995) suggests ways of using meditation in a psychotherapy setting. Kass, Friedman, Leserman, Zuttermeister and Benson (1991), studied how relaxation and meditation had a positive influence on people's general health, and Sutherland (1992) reports that the majority of the people in her study of Near Death Experiences (NDE) increased personal prayer and meditation after their NDE. King (1985) suggests that spiritual sensitivity and awareness are developed through listening to one's 'inner voice' of conscience, and that children should be given the opportunity to practise this inner listening during periods of silence and relaxation in the classroom. As discussed earlier (section 2.7.2) guided imagery, storytelling and self questioning (Hay 1985; Raban, 1990) are important methods to use in a classroom so children can learn to listen to themselves and their thoughts.

This section had 112 ‘ticks’ from the parents of 34 children, with the most common comments relating to the children listening to instructions - questioning information given, and then acting according to the way in which the child thought was appropriate. Comments were made regarding relationships with the family - daily listening to and sharing news with the family at dinner time (Jarrod, 5y2m), and helping the mother at home, realising that this was a great way of contributing to the family unit (Racheal, 5y10m). One parent wrote about her child, Kinsey (5y6m), that "she will often be quietly singing or humming to herself and looks to be in quite a meditative state (happy). She will do this when she is playing or working. She seems to connect with a deeper state of herself". Three comments related to children's play with all parents saying that the child seemed very absorbed in the play, talking and chatting to him/herself.

No comments had a religious connotation in this section, except that Jasper (5y2m) had spent 45 minutes playing with a Nativity set and then carefully wrapping all the pieces before putting them away. Prayer was mentioned in other sections above (see 4.4 and 4.7 above) and only the example above mentions meditation. All other comments were in regard to listening to others.

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4.11

Talking about 'soul' or 'consciousness'.

A person's soul and consciousness are in all areas of adult spirituality considered to be most important aspects of a person's spiritual journey (see for example: Adams, 1995; Csikszentmihalyi, 1992; 1997; Dalai Lama, 2000; Farran et al. 1989; Helminiak, 1996; Parrinder, 1995; Rahula, 1978; Teekamp, 1999; Younger & Younger, 1978). The two concepts are linked with issues of reincarnation as discussed earlier. Elkins et al. (1988) claim that it is not necessary to give up the concept of soul, even though a person might not be religious, and Fowler (1989) explains that the Greek word for 'soul' is 'psyche'. As earlier discussed (Section 2.1.4) there is tension between religious beliefs and psychotherapy (Genia, 1995; Freud, 1927 in Bettelheim, 1984; and Zinnbauer et al. 1997), but considering the linguistics about the concept of psychotherapy, there should be no such tension. In Eastern religions, Parrinder (1995) says that there is a communion with God and a person's soul, and that there are many souls, but that the soul is not consciousness. Consciousness is explained as a fundamental feature of the universe (Davies, 1995, in Adams, 1995), which a person can control to gain great satisfaction in what one does (Csikszentmihalyi, 1992; 1995). According to Siejk (1995) consciousness becomes a dynamic structure, which drives a person towards maturity and growth through wonder. Capra (Maas, 1990) claims that spirituality is part of human consciousness - part of human dimension part of human experience.

With such thoughts about adult spirituality in mind the point was included on the Rating Scale to determine whether young children mention 'soul' or 'consciousness'. However, only Virginia’s (4y4m) mother commented about this point on the Rating Scale which was to say "I don't distinguish between heart and soul, so she doesn't". It must be noted here that the Rating Scale is designed for parents to record behaviour or child-initiated conversations - not for parents to initiate conversations about the topics on the Rating Scales with their child. A couple of parents wrote 'no', with the rest leaving this section blank.

It appears that the concepts of soul or consciousness have little or no impact on young children's spirituality although it could also be that the children do not articulate these concepts. These particular aspects of spirituality seem to belong to adults only. An

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awareness of these concepts may develop later in a person's life. Further study into children's spiritual development may reveal when the concepts of soul or consciousness become important in a person's life.

4.12

Showing interest in world events and their effects on people.

Considering the political issues discussed in the literature review (sections 2.4.1 and 2.4.2), it appears that political issues and world events influence a person's spirituality. Fox (1990) says that the world is broken like Humpty Dumpty in the nursery rhyme, and that only compassion and a political change of thinking about the world can make the global village better. Rahula (1978) explains Buddha's views on politics giving guidelines on good government: that for a country to be happy, it must have a just government considering the duties of a government. Roof (1994), Cotton (1995) and Elias (1991) all consider spiritual renewal in Western countries as a reaction to political issues in which religious groups in many of these countries take part. However, Elias (1991, p. 458) warns against 'spirituality as a narcissistic flight', where a person ignores political issues in an attempt to withdraw from social problems.

Where spirituality becomes organised such as is the case in organised religions, it often becomes political (Capra, in Maas, 1990; Cotton, 1995). Myers (1997) claims that whenever spirituality is placed within the social context of a religious institution, children are placed at risk. She calls for awareness of such institutions about the children outside: those in socially deprived settings and those suffering abuse and neglect. This is reflected in Gilbert's (1996) call for Christians, black and white, to go out and start washing the feet of the people instead of strumming guitars and singing happy songs to Jesus. Myers (1997) calls for a spirituality of caring from adults towards children - recognition that adults are part of the communities in which children live, for which adults make the political and social decisions. Myers emphasises that the responsibility of these decisions is a humbling task for adults working with children, and that a spirituality of caring is political.

With 46 ticks from 19 children this item on the Rating Scale is considered important in regard to young children's spirituality. Children from as young as 3 years

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commented on school shootings in the USA: "bad men hurting people" (Sheree, 3y4m), and the Kosovo crisis. Seeing victims of major natural disasters such as the earthquake in Turkey in June, 1999 and the typhoon in the Philippines on TV and in newspapers caused several children to ask question about the feelings of the people involved. Racheal (5y10m) asked a lot of questions about war "because she doesn't understand the concept". Gordon (3y10m) said that it would be terrible if it happened to us. In the current global situation with unrest and war in the Middle East, Somalia, Afghanistan and Iraq, I wonder what impact these events shown on daily news bulletins may have on young children’s spirituality. A similar wonder is expressed by Karvelas (2004) who reports on violence against Muslims in Australia following the events of September 11, 2001.

A few children are aware of the privilege of having a surplus to give away. Beatrice (5y6m) brought a magazine to school from World Vision, wanting to tell her peers about how one can help people in trouble, and RT (4y8m) talked about the family's sponsored child in India. RT is also conscious about eating all his dinner, because he knows about poor people. It appears that only two children actually did something specific to help less privileged people. Veronica (5y6m) and Virginia (4y4m) set up a stall for poor people at the local shopping centre. There was no indication of their results, but the action shows great compassion towards people and an awareness that it is possible to contribute to the needs of other people. However, Piechowski (2003) tells of similar, but very successful stories about gifted and spiritual children instigating programs to help children in less fortunate situations than themselves.

4.13

Showing interest in life and death.

This section links strongly with 4.8 above, but is different in that it also talks about life as the period between birth and death. All religions talk about the right conduct through life (see 2.3) with Parrinder (1995) claiming that the Jains believe that the soul itself is life. In regard to death, Sutherland (1995) and Eason (2005) tell the stories of children who had Near Death Experiences (NDE) and the similarities in that these children accepted these experiences as normal, but where their significant adults saw a definite change in the children. Most children who have had a NDE do not fear death. In fact Sutherland (1995) reported one child saying that dying people should

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not fear death, because it is a beautiful place. Muscari (2005) tells of a child dying of leukaemia who told how he hoped things would turn out for his family after his death. Cram (1996) suggests that death should be a topic to be discussed openly with children, using the example of a group of 7-year old school children making up a lifeline song. It concerns a girl being a baby - growing up - getting married - having children and grand children - dying - becoming a skeleton - an angel - a devil and then nothing. Hart (1994) also challenges the notion that talking about death often is avoided, because it challenges a person's core, a view shared by Carroll (2000) and Eason (2005). Hart (1994) mentions three major concerns facing the dying person, which other people must be prepared to discuss: fear of pain, fear of abandonment and fear of loss. He suggests that to deal with death, a person needs energy, wholeness and spiritual strength. Only Sutherland (1995), Eason (2005) and Cram (1996) talk about children's understanding of death and the significance of death in regard to children's spirituality. Myers (1997) advocates talking to children about death as part of their spiritual development and emphasises that a person's self is made up of many personalities: those the child played with, family and relatives, and even those who had died long before one was born. All these people have an influence on who a person is at a given time, and that it is important for significant adults to tell stories that will connect the child with self, others, the world, and the cosmos, including stories about deceased people.

Such considerations prompted the section about life and death on the Rating Scale and with 55 ticks from 33 children it does seem to be relevant to young children's spirituality. Jane (6y4m) commented while watching her pregnant mother dressing that "that's where our baby is growing" and Virginia (4y4m) “loves birth and life” and is “not concerned about death”. Angus (6y0m) wanted to know about the little things in his tummy which would grow into babies, and was quite disappointed when told that only girls could have babies.

Gordon (3y10m) wanted to know whether people who died were crucified - other children wanted to know whether dead worms or a mouse caught in a trap would become alive again. Dominic (5y6m) wanted to give his dead fish a blood transfusion and Damien (4y0m) called a lady 'bad' because she had accidentally run over his cat with her car. Ebony (3y8m) was concerned about people she had seen on TV asking

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the parent: "Why are they like that". The parent made no comment about her reply to this question. Another child had prayed for Good health and safety & long life for his grandparents. RT (4y8m) said to his mother that it was important to visit his grandparents, because soon they'll die! Hazel (4y6m) played burial and talked about death 'quite a bit' and Veronica (5y6m) asked several questions about the death of the mother of a kindergarten friend. The death of a friend's baby concerned Jane (6y4m), when she asked why the baby died - what was wrong - why couldn't the doctors fix her?

Cram's (1996) notion of story telling (through songs) and the inclusion of death in this life story is emphasised in the comments made by Annabel (4y2m), who thinks it is sad when a character in fairy tales dies. Yet, the finality of death does not seem to concern these children, and only Daniel (4y4m) had talked with his parents about himself dying, realising that death would happen to him, too.

4.14 Concluding remarks about Rating Scales.

One parent wrote that it [filling in the Rating Scale] was much more difficult to capture than I thought, because 'there's always so much going on'. Another said that the results would have been different in another week having attached a note that explained that the week in question was not 'typical' as the mother had been working a lot away from home that week, more than she normally did.

However, from all of the data in the Rating Scales given by parents in relation to young children's spirituality, it is clear that all items, except one ('soul' and 'consciousness', 4.11), are articulated by parents as important aspects of young children's spirituality. These findings will be further discussed later in this chapter in relation to major findings from the data.

In the following Chapter (Chapter 5), I discuss the data I collected from the children during the field visits in the four centres. There are observations, artwork and conversations with the children and some references to the information discussed above.

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CHAPTER 5

DATA FROM THE CHILDREN.

“In fact we do many things with mouth closed, tongue at rest, voice in check; but we do nothing by action of the body that we have not said beforehand in the heart.” Augustine’s De Continentia. In: Gareth B. Matthews (1980, p. 106) “Philosophy & the Young Child.”

5.0

Introduction to Children’s Data.

In this chapter section data collected from the children are presented using excerpts from conversations and observations on the children, as well as using examples of the children’s artwork. Themes (as described by van Manen [2003] in phenomenological research) are identified and the children’s lived experiences are discussed in relation to literature reviewed earlier. Through the themes the phenomena of the children’s spirituality are discovered in more detail than was previously known to me.

Table 3 (over the page) shows the number of children participating, their ages at 1/9/1999 and the distribution of girls and boys. Tables 4a and 4b (p. 147 and 148) show the motifs the individual child chose for the artwork. These motifs are sorted in themes (Moustakas, 1994, van Manen, 2003). Some pieces of artwork are listed in more than one column corresponding with the individual child’s explanation about the work. Table 5 (p. 149) shows how many pieces of artwork were collected in total according to the task given. Finally, Table 6 (p. 176) shows which spiritual traits and characteristics were observed during the field visits while the children were playing and in general interaction in their early childhood settings. All tables give indications of whether a boy (Y) or a girl (X) made the artwork, or whether a boy or girl was observed.

Illustrations used are selected pieces of artwork, which have particular relevance to the topic being discussed. For technical reasons the illustrations are printed on separate pages which are inserted in a cluster following page 268.

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5.1

The Children.

Three settings had children attending aged 3-5 years, and the fourth setting had children from 3-7 years. There were a total of 65 children throughout the school year in the study. Eight (8) children left during that time. All of these eight children moved away from the area their centre was in, or moved on to the next level in their setting. There were no incidents of children being pulled out of the study for any other reasons.

Table 3 shows the distribution of girls and boys in the study. The 8 children leaving are shown in brackets, leaving a working sample group of 57 children who participated throughout the duration of the study. Approximately half of the artwork was collected before September, and the remainder after September. Therefore the ages of the children listed in all the Tables 3, 4a, 4b, 5 and 6, are ages of the children at 1/9/1999. This age was for 25 children rounded down to the nearest 2 months intervals to avoid cumbersome large tables.

Table 3.

Ages of children participating in the study. Brackets indicate children who left during the course of the study The remaining 57 children participated throughout the time period.

Ages (by 2 months)

Girls

Boys

6.8 6.6 6.4 6.2 6 years 5.10 5.8 5.6 5.4 5.2 5 years 4.10 4.8 4.6 4.4 4.2 4 years 3.10 3.8 3.6 3.4 Total 57 (8)

(x)=(1) (x)=(1) x=1 x=1

y=1 y=1 yy=2

x=1 xxx=3 x=1 x=1 xx=2 xxxxx=5 xxxx(x)=4(1) xx=2 xx(x)=2(1) xx=2 xx(x)(x)=2(2) x=1 28 (6)

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yy=2 yyyy=4 y=1 yy=2 y=1 yyyyy=5 yy=2 yy(y)=2(1) yyy(y)=3(1) yy=2 y=1

29 (2)

6y8m 6y6m

1X 1Y 1X

Love Heart/ Kiss

Rainbow

Space/ Aliens

House/ Home

Colours

Travel

Sea/ Beach

Monsters/ Dragons

Music

Happy/ Kind

Rain

Sun/ Moon/Stars

People/ Friends

Parent/s

X Y X

X

6y2m

1X 1Y 1X

XX

6y

2Y

YYYY

5y10m

1X

X

XX

3X 2Y

XXXX YYY

5y4m

1X

XX

XXXXX X YY X

5y2m

4Y

Y

YY

5y

1X 1Y 2Y

XX Y Y

YY

2X 1Y 5X 5Y

XXX YYY X YYYY

XXX Y XXX YYY

5X 2Y 2X 3Y 3X 4Y 2Y

X

XX YY XX YYY XXX YY

6y4m

Self

Animals

Garden/ Plants

Girls X Boys Y

Children’s Ages

Table 4a: Children’s chosen topics for artwork. Topics listed were chosen by 10 or more children. * The ages listed are rounded down to the nearest 2 months intervals. * x = girls; y = boys. * A painting/drawing may be recorded in several columns depending on the explanation given by the child about the artwork.

Y X

X YYY X

Y YYY Y

YY

Y

Y

X XXX Y

XX YY XXX

X Y X

YY

YYYY

Y

Y

XXX

X

X

X

X

X YY

XXXX YYYY

X

YYYY

X Y

XX Y X

YYY Y

Y

YY

XXX YYYY

X X Y

5y8m 5y6m

4y10m 4y8m 4y6m 4y4m 4y2m 4y 3y10m

3y6m

2X 1Y 4X

3y4m

1X

Total

65

3y8m

XX XX YYYY Y

X

X

X

YY

Y

Y

YYY

X

XXX

XX

XX YY XX

XXX

X

XX

XXX Y

X YYY

XX Y XXXX YYY XXXX XX XX XXXX YYYY YY

XX Y XXXXX X YYYYY XXXXX XX XXX Y X YY Y

YY

Y X

X

X

X

XX

17

23

51

X Y

XX Y

YY

Y

X

Y

YYYY

Y

Y

2Y Y

Y YY

X

Y Y

Y

X

X

X

XX

XX Y

XXXX

XXXX YY

XXX YY

XXXX Y XX

X Y

XXX YY X Y XX YY Y

X YY XXXX

Y

Y

Y X

X

XX Y Y

XXX

X Y

XXX Y

46

X

X

YY

Y X

45

XXXX

X Y Y

Y

XX YY

Y XX

Y X Y

X Y X Y Y

XX YY XXX

Y

13

11

147

32

X Y X

Y XXXX YY

X Y

YY

10

10

X Y XX XXX

55

XX YYY

12

14

14

42

X 24

12

6y8m 6y6m

6y2m 6y

2y

5y10m

1x

Compassion

Food

Games /Play

Toys

Anger

Robot

Super Hero

Magic

Siblings

Relatives

Dance

Camping

Dinosaur /Fossil

Night

Mud

Singing Humming

Guns Kill

Fire Fireworks

Sad

Storms

Death

Birds

Fairies

1x 1y 1x 1x 1y 1x

6y4m

God

Girls X Boys Y

Children’s Ages

Table 4b: Children’s chosen topics for artwork. Topics listed were chosen by less than 10 children. • The ages listed are rounded down to the nearest 2 months intervals. * x = girls; y = boys. • A painting/drawing may be recorded in several columns depending on the explanation given by the child about the artwork.

X Y X

Y

X Y XX Y

Y

Y X

5y8m

5y4m

3x 2y 1x

5y2m

4y

5y

1x 1y 2y

5y6m

4y10m 4y8m 4y6m 4y4m 4y2m 4y 3y10m

3y6m 3y4m

1x

Total

65

X Y

X

X Y

XX Y

X

X

Y

X Y Y

Y X Y

2x 1y 5x 5y 5x 2y 2x 3y 3x 4y 2y 2x 1y 4x

3y8m

X

X

Y

X Y

X Y

Y XX X

XX

Y XX

Y

X Y

X Y

X

X

XX

X Y

Y XX

X

XX

Y X

X Y

X

X

Y

X

Y

XX YY Y

X Y

X

X Y

Y

Y Y

Y

X Y

Y

Y

Y

Y X

1

7

8

3

4

7

5

6

6

2

2

8

148

3

1

1

5

1

4

3

2

4

6

3

2

6y8m 6y6m

1X 1Y 1X

Y X

X Y XX

X Y X

X Y X

General Drawing given to AG by children

Draw (paint) a Dream

Rest Time Music: Lullabies

X Y X

Y X Y

6y2m

1X 1Y 1X

6y

2Y

Y

YYY

YY

YY

Y

5y10m

1X

X

X

X

X

XX YYYY X

XXX YY X

XXX YYY X

XXX YY X

XX

5y4m

3X 2Y 1X

5y2m

4Y

Y

Y

YYYYYY

Y

YYY

Y

5y

1X 1Y 2Y

X

X

X

YY

X Y YY

Y

YY

YY Y

2X 1Y 5X 5Y 5X 2Y

XX Y XXX YYYYYY XX Y

Y XXX YYYY XXXXXX

XX Y XXXX

XXX Y XX

XX YY

XX

2X 3Y 3X 4Y 2Y

XXXX YY XXXXXX YYYYY YYYY

X Y XX YYYYY Y

XXXX Y X YY Y

XXXXXX Y X YY

X Y

3y6m

2X 1Y 4X

XX

XX Y XX

3y4m

1X

XX

XX

Total

65 children and 263 pieces of artwork

49

56

6y4m

XX Y

Draw Music: Terry O’Connor Child Light

Draw Music: Tchaikowsky Swan Lake

Draw Music: Vivaldi, Sammartini, Handel, Teleman

Love

Beautiful Day

Girls =X Boys =Y

Table 5: Drawings/Paintings on Various Tasks Given in Study.

5y8m 5y6m

4y10m 4y8m 4y6m 4y4m 4y2m 4y 3y10m 3y8m

43

XX

Y Y XX Y XXXX YYYY XXXXXXX XXXX YY

XX Y XX YYYY XX YY

XX

X

X

Y

XX YYYY YY

XX Y X

X

X XX

11

149

23

11

43

27

5.2

Children’s spirituality and music.

Feierabend (1990) claims that music is spirit, and that children should be exposed to as rich a musical environment as is possible from infancy. He compares this with children being exposed to a rich language that is varied in grammar, dialect, and sophistication of the language generally. The broader the variety of children’s exposure to music the richer will be the child’s understanding of music and thereby the exposure to the spirit of music. Feierabend refers to Gardner’s (1993/1983) Multiple Intelligences theory, first published in 1983, and agrees with Gardner that musical intelligence should be nurtured equally to any of the other intelligences in a person. Csikszentmihalyi (1992) says that Plato believed that children should be taught music before anything else by learning to pay attention to rhythms and harmonies so that their consciousness would become ordered. Wolf (1996) and ChattinMcNichols (1992) describe classrooms in Montessori school settings where classical music is used as regular background music while the children are working in their normal routines. Montessori (1949) states that every human group loves music, and that humans are the only beings that know and makes up songs and music. Harris (1989) shares this view. She states that a person feeling free senses that one is not only singing or listening to the music, one is the music. In a study of spirituality then it would be appropriate to study the effect music has on the people participating. Mathew (1998), who looked at adults’ experience of music in relation to spirituality, did this. He described a study in which adults listened to music while having electrodes measuring their brain movements, while they told the researcher about their spiritual experience in listening to this music.

In the present study a less formal method was adopted. I collected a total of 101 pieces of artwork relating to children’s interpretation of music (Table 5, p. 149). Initially children were asked to draw or paint their impression of music, with which the children were familiar in their respective settings. The music, ABCs Lullabies, was used as background music during rest time in one setting, but none of the children’s artwork depicted anything to do with resting. In another setting Tchaikovsky’s Swan Lake was used during activity time and the children drew many fantasy pictures with actions happening. In a third setting Terry O’Connor’s Child Light was used regularly during snack time. No child there painted anything resembling food at all. It would appear that the situations in which the children

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normally heard a particular piece of music did not necessarily inspire the children to draw anything that was like their regular experience of that piece of music.

However, this became a data gathering method that was too much of a challenge to administer and compare between settings. I then decided to use the same pieces of classical music in all four settings. The chosen music was gentle chamber music with recorder and strings (Petri, 1980) keeping Wolf’s (1996) description in mind: that children absorb music from the environment. This also connects with Montessori’s (1949) definition of education: that education should bring out from latent or potential existence that which is already inherent in the child.

The children were asked to draw their interpretation of listening to classical chamber music by Vivaldi, Händel, Teleman and Sammartini (Petri, 1980). The medium was A4 paper and felt tip coloured textas. The children and I were usually sitting in the children’s classroom or on the verandah just outside during free choice activity time. It was a common occurrence that the children would sit and listen to the music for a while, without saying anything. They often tapped the rhythm with their fingers on the table, looked at the cassette player, leaning towards the speakers, or nodded in time with the music. It appears that they used their spiritual ability to be silent while listening, such as Montessori (1966) described it. Cavaletti (1983) claimed that there will not be the listening without the practice of silence and many of the children in the present study were able to practice listening to the music and let the music inspire them in their artwork. Their movements while listening (tapping fingers, leaning towards the speakers, nodding heads, smiling) correspond with Champagne’s (2003) finding that young children use all their senses when engaged in a task, here their kinaesthetic sense. Champagne calls this a child’s Sensitive Mode of Being, a term Champagne uses to describe the spiritual dimension of a child’s Dasein which is being-in-the-world (Heidegger, 1994, in Champagne, 2003).

The first example of children’s artwork about music in this chapter was drawn by Melitta (3y6m, Illustration 7). She listened, drew the circles in one colour, listened again, then drew circles in another colour, and so on. She made no comments during this time except for asking for another piece of paper on which she drew a similar circle pattern, but this time using only one colour.

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The following excerpt of an observation describes Ji-Shen’s (3y10m) actions while drawing the picture in Illustration 8, Vivaldi’s Concerto in C: The tape has just been turned over and is now playing Vivaldi's Concerto in C. AG explains the task of listening to the music and drawing what the music is like. Ji-Shen sits very still for a while looking at the tape recorder. He then picks a red texta, draws a lot of squiggly lines using whole hand grip, then the tall cross to the right of the paper. His movements correspond with the rhythm of the music - during the allegro Ji-Shen uses fairly fast movements, during the largo he draws the long lines resembling crosses, and during the final allegro molto he draws the black circle and the red dots scattered over the paper. He does not speak, but occasionally he stops drawing and looks at the tape recorder. When another piece of music begins (Sammartini), Ji-Shen pushes the paper across the table towards AG and says: “I've finished my drawing. Here, you can have it, Anna.” Ji-Shen gives no indication of what he was drawing and runs inside before AG could ask any further questions.

In a conversation with Ji-Shen’s mother later on that same day, she expressed surprise that there were no scribbles across the drawing. This was apparently something that he often did to his drawings. She was also surprised that Ji-Shen had listened so carefully to the music and the rhythms in it. From his actions it seemed clear that this piece of music is meaningful to JiShen, as he stopped drawing when the other music started. Perhaps Ji-Shen’s actions are an example of Radford’s (2001) comment that music generates powerful emotional responses in its listeners.

Another emotional response was observed in Julian (5y6m, Illustration 9), who tapped the rhythm with his fingers on the table just before he started drawing. He drew for quite some time participating in the conversation around the table, which was about a classmate who had the chickenpox. At one stage Julian stopped drawing and tilted his head towards the cassette player while Teleman’s Concerto in C, Andante, was being played:

J:

“This is sad music”

AG:

“Yes, it does sound a bit sad. Do you like it, even when it is sad?”

J:

“Yes. It makes you quiet.”

AG:

“Uhm”

J:

“Yeah”

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However, Julian’s comment about the sad music was in contrast to the actual drawing which is about pirates, the captain, and skull and crossed bones. Julian listened very carefully to the music, but there was no indication in his remarks about how he came to think of pirates when listening to this particular piece of music.

Another child, Virginia (4y4m, Illustration 10), who also listened to Teleman’s Concerto while she was drawing, said that the music was sad. She followed the approach described for Melitta above (Illustration 7): Virginia carefully drew each section while looking at the cassette player after the completion of the drawn section before commencing the next section. Virginia then drew two faces: a happy face and a sad face while talking about people being sad or happy. (Illustrations 11 and 12).

Another child, Ebony (3y8m, Illustration 13) also gave an example of sadness while drawing Teleman’s music. She drew, occasionally looking at the cassette player. She gave brief explanations that the person to the left is her friend, who fell over at tennis and got a broken arm and then cried. The person to the right is Anna (researcher) dancing. Ebony did not explain the red section at the top of the picture, although she spent a long time carefully colouring it in.

The children often drew people in their drawings about the music. They could be generic people, such as Virginia’s happy and sad faces (Illustrations 11 and 12), or they could be specific persons such as Ebony’s (Illustration 13) friend with the broken arm. Sometimes the children would draw themselves, as Keshu (4y0m, Illustration 14) did. He said he couldn’t draw the music, but he then drew a picture of himself without giving any further explanation or answers to questions.

Cedric (5y2m, Illustration 15) drew a picture of “Africa People”. Cedric was unsure of the people in his drawing and went to the classroom teacher and asked for clarification in regard to how to explain to AG who the people were and where they come from. He had drawn carefully for some time and commented that the flowers were like the sunflowers the children were growing in the school garden, but he was unable to put a description to the people until he had asked for help. He remained silent during other children’s conversation, but tilting his

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head towards the cassette player, smiling as he drew. The people “are stretching their arms out because they want the exercise”. He explained that the blue section at the bottom of the picture is water, and that it helps the trees to grow.

Jane (6y4m, Illustration 16) drew herself, a classmate, the classroom teacher and the musician Michala Petri (Petri, 1980) in her picture of the music, all playing together in a band. While drawing, Jane talked about a lot of things: her mother being pregnant and the scan video of the baby, the motifs of the other children’s drawings, singing along with one of the children singing a song about a rainbow, and the flowers she was drawing.

Sometimes the children drew fantasy figures. Darren (5y2m, Illustration 17) drew an alien and told AG that aliens live in space. After finishing the drawing, Darren told AG that he goes to music and can play Ode to Joy on a guitar. He said that he and his friend Malcolm (4y10m) go to the same teacher. The alien looks quite happy and content, but Darren volunteered no further information about his alien and its relationship to the music he was listening to.

In one setting the children were familiar with Tchaikowsky’s “Swan Lake”, which occasionally was used as background music during activity time. While listening to the overture, Susan (4y4m, Illustration 18) drew a fairy that was saving her friends from the river because they couldn’t fly. The friends were dying and were going to the hospital. The fairy is a girl fairy.

Several children used colours to describe their experience of the music. Morgan (4y0m, Illustration 19) said it was pink and black. While drawing the pink part, he smiled and said that the music was happy, whereas the louder part of the music was black. On a second drawing, which he took home, Morgan used all the available colours, while occasionally tilting his head towards the cassette player and smiling. Faith (4y6m, Illustration 20) said it was pink – she also drew in rhythm with the music: fast music had quick lines, and slow music had circles and spots. The pink part of the music was “the tree where they make the music”. Kate (4y4m, Illustration 21) smilingly said the music was sunny and informed me that she liked the music, referring to it as “that noise” (violins) and that the dog in the picture liked the music as well. In the Bible it says in Psalm 45,8 (NIV, 1985) that “..the music of strings makes you glad”, but that would depend on the actual music being played and how a

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child interpreted a specific piece of music, as Virginia and Julian had earlier expressed that the music was sad! Robert (4y6m, Illustration 22) also used colour to describe his interpretation of the music experience. He chose to paint a rainbow claiming that he was unable to draw. Painting easels were very close to the drawing table and the audio recorder, and Robert could hear the music from his position where he painted. Robert’s rainbow was the only music rainbow – all other rainbows (Table 4a, p. 147) were painted or drawn during tasks where children were asked to paint or draw a beautiful day, their understanding of love, or a dream. These children all displayed Sensitive Modes of Being (Champagne, 2003) while drawing or painting. Their descriptions of their artwork were limited in regard to actual language used, but they communicated a lot with their bodies: smiling, nodding, responding to the rhythm in the music, and showing enthusiasm.

Two children drew whales while listening to the chamber music. Jason (6y4m, Illustration 23) made a running commentary about his drawing as he worked telling about whales and their breathing spouts, and their inability to go as deep as fish. He talked about people in a boat following the whales marking them to check the whale’s babies, and that the people also had a vet working with the whales. Jason’s last comment was that he had seen a video about whales “and they had this nice music in it, too”. Jason made no explanation about the heart in front of the whale. The other child, Racheal (5y10m, Illustration 24) tilted her head towards the cassette player on occasions while drawing a black killer whale and a large blue whale. She referred to a whale-watching trip she had been on, and talked about what whales eat, and that they make music going “Whoooo” during her description of whale song.

When listening to the same pieces of chamber music (Petri, 1980) Sheree (3y4m, Illustration 25) drew two angry people and two other people. The observation below describes her actions and her comments while drawing.

S:

Mmm. Can I make another drawing?

AG:

Certainly - here you are. (She gives Sheree another piece of paper on which S only uses green texta).

S:

This is a nice sad snail - but this is angry - angry, angry legs - (While saying this, S is drawing with strong movements in rhythm with the music). It is an angry face (the left figure).

AG:

Why?

S:

(does not answer the question) - It's another angry face (draws the figure to the right)

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AG:

Why are they angry?

S:

I don't know. I'm doing hair now. All the hair - (she draws hair on both large figures).

AG:

They have nice green hair.

S:

This is the children - this is the daddy (Points to the figure to the left).

AG:

Why is the daddy angry?

S:

The sister hurt her. (Chants) Hair - hair - hair.

Sheree only talked about the angry people and the reason why they were angry. Her actions and her drawings appear to be in contrast with the music, and there is a definite authority person in the picture. There was no explanation about why the sad snails became angry people in the drawing. She did not comment on the rest of her picture, and left the drawing table soon after. As with the other children, Sheree displayed her Sensitive Mode of Being (Champagne, 2003), chanting and following the rhythm of the music, but there is no indication of why the music inspired her to draw angry people, just like there was no indication of why Julian (Illustration 9, above) drew pirates while commenting that the music made one quiet.

Two children painted pictures spontaneously about music without being prompted to listen to selected music. One was Annabel’s (4y0m, Illustration 26) birthday picture painted on the actual day of her birthday. She said “This is all the singing”. The other was Monique’s (4y0m, Illustration 27) spotty picture while she was singing “Put a spot over here”. Both girls used the whole area of their paper and all the colours available, both girls spent several minutes painting, and both ignored the activities around them while smiling or singing during the activity.

5.3 Concluding remarks about children’s experiences of music and spirituality.

Strauss (1978, p. 60) mentions that a child had told her that “I have just been singing with my brush”. In some of the examples described above, it seems that the musical experience for the children were indeed episodes where the children involved were singing with the felt tip pens, as they drew in unison with the music they were listening to. Mathew’s (1998) claims that engrossment in an aesthetic experience is timeless, and some of the children did spend a long time drawing while listening to the music – looking at the cassette player and tapping the rhythm. Montessori’s (1949) statement that every human group loves music seems to have come through in this study. In addition to listening to the music being played for them, the

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children also sang their own choice of songs while drawing. Sometimes they seemed to be part of the music without allowing anyone to disturb their drawing and listening experience such as Harris (1989) describes a free person.

It was very clear from the present research that young children see colours in the music, they see animals, birds, people and events in the music, and they are able to draw these impressions, even children as young as 3 years and 4 months. The children were aware of their surrounding world, they showed compassion with people, animals and plants, and they expressed this in their drawings while listening, with listening being seen as part of a person’s spirituality. For the children in this study there were no references to any transcendent beings as they drew their impressions of the music. Only one child seemed to illustrate a negative side of the music, illustrating an angry parent because a child had hurt a sister.

5.4

What is “Love” for the young child?

Montagu (1989) claims that the only way one learns to love is to be loved. It is a humanising need, and it stands at the centre of all basic needs. It must be cultivated, supported and nourished throughout a person’s life. Montagu (1989, p. 108) further says that the essence of love is giving, caring, giving love, and loving to give. This need is described as a Basic Behavioural Need, and Montagu regards it as a neotenous need, i.e. it is innate in the child, and the child is born with the capacity to love, and the need to be loved. Other neotenous needs as described by Montagu (1989, Appendix 1) are discussed later in the section Spiritual Characteristics in Adults and Children. Muscari (2006, Appendix 1) claims that to have a healthy spirituality a person, including the young child, needs to have a sense of wholeness and harmony which includes being cared for in a loving close network consisting of family and friends.

Montessori (1918, in Montenaro 1999, p.23) once said “In order to live, it is not enough to be created; the creature must also be loved”. Maslow (1980) further elaborates this statement. He states that people, as well as having their physical needs filled, also require to have the basic needs of belonging, feel loved and be love worthy, and to have friends. A picture story book by Marcus Pfister (2002/1992) The Rainbow Fish illustrates this need well for young children: The Rainbow Fish is a brightly coloured fish with shimmering scales, and being proud of

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these thinking he is the most beautiful fish in the ocean. He refuses to participate in the other fish’s play. One day a little fish asks for just one of the shimmering scales, which the Rainbow Fish refuses As a result none of the fish want him to participate in their games again. He becomes very lonely and unhappy and asks a wise old octopus for advice. She tells him to give each of the other fish one shimmering scale each, saying that he will no longer be the most beautiful fish, but he will discover how to be happy. He thinks that this will cause him to be even more unhappy, but then he starts giving away his shimmering scales. He found that the more scales he gave away to the other fish, the more delighted he became. Eventually he has only one shimmering scale left, but he is part of a large group of fish, each with one shimmering scale, and they are all friends. Considering that an individual needs friends and needs to belong to a group, it seems important to emphasise that love is meant to be shared. Moore (1992) says that we learn something about love every time we experience it, and that love is an event of the soul. In order to nurture and care for our soul, we need to love other people and ourselves, give of ourselves and allow ourselves to receive, just like the rainbow fish and his friends do in the story.

The children in the study were asked to paint ‘love’. The medium was A3 paper and paints at painting easels in two settings, and in the other two settings we used the larger painting paper already supplied beside the painting easels. I was given a total of 49 pieces of artwork regarding the children’s impression of love (Table 5, p. 149). Several children painted people: parents, siblings and friends. David (4y4m) said that love is soft, but he used his right to be his own gatekeeper, and declined to paint a picture for me. Snow (3y8m) painted a big blue patch on his paper saying that mud is blue, and that he didn’t like mud. However, in the conversation he told me that he loves toys and people, too. All the children in the study were able to express their understanding of love, either in the task of painting ‘love’, or through their Sensitive Mode of Being - verbally, with gestures, or with facial expressions (Champagne, 2003), which Champagne claims are a child’s way of expressing spirituality.

In the following there is a selection of the children’s artwork about ‘love’ starting with Jason’s (6y4m, Illustration 28) painting of a rollercoaster which he ‘looooves’:

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Jason (6y4m) paints firstly the blue circular lines using strong quick movements. Then he proceeds more slowly painting the green and yellow lines, and carefully ending the yellow line in the bottom right corner with a small red section saying

J:

This is the connection to stop the roller coaster.

AG:

So you are painting a roller coaster?

J:

Yep. I just loooove roller coasters - (emphasising the word 'love'. He carefully paints the red 'car' in the centre and with people inside) - they have green heads!

AG:

What are the different coloured lines in your painting?

J:

This (blue) is the roller coaster, and this (yellow line at bottom) is the connection to stop the rollers.

AG:

So is that the spot where people get on and off?

J:

Yes, and where the cars start and stop.

AG:

So which part is the 'love' part of your painting?

J:

This (red curved line right and top) is the connection to the love roller coaster - it's like a car.

This observation shows Jason's cognitive understanding of a roller coaster and how it works. His association of being asked to paint 'love' appears to be to paint something which he loves. It seems that my question at the end interferes with his train of thought, but he incorporates the concept into the roller coaster theme and decides that the red line is the connection to the love roller coaster. Jason has in this instance incorporated something akin to play in his concept of 'love'. Considering my personal aversion towards roller coasters, it is amusing to note that the people in the car all have green heads!

In one setting the painting easels were set up on the paved patio outside the classroom. JiShen (3y10m, Illustration 29) told me he couldn’t paint ‘love’, but that he could paint a firetruck. He started painting using all the available colours without saying anything.

AG:

Ji-Shen, would you like me to help you put an apron on?

J:

Oh - yes! (He looks down on the paving on the patio) - look, I drip paint here!

AG:

It's alright - we can hose it off later. (She helps J do up the velcro tabs on the apron, which he had put on himself) - There you are - now you won't get paint on your clothes!

J:

No. Look, Anna - I'm painting a BIG (jumps into the air as he says BIG, paint brush in right hand spraying paint around him) monster! (Apparently he has forgotten the initial idea of painting a firetruck).

159

AG:

Wow! I can see a big green monster on your paper!

J:

Yep! It's a good monster.

AG:

What do good monsters do?

J:

It has 1. 2. 4. 6. 10. 18. 4 legs! (He paints the blue/green sports at the bottom of the picture as he says each number). It's a BIG (stretches arms out, paint brush in one hand) monster.

AG:

But what does a good, big monster do?

J:

It bumps along making everybody laugh - it goes bump - bang - bump - bump into things! This monster is VERY BIG - (jumps up, with arms out stretched, paintbrush in hand).

Afterwards Ji-Shen painted a second monster, similar to the first painting. This monster is a “baaaad” monster, and Ji-Shen was frowning as he said this. This bad monster also makes people laugh. During the action of painting, Ji-Shen frowned a couple of times, and then laughed: “But it makes people laugh!” (Ji-Shen took the second painting home). It appears that Ji-Shen obviously enjoys the task of painting. He is very much aware of the choice of motif for his paintings and the need to demonstrate in words and gestures how big the monster is going to be. His concept of 'love' is the big monster that makes people happy and makes them laugh. His original idea of painting a firetruck has totally disappeared, and there is no indication whether he remembers it later. Both his paintings are of 'BIG monsters', demonstrated by jumps and outstretched arms. His actions during painting correspond with Vygotskij’s (1982) description of a child using gestures while painting: jumping up, arms out, and also with Champagne’s (2003) explanation that spirituality in children is expressed in their sensitive mode of being.

Many children painted family members when asked to paint ‘love’. Malcolm (4y10m, Illustration 30) said “I feel good when mum says she loves me”. Ellen (4y6m, Illustration 31) painted her mum and commented “She loves me”. This statement was repeated by Robert (4y6m, Illustration 32). Two children made identical statements about their dads: “He loves me” (Annabel, 4y0m, Illustration 33, and Kirsten, 6y6m, Illustration 34). Other children painted several family members, with Jade (4y0m, Illustration 4, p. 194) saying that love is people hugging together, and Miriam (4y4m, Illustration 35) painting the four people in her family, because “they love each other”.

Paige (4y4m, Illustration 36) talked non-stop while painting, commenting on each section of the painting as she worked. It is a painting of Paige’s friend Ashley, rain “’cause I love rain”,

160

the fireworks at the rally “boom - boom - boom”, and Paige’s dad. This is a great example of ‘named scribble’ (Lowenfeld, in Brittain, 1968) requiring that the receiver of the artwork is present while the artwork is being made; otherwise one cannot appreciate the full content of the work.

Several children painted rain, rainbows, animals and other nature things. Keshu (4y0m, Illustration 37) displayed gestures and facial expressions while painting: Keshu paints, frowning or smiling as he works. He appears to ignore other children around him, and after 3-4 minutes he calls out: "Anna, I've finished!" When asked what his painting about 'love' is, Keshu explains that the details in the painting are the wind and that the rainbow is "up there" (top right corner).

RT (4y8m, Illustration 38) painted a Christmas Bug and a ‘blutterfly’, Ebony (3y8m, Illustration 39) painted a rainbow and Anna, and Murray (4y2m, Illustration 40) painted a rainbow. Of the three rainbows that the children said they love, only one resembles a rainbow in the adult eye (Illustration 36). This shows that it is what the individual thinks about a topic that is important, not what other people might think it should look like. In Vygotsky’s (1971, p. 18) words: “... an aesthetic feeling is incomprehensible and fundamentally obscure in its evolution to the person experiencing it”, which is a scholarly way of saying that ‘beauty is in the eye of the beholder’, or ‘de gustibus non est disputandit’ (taste cannot be discussed).

Only one child of all 57 children in the study mentioned God in regard to love. Beatrice (5y6m, Illustration 41) had waited for about 10 minutes for her turn at the painting easel, and while she painted, she remained quiet. Afterwards she described the details in her painting for me while Angus (6y0m) listened and participated in the conversation. Her explanation of love is that it is about God looking down on us, and what God does for us. She and Angus agree on why God provides rain, and that God has certain anthropomorphic traits such as the requirement of moving house sometimes, thereby causing thunder. AG:

Tell me about your love painting, please.

B:

Well - this is the park across the road where I live. This (points to small red figure to the left, middle of page) is my brother Jack and my dad (the other red in the centre figure). These are love hearts (top of painting) and this is mum (yellow figure) and her friend (smaller yellow

161

figure). I can't remember her name. This is my sister Matilda (red figure bottom left). The blue person is me, and these are the monkey bars (red line with four 'legs' below). AG:

So all the people in your house are in your love painting?

B:

(nods) Yes. Love is about God looking down on us.

AG:

What does God do?

B:

God helps you and he makes lots of things for us.

An:

Yes, and when God - when it's raining, that's when God waters his garden - so the rain can get everywhere.

B.

(nods) Uhm.

An:

Yeah, and when it's thundering it's when God moves house.

B:

(nods) I know.

AG:

I see (writes as the children talk) Can you tell me more about your painting, Beatrice?

B:

Yes. All the colours - that's 'cause God makes everything and he sees everything - also the sun and the grass (points to these details in her painting as she mentions them).

5.5

Concluding remarks about ‘love’ and spirituality.

All these examples of young children’s artwork about ‘love’ show that they are very much aware of an abstract concept like love, thus questioning the assumption that young children are incapable of thinking abstractly (Piaget, 1964; Piaget & Inhelder, 1969, Appendix 4, 12). They show relational understanding (Champagne, 2003), mainly towards close family members, but also towards friends, acquaintances like myself as a regular visitor in their early childhood setting, and nature. They are able to picture their understanding in artwork while it is clear to the observer that they think about what they are painting, showing this in facial expressions, gestures and comments. This corresponds with Wertz (1985, p. 92) who says that a sign - here a child’s painting - is a psychological tool, and is inwardly directed. Montagu (1989) claims that the child who learns to love will love to learn, with the essence of love being giving, caring, giving love, and loving to give. It appears that young children are living in their capacity to love, that it is indeed part of their sentient being, i.e. part of their spirituality (Champagne, 2003).

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5.6

Dreaming

Hegel (1807) said that dreams are part of a person’s consciousness, and that they arise from a person’s inner world. This concept was further developed by Jung (1875-1961), who developed a psychoanalytical method of interpreting dreams. In Jungian thought dreams are not determined by causality, space or time. Rather they are presented in a language which is archaic, symbolic, pre-logical and in images (Jacobi, 1968). Jacobi presents a model of Jung’s theories of a person’s mind as a set of concentric circles in which the collective unconscious is the centre, followed by the personal unconscious. The unconscious is accessible only though dreams. The outer circles are a person’s conscious abilities like sensation, feelings, intuition and thoughts (Jacobi, 1968, p. 32). If a person’s spirituality is indeed at the centre of a human being as illustrated in Figure 6, (p.28), then it would appear that dreams are important in that person’s spirituality and the ways in which that spirituality is presented.

According to Jacobi (1968), Jung places equal value on a person’s imagination and fantasies as he does with dreams. Imagination and fantasy are also considered important by Engel (1995, Appendix 4, 1), who describes a child’s development of self and how important imagination and narratives are to a child’s development. She says that “the act of remaking your world serves a function in and of itself, beyond the expression of any unconscious wishes. The imaginative control you gain over the world by being able to decide, at least symbolically, who does what to whom and what things look like is itself a vital component of human experience” (Engel, 1995, p. 57). Along this line of thought Sartore (1991) says that dreams are part of a person’s mythology and that every thought a person has is based on a previous myth.

Price and Haynes (1997) look at dreams in detail using Jungian psychology and the corresponding dream interpretation in regard to a person’s spirituality. Among other advice (Price and Haynes, 1997, Chapter 14), they recommend that a person draws his or her dreams regardless of how well the (adult) individual might be able to draw, and to retell the dream in a written journal, thus using Engel’s (1995) idea of narratives in a written or pictorial form.

The importance of dreams in a person’s spirituality appears to be quite significant according to Price and Haynes (1997), and with their recommendation of drawing, I therefore asked the

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children to draw me a dream. In two settings the children chose to paint rather than draw, thus claiming their right to be their own gatekeepers. Among the 43 pieces of artwork I collected about dreams (Table 5), there were houses, animals, weather, people, monsters and scary things like skeletons and traps.

Jasper (5y2m, Illustration 42) drew some quick circles which could be placed in the very early drawing stages of circular scribble (Thomas & Silk, 1990). However, Strauss (1978) claims that the older child’s “knot of whirls” is a house to children, and Jasper told me that his circles were rooms for the animals to hide from the rain. The excerpt also shows my dilemma of being an adult and following rules as opposed to wanting to be a researcher collecting data, as the teacher in the classroom had just asked the children to start pack up before lunch time. J:

Can I do a drawing too?

AG:

Well, I just heard J (teacher) say that we don't have very much time -

J:

I can be really quick!

AG:

OK - here is some paper for you! Can you draw a dream on this paper?

J:

Yes - (sits down and writes his name across the top of the page - then draws several pink circles).

AG:

What are the pink circles, J?

J:

That some rooms for lots of animals to hide.

AG:

Why do the animals hide?

J:

Because the rain gets them. (He draws the brown circles).

AG:

And what are the brown circles?

J:

That's the dark. The animals are scared of the dark.

AG:

So is that why they have the pink rooms to hide in?

J:

No, that's only for hiding away from the rain. (He draws two blue circles): This is the light.

AG:

(Having talked with another child and not paying attention to J): What are the blue circles?

J:

The blue circles are the light!

AG:

Oh, I see.

J:

The blue circles are the light, 'cause it's dark in where the animals hide for the rain. (He stands up, puts the textas into the container and puts it away where it belongs) It's tidy-up time. J said so.

AG:

That's right - thank you for putting the textas away. Can I keep your drawing of the animals' hiding place?

J:

Yes (nods and then runs over to the teacher).

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The concept of circular housing (Strauss, 1978) and in Jasper’s drawing (above) was also used by Cedrick (5y2m, Illustration 43), who drew a house and a storm and rain. Ida (4y0m, Illustration 44) drew a circular house with herself outside, Daniel (4y4m, Illustration 45) included lights in his house, and Damien (4y0m, Illustration 46) drew his mum’s house and “where my dad lives where she’s [sic] married to my mum”.

Some children drew scary things like dinosaurs that are after people, skeletons in a cupboard, and Power Rangers making traps for people all the while they talked about the scary things in the dreams. They described what they did when waking up after a scary dream, like Carl (4y6m) telling me that scary dreams are red, but you wake up and then go back to sleep and the dream is gone. Malcolm (4y10m) told me that you just have to shake your head and open your eyes, and then you go back to sleep again. Monique (4y2m, Illustration 47) drew a scary skeleton coming into her house. Her friend “I”, (not in study) asked her about the dream and what Monique did about the skeleton.

M:

I heard a skeleton in the dream, and it was very scary and it was coming into the house.

AG:

Oh. That does sound scary. What happened then?

M:

It's not really scary - it's only a dream you know.

AG:

I see.

M:

(Looks at the yellow texta she is using) - This is a gold colour.

AG:

Yes, it does look a bit like gold.

Monique draws the figure outside the circle. AG:

Who is that person?

M:

My dad. He came to check the skeleton in the cupboard, you know. - - (Sits with L. hand under her chin) - - This is a skeleton dog and a mum (points to the figure inside the circle).

I. has been watching for a little while, then sits down at the table next to Monique. I:

Can I draw too?

M:

Yes - you can sit there that's OK.

I:

Is it real that skeleton?

M:

Yes.

I:

Where are they now?

M:

It's still scary - they are still at my house.

I:

Oh.

M:

They are walking though the gate to get inside.

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I:

Are they noisy?

M:

No, but they are in my room - not in mum's and dad's room.

I:

That's actually scary. Did you hide under the sheets?

M:

No, under the bed.

I:

Why?

M:

But it wasn't really scary - it's just my mum and dad and my dog (Points to the picture). That skeleton scared me all day Wednesday - Tuesday - Friday. Always!

Racheal (5y10m, Illustration 48) told me she had seen “Jurassic Park” on a video, and that it made her dream scary dreams. Her drawing of a dream is a Ferocious Raptor dinosaur that is after the people. It is interesting to note that the people only have heads - their bodies seem to have been eaten already - and two of the people appear to smile.

Other scary dreams included monsters with Ellen (4y6m, Illustration 49) and Faith (4y6m, Illustration 50) using colours to depict their monsters. In their description about their monster paintings, they used gestures and facial expressions, but none that could be interpreted as threatening or scary. Sometimes children would describe dreams as magical things, like a fairy land, where water is pink (Jane, 6y4m, Illustration 51), and a magic night, where Elizabeth (4y6m, Illustration 52) used several colours to draw the night.

One type of dream had what I as an observing adult would call everyday occurrences in them, including the beginning of life with a new baby, and the end with death. Jason (6y4m, Illustration 53) drew a fish and told me about a holiday when he went fishing and caught a white garfish. Hannah (5y0m, Illustration 54) drew her mother and a baby in her dream drawing. It could be of significance that Hannah’s mother was pregnant at the time.

In the conversation I had with Veronica (5y6m, Illustration 55) she told me about sick animals, sick people and that everyone dies one day:

AG:

Can you draw me a dream?

V:

Yes! I dream lots of things! (Picks a pink texta and starts drawing) - This is a dream where the sky is pink and the sun is green! It's not really, the sun is yellow, but sometimes you can't see the sun.

(V draws for a while - no comments - a blue square with a person inside, 'curtains' above).

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V:

This is a dream about a vet.

AG:

What does a vet do?

V:

She makes people's pets get better. (Draws the person outside the house - draws the dog's leash and the collar). I can't really draw the dog.

AG:

Maybe if you use a different colour for the dog?

V:

Yes! I can do it then! (picks a brown texta and draws the dog - then looks at me) - why are you writing in your little book?

AG:

I'm writing what you tell me about your dream - then I can remember your explanations when I get home.

V:

Oh - (nods, as she carefully colours in the red and yellow sections in the 'curtain' above the person inside the house on her drawing).

AG:

What's the matter with the dog?

V:

It has a pain in the tummy - maybe it dies.

AG:

Is the dog really sick?

V:

(doesn't answer the question) - I don't know why people have to die - (stops drawing and looks at me). No-one knows - that's what mummy says. She says that maybe they have finished living, and then they die. I don't know really - - (draws the red 'box' above the vet's house) Can you write "Vet" here, Anna?

AG:

(Keeping in mind my general observations of V and her cognitive abilities in regard to early literacy development - and falling into the trap of being a teacher using a teachable moment rather than being an observer): What does "Vet" start with?

V:

"V" just like my name! (Writes 'V').

AG:

Yes - then "e". What letter do you think that sound is?

V:

"e" - (looks at AG, who nods, then V. writes an 'e').

AG:

Vet - (emphasises the last sound). What is the last sound?

V:

"T"! (smiles and writes the 't'). Look! I wrote "vet" all by myself!

AG:

You certainly did! You do know a lot of letters! (V nods, smiles). Did the dog get better in your dream?

V:

Yes - the girl took it to the vet 'cause she could read there (points to the sign) where to go.

AG:

What did the vet do to the dog?

V:

She gave it some medicine, and the dog had to stay there (points to the house in the drawing) for a few days till it was better. (Stands up and pushes the drawing across the table) There you can have the drawing!

AG:

Thank you! That is a very good drawing!

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5.7

Concluding remarks about dreams and spirituality

For the young children in this study, dreams seemed to be a way of dealing with anxieties about scary things like monsters, unknown concepts like an unborn baby, and a lot of imagination like colours and magic places. Their dreams also included everyday occurrences with weather, holidays, and housing. It appears that dreams are indeed a mixture of ‘leftovers’ from the person’s everyday life, as well as imaginative occurrences and a way of dealing with all things unknown or scary like death and life. Children included colours in their artwork and commented that dreams are all about colours. It does seem as if dreams are part of children’s spirituality, as they appear to be indicators of their sentient beings as claimed by Champagne (2003).

5.8

It’s a beautiful day!

For many people beauty and things beautiful relate to natural phenomenon like landscapes, plants and animals. Carson (1956) says that a child’s world is fresh, new and beautiful, but that adults lose the true instinct for what is beautiful and awe-inspiring. It is dimmed and even lost, before we reach adulthood. She wishes for every child that their sense of wonder will last throughout life, and that adults around the child can enhance this sense just by being with the child for example on nature walks. Carson (1956, p. 52) recommends that in looking at beauty we ask ourselves: “What if I knew I would never see it again?” Such moments should be shared with children regardless of the age of the child, and regardless of the time of the day or night, even if convention says that the child should be asleep, like watching the reflections of the full moon on the ocean late at night. Carson claims that anyone dwelling in the beauties and mysteries of the earth are never alone or become weary of life, rather, they will find reserves of strengths that will last throughout their lives.

Gardner (1999) claims that people strive to heighten their spiritual aspects, and that they can use their intelligences and abilities to do so. He states that intelligences are a-moral, and that any of the intelligences he has identified can be put to pro-social or anti-social uses (Gardner, 1983; 1999, Appendix 4, 14). Gardner (1999) describes a naturalist intelligence as belonging to a person who can classify and describe various species of that person’s environment. However, the knowledge of the naturalist can also be about an environment which is not

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native to the individual as it was for two British ornithologists I met in Nigeria (Giesenberg, 2002a). These ornithologists visited the same national park, Yankari, Bauchi State, as I did. They were an incredible source of information, not just for the tourists like myself, my mother and my sister, but also for the local rangers, who knew all about the animals we saw on the safari, but who knew very little about the birdlife in the park. The enthusiasm of these two ornithologists for the West-African birdlife was contagious, and I found out that in Yankari there exists a vegetarian vulture, which they pointed out for us all. The rangers showed us the fruit of the palm-nut tree, which is this particular vulture’s only source of food. The fully ripe fruit had a sickly sweet smell, but it was a very beautifully looking fruit resembling an oversize acorn. This episode shows that a person with naturalist intelligence can also know about environments that are not native to that individual.

Berdyaev (1935) claims that the comprehension of beauty and order in nature is a form of spiritual experience which can only be truly experienced when contemplating beauty. He says that natural and cosmic elements are also the elements which make up the soul of man, and therefore a person must see nature as part of the person’s spiritual development. These thoughts are echoed in the claim that to celebrate life, love and beauty, one is concerned with the celebration of life (Tillich, 1957, in Alexander & McLaughlin, 2003). In a spiritual sense this involves awareness, stillness, wonder, awe and centredness. Moore (1992) claims that a person’s soul is nurtured by beauty, and that beauty is a necessary part of ordinary life being a source of imagination. Imagination is woven into a child’s drawings and reveals the close connection between the forces of memory and the child’s own experiences (Strauss, 1978).

With such claims that beauty is important for a person’s spirituality, I decided to ask the children to think about a beautiful day. It seemed to me that the children in this study had a strong sense and awareness of beauty around them. They were able to picture their awareness for me, and they gave me a total of 43 pieces of artwork about a beautiful day (Table 5 p. 149), of which most were paintings. In one setting we used gentle pastel colours as provided on the day by the classroom teacher, and I put my primary coloured paints away, while still using my A3 paper. In one setting the children wanted to draw, and asked if I had my textas with me (which I always did), and we used these on A3 paper (FN, 1999). In the last two settings we used the painting materials provided there, including large A2 sheets of paper.

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The children painted rainbows, people, animals, aliens on a beanstalk, special days like the picnic to Boondall Wetlands we went on with that child’s class, and landscapes. Some children would paint or draw without saying anything while working, but showing facial expressions. Other children talked all the time while painting or drawing. Hannah (5y0m, Illustration 56) drew a beautiful day while listening to chamber music (see 6.2 above). She insisted that her drawing was a beautiful day. It also had grass in it, because there’s grass in the music, and there is a fire. Hannah gave no explanation about why there was a fire in her drawing of a beautiful day.

Hannah sits down immediately and picks a blue texta. H:

I'm going to draw the ocean! (She colours a large section of her paper blue, using strong, almost violent movements and colouring outside the paper regularly) I'm also drawing a beautiful day.

She puts the blue texta in the box and then draws the person in the centre of the paper. AG is explaining the task of listening to another child, and in the process shows the cover of the cassette tape to all the three children at the table. H:

(Having drawn black hair on the person): This is K (assistant) - she has black hair. I'm going to draw a lot of grass, 'cause there's grass in the music, and this person is running and singing on the grass.

AG:

What kind of song is she singing?

H:

About a rainbow.

She starts humming and singing "Red and yellow and pink and blue, . . . . I can sing a rainbow (etc)", and the other two children join in. She takes the cassette cover and looks at the picture of M. Petri, then draws a black line from the mouth of the person in the picture: H:

Look, I'm playing a flute like that girl! (seems to forget that before, the person was the assistant).

Jane (6y4m) tells AG that her mum is pregnant. H:

Me too! (H's mother is 7 months pregnant currently) I'm going to draw a little baby in my picture. (She does so, and then draws the red sections in her picture). This is all fire and the people are running away from the fire over to the stream over here (i.e. the green horizontal lines leading into the ocean).

AG:

Is that a good spot for them?

H:

Yes, 'cause if they are in the water the fire can't get them.

AG:

No, because water doesn't burn.

H:

Nope! (She stands up, gives AG the drawing): I'm going in to do some counting now.

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Other children incorporated rainbows in their paintings of a beautiful day. Faith (4y6m, Illustration 57) told me that rainbows have lots of colours, they are nice, and pink is nice. Robert (4y6m Illustration 58) painted me and a rainbow while using very clear facial expressions and gestures. He clearly enjoyed painting although it didn’t take him long to complete the task:

AG has just asked Robert if he would please paint her a picture of a beautiful day. R smiles broadly - almost a grin - and exclaims "Yes! I can paint a rainbow on a beautiful day!" He paints a series of stripes in quick movements using all the available colours: blue, purple, green, yellow, red and orange, and using whole hand grip on the brushes. He then paints a person below the stripes and announces with a big smile: "This is you, Anna!" He runs over to the water course, and ignores AG's call if there is more he would like to tell her about the painting.

Two children painted themselves on a beautiful day. Virginia (4y4m, Illustration 59) is upside-down on a monkey bar. In her setting there are several pieces of climbing equipment, and Virginia is very good at climbing those, including hanging up-side-down on the higher bars. She also painted some pink flowers. It seems that Virginia associates a beautiful day with things she likes doing. Kate (4y4m, Illustration 60) painted herself with two love hearts which she told me that she was showing me in the picture. Later that day Kate’s mother told me that Kate was very much into love hearts at that time (FN, 1999).

Another child also incorporated the concept of love in his painting of a beautiful day, despite first being distressed. Kieran (6y0m, Illustration 61) painted himself and his mother:

Kieran had been waiting for a child, who took a long time to paint, to finish painting. By the time this child had finished, it was well past the time T (the teacher) had said to tidy up, and AG tried to explain to K that he would be the first person to paint the next time. However, this caused him so much distress that AG let him paint while she cleaned the easel board on the other side. K painted two people: "Me and my mum" standing on green grass with a yellow sun and two clouds. When asked why he had painted his mum, he said "'cause I love her" and then he cleaned the board and went inside, smiling broadly.

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The sun was also part of Keshu’s (4y0m, Illustration 62) painting of a gum tree in the playground. Keshu’s few comments show that he has observed colours carefully, and is aware of what colour the sun has at night time. Keshu paints in slow movements taking a long time to choose each colour. He looks at a gumtree nearby and comments while painting that the colour is the same - and he has managed to mix the available water colours to almost a gumleaf green colour on the paper. He smiles a bit and tells AG that the sun is purple, "But it isn't really now - but at night time it is". Other times when K has made something for AG he has talked all the time - he doesn't do that this time - he looks instead at the gumtree, the clouds and the sun and briefly comments that that is what he is painting.

Jason’s (6y4m, Illustration 63) sunset at the beach shows awareness as well. His actions and comments showed that he had thought about the task of painting a beautiful day, and he was able to put his awareness on to the painting and describe his thoughts, just like Erricker et al (1997) claim that young children can do if they are asked about their artwork. Jason had a clear idea about what he wanted to paint - he had thought about the task and possibly also about the design of the painting - the proportions, the composition and the use of colours. He was unable to explain whether he had seen a beach at sunset, but his actions while painting seem to indicate that this might be an event he has experienced Jason had asked several times when it was his turn, and when it came, he stated that he was going to paint a beach. Firstly he painted the red section across the middle of the page, "This is the cliffs at the beach", then the red/pink dots in a line below: "They are rocks you can walk on", then the blue sea. Above the red section he painted a little bit of green to the left: "That's the wood - and - here's the sun!" When finished he announced loudly that "this is a sunset on the beach, and the sun is coming down behind the cliff."

Plants - or rather - one plant was part of Malcolm’s (4y10m, Illustration 64) painting of a beautiful day. He incorporated his interest in aliens and the fairy tale about the magic beanstalk in his painting of a beautiful day. Malcolm is obviously very absorbed in the activity of painting, but answers questions carefully, although briefly at times. He seems to ignore his friends’ comments during the conversation. He covers the paper totally, and it appears that his version of a beautiful day is to be surrounded by something green.

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AG:

You were telling me about this one-legged person -

M:

And one-arm person and one-eye person - it's an alien!!

AG:

What does the alien come from?

M:

I'm going to colour it all orange -

AG:

Where does the alien come from, M?

M:

From the moon - -!

AG:

All right - -

(Two other children are painting at the other easels - they participate in the conversation) J:

That's where aliens come from - hey, Drew? (D nods - - doesn't comment).

M:

You know what?

AG:

What?

J:

Aliens don't really exist

M:

I'm never gonna finish - I'm gonna colour it all in green. (Which he did all around the orange alien figure, except the top quarter of the paper, which is blue sky with some white clouds).

AG:

So that alien is walking around on something green?

M:

No, he's walking around on the bean stalk -

AG:

Oh, - is that the story about a beanstalk?

M:

Yeah, and the alien climb up it -

AG:

What happens at the top?

M:

He falls down and that's the end!

Where the previous examples of the children’s understanding of a beautiful day all include something about nice relationships, or beautiful landscapes, or natural phenomena like rainbows, Jordan (4y6m, Illustration 65) told me about being angry and what happens when he gets angry. He said that his painting is about a big ‘baddie’ man. “Sometimes you get noisy and frustrated and angry, and then I sing when I get angry”. He did not give any further information about being angry, or why the task of painting a beautiful day made him think of big ‘baddies’. However, his solution on how to deal with his anger suggests that he has developed a socially acceptable way of coping with anger and frustration.

5.9

Concluding remarks about beauty and spirituality

The children in the study showed that they knew what a beautiful day was for them. They were aware of what they considered beautiful, maybe even big ‘baddie’ men, and how to cope with anger which can be seen as a dark side of spirituality. The children’s beauty could be

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people they were in close relationship with or their peers. Champagne (2003) calls this area of a person’s spirituality the relational area. Beauty could be what was around them: their sensitive mode of being. They showed with their actions how involved they were in the task given. In Keshu’s case it seemed to be a situation of contemplation, which is seen as an important trait in spirituality, judging by his concentration and quietness while painting, where he at other times had talked all the time when providing me with artwork. In all four settings the children had regular access to being creative and paint, draw and make things. This accessibility to being creative is very much in line with the philosophy of Froebel (1900/1974), the founder of early childhood education in Europe. It is seen by Moore (1992) to be very important that people have beauty in their lives or that they should be able to make beautiful things, as lack of beauty can cause serious disturbances like depression. When I think about and look at the artwork the children in the study have given me, I tend to agree with Bowley and Townroe’s (1953, p. 11) claim that “children are extraordinarily perceptive of beauty. Their aesthetic pleasure in the things they see and experience is keen”.

5.10

Spirituality in play.

Montagu (1989, p. 131) states that a person needs to play “for the fun of it”, and that play is a principal criterion of a person’s mental health. He says that children exhibit a delightful earnestness in their play, something which in no way diminishes their enjoyment. Montagu claims that Nietzsche once said that to become mature is to recover that sense of earnestness, which we had as children in play. Play is among the clearest neotenous traits which young children display. Much earlier Froebel (1900/1974) claimed that play in young children is the purest, most spiritual activity of man [sic] and typical for human life as a whole. Froebel compares a child, who is restricted in having opportunities to play, to a fruit tree being planted in a small pot and thereby cannot grow to bear fruit. Likewise the child who is not allowed to play would not bear good fruit, but could become impure, violent, impulsive, indolent, or a destroyer. Froebel recommended that any adults who work with children allow them to participate in the daily chores as soon as the child wishes to try something. This way the child can learn through play about the tasks needed in a regular household.

Nye and Hay (1996) mention play as part of children’s spirituality, as do Berryman (1997) and Cram (1996) when they claim that, for the child, drawing, singing and learning to ride a

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bike are ways of playing. Csikszentmihalyi (1997) claims that play for children has the potential of producing a FLOW experience for the child, which can be compared with the spiritual experience called a sense of the ‘numinous’ (Otto, 1923). Vandenberg (1998) says that play is done for the fun of it, just like Montagu did (1989). Vygotskij (1982) disputes this claim and says that children play games where one loses a game, and that causes children to dislike that game, but even so the child wants to play the game anyway. Vygotskij also says that the concept of play has been made into an intellectual problem, that play is seen as a means to an end, i.e. for the child to learn various abilities. The motivation and interest shown by the child is generally ignored in developmental theories according to Vygotskij. In Morris’s (2002) work as a play therapist she is engaged in assisting children who have been restricted in their play development as well as in other areas. She works with school age children and assists these children in dealing with serious problems through play and through drawing pictures about their lives. Morris claims that the role of spirituality is an essential part of the individual, and that play forms an important aspect of such healthy development in a person. Dowling (2005) wants adults caring for young children to ensure that the children are allowed time to play so that they can consolidate skills, have time to contemplate and use their innate creative abilities, a view that was also mentioned by Elkind (1988) when he warned against hurrying children into adulthood too soon in relation to their overall developmental level.

If play is so important for children and their spirituality, then the philosophical remark made by Descartes (1596-1650, Britannica, 1988): “Cogito ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am) could in early childhood be rewritten as “Ludo ergo sum” (I play, therefore I am). Play is very much part of the child’s Dasein (being-in-the-world, Heidegger, 1994, in Champagne, 2003), and the following excerpts from observations serve to illustrate this point.

Table 6 (over the page) shows some spiritual traits and characteristics which I observed in the children in the study. Many of these were observed in play situations, some were part of the situations where children made artworks for me, and some were in routine situations like tidyup time, rest time or arrival times at the children’s settings.

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6y8m 6y6m

1X 1Y 1X

X

6y2m

1X 1Y 1X

YY XX

6y

2Y

Y

5y10m

1X

6y4m

X Y X Y

YY

Wonder

***Love

Joy

Contemplati on

Imagination

Compassion

Consideratio n

**Calm

*Beauty

Awareness

Girls =X Boys =Y

Table 6. Spiritual Traits and Characteristics observed in the children. The ages listed are rounded down to the nearest 2 months intervals.

Y X

X Y X

X

X

X

YY

Y

YY

Y

X

X Y

XX Y XXX

YYYY

YY

X

5y8m X

XXX YY X

X

XXX YY

X

XXX YY

XX YY

5y4m

3X 2Y 1X

5y2m

4Y

YYYYYYYYY YY

YYYY

YY

YYYYY

YYY

YY

YYYY

5y

1X 1Y 2Y

X Y YY

Y Y

YY YY

YY YYY

Y

X Y YY

Y

X

X

XX Y XXX

XX

5y6m

4y10m 4y8m 4y6m 4y4m 4y2m 4y 3y10m

2X 1Y 5X 5Y 5X 2Y 2X 3Y 3X 4Y 2Y

YY YY XXX Y XXXX

Y

XXX

YY X Y

XX Y XXXXX YYYYY XXXXX YY XX YYY XXX YYYY YY

X Y XXXX Y X YY

XX Y X Y

XXX Y XXXX

XXX YYYY

X

XX Y

X Y X YYYY X

XX YY Y YYYY

XX YY XX YY X YY YY

Y Y

XXXX Y

XX Y XXXX

XX

XXX

3y6m

2X 1Y 4X

XXX

XXX

XX

X

3y4m

1X

XXX

X

X

XX

XX

X

Total

65

45

Observed several times in all four settings with all children **

20

37

3y8m

2 See also Table 6

X

YY Y

27

X

1

26

28

37

* See also Table 5 on number of drawings/paintings on “beautiful day”. ** This raises the question whether there is such a concept as “Group Spirituality” *** See also Table 5a on number of drawings/paintings on “Love” 176

Compassion

The Dalai Lama (2000, McLeod, 2007) defines compassion as a state of mind that is nonviolent, non-harming and non-aggressive. Compassion is a mental attitude where a person wishes for other people to be free of suffering and it is combined with a sense of commitment, responsibility and respect towards others. Genuine compassion sees every person as having an innate desire to be happy and to overcome suffering, which is every person’s fundamental right regardless of whether or not one likes the other person. In practising genuine compassion, a person will take on another person’s suffering and work towards making the other person feel better, thus feeling a connectedness and commitment with that other person. With this definition by the Dalai Lama it appears that the definitions of compassion in The Macquarie Concise Dictionary’s (2001) as compassion being a feeling of sorrow or pity for other people, or sympathy with people seem to be too limited.

Kavelin-Popov et al. (1995) say that a world without compassion is a hard and lonely place, but that compassion will connect people. Fox (1990) claims that the world of Humpty Dumpty (i.e. Planet Earth) urgently needs compassion to become whole, and that people need to practise compassion towards one another, in the work place, in worship and in politics. Fox claims that compassion is service and it is different to helping. The service is given for the highest good of all concerned. He says that compassion is the actualisation of loving one’s neighbour as oneself. The Dalai Lama (1996) says that love and compassion are necessities, not luxuries. Thompson (1990) describes compassionate actions in children as young as 15 months as being acts of empathy, a concept explained by Lennon and Eisenberg (1990) to be akin to compassion. The following examples show that the children concerned practised compassion and that through their actions they most likely made other people feel good.

Matthew (4y2m) showed compassion and consideration for another child (NIS [Not In Study] a younger child) when this child was crying as his father left him in the morning. Matthew hugs D as D’s father leaves, then gives him a soft toy lamb to hold which M found on a shelf. Later M invites D to play with him on the mat with Duplo blocks. D declines this offer, but sits on a cushion holding the toy lamb looking at M playing.

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Matthew shows D that he cares for his feelings and understands that it can be difficult to say 'good bye' to a parent sometimes. He ensures that D has something to comfort him, and also invites him to participate in Matthew's play with the blocks. It does not seem to worry Matthew that D declines the offer of participating in the play. Matthew is displaying compassion for D’s situation, and in conversation with the staff later I was told that this was something Matthew did often for the younger children in the setting. Matthew’s mother (INT 22) confirmed that Matthew often comforted other children. Lennon and Eisenberg (1990) say that children as young as age 2 years are beginning to be able to display compassion once they have determined that they are individuals. With compassion being considered as an important spiritual trait, it appears to be something which Matthew displays very well.

In one situation I was playing with Rebecca (3y2m) and Melitta (3y6m) in the sandpit (FN, 1999). We had a great conversation about the properties of wet and dry sand, and which was better to use for sand castles and sand moulds. In the process of pushing away the dry sand, my foot got covered with sand and I said: “Oh, where is my foot?!” The girls looked around, and Rebecca poked her finger into the sand mound covering my foot, but did not hit my foot. She then patted me on the arm and said: “Don’t worry, Anna, it’ll turn up!” “Are you sure?” Rebecca nodded, and while we kept on playing, I gradually wriggled my foot out of the sand, and then said: “Look! Here is my foot!” Rebecca said with a beaming smile: “Good!” Rebecca’s comments and actions suggest that she was aware of how to comfort someone, and how to show compassion. She showed the cognitive ability of looking where the foot should have been, but when her probe with the finger gave no result, she comforted me in a way that could have been a learned response, or it could be spontaneous for her: a pat on the arm. She showed joy at the fact that the foot turned up again, and perhaps she was also pleased that her comforting remark to me had been correct: my foot did indeed turn up again!

Joy

According to Montessori (1955) joy in life is a result of children’s activities guided more from within the child than from outer circumstances. Joyful children are more balanced and more capable of orienting themselves, they are calm and serene, and they adapt easily to other people. Kavelin-Popov et al. (1995) claim that joy is not identical with fun, as fun is something that happens outside a person. Rather, joy is what is inside the person - the sense of

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fun - and it is the feeling that carries a person through hard times with the person knowing deep inside that one is still loved. In children joy is generally expressed in their choice of play and between members of a group of children playing together. Beekman (1983) says that to really understand a child’s world, one must participate in the action of that world. In this study it meant participating in the children’s play, and I always asked the children’s permission if I could join their play. Sometimes permission was granted, other times it was not, and I had to retreat.

The play scene below between David, Faith and myself is a great example of children showing joy and imagination on their play. They accepted me into their game and together we used all the blocks available. David (4y4m) showed obvious joy at the completion, and Faith (4y6m) was equally happy, but showed this in a quieter way. There were no regrets when it turned out that we couldn’t take a photo of the construction, neither were there when the whole thing got knocked over, except I was left to pick up all the blocks on my own! Faith and David have been building on the carpet for a while. AG comes over: "Can I sit here?" Both children say "Yes" and continue building. After asking for permission AG joins the play by putting some blocks on the construction. The trio talks about the blocks and where to put them, and eventually all the blocks have been used. David grins: "It's good!" Faith smiles and nods, and AG asks J (assistant) whether the centre has a camera so we can take a photo, but she has no film. David suggests that we leave it up till rest time because it is a picture. AG asks what is in the picture, and Faith says it is a tunnel for cars. At the bottom there is a small arch in one of the blocks. AG asks if that is for the rain water and Faith nods, pointing at a larger arch nearby: "That one is for all the water on the road" "Oh, like a drain" Faith nods. David holds his "Woody" cowboy doll up to the space which Faith had said was a tunnel, but just then Snow comes over and pushes the whole construction down. All participants laugh. David stands up and runs away with Snow, Faith walks into the home corner, and AG picks up the blocks!

Montessori’s (1955) remark that joy makes a person calm and serene does not mean that a child is quiet: joy can be expressed loudly like when Carl (4y6m) shouted to me with a broad grin: “Anna, I just looooove picnics!” and then continued running towards the climbing equipment in the picnic grounds (FN, 1999).

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Joy can also be expressed in a situation of sharing experiences like when Mary (6y2m) told me that she was painting hail clouds, and that we talked about that one can eat the hail:

M:

(nods - then points to the hail clouds) - I love hail.

AG:

Why?

M:

'Cause when it stops you can go outside and eat it.

AG:

I see! I used to do that when I was a kid!

M:

Did you? Did you like it?

AG:

Mmm. (nods)

Mary smiles broadly, then takes the painting and hangs it up to dry.

Wonder and Awareness

Rodger (1996) states that spirituality is rooted in awareness and that it is important to renew awareness and wonder for an individual, including children, to grow spiritually. In Csikszentmihalyi’s (1997) theory about FLOW, awareness is one point in the FLOW experience with Nye and Hay (1996) claiming that for children, in their quest for mastering new skills almost daily, such awareness is potentially very familiar. Nye and Hay (1996) also say that awareness is a kind of consciousness, and Tamminen (1991) claims that children generally have spiritual awareness experiences more often that adults do. Carson (1956) recommends that adults participate in a child’s sense of wonder and to let children explore nature and natural phenomena with adults who are not afraid of wondering together with the child. This is also a recommendation made by Myers (1997) who says that it is a wise parent who allows a young child to wonder why peas will fall on the floor when they are dropped one by one from the high chair. Myers also says that it is important for adults to wonder about the complexity of young children’s minds and what makes children do and say what they do. In the following I have tried to illustrate both these types of awareness and wonder: the children’s and mine. Melitta and AG had just been at the swings nearby, but they are now sitting in the digging patch both drawing pictures in the dirt with little sticks. AG sits on a rock, M on the ground, later she lies down on her stomach while drawing. She is wearing long red/white checked pants and a white skivvy. M picks up a little stick and starts making lines in the dirt, and soon

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they both draw figures in the dirt using small sticks. M shows interest in the way various thicknesses of sticks produce different lines. She asks AG "to bury the picture" several times, i.e. to pat the dirt flat again by hand. She then draws again and again. She objects to AG drawing using her finger and gives her a stick to use instead. During the 12-15 minutes they are drawing they talk about the pictures, the sticks and that they must wash their hands when finished. At some stage Sheree joins them. She observes what is going on, draws a little in the dirt using a stick, but leaves soon after. Melitta does not talk to Sheree - only to AG. Later Saskia comes over - she draws pictures as well talking all the time, but she also left very soon. Claire (teacher) calls out that M shouldn't be lying on the ground - M. sits up, draws a little more, but then left soon after.

Melitta is obviously enjoying the activity initiated by herself. She talks about the effect that the different thicknesses of the sticks make and how to repeat the process of drawing in the same spot by 'burying the picture'. There is no indication of whether Melitta believes that the previous pictures might still be buried in the dirt. She seems to accept Sheree and Saskia joining the activity, but they seem not to be as interested as Melitta is herself due to the fact that they leave soon. She is aware that it is necessary to wash hands when finished, but that she is lying down in the dirt does not concern her. When Claire (teacher) calls out that she should not be lying down, she sits up, but it seems that her FLOW experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1992) has been interrupted, as she leaves soon after.

Overall it seems that Melitta's experience of drawing in the dirt has been a positive and enjoyable time, where she has been aware of how to produce pictures, she has consistently used sticks to draw with, and giving AG a stick also indicates that she wants AG to have a similar experience. At no time does she use her own fingers to draw. I wondered how such a seemingly simple activity could keep Melitta’s attention and awareness for such a long time, but I have since experienced similar situations of similar duration with other children where I have drawn pictures or written names in dirt or in the sandpit using sticks or fingers. In all these situations the children were captivated by the activity, they participated eagerly, and they wanted to count the numbers of letters in names if we were writing. However, I am yet to find an explanation as to why the children show awareness in these drawing and writing activities, as they also do it when there are only children engaged in the activity. It is not just a matter of having the attention of an adult.

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The following observation shows awareness, wonder and consideration. Together the two children and I collected white quartz stones, and in the conversation wondered about their various properties. In the end Jarrod (5y2m) gave his part of the stones to his friend C. (NIS) and seemed pleased in doing so.

C and Jarrod (5y2m) are on the hill in the far corner of the school grounds crouching and pushing around in the dust with their hands. AG comes over, crouches next to them, watching them, and then asks what they are doing. They both smile and explain that they are collecting crystals - small white quartz stones. The trio talks about how shiny the stones are and help one another collect more. Soon they have a handful each, and they walk down to the paved patio outside the classroom. Jarrod demonstrates how to rub the stones in his hands to get the dust and dirt off. This process makes the stones even shinier. The children carefully put the white stones in two little piles on the reddish-brown paving. They comment that the stones look even prettier on the pavers than in the dust on the hill. AG asks if they know where there might be some small bags in which they can carry the stones home. C runs inside and soon returns with a large grocery shopping bag. It is much too big for the stones collected, and there is only one bag. Jarrod says to C: "You take them!" C smiles, then tucks the stones into one corner of the bag and rolls it up tightly just as the bell rings in time to go inside. C asks Teena (teacher) to help him put sticky tape around the plastic bag, then puts it into his school bag.

The children show awareness and wonder over the little white stones in the dust - one must get down close to even see these little stones. They show what Montessori (1936) calls the sensitive period for noticing minute details which adults often miss. They carefully select those stones they consider to be the best crystals, and they allow AG to join their search for the stones. There is no indication of whether the stones are being collected with a purpose in mind other than they are pretty and that they are crystals. C smiles when he is allowed to keep all the crystals. Jarrod seems to be pleased too, even though he had no stones. It seemed to me that his pleasure was in giving the stones to his friend, i.e. he demonstrated that he was very capable of showing the essence of love which Montagu (1989) described as giving, caring, giving love, and loving to give.

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Imagination

Sometimes the children would incorporate imaginary play in the task of drawing music as in the following observation involving Paige (4y4m, Illustration 66). In the interview later with her parents I was told that they had had their car stolen recently (INT 9). This may have inspired the imaginary phone calls, but it is also a typical observation for Paige, as she was always busy playing, either by herself or with friends in the centre.

Paige looks at AG who is turning the tape over in the tape recorder while explaining the task ahead: to listen carefully to the music (Vivaldi: Concerto in C for sopranino recorder), then draw it. P:

It sounds like a whistle!

AG:

Yes it does! It is an instrument called a recorder (she shows Paige the photo on the cover of the cassette showing M. Petri with a recorder in hand)

Paige draws a blue section in the middle of the paper: P:

This is the whistle! Oh pass me the phone please, it's ringing!

On the shelf across the table is a toy telephone. AG passes it to Paige. She talks into the phone - it is her dad who is telling about his car being stolen and burnt. P and AG talk about the phone call, and P wants AG to talk on the phone as well, which she does. P:

Well, I'll just turn him off now - I want to draw! (She pushes at a point on the side of the telephone).

Paige draws a lot of red stripes, then encircles them in black. P:

This is the song.

AG:

I see.

The phone 'rings' again - Paige is making the ringing noise. She talks into it and tells AG that it is the NEWS lady whose car has also been stolen. She wants AG to talk to the news lady too - AG plays the game - then hands the phone back to P. P:

Oh, I think I'll just have to turn her off as well. These phones ring all the time - there is never a quiet moment!

She looks at the drawing - then at the tape recorder, where the music is still playing. P:

Now I'll draw pink music - purple music now - purple is pretty (AG nods) - and orange music.

AG:

So what does music look like?

P:

It's - it sings like ABC and motor sport! - Red now - it's a pretty colour!

Paige appears to enjoy the task of drawing - she is able to combine it with a game of pretend play, and she appears satisfied with AG's contribution to the play. Her interpretation of the

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music is that it is colours, encircling part of it with a black circle. Her drawing is an example of named scribble, and her actions, comments and imagination are an example of being able to communicate verbally that the music is pretty colours. Without the observation the drawing would have very little meaning, and the fact that Paige worked for about 7-8 minutes on the task while simultaneously playing an imaginary game is only apparent in the corresponding observation. It appears that Paige is creating her own learning in this situation: she is practising skills in communication in a play situation so that she might become better at handling real situations (Vygotsky, 1978). Paige’s actions and comments communicate her spirituality through her sensitive mode of being as described by Champagne (2003).

Once I was sitting on a tyre at the bottom of the tyre mound in the playground. Saskia (4y8m) and Susan (4y4m) were playing on the mound.

Crawling around on the tyres the girls are playing that when they put their feet into the centre of the top tyre, the “sucking monster” will get them, unless someone pulls them out. (The large tractor tyres are stacked and fixed in position so a child can easily crawl in and out between the tyres). AG is sitting on one of the tyres below listening to the laughter and giggling. A couple of times the “monster” manages to ‘get’ one of the girls, but every time she climbs back up. But then one girl got ‘really’ stuck. Saskia: “Help, the monster is getting me!” Susan: “I’ll get you! - I can’t - help me Anna!” Together we pull Saskia out of the top tyre. Lots of “Ooh - this is hard!”, laughing and “Help - the monster is getting me!”, but we managed to get her free before the monster got Saskia. This time is appears that the monster is ‘really’ getting the girl, and straight afterwards we sit together on a bottom tyre and talk about whether monsters really exist. The girls tell me that this particular “sucking monster” does not exist: “We’re just playing!” The conversation then turned towards a large spider we can see in a tree nearby.

Saskia and Susan are obviously enjoying their imaginary game and when they got tired, they asked me to join their game in pulling Saskia free from the monster. At no time did it appear that the girls really believed that there was a monster in the tyre mound. They do appear to have a great time, and they express care and concern for each other in their efforts to rescue the friend from the monster. They showed the spiritual trait of joy in their imaginary game, with Cram (1996) saying that free spaces, like playgrounds, are important for children to develop their imagination, spirituality and play. Hopefully these girls’ imagination will

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remain with them and not go away at the age of nine, as noted above in Anya’s (age six, in Latham, 1996, p. 14) claim that a person’s imagination turns off the light and goes to sleep when the person is around that age.

Contemplation

Hegel (1807) said that Andacht (devotion, reverence, rapt interest, Collins, 1995) is a spiritual stream which is a state of being. I saw this in one child in particular. She showed the spiritual trait of contemplation in silence several times. Annabel (4y2m) was playing by herself in the home corner sitting on the floor.

Annabel has carefully arranged cups, plates, play food and cutlery on a tray. She is alone and seemingly oblivious to the activity occurring around her with other children and staff tidying up the room after play time. There are several pieces of plastic plates, cutlery, food etc. on the floor beside A. AG goes over to her, kneels down and watches her for a while. AG:

What are you playing?

A:

It's a picnic.

AG:

Who is going?

A:

Me.

AG:

Anyone else?

A:

No.

AG watches her for a little while. AG:

Did you hear that Jenni (teacher) said it was tidy-up time?

A:

Yup.

AG:

Would you like me to help you?

A:

I don't want to tidy up.

AG:

Is that why you are still playing?

A:

Yup.

Jenni calls out to A: “A, please finish tidying up over there”. A pouts, then throws a plastic apple on the shelf nearby. AG:

Shall I help you?

A:

(slowly) Yeah - -

AG:

Where shall I put this tray that you have done up so nicely?

A:

There - (points to the shelf where the apple landed)

AG moves the apple on to the tray, then places the tray on the shelf.

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A takes a basket and throws the remaining items still on the floor in it. The things all fit into the basket, and she then places the basket on the shelf next to the tray. She walks slowly to the mat where the rest of the children are sitting. She is the last child arriving.

Annabel is clearly more interested in her picnic play than in the routine of tidying up and story time. She plays quietly and with gentle movements, and it appears that she would prefer AG to move away initially. She does seem to attempt to use her right to be her own gatekeeper, but when Jenni calls out that she must finish the tidying up, she accepts my offer of help. Her period of solitary play (indicated by her preparation of the picnic just for herself) seems to be a time of contemplation and rest, a spiritual trait which is considered important for a balanced spiritual life (Catalfo, 1997). Montessori (1966/1939) recommended that children are allowed periods of total silence so their minds can rise higher in the spiritual life with Dowling (2005) giving specific suggestions on how to provide areas where children can be alone and contemplate.

Another time Annabel was playing by herself in the sandpit while several of the children were singing with the teacher who played the guitar. They were on the ground under a tree beside the sandpit, obviously enjoying the situation.

For about 15-20 minutes the children suggest songs, join the singing, or just listen. Gordon (3y10) and Hazel (4y6m) look in Jenni's song book and suggest what to sing next. Monique (4y2m) lies down on her back, hands behind head, appears to look up into the tree. Annabel (4y4m) is in the sandpit nearby playing solitarily, occasionally looking at the singers under the tree. She has a small tip truck, fills it up with sand, drives it slowly around the edge of the sandpit stopping closest to where the group is under the tree. She looks at the singers while letting the dry sand from the truck slide between her fingers on to the ground. She stands up, walks to the gym mat, sits down and joins the singing. It happens to be the last song before lunch time: the assistant has just pushed the lunch trolley out on the verandah. All children go to the bathroom, the singers slowly in a group together talking to Jenni and asking if they can sing again later after rest time. Jenni promises 'Yes'.

Gordon and Hazel (4y6m) are obviously enjoying the activity - they are those children who had stayed with Jenni during the whole singing time, and those who are actively participating by singing and suggesting which songs to sing. Monique also appears to enjoy the moment, although she seems to be a passive participant and is listening, not actually singing. Annabel,

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who has seemingly happily played by herself, decides to join the group, and obviously enjoys the activity. She didn’t say anything, but her actions in the sandpit while she was playing could be interpreted as if she was contemplating and enjoying the singing as well as her own company, until she decided to join the group.

Love

The majority of information I have from the children in the study about ‘love’ is from their drawings and paintings as referred to above. However, sometimes children would tell me about their understanding in spontaneous conversations like the time, when I had a conversation with Carl (4y6m) and RT (4y8m) about ‘love’ and being polite. They were sitting on a swing each and I pushed both of them, sometimes slowing down so we could talk. Some of the observation is running record, some is anecdotal record, and in the end I turned on my tape recorder, as the conversation became quite involved. C:

'Cause you want something - then you say please - and when you get it you say thank you. That's politely.

AG:

Do you only say those words when you want things or get things?

C:

No - just now I don't want something - I just wanted you to push me, and you did!

AG:

That's right -

C:

And that's what you do if you really like someone. (He swings slowly back and forth on the swing) - I like you Anna.

AG:

I like you too.

C:

But I really love my mummy.

AG:

Is it different to like someone and to love someone?

C:

Yes!

AG:

What is it to love someone?

C:

You kiss them -

RT:

(who sits on the other swing - he has not previously participated in the conversation, but has looked at the person speaking) - and you hug them.

C:

Yep! And you give them flowers. But that's just grown-ups. Children can say 'thank you' to parents when they buy things, 'cause that's the polite thing. - Grown-ups say polite things what was that other word again, Anna?

AG:

'Courteous'?

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C:

Yes, courteous. Grown-ups are courteous - (says the word slowly) - when they want a tyre changed - you say 'please' then. But if you want flowers you have to say 'please'.

AG:

So if you want some help or you want something, everyone has to say 'please'?

C:

Yep! Grown-ups, too.

AG:

But do you always get it, if you remember to say 'please'?

C:

No. It doesn't always work.

RT:

But what about 'love'? You love me, Carl, don't you?

C:

Yes.

AG:

Who else do you love?

C:

I love mummy and daddy and Matthew and Robert (class mate). (He looks at a Pooh bear sitting on the ground next to AG. The owner had left the bear there for AG to look after) - I love bears, too.

AG:

So do I! Who's Matthew - you said you love Matthew - Is he your big brother?

C:

No he's not my brother - he's (Background noise - I can’t hear the explanation on the tape)

RT:

I'm L’s big brother.

(Pause. There’s just the creaking from the swings.) RT:

I've got something to tell you, Anna!

AG:

Yes, RT, what have you got to tell me?

(Background noise. Carl runs over to Robert who is climbing on the A-frames). RT:

You know I was just telling you that I love mummy every day?

AG:

Yes, that's nice!

RT:

That's 'cause I love her today very much. Every day I love her.

AG:

Yes - and what's your little brother's name? -

RT:

L.

AG

Do you love L too?

RT:

Yes. I love dad too. I'm RT and dad is Robert.

AG:

Your dad is Robert, and you are RT!

R:

Yes. (He hops off the swing and walks over to the shed).

The two boys had a clear understanding of what ‘love’ meant to them and they could communicate this understanding verbally in an involved conversation. It may be interpreted that Carl and RT seem to be totally aware of how important ‘love’ is, and they also seem to have a healthy understanding of the concept in regard to whom one shows love towards, and whom one just ‘likes’. Montenaro (1999) claims that love is an essential part of a person, where love must be cultivated so the person’s soul is not starved and in danger of suffering. It

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seemed to me that these two boys were in no danger of their souls being endangered through the starvation from love.

Calm and Consideration.

In my field notes I wrote several times that children in a setting were busy and calm (FN, 1999). They would ask adults in the room to help them with activities, to read stories, to play with them, and to find needed equipment. In these situations all children very busily engaged in constructive learning activities, either in small groups or individually.

In one setting the whole class showed consideration towards one of the younger children, Melitta (3y6m), in the class. Melitta had fallen asleep during story time and slept for an hour or so. The rest of the children used quiet voices throughout that time. Peers reminded each other to lower their voices if someone used a loud voice, even in areas of the room where the children could not see Melitta. It was not necessary for the adults to tell the children to show consideration and use quiet voices.

I made myself a memo to check out texts whether there is such a phenomenon as ‘group spirituality’ (FN 1999). Montessori (1955; 1992) described situations where children worked calmly with various tasks and Vygotsky (1978) described several situations where whole groups of children played the same game. Myers (1997) recommends that teachers create hospitable spaces where children and their parents feel welcome to play and be together. It appears that the concept has been described, but there seems to be no actual research about the topic. The concept of ‘group spirituality’ is one which requires more research, but the spiritual trait of ‘calm’ was observed several times as indicated in Table 6 (p. 176).

5.11 Concluding remarks about play and spirituality

Myers (1997) claims that it is through play that a child develops knowledge in any area. She says that the experience of the play is a personal one for the child, and one which is part of the child’s spirituality. Cram (1996) says that play is children’s way of making meaning of their world, and Vandenberg (2003) says that play is an issue of existence. So when young children play, they are acquiring knowledge, they are making meaning of their world, and they exist.

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As suggested earlier: Descartes’ definition of existence should be rewritten for early childhood as “Ludo ergo sum”. Alexander and McLaughlin (2003) seem to put a quite serious outlook on the concept of spirituality in children and in education, i.e. that spirituality has to be taught to children and that it must be included in the curriculum. However, in the early childhood settings play is the main activity through which the children interact. It is the curriculum. Play is children’s expression of their spirituality. Through play the children display their sensitive mode of being, their relational mode of being, and their existential mode of being (Champagne, 2003).

5.12

Spontaneous artwork.

As participant observer coming to each centre on a regular basis, I was in the fortunate situation that the children got to know me quite well and I them. This resulted in situations where the children would give me a drawing or a painting that they had made for me on days when I was not present having kept the artwork aside or they asked the staff in the centre to write my name on it. They would present such artwork to me with big beaming smiles. I recorded these drawings and paintings in Table 5, but most I was unable to use, as there were no explanations given by the child artist.

However, on one occasion Jacob (4y8m at the time) and Malcolm (4y6m at the time) asked me to build space ships with them (FN, 1999). Later that day we were sitting at the drawing table drawing the space ships, and I played the ‘dummy’ (Tammivaara & Enright, 1988, p. 231), indicating to the boys that there was something I didn’t know. The conversation went as follows: AG:

I heard a word the other day - soul - I wonder what it means. Have you heard it before?

M&J: Yeah AG:

What does it do?

J:

It helps your brain to think!

M:

It lives in your brain. - Soul is in your head.

Conversation then went over to the drawings the boys made about the spaceships we’d built earlier that day.

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The boys had no hesitation in answering a question which many adults consider to be deeply philosophical and maybe also theological. There was no metaphysics in their answers. When considering Crick’s (1994) hypothesis about the where-about of the soul, which he says is in the neurons of the brain, Malcolm’s and Jacob’s ‘knowledge’ is quite amazing. Sheldrake and Fox (1997) says that the ‘soul’ is where God works compassion, and that a person lives within that person’s soul. Montagu (1989) claims that children love to think, and that the child is equipped with all the potential for sound thinking: curiosity, wonder, explorative-ness, experimental-mindedness, and open-mindedness. All of these are the most powerful of power tools, and are found in the human mind, i.e. in the brain, which is, according to Malcolm, where a person’s soul lies.

If these boys’ understandings about ‘soul’ are true, and considering the importance various world religions (Appendix 2) and philosophies (see 2.4.7) place on the concept of soul in regard to spirituality, then their placement of the soul in the brain could indicate that spirituality is indeed governing a person’s whole being. Champagne (2003) says that there are three modes of being for a young child: the Sensitive Mode, the Relational Mode, and the Existential Mode. Each of these can be present at the same time in the child, and they describe the spiritual dimension of a child’s being-in-the-world as the child’s Dasein (Heidegger, 1994, in Champagne, 2003). Champagne further says that spirituality is a basic dimension of young children’s being, of their way of relating to adults and children, and in their general behaviour in games and imagination. With the concept of re-incarnation, several writers (Cerminara, 1967; Eason, 2005; Steiner, 1913, 1965; Teekamp, 1999) claim that it is a person’s soul which takes on a new identity. Whether the soul is in the person’s brain or whether the soul is part of the person’s sub-consciousness or the collective un-conscious (Jacobi, 1968; Jung, 1963) is of little relevance in this instance. It is amazing to note Malcolm and Jacob’s sure knowledge about a person’s soul!

5.13

What the teachers saw

One teacher teased me a bit one day: “What would we do without you academics!?” (FN, 1999), to which I answered that teachers are generally doing very well and have a ‘gut’ feeling that they are doing the right thing in regard to observing and programming for the children in their care. However, teachers sometimes need to have some research back-up in

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regard to justifying what they actually do and need in order to get equipment, experiences and excursions approved by managements of their settings, and in regard to child development issues such as the present research about young children’s spirituality. She agreed with that observation, and said she was looking forward to seeing the result of the study. She and staff in the other settings gave information when they could - they talked with parents and collected consent forms for me on days when I was not visiting, but only one teacher filled in the Rating Scale for me (Appendix 9). Staff in all four settings gave me information about the specific setting, the philosophy and special requirements. In the Jewish kindergarten I was invited to participate in the Passover celebrations, an experience which demonstrated the children’s capacity to be still and contemplative in situations other than play. I also participated in the weekly Sabbath celebrations where all the children participated regardless of their religious adherence.

However, there were few observations passed from the teachers to me about the children. Considering my role as participant observer, I sometimes asked staff about observations I had made of the children. Often they would confirm my interpretation of a child’s behaviour and sometimes gave additional information which I then noted in my Field Notes (FN, 1999).

One member of staff provided an observation of a game where seventeen children and the assistant participated. Only one child stayed out of the game and just watched: Four children had ‘fallen down’ in the cubby house which was on fire and they were ‘dead’. The other children played firemen or ambulance crews. Some children went and got medical kits from inside and fixed the dead children, but then other children ‘died’. The children took turns in being dead, or being firemen or being the doctors who fixed the dead children. All the ‘dead’ children were fixed and made better. They all seemed to have a great time, including the assistant being in the game. There was a lot of running and shouting, but the situation of the cubby house being on fire was a dramatic one. Again this is an illustration of children displaying their spirituality in a sensitive, relational and existential mode of being through play as referred to in the discussion of Champagne’ work (2003).

Neill (1960) wonders whether the evils of civilisation are due to people not having been allowed to play, and noted that play is usually noisy. He advocates that children should be allowed to play at any time, regardless of their age. He says that if children made timetables,

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play would have most of the time available. Perhaps adults should reconsider their ‘serious’ lives and make timetables which will allow themselves to play as well! Vandenberg (2003) warns adults against focusing too much on a play curriculum as the focus then becomes the adult’s intentions of what the children should do, rather than focusing on the children’s freedom, joy, and passion in the play. Play in early childhood settings should be what children want to do and what the children are interested in, not on what the adults think they should learn.

5.14

The dark side of spirituality

In Buddhism there is the concept that life is suffering (Appendix 2.7), and in Taoism there is the constant interaction between Yin and Yang as two opposing forces which should be in balance with each other (Appendix 2.8). Hegel (1807) said that there is a dialectic interaction between good and evil, and together they form the whole. When considering that there could be two wolves within each person (p.ii), one good, one evil, then it does appear that there would be a dark side to spirituality in the individual. As mentioned earlier, Muscari (2006) sees the positive aspects of spirituality (compassion, love, altruism, forgiveness, joy and fulfilment) as antidotes to the negative aspects of spirituality (fear, anxiety, self-absorption, anger, cynicism and pessimism). I saw the dark side of spirituality in some of the children’s artwork. Sometimes inclusion of hurtful or scary things in drawings and paintings puzzled me, particularly when they were asked to paint or draw about a concept like ‘love’.

Kieran (6y0m, illustration 67) worked without looking at three other children playing close to the easels. A couple of times one of them bumped into the table where the paints were. He looked at them, but did not speak to them, nor did he speak to AG until he was finished.

K:

I've finished!

AG:

Can you tell me about what love is in your painting?

K:

Yes. This is me killing the baddie, 'cause I've got his power.

AG:

What is the red triangle?

K:

That's the baddie when he dies.

AG:

So which part is the 'love' part?

K:

That you kill evil things - 'cause they are no good.

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Kieran’s concept of love is that one needs to kill evil and get rid of it. His painting is in strong bold colours and the person representing himself is much bigger than the evil which was killed. There was no indication of what evil was, nor whether it is morally correct to kill baddies. However, this aspect of young children’s spirituality requires much more data before one can determine the impact of negative things or events in children’s spirituality.

While drawing pictures and listening to ABC lullabies, Jordan (4y0m, Illustration 68), who had a birthday that day, drew a detailed drawing with an Easter egg, carrots for the Easter bunny, a birthday present, the ABC song, and a rocket with missiles. When asked about details in his drawing, he could explain everything except the missiles and the rocket. The drawing took place less than a week after NATO bombed targets in Kosovo, Yugoslavia in March 1999, with these events being frequently on the news. In the current global situation with war in Iraq, the suicide bombings in the London transport system (ABC News July 2005), bombings in Bali (ABC News Oct 2005), civil unrest in East Timor, war in the Middle East (ABS and SBS News, 2006/2007) and general unrest throughout the world, the effects on young children’s spirituality through seeing such destruction is yet to be determined. It requires research similar to Gabarino and Kostelny’s (1993) studies of young children watching the Gulf War on television.

David (4y4m, Illustration 69) painted something that is shooting everywhere and blows everything up in his picture about a beautiful day. His mother told me (INT 7) that she was convinced that David had lived before, but the painting and the comments could almost be prophetic in regards to the events of September 11, 2001, as all the television sets blew up, and the buildings fell down. It could also be a reference to something David had seen on television in general or the world situation at the time with the war in the former Yugoslavia. Carey (2003) stated that children are very perceptive, sensitive and thoughtful. He and his family lived in Manhattan in 2001 and experienced the 9/11 event knowing someone who was killed at the time. He recommends that parents are attentive to their children’s unconscious lives and how dramatic events like 9/11 affect them. We are yet to see research on how these events may have influenced young children’s spirituality.

In Illustration 25, Sheree (3y4m) drew angry people. Prior to drawing these people, she drew an angry spider (Illustration 70) in her picture of the chamber music with Mikala Petri (1980).

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There is no indication of why Sheree’s drawings are both of someone or something that is angry. (Other children drawing at the same time drew colours, people liking each other and natural phenomena like weather, rainbows, and plants). Sheree draws for a while without talking. She looks at the tape recorder occasionally. S:

This is a spider. It looks angry.

AG:

Why is the spider angry?

S:

It's a red-back spider.

AG:

Yes, I can see that. - What do you do if you see a red-back spider?

S:

Kill it!

AG:

Hm - do children do that themselves?

S:

Noo - mums and dads do that.

She draws a purple circle and colours it in. S:

This is another spider - it's purple and big! I'm gonna give it green legs.

She takes a green texta and draws legs as she chants: S:

1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 - 8 - 9 - 10 - 13 - 16 - 17 - 18 - 19 - 30 - 60 - 70 - 80 - 90 - 30 - 60 - - See all the legs?

AG:

Yes - it does have lots of legs.

Myers (1997) warns against defining spirituality in only ‘good’ terms, or in only ‘bad’ terms, making links to the thought that humanity is born evil and needs religion and rules to be kept in line, or that humanity, if only exposed to ‘good’ things will naturally become good. She claims that a spirituality of caring is political and belongs to everyone in a child’s environment: that everyone has part of the responsibility to ensure that children live in a community in which adults are caring and responsible for the decisions made socially and politically. So for the children who included “bad” things in their drawings and paintings about love, gentle music or beautiful days, we do not really know whether their choice of topic denotes that they focus on the ‘good’ or the ‘bad’ side of spirituality. The few examples in this study give an indication that this is an area of young children’s spirituality, which needs much more research.

So far data from parents observing spiritual behaviour and data from the children themselves have been analysed in relation to the literature. In the coming chapter parents provide additional information as we had conversations about the artwork and the Rating Scales.

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CHAPTER 6.

CHILDREN, SPIRITUALITY AND THE PARENTS.

“In spiritual reality there is no absolute superiority of parent over child. All living creatures are equal members of a vast spiritual community.” Cerminara (1967) p. 156.

6.0

Approach to conversations.

The following chapter deals with the information given by parents in planned conversations towards the end of the school year in which the field visits took place. I wanted to show all parents what information and artwork their children had given me, and let them read observations and any comments I had about their children, thereby honouring the parents’ right to see any information about their child under the Australian Freedom of Information Act (FoI, 1982). I also wanted to ask the parents about their understanding in regard to their child’s spirituality in relation to the parent’s responses on the Rating Scales. (See Chapter 4 for detailed discussion about the Rating Scales).

In a newsletter I invited parents to return a form indicating the time and place where they would be able to meet me, either at the early childhood setting, or at a place of the parent’s choice. I got a total of 26 “yes” responses from the 56 families representing 27 children. The parents of the 29 children not represented either declined to participate in a conversation, or were unable to due to being on holidays or being ill. Some did not respond to the newsletter for reasons unknown.

I made a list of guiding questions (Appendix 8) for these conversations, which were audio taped if the parent/s agreed to this. Nineteen conversations (20 children represented) were taped and conversations were fully transcribed. The conversations are numbered (INT 1, INT 2, etc) but not identified in any other way so as to protect the parents’ identities. In addition I have notes for these conversations (FN, 1999). The remaining 7 conversations (7 children represented) were not audio taped at the parent’s request with one parent also asking for notes not to be taken. Two parents wished to meet me in their work place, two in their homes, and the remainder in their

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child’s early childhood setting. In two instances both parents were present during the conversation.

During the conversations I showed observations and artwork to the parents and told about their child’s reactions and comments. If the child was present, he or she was also included in the conversations. Some parents preferred that I did the talking and explaining what their children had given me. They refrained from making comments about their understanding of spirituality. If parents were willing to talk about their understanding, I asked questions using Appendix 8 as a guide, and the Rating Scale, if the parent had filled one in for their child. On at least two occasions the parent requested that I turned off the tape recorder and I have only very brief notes from these sections of those conversations (FN, 1999). One parent told about family difficulties at the time, and the other parent had some concerns about the early childhood setting the child attended.

In the following sub-sections I have used the same framework as previously used in this thesis: a brief introduction of literature followed by examples selected from the data and illustrated with excerpts from the conversations and pictures of the children’s artwork where relevant. The sub-headings correspond to some degree with those in Chapters 4 and 5: Music, love, dreams, and beauty. In addition there are a few more headings as determined from the actual conversations: Spiritual characteristics in adults and children; The dark side of spirituality; The importance of religion; Children’s Artwork; Life and Death; and Reincarnation. Finally I have made some concluding remarks derived from the parent information discussed in this chapter section. All illustrations are clustered together following page 268.

6.1

Music.

Montagu (1989) says that music is the universal language of humanity and utters things that cannot be spoken. Music is the best example of human imagination even when one does not understand the music in an analytical way. It is the result of the composer’s dream, fantasy and vision. It has thus created a rich, beautiful and authentic reality. Moore (2002) seems to agree that a person does not have to understand music or know all about the performers or the composer to enjoy music.

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He says that musical experiences are sensuous experiences, which are richer, more complex and more mysterious than intellectual thoughts. Along this train of thought Radford (2001) claims that music generates powerful emotional responses in its listeners, but at the same time that music enjoys a degree of neutrality. He further states that music helps a person to articulate something that cannot be articulated in any other way, but which can be a source of peace for the listener. This inner peace can be achieved through both listening to music and playing music. Radford (2001) compares this inner peace with the peace an individual may gain through prayer and meditation (See also Appendix A.2.11).

Baillie (1931 - translator of Hegel, 1807) said that the composer and the conductor of the orchestra are as necessary to the performance as the various instrumentalists and that the listener’s main task is to enjoy the experience. Catalfo (1997) says that the human body is a kind of vibratory system with many different kinds of resonances. These resonances need regular tuning which a person does through singing and chanting. Catalfo claims that in the Western world people have forgotten how to sing, e.g. we let professional performers do the singing for us. Montagu (1989) discusses both the enjoyment of listening to music and the enjoyment of actually playing music. He claims that learning to play a musical instrument should be part of all liberal education as a basic ingredient and expresses regret that music education is often neglected in Western schooling systems. He states that children are natural singers, hummers and dancers and that it is parents’ and educators’ responsibility to ensure that children are encouraged and, where possible, receive education in these arts. In this Montagu quotes Plato (in Montagu, 1989, p. 168) who said that a good education consists in knowing how to sing and dance well. Montagu (1989) also discusses young children’s sense of rhythm and claims that the dance of life begins in the womb. He devotes a whole chapter of his book to young children’s sense of rhythm and concludes this by saying that children are born with a natural sense of rhythm.

As previously discussed, several children used rhythmical movements when drawing their pictures of the music they listened to. When I showed the children’s drawings to the parents, they were as amazed as I was of the rhythm and the motifs of the drawings. Most parents rarely played classical music for their children and the few who did found that this genre of music often had a calming effect on their children.

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Robert’s (4y6m, INT 6) mother told me that she often played Vivaldi for Robert when he was a baby, “because it’s nice calming music”, but she made no further comments about music in our conversation. Catherine’s (5y4m, INT 4) father said that Catherine loves classical music and that he often plays it for his children in the car and at home. He told me that Catherine would often do her own activities while listening to classical music, occasionally taking a break, but returning to her chosen task “she’s off there doing her thing quietly, just concentrating on doing it” with the music playing in the background.

It seems that Catherine uses music as an aid for

contemplation and concentration. While drawing the peacock in Illustration 71, Catherine did not say much, but it took her 10-12 minutes to complete the drawing, and at intervals she looked at the tape recorder with her hand under her chin. Her father told me that Catherine’s grandmother often told about peacocks and that peacocks symbolise fond memories for Catherine. So maybe the choice of drawing a peacock while listening to the recorder music evoked a sensuous experience as described by Moore (2002) and giving a sense of peace as described by Radford (2001).

Cedric’s (5y2m, INT 12) parents told me that they often played classical music for him and that they had bought some relaxation tapes which he often played for himself. These tapes have both classical music and lyrics on them. They also told me that Cedric rarely watches TV, but that he prefers to play either by himself, with his sister or with one or two selected friends. When I showed them Cedric’s drawing of “Africa People” (Illustration 15), they were amazed over the details in the drawing. The inclusion of flowers in the drawing could indicate Cedric’s cognitive knowledge about the school garden which he was very involved in setting up. He was often the child who would remind the staff or other children that they had to remember to water the garden (FN, 1999). Somehow the recorder music (Petri, 1980) made Cedric think of people in Africa, and also think about the flowers in the garden.

MM:

And you played some classical music while he did that?

AG:

Yes.

MM:

Because that really settles him down.

AG:

Classical music?

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MM:

Classical music just settles, he just absorbs it and relaxes.

EM:

I would have I would say spontaneous, if he listened to music he would have drawn this one - that one.

AG:

Yes.

EM:

That's because he would just listen to music when he was daydreaming. This is when he is really conscious of things, a strong indication of something like that.

One child, Snow (3y8m, INT 11), drew a dance which included a dinosaur (Illustration 72), when he was asked to draw the music by Sammartini (Petri, 1980). While looking at the drawing together Snow’s mother and I had the following conversation, but neither of us had any explanation for the inclusion of a dinosaur in a drawing made while listening to soft recorder music: AG:

(Explains about Mathew’s [1998] spirituality study) - And I thought, well - I'll use the idea of playing some music and then ask the children to draw me what they're hearing. And I think it's quite interesting that he actually sees the-

CL:

- goes from a dance to a dinosaur!

AG:

Yes! It's quite amazing how he listens to the music there and he listens - he gets a dance into it. Then the dinosaur in it. I don't know what -

CL:

Was it just soft soothing music?

AG:

Yes.

CL:

So it wasn't - you know like classical music can be very dramatic -

AG:

No, this is actually very soft and gentle recorder music.

CL:

No, I don't know how he gets the dinosaur from there!

AG:

No, -

CL:

Some classical music is very dramatic, you know. In (inaudible) - dinosaur - you know, thumping.

AG:

Yes. But it's quite interesting how he progressed and actually made it look - well, if you sort of look at it, you can see it's a dinosaur.

CL:

I can see the legs.

AG:

Yes.

CL:

What was this for?

AG:

Now -

CL:

- oh, maybe they are the legs down there and these are the arms.

AG:

Yes, and the head. I'm not sure how he -

CL:

This is what he calls a long neck.

AG:

Could be 200

CL:

A diplodocus, is it?

AG:

Yes, I think a diplodocus has long neck. Fortunately he didn't want me to write the name because spelling dinosaur names could be a bit of a [challenge]!

In the conversation with Ji-Shen’s (3y10m, INT 18) mother, I showed her the painting of a BIG happy monster (Illustration 29 + observation on page 159) and the section of the observation where Ji-Shen started to sing “Onward Christian Soldiers”: (Ji-Shen paints a red circle to the left of picture) - Big red eye - (Begins to hum and sing some words from "Onward Christian Soldiers" - knows the tune well and sings it through once, all while painting yet another layer of blue paint covering most of the paper - the end result is a dark green colour when mixed with all the other layers of paint on the paper). AG:

I know that song!

J:

Do you? (Continues humming and inserting a word every now and then).

AG:

Who taught you that song?

J:

I've got a video about that song at home. - - This monster has a big body! Look!

Ji-Shen’s mother and I had the following conversation about the painting, the observation and the spontaneous singing of “Onward Christian Soldiers”, but we were unable to find any explanation to Ji-Shen’s choice of favourite tune.

AG:

So there was an obvious joy there. OK here's another piece of paper (to Ji-Shen’s younger baby brother). - and another day - about what love is, this way up.

EW:

Wow! my goodness!

AG:

So this is what he's painting there. He's painting a monster, a happy monster.

EW:

I can see a fire truck actually!

AG:

- yes, and then he changed his mind: he turned it into a monster!

EW:

A big monster!

AG:

Yes, he sort of jumped up, jumping up with brush in hand, "it's a BIG monster"!

EW:

(chuckle).

AG:

It really was -. He was so happy. He was really living the situation, being part of it.

EW:

Oh, no!

AG:

He really enjoyed it, seeing his face, "this was good".

EW:

(chuckle). Oh dear, it has got so many legs, this is precious, it really is! (Talks to the baby). That's interesting: it bumps along and makes everyone laugh!

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AG:

Yes, and a little later on he just -. He stopped the big movements, and then he started singing 'Onward Christian Soldiers'. Does he have that tape? How does he know that song?

EW:

We have tried introducing other songs to him but he gets stuck on that 'Onward Christian Soldiers'. And he sings it whenever he is doing anything. It is sort of like background music to him, I think.

AG:

Yes, because he knows it so well and it's quite a difficult tune!

EW:

Yes, and we were so amazed that he could actually learn the words, in so short a time, he knew the words.

AG:

Yes, I thought it was so amazing that one. He told me he had a video about it, so, -.

EW:

Wow! And he puts different words to it now, at first he follows the words, and now he just puts it to whatever situation he is doing, he used the tune and then he puts the words into it!

AG:

That's quite amazing because it is a difficult tune, when you think about it!

EW:

(chuckle), oh dear. (Talks to the baby).

AG:

It's quite amazing how he introduces the music, the joy. He's really - um. Well, I asked him "what is about love in your drawing there?" and he [said] "it was something that makes people happy".

EW:

Oh, right.

AG:

So obviously the monster there, even if it were, a bit like a clown monster or something, I don't know.

EW:

It's unusual, because usually he paints bad monsters, or dinosaurs. Probably because you asked him to paint love, and then he went onto monsters so it had to be a good one!

AG:

Yes.

EW:

I don't know.

AG:

Yes, I don't know. It really was um, well a good experience to watch him, I really enjoyed watching him doing it and he really had a good time!

EW:

(chuckle).

Further on in this conversation (INT 18), Ji-Shen’s mother told me that her husband often relaxes by listening to good music and that she would now make a conscious effort of playing music for her son as well.

Sometimes a child would include events they had experienced in their paintings of music (William, 6y8m, INT 24, Illustration 73). The comment on the painting says:

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“Once I went sailing, but I got stuck on an island. An adventure island. You explore on an adventure island. I went back on a house boat”. In addition there are up-sidedown boats and rocks and people who swam away. In the conversation with William’s mother I got the explanation of the dramas in regard to being stuck and boats overturning:

AG:

And one day I put a tape on that Teena has in the classroom. [I can] show you that one from Hannah’s (sister). Oh, she painted a picture of me where they were listening to music. Yes, so she painted me in the music there, whereas William painted water and it is sort of flowing music, which Teena puts on when they have morning tea.

MT:

OK.

AG:

Not every time, but she very often puts it on when they have morning tea. And it is really quite funny, because it is the situation where the children know that music, but not one single child painted anything to do with food. They all painted something to do with water or with people or just colours.

MT:

Isn't that interesting!

AG:

I thought that was very interesting, I thought I would like to know what is going on there. But no, they didn't include food at all, that wasn't important. With the water there - . That's a common one, with the boats there. And the boats have to be careful because otherwise or they will be bumped into the rocks.

MT:

It's funny that William mentioned about that houseboat. (Chuckle). Because we went on a houseboat and we got stuck on a sandbank for twelve hours!

AG:

Oh, right!

MT:

That was a very funny, totally stuck!

AG:

Where about was it?

MT:

Down the Gold Coast, um, you know the Broadwater there?

AG:

Oh, yes.

MT:

We were in that sort of area, just -.

AG:

In the creek system?

MT:

Yes, in the creeks, goes in and out, in and out -.

AG:

Yes.

MT:

There's like - big sand banks, that suddenly just appear, the tide goes out and this huge -.

AG:

yes, they shift their sand banks around, yes.

MT:

Houseboats don't travel very quickly, chuckle, we got stuck, totally, totally stuck!

AG:

You had to wait for the tide to come back in to move you?

MT:

(nods) And it didn't come back until, I think it was half past twelve at night. 203

AG:

Oh right.

MT:

So everybody had to jump off and push it at half past twelve at night. It was interesting. (Chuckle). It was so much fun, though, because we knew we couldn't sink. William was panicking because he had just seen the movie Titanic, not long before. So he thought we were going to die!

AG:

Oh, right because you couldn't move -?

MT:

Because - yes.

AG:

Oh, yes, the Titanic hits the ice berg, that's right.

MT:

We'd say to William: "we can't sink, there's no water, we can't sink"!

AG:

No, it's all sand underneath, you can't go anywhere!

MT:

Because we could get out and you could walk right around the whole boat.

AG:

Oh, right.

MT:

There was no water, and he was panicking and saying "we are going to die", "the boat can't sink there is no water, if there was water we wouldn't have a problem"!

AG:

Yes, so did he accept that explanation?

MT:

He was OK with it then, but I thought it was really funny!

It appears that William thought carefully about the situation of being stuck on an island. His inclusion of upturned boats and rocks in the water seems to indicate his fear of dying as explained by his mother, but there is no indication of why the softly flowing music by O’Connor (1988) inspired him to paint such a dramatic picture. My initial thought when I got the painting was that the music inspired William to paint flowing water, but his mother’s explanation changed that interpretation.

Beatrice’s (5y6m) mother wrote on the Rating Scale (Section 4,10) that Beatrice “seems to connect with a deeper state of herself” when she was quietly humming to herself. Dominic (5y6m) sings a lot according to his mother’s comment on the Rating Scale, and she sees music as a very important aspect of Dominic’s spirituality.

Concluding Remarks about music.

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According to Mel Brooks, music “blows the dust off your soul” (ABC TV: Broadway, 14.8.2005) and according to Andy’s description of Hell there is no music in Hell (Coles, 1992, p. 184). So maybe music is an important part of everyone’s spirituality, so that one’s soul is not at risk of becoming covered in dust. Considering the information I received from the children in the study and their parents, music does seem to evoke spirituality traits in the listener such as awareness, contemplation, joyfulness, wonder, stillness, and relationship to people and nature.

6.2

Love.

In the literature about spirituality where an attempt has been made to define spirituality as traits or characteristics, the majority include ‘love’ (Appendix 1: for example Alexander and McLaughlin, 2003; Beck, 1986; Goleman, 1980; Liddy, 2002; Lindsay, 2002; Newby, 1996; Silverman, 2000; Wolf, 1996). Of the 20 texts listed in Appendix 1 fourteen mention “love”, “loving kindness” or “sacrificial love”. It would thus appear that the concept of ‘love’ is important for a person’s spirituality. According to the Macquarie (2001) dictionary, ‘love’ (among 17 definitions) means to have a strong or passionate affection for another person (1) or a feeling of warm personal attachment or deep affection, as for a friend, parent or child (4).

Wolf (1996) claims that in order to be able love other people, one must first love oneself. A healthy self-love tells a child that he or she is a worthy and unique person who has special attributes and talents to contribute to the world. According to Wolf (1996, p. 121) Montessori said that the greatest wisdom is first to love and that once the “sentiment of love can be aroused in children, people in general will become more human and brutal wars will come to an end”. Montessori (1966, p. 103) also said that a “child’s love of his surroundings appears to adults as the natural joy and vivacity of youth. But they do not recognise it as spiritual energy, a moral beauty which accompanies creation.”

In Buddhism love is seen as an openness of the heart and inter-connectedness with the people a person loves (Smith, 2002). Smith further explains love as accepting people as they are without trying to change them. In Christianity love is expressed in the greatest commandment given by Jesus: Love your neighbour as yourself (NIV, Matt.

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22, 37-39). Fox (1990) elaborated on this commandment that to show true compassion, one has to love oneself before one can love others with McLeod (2007) agreeing that one needs to have compassion for oneself in order to love oneself and others. Carey (2003) explains ‘love’ as a force for self-transcendence. It permeates the whole cosmos and by nurturing this force in children, a person becomes attuned to the highest and deepest levels of existence, thereby experiencing genuine happiness.

In nursing Lancaster (1997) emphasises walking with the patient, responding with compassion, acceptance, honesty and love. In doing so, the nurse is enriched and healed spiritually him or herself. This corresponds with Montagu’s (1989) emphasis about love mentioned earlier: that a person’s basic needs involve giving, caring, giving love, and loving to give. Dillard et al. (2000, p. 457) agree that love is meant to be shared saying: ”Have we taught the children, our young bright Black, Brown, Red, Yellow, and White children that love and courage lives inside them and, once found within oneself, is meant to be shared?”

In defining ‘love’ it appears that this concept is as elusive to define as the concept of spirituality. Jung (1963/1989, p. 354) recommends surrendering this inability to explain love in the words: “Man can try to name love, showering upon it all the names at his command, and still he will involve himself in endless self-deceptions. If he possesses a grain of wisdom, he will lay down his arm and name the unknown by the more unknown “ignotum per ignotius”.

In the conversations with the parents of the children in this study, I found that they emphasised the importance of showing and telling children that they were loved by their parents. All parents used hugs to show their children that they were loved. In return they received similar responses from their children. For example Snow’s (3y8m, INT 11) mother said that Snow showed his love by “regularly hugging and kissing good-night and good bye to people ... not letting them leave without a hug and a kiss. ... He’s very much used to that. He can’t have us leave without a hug and a kiss.” In the conversation with Faith’s (4y6m, INT 27) father, where Faith was also present, he emphasised the same aspect of parental love: that the home environment was important for the children to be able to show love. “We give lots of hugs and if A. (brother) or mum is sick then you give them a big hug, don’t you, princess?” While

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saying this he hugged Faith who nodded. In Faith’s painting of love (Illustration 74) she included her younger brother as saying: “I love you”.

Other parents talked about their children’s relationship with family and friends being shown in actions more than in words like Cedric’s (5y2m, INT 12) mother. She said that Cedric was very steady when he had a special friend and “is really great in expressing love to other people”. Kate (4y4m, Illustration 75) explained that “when people love, they smile”. When I showed the painting to her mother she commented that it is a very beautiful picture. This painting was used as cover illustration on the journal Bedrock as mentioned in Chapter 3.7.2 above (Giesenberg, 2000b).

Only two parents talked about God’s love in relation to people’s spirituality: Annabel’s (4y2m, INT 23) mother said God works in many and wonderful ways, through nature and beyond what an institutionalised church does in a formula or putting the concept into a box. Sheree’s (3y4m, INT 13) mother, MG, saw God’s love as something humanity gets from God despite people being intrinsically evil: MG:

....God hasn't made us so that we are so easily compartmentalised. Because if -. Think if we could, we're so easily compartmentalised, we would be God. (-) He'd just smile at us and say "Hmpfh! these little creatures!"

AG:

- are trying to work things out, but I made it too complex?'

MG:

(nods) They do the theological - do these little doctorates and they think they get it all right, but He just smiles at us, and He says “it just good to be me, and they have good standing with me, and that is what I care about most.”

AG:

Yes.

MG:

And “I love these creatures and I wonder, if they really know how much I like them and know them.” So purely for spirituality to - according to the Scriptures is really our God.

AG:

Mmmm.

MG:

And the question of sin would be something you would find interesting. Um, - is that man intrinsically evil . . .

MG then explained her theological understanding of what sin, evil and free will is. There was no further reference to the spirituality trait of ‘love’, nor did she elaborate on what she thought her child’s understanding of ‘love’ is.

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Hannah’s (5y0m) and William’s (6y8m, INT 24) mother told me about the ticks (10 for William and 9 for Hannah) she had made on the Rating Scales (Appendix 9) in regard to ‘love’. MT:

Well, this one for Hannah -. Like showing love towards another person. That one for her is something that comes naturally. That she's continuously doing. All the time. Like - just before - I noticed it. M (NIS) had fallen over, so Hannah went rushing out to help her, and - just little things like that. It's just -

AG:

Yes, I've noticed that one, too. The love and compassion -.

MT:

It's a continuous thing. And for William. It's exactly the same. Both of them. It's just a natural thing and I don't know whether, I don't know if it's something especially brought out in them. I think it's just something that's naturally within them, or whether it's something that Montessori has brought out.

AG:

I don't know, because I have actually seen it more or less in every child -

MT:

I think it's lovely.

AG:

Yes, and I think that it's something that children - they live in their spirituality.

MT:

Hum hum.

AG:

They live in that part of being able to - um. They show that concern and love towards other people. They just do it, as you were saying before that the baby is a "kiddy magnet" they want to show that care [also towards the baby].

MT:

That is so true, it really is.

AG:

And it's not just [here] I've noticed it. I go to four different centres and collect data. I have more than fifty different children that I can follow.

MT:

Wow!

AG:

And I've seen it with a lot of them, that I have noticed that "yes, love is an important part of a person's spirituality".

MT:

Definitely.

Both William (6y8m) and Hannah (5y0m) painted people when asked about painting ‘love’. Hannah painted herself and a friend (Illustration 76), but told me that love is “Dad and my mum kissing each other” and William painted their mother (Illustration 77) with both paintings indicating that they both associate love with people.

Painting a parent was also in Robert’s (4y6m, Illustration 32) mind and his mother commented that this is where the children get their love from:

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A:

Another day I asked them to paint about love, I'll see if I can find it here. [I said:] think about something about love and paint me a picture about it, and then he painted a picture of you.

KP:

Oh right.

AG:

- a picture of Mum

KP:

Oh that’s good isn't it.

AG:

yes, and that’s actually quite common, that they include family members. Relatives are very often included people in their pictures, so that’s - -

KP:

Where they are getting their love and talk about love!

Some of the children told me that love was about love hearts, weddings and being flower girls. Some of the parents confirmed that their children had been at weddings or that they knew about weddings. Jane’s (6y4m, Illustration 78) painted a night time wedding. In the conversation (INT 2) Jane’s father told me that Jane had been quite concerned at some stage about divorce asking her father one day if he and mummy were going to get divorced to which he replied: “Me and Mummy aren’t going to get divorced, Mummy won’t let me!” and after a while her questions stopped as she decided that her parents were in love, “so from there on it was alright!”

Saskia (4y8m, Illustration 79) also painted a wedding, giving the following explanation: “This is a wedding. The daddy is loving her. The daughter is crying ‘cause she wants someone to love. The wedding dress is white and this green one is the wedding T-shirt. These are love hearts. And an up-side-down love heart”. Saskia’s mother was unable to explain where her daughter’s knowledge came from, and she found the information very interesting (INT 19).

Kinsey (5y6m, Illustration 80) painted a cave, a love heart and lots of rain drops. In the following excerpt (INT 3) her mother told me that she herself loves soft falling rain and that she tells Kinsey that.

AG:

Another day I asked them to think about what love is.

LJ:

Oh yes.

AG:

....and I was wondering how important it is in children's spirituality as well. So I asked them to think in their heads about what love is and then paint a picture about it.

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LJ:

OK.

AG:

And that's what she painted here. And I can't - let me see - it goes up that way. And that is what she was doing. She painted the love heart which is [in the centre]. Some of the children did that, I'd probably say about six or eight children all up painted love hearts in their picture about love. But a lot of them included family members, and weather, and she has got the rain included in it.

LJ:

Oh OK.

AG:

Quite interesting there, and rain drops -.

LJ:

I love it when it rains.

AG:

Oh right, you do yourself?

LJ:

- and I say so.

AG:

Yes.

LJ:

You know that soft pattery rain that just hangs around for days?

AG:

Yes.

LJ:

And often Kin and I would just get movies and just do nothing -.

AG:

Yes, yes so that might be in her association she has about love. [It] is something to do with rain. It's quite amazing. It's interesting that you give that information because - . A lot of children have included weather like um, rainbows - or the sun is in it, and Kinsey has actually filled a lot of rain drops in to it. Yes, and it's the soft rain you can see, it's not that really heavy tropical downpour -.

LJ:

No, no, interesting.

Later in this chapter I will discuss more examples about parental information where children including weather and nature in their paintings when making artwork about spiritual areas other than love.

Concluding remarks about love.

In the parent conversations almost all parents confirmed for me that their children were very aware of the concept of love. Their children used touch and hugs to show their love, or they would do favours for the person to whom they directed their love and affection. The children’s love was directed toward siblings, parents, relatives, friends and pets, much in tune with Champagne’s (2003) findings that young children have a Relational Mode of Being. Only two parents saw love as being something from God, and none of these parents related this concept to their child’s spirituality. More

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research is required to determine whether the children’s expressions of love are due to environmental factors or an inherent ability as claimed by Montagu (1989).

6.3

Dreams.

According to the Macquarie Concise Dictionary (2001, definition # 1) a ‘dream’ is a succession of images or ideas present in the mind during sleep. Adams (2003) touches briefly on the concept that dreams, since ancient civilisations, are sometimes interpreted according to a given religious belief. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is generally seen as the founder of modern dream interpretation through psychoanalysis. According to Freud’s theory about dreams and the unconscious (Jones, 1967, Wollheim, 1979) a person’s unconscious is timeless and in dreams a person’s wishes, hopes, fears and doubts are dealt with. Freud believed that the interpretation of dreams is the road to knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind (Wollheim, 1979). Freud’s colleague and associate, Carl Jung (1875-1961), further developed dream interpretation. He broke his working relationship with Freud after a series of disagreements over the meaning of dreams as being mainly sexual in character (Jung, 1963/1989). Jung saw dreams as a part of nature with no intentions of deceiving the individual dreamer. Price and Haynes (1997) say that Jung’s breadth of knowledge in several areas (mythology, religions, history, archaeology and literature) was particularly helpful in his work where he attempted to interpret his patients’ dreams.

Subbotsky (1992) describes dream images like fighting enemies, strive for goals, fear of failure and extreme happiness or misery as both obscure and strikingly bright in a world in which everything is possible. Subbotsky (1992, p. 32) further states that dreams supply new experience to the structure of new and old personal myths, something which is critical to a person’s healthy development. In this he seems to agree with Jung (1963/1989) that dreams are a part of nature.

Llinas and Ribary (1993, in Zohar and Marshall, 2000) explain what happens in a person’s brain during sleep. Llinas and Ribary measured people’s brainwaves during sleep and set up a table which defines the different types of sleep and what Hz speed was measured. In the table there are also definitions of what these types of sleep mean. They conclude that a person’s consciousness or mind is an intrinsic state of the

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brain rather than a by-product of sensory experience. Zohar and Marshall (2000) say that while dreaming, the brain is ‘switched off’ and attends to its own inner processes. The brain attends to the functions of the unconscious or the ‘id’: the world of sleep, dreams, unconscious motivation, slips of the tongue and of repressed memories. Dreams are seen as countless streams of a person’s sub-personalities which assist the person’s spiritual intelligence to recollect the important parts and unite all levels of the person’s being. Hegel (1807, p. 192) said that in a person’s consciousness there may yet be something, which should be “driven to fill it up with dreamings, apperances, produced by consciousness itself. It would have to be content with being treated so badly, for it would not deserve anything better, since even dreams are something better than its own barren emptiness.” Hegel (1807) also claimed that dreams lie beyond consciousness.

Davis and Hill (2005), in their text about adults having their dreams interpreted in a spiritual and religious context, say that dreams may be the only way in which a person’s psyche can hear a transcendent power. In line with this Sartore (1991) says that dreams are a way of recognising a mythical experience with personal and cultural mythology being equally important. This is similar to the Jungian way of looking at dreams: that dreams are symbols of both individual and collective unconsciousness (Jacobi, 1968; Jung, 1963/1989; Price & Haynes, 1992; Sartore, 1991), and something which is better than Hegel’s (1807) ‘barren emptiness’.

It would seem that dreams are important in a person’s spirituality with Adams (2003) having attempted to interpret children’s dreams seen in light of Jung’s concept of ‘big dreams’. Adams defined a ‘big dream’ as a dream which meets a minimum of three of the following five categories: The dream must: 1) leave the dreamer with an instinctive feeling of significance, 2) must occur at a psychologically important time for the person, 3) must be remembered for a long time - more than six months, 4) have a numinous (see Otto, 1923; section 3.7) quality, and/or strange or beautiful imagery compared to usual dreams, and 5) contain archetypal symbols.

In the research undertaken with the children in this study I asked the children to draw or paint something about a dream for me. I made no attempt to interpret the children’s dreams in regard to what the dream might mean for the child in a psychoanalytical

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way. My interest in the children’s dreams was in regard to whether the children would picture something about traits or characteristics of spirituality (as indicated in Appendix 1) and what the children would tell me about their fears and hopes with these aspects being seen as important aspects of adults’ spirituality. (See also Chapter 4.4 on the children’s hope for the future). When I spoke to parents about the artwork the children had given me about dreams, the most common remark was that a child often had bad dreams. No parents mentioned their children talking about dreams in a positive way.

Saskia’s (4y8m, Illustration 5) mother told me of Saskia’s fears of monsters and that she often dreamt about monsters. She had promised Saskia that together they would make a dream catcher to help her. (In Native American Mythology a dream catcher is seen as an important part of dealing with dreams, both good and bad ones [Dearborn & Ritchie, 2006/1995; Gathering Place, 2005]).

SL:

She is scared of it actually. She is scared of anything. Of a day time she won't go into her room on her own, she has to walk down the corridor to her room - -.

AG:

[Is it] a dark corridor?

SL:

No. No not at all. It's daytime when it's everything - she is quite a fearful child, scared of anything unusual - noises and, um, very easily frightened actually.

AG:

That might - because I did ask them one day to draw a picture of a dream.

SL:

She gets bad dreams and in fact one of our projects this holiday is to make a dream catcher, because she was - . This lady said to her she had a dream catcher. [Saskia told me] in great detail in the morning, when she has bad dreams about people chasing her and putting her under water. Horrible dreams and -. Um, I promised her we would make a dream catcher for her room these holidays because she does have bad dreams and often.

AG:

Yes, yes. I did ask them to draw about a dream and she started drawing this picture here.

SL:

The monster.

AG:

Yes. So you say she is scared of monsters?

SL:

She knows on one level they are not real.

Time constraints prevented me from following up whether the making of and having a dream catcher helped Saskia in dealing with her bad dreams. One other child talked

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about dream catchers. RT (4y8m, Illustration 81) said: “They catch bad dreams and make them go away”, but his mother did not mention anything about where RT may have heard about dream catchers.

Carl (4y6m) told me when he was drawing to the music by Vivaldi that scary dreams are red. When I asked him what happens in a scary dream, he told me that one wakes up and just goes back to sleep again and the dream is gone. His mother told me that Carl often has quite disturbed sleeps and concluding that he probably did dream a fair bit. Cedric’s (5y2m, INT 12, Illustration 43) parents made similar remarks about the dreams Cedric had: AG:

So that's the house and, but again it's - um, there is natural phenomenon included, with the weather - .

MM:

The rain and the storm.

AG:

Yes.

EM:

That's a storm in his dream. That's interesting, that's a black one, so where does he tell you to look at a picture like that?

AG:

Well with that one, that tells me with dreams: sometimes they have something really strong and scary in their dreams, but there is also something gentle, because he get the house in it too, and that’s sort of the safe -

MM:

The protection?

AG:

Yes, the safe place and outside that's where all the storm is, so -.

EM:

Why there is no storm here?

AG:

No, and its quite interesting there, because - um, those sort of very deeply spiritual people admit they have been subject to some very serious illnesses and - well quite strong storms in their lives.

MM:

Uh hum.

AG:

But they are very serene and quiet and gentle people. It is quite amazing to see. That in some people [whom] I would say are deeply spiritual, but um, not necessarily religious but, very um - it’s a good experience to speak to such people. And that's - I see sort of the same kind of thing in that picture there. Cedric there, the centre there, there is no storm there - the storm is all around us, but there is still an area where you are safe.

EM:

Oh, how interesting!

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The inclusion of stormy weather turned out to be something which Cedric is afraid of as his parents had told me earlier. Weather phenomena are also important in some children’s artwork about a beautiful day as discussed in section 6.4.

Concluding remarks about dreams.

Considering the literature available about the meaning of dreams and their importance in a person’s life only little has been written about this aspect of children’s spirituality with Adams (2003) looking at school-aged children’s dreams. The data in this study give a minute picture of the meaning of young children’s dreams, and much more research is needed to make any conclusions in this area. It would also be interesting to do further study on the concept of dream catchers and their influence on children’s abilities to manage bad dreams.

6.4

Beauty.

The Danish philosopher and scientist, Nicolaus Stensen (1638-1686) once said that “Beautiful are the things we see. More beautiful are the things we understand. But the most beautiful are, without doubt, those that we do not understand” (in Lauring, 1986, p. 2, AG’s translation). Belzen (2004) claims that when contemplating beauty people sometimes encounter transcendence, which he explains as an area of human psychology which cannot be brought under human control. One area of beautiful things that we do not understand concerns spirituality. In a spiritual sense beauty is seen as a necessity of daily life, so a person’s soul can be nurtured (Moore, 1992). To fully appreciate beauty, a person needs imagination as well. Imagination is a requirement for a person to become fully engaged in that person’s spirituality (Myers, 1997). Strauss (1978) claims that imagination is woven into a child’s drawings and reveals the close connection between the forces of memory and the child’s own experiences. Jung (1963/1989) found that a person’s imagination shows pictures from the unconscious similar to the way dreams do with such pictures being as important for a person’s general development as any other image the person may see.

In general conversation people often say that beauty is in the eye of the beholder. This is expressed by Vygotsky (1971, p. 18), who said that by its very nature “an aesthetic

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feeling is incomprehensible and fundamentally obscure in its evolution to the person experiencing it. We do not really know or understand why we like or dislike and object.... The very substance of the experience, however, remains mysterious.” Newby (1996) expanded on this view by saying that for a person to ‘live on’, the person needs to leave something of beauty or special significance behind. This can be a work of art, a deed of heroism, having and nurturing children, teaching children, keeping a family history or living a life of single-minded devotion to the solution of a problem. In the care of patients, Lancaster (1997) recommends that the patient should be surrounded with beautiful things like favourite paintings, pleasing decor, and plants. This recommendation is also made by Montessori (1966/1939), who said that children should be taught in environments that emphasise beauty with flowers, wellmade furniture and good art on the walls. Wolf (1996) used well made reproductions to represent famous art pieces. Froebel (1900/1974 p. 156) expanded on the aspect of art and said that God is the artist of nature: “The work of art is external to man ... and yet man sustains, keeps and preserves it... Man feels himself to be one with his work of art; how much more, then, will God sustain, keep and preserve his work, which is nature, and keep it from all injury”. One can only speculate what Froebel would say about our world now, with the environmental pollution and the wasteful use of resources. He would probably be a co-signatory on the United Nations World Charter for Nature, approved by 111 nations of the 112 members of the UN General Assembly, with USA being the only nation casting a negative vote (Rockefeller & Elder, 1992). This charter calls for man [sic] to be guided by a moral code of action towards nature and any ecological matters, which is very much in line with the Taoist deities who judge humanity for crimes against nature as discussed in Appendix A.2.8.

The children in this study were asked to ‘think about a beautiful day and paint this.’ The majority of children painted something in nature or referred to plants, water, animals and weather features (Tables 4a and 4b, pp. 147-148) with some children also painting people. It would appear that they associated the given task with natural phenomena considering the wording of the task. The topics chosen for the paintings may have been different had the task been: “Think of something beautiful. Paint this.”

When I showed the children’s artwork to their parents, several parents commented that they often pointed out items of beauty to their children. The conversation with

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Mary’s (6y2m, INT 17, Illustration 82) mother is a typical representation of such comments:

AG:

And she painted this. And leaves on the trees are different, one has spiky leaves, one has squiggly leaves and [one] circular leaves.

VB:

Oh right, yes.

AG:

And it shows - she has really been observing and [is] aware of what is going on around her, observing the trees around her.

VB:

Yes.

AG:

That they are different. And she is trying to [incorporate] similar things. That they all sort of have trunks and leaves, which they do, but they are still different.

VB:

I suppose, - I mean, if ever I see a beautiful sunset or a beautiful tree, I always point those things out, as I appreciate the beauty around us so -. You know -. Every so often I will point something out that I think is particularly beautiful in the environment and things. And yes, - you are talking about trees and I notice those things, yes.

AG:

She has a very strong awareness of nature around her.

VB:

Yes, yes.

AG:

And - I'm trying to find in the texts: if that is a trait of spirituality too, being aware of nature around you.

VB:

Yes.

AG:

Because it's not just Mary [who] has painted plants and flowers, something about nature. - And wonder about colours.

VB:

That's right!

As mentioned above, Newby (1996) suggests that a person should leave something of beauty behind in one’s life narrative. This can be along the lines of enhancing a child’s sense of beauty like that described for Damien when he was watching the lights on the Story Bridge (Section 4.1), or in the conversation with Mary’s mother above.

Snow (3y8m, INT 11, Illustration 83) was interested in small bugs when he painted his green bug and all the colours on his house. While he was painting, there was a little green spider climbing on the painting easel and together he and I moved the spider to safety on a bush in the playground. His mother told me that she had noticed how much he noticed animal life like small bugs and little beetles.

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Julian (5y6m, INT 1) also noticed small things with the following incident happening as he (JE), his mother (RE) and I were looking at Julian’s artwork sitting in the garden outside the classroom: RE:

Yes, because people can be spiritual in a number of different ways.

AG:

Yes, how do you see people being spiritual?

RE:

When they recognise that there is another dimension.

JE:

What picture is that?

AG:

I'll show you in a minute. And -um, It's sort of -. It fits in with the children being aware of some of their feelings of -. That's another thing that I have noticed with children -.

JE:

Look, it's spinning around! (referring to a little leaf blowing in the wind on a spider web)

AG:

- the little things, like we have just been made aware of this leaf that is spinning around in the wind.

RE:

Yeh, it's caught in a spider web and it’s spinning around, isn't it?

AG:

It's actually very beautiful that one.

During the conversation none of us adults had noticed the little leaf until Julian made us aware of it. The awareness of small things and animals like Snow and Julian’s awareness is considered to be part of the young child’s spirituality according to Montessori (1955).

Other children like Annabel (4y2m, INT23) painted rain (Illustration 84) and a garden (Illustration 85). While painting the rain picture Annabel hummed quietly to herself singing “rain is falling down drip-drop”. Her mother indicated that children have a strong sense of spirituality, which is expressed in the following excerpt:

Am:

[Children] are really highly aware and alert to their intuition. In adult life [we] rationalise away from it, you know. [Children] have in some ways a very strong sense of spirituality that they immerse in a lot of [things] like you were talking about rain and how they respond to the rain and water can be a very symbol of and - -

AG:

Soothing?

Am:

Yeah. I mean - not only the spirit at work in water, fire - all those different symbols. Perhaps for the children that rain was significant. It's interesting!

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AG:

Yes, because that's one (points to a painting). Annabel is one of those children that are using rain and using colours and putting singing into colours.

Am:

- and music, too. It's very special.

Concluding remarks about beauty.

The parents’ comments showed that they were very much aware of their children’s sense of beautiful things. They were able to expand on the information I had from their children and in one instant the child, Julian, gave us more during the actual conversation. The children used their imagination in the artwork they created and some parents expressed the thought that they would emphasise beauty to their children when they noticed anything they, as adults, found beautiful. Likewise, the parents would note the things their children found beautiful as well, so together they could enjoy and appreciate beautiful things, landscapes and natural phenomena. This is very much in line with Carson’s (1956) view mentioned earlier that adults and children should wonder at beauty together.

6.5

Parental Definitions of Spirituality

Throughout the literature reviews in this thesis there is a continuous emphasis on various aspects and definitions of the phenomenon of spirituality. According to Hegel (1807, p. 696) “Spirit is”. He uses his whole text of some 809 pages to elaborate on this statement and various kinds of consciousness. Hegel sees spirit and spirituality as an innate aspect of a person, similar to the majority of writers mentioned in Appendix 1 which lists various spirituality traits and characteristics (for example Beck, 1986; Dorr, 1984; Goleman, 1980; Liddy 2002; Montagu, 1989; Newby, 1996; Silverman, 2000).

Berdyaev (1935, p. 9) elaborated on the brief statement made by Hegel (1807) above in saying that “Spirit is life, experience, destiny”. He further said that one cannot set up hard and fast distinctions and antinomies about spirit; as such definitions do not belong to the life of the spirit. It would appear that these two philosophers agree that spirituality is innate in a person, and that the concept is too elusive to define.

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Gardner (1999) discusses whether there is a spiritual intelligence and concludes that according to his own criteria for the definition of intelligence, there is no spiritual intelligence, but at the same time spirituality is very important for people. Hyde (2003a) looks at the various texts dealing with spiritual intelligence like Gardner (1999) and Zohar and Marshall (2000). Hyde (2003a) concluded that there is still much research to be done before ‘spiritual intelligence’ may be included as a separate intelligence. He refers, among other items discussed, to the aspect of a “God Spot” discussed by Zohar and Marshall (2000). The ‘God Spot’ is located in the temporal lobe and is activated when a person talks about God or spiritual matters. According to Hyde (2003a) it seems that spirituality is a natural human predisposition which is present in a person’s brain and therefore both is innate and has a biological function with some writers stating that spiritual intelligence is ‘inspired thought’ rather than an actual intelligence. However, Cotton (1995, p. 167) quotes Dr Peter Fenwick, a neuropsychiatrist, claiming that “there is no hiding place for God in the brain”.

Emmons (2000, p 10) also looks at spirituality as an intelligence. He uses Gardner’s (1999) text as a starting point to his discussion about spiritual intelligence. He identified five core components that the spiritual person possesses: 1) capacity to transcend the physical and material, 2) ability to experience heightened states of consciousness, 3) ability to sanctify everyday experiences, 4) ability to utilise spiritual resources to solve problems, and 5) capacity to be virtuous.

Flanagan (2006) describes the beliefs of Unitarian Universalists (UU). Theirs is a free search for truth. Personal experience, conscience and reason should be the final authority in religion. Any religious insights are tested by the hearts and minds of the individual. UU also believes that religious wisdom is constantly changing and unfolding and that there are as many paths to truth as there are believers (Klein, 2002). Klein further states that UUs must respect others, practice compassion and justice in order to be welcome in an UU fellowship which welcomes all who seek community, liberty, freedom, and the opportunity to discover, explore, grow in knowledge, wisdom, compassion and justice. According to Keynes (2002) Unitarians were at times during the nineteenth century persecuted for their liberal theological views.

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In the following excerpts several parents’ definitions of spirituality are presented. I will let the excerpts speak for themselves and only make some concluding comments at the end of this sub-section.

Kate’s mother (4y4m, INT 14) said that spirituality comes from within a person:

JH:

- - as if they [i.e. children] are aware of things

AG:

yes - have you got a special idea of what spirituality is?

JH:

I don't know, I think it's possible something from the within

AG:

Something from within?

JH:

Yes, like I don't think you have to go to church to be a spiritual person, I think it’s, I don't know, I think it's, you’re aware of something, aware of your environment and people around you, and yeh, I think it’s something from within.

AG:

yes, I tend to agree there

JH:

like you can live the life and not be aware of anything, only your own importance,

AG:

yes

JH:

but you can live a life, you know, you consider other people, consider the environment, I don't know, yeh

AG:

Mmmm, mmmm, it’s quite interesting because in the psychological sense, they say that spirituality is something that is actually in the person it’s there. And some other ones [say] - -. They claim that it’s adults only and - -

JH:

I don't think so, because there are - like - different children, there are really caring children, you can see it, like in their personalities or whatever,

AG:

Yes

JH:

so much more aware or sensitive or, of different things around them, and there are children that are - I don't know, they may be more introverted and just sort of different levels. I think it’s something from within.

Julian’s mother said (5y6m, INT 1) that spirituality is another dimension:

AG:

So- um. I was just wondering if you have thought of what - at some stage, what spirituality is to you, how you see it?

RE:

What in the broader definition?

AG:

Yes in the broader -.

RE:

It's a good question isn't it! Because I'm a Christian and I go to a Catholic church and the children go with me sometimes. And so sometimes we talk about God or we say

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grace before dinner, for what we have. But like when you look at the broader question of what's spirituality, I think it's, like what does it all mean, basically, like why -. AG:

The meaning of life in general?

RE:

Yes! Yes, because people can be spiritual in a number of different ways.

AG:

Yes, how do you see people being spiritual?

RE:

When they recognise that there is another dimension.

Kinsey’s (5y6m, INT 3) mother sees spirituality as an acknowledgement of a connection to some kind of supreme force: AG:

Would you mind sort of, think about what you think spirituality is? And what you thought when you got the letter saying could Kinsey be in the study?

LJ:

- um, I guess the easiest way to explain is – um-. The acknowledgment of a connection to some type of supreme force, whether you refer to it as God or universe. Some type of cosmic being, um. And I think that exists whether people are aware of it or not. You are on some type of spiritual journey. That's what it's all about. And some people are more aware of that level - the operations of that, rather than the physical level, than other people might be, so it is all happening anyway.

AG:

So, so regardless of who you are and what awareness you have yourself, you have some connection with it?

LJ:

Yeh.

AG:

- spiritual force?

LJ:

Yeh, my thoughts of - um. I was fascinated yes. I was interested to learn, because obviously, to me it is more obvious to see. Well to me is it more obvious to see that unhindered connection in children. They haven't um, formed biases or blocks, mostly blocks. - as you know. And as we get older and maybe have a few hurts here and there. The emotional blocks start to get put into place. The armours and all that sort of thing. Which doesn't stop the progression of any spiritual journey, it may - um. Actually what I think it does is make it a little bit more difficult.

AG:

So the blocks make it more difficult for you?

LJ:

I think so, yes.

AG:

Whatever sort of -

LJ:

You just need harder knocks to get you through those things!

AG:

Yes, yes. So when I asked if Kinsey could be in this study, what were you - ? What were your thoughts in regard to children’s spirituality?

LJ:

Um, [I was] just fascinated to see something researched and in writing! I mean you can look and you can observe in your children. There are very obvious um,

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challenges. - Sort of individual challenges. I mean you notice it from time to time, but I was interested to see something on it. AG:

Something sort of, more planned, written down and actually researched?

LJ:

Yes.

AG:

Because that [is] where I came from when I started to look into children’s spirituality in what was written. And there's a lot written about adult spirituality. And that's where all these different sections on the rating scales come from. (Appendix 9)

LJ:

Mmmm, - come from -.

AG:

But - um, Maria Montessori has written something about children's spirituality. She believes that a person is born with a spiritual embryo that needs to be developed. Just like your physical embryo needs to develop and be nurtured and proper cared [for]. And so the spiritual embryo needs the same.

Catherine’s father (5y4m, INT 4) saw spirituality as a blank door leading to the future for children: AG:

Yes, but um -. With the text that I have read about spirituality is that it's usually from an adult perspective. Well there is really only Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner who have really written about young children’s spirituality. It's seen as very much a religious issue, and I don't think it is for children. I don't think spirituality is anything to do -

TH:

No, I don't think it has anything to do with religion. Spirituality as you see it, they're alive, they're aware [that] they are alive. They start to wonder where they were, before they become alive. And there is just a blank door to them and they start to wonder where their future is. And it becomes a blank door to them!

AG:

Yes, and they haven't quite worked out -.

TH:

And they start to see possible paths, they don't see where their path is. And I think that is the same as me. I mean - if we are lost would we really be any wiser?

Sheree’s (3y4m, INT 13) mother implied that a definition of spirituality must include God, and that my definition, as presented on page 97, is much wider: MG:

Although, let me say one comment here - is that I believe that spirituality needs definition. How you define spirituality? Whether you think it means God or not, or whether or not -

AG:

Yes.

MG:

Or do you see it connected to God. Um - see - I think you have a wider definition of 223

what spirituality is AG:

Yes.

MG:

- to what I would. I think some of the things that you call spirituality is 'soul-ishness', and to do with a person's soul, um no - it's connected but not the same thing - cows are cow-ish, sheep are sheepish, but they are not man, not human beings. And - I while the things [in] your definition of spirituality is wider than what I would define it as -.

AG:

Yes, yes I'm actually defining it as awareness and a wonder - as sense of compassion and being able to show compassion to the world - that's where -- mine is broader, because for some people, some people - the relationship with a divinity is the only definition of spirituality.

MG:

spirituality - yes

AG:

and that’s where - we differ.

MG:

That’s OK, I'm accepting your definition

AG:

Yes.

MG:

But you need to see where I'm coming from

AG:

Yes.

MG:

- and in our family we're actually very strong Christians.

(MG then explains in details family devotions and how people often come to their house and how the visitors discuss theological matters with the parents and with the children often being present during such discussions).

Racheal’s (5y10m, INT 16) mother said she saw spirituality as a presence around us: AG:

And as you were mentioning before: we seem to have somehow confused spirituality with religion, religiosity and um -. And a lot of adults think spirituality is a religious issue only.

RS:

Mmmm mmmm.

AG:

And that is way I put the - um - the religious sections into the rating scales. But it seems as if there's only -. Well in the more than fifty children that I can follow, there are only three or four of them that have mentioned God to me spontaneously.

RS:

Mmmm, yeh well it's something -. Well, I mean, I still haven't made up my own mind about, about God!

AG:

Right.

RS:

It's taken me forty five years to get to this stage, so it's something that I don't verbalise with her. It's not a part of our daily routine, based on what my religious beliefs are - um. I believe in something existing, but -. I don't think it needs to be even

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my (word unclear) - more compartmentalised or whatever. To me religion is absolutely personal. AG:

Mmmm yes.

RS:

And it doesn't need to be mass organised and - the way it has been done -. I haven't expressed that to Racheal yet, but - um -. To me, I think that the presence of whatever is all around us -.

AG:

- of some sort of power?

RS:

Yes, there is something beyond us.

AG:

Yes.

RS:

Um, and we need to be mindful of that and be respectful -.

AG:

Like metaphysical?

RS:

(nods) And I guess be humble about our place here on earth, but beyond that -. No, I don't have a religion.

David’s (4y4m, INT 7) mother told me that she believes that babies are more spiritual and that they lose this spirituality as they grow up. This corresponds with the comment made by Benjamin (12y) who said “Babies know everything. You just have to ask the right questions to get what they know ‘out’”. (Cram, 1996, p. 64). Julian’s (5y6m, INT 1) mother said that “[The children] just live it, it’s their whole life, [it’s] not compartmentalised”.

Many of the parents cited above expressed views about spirituality similar to those of the Unitarian Universalists (Flanagan, 2006; Klein, 2002) who, as discussed earlier, see religious wisdom as constantly changing, who require that people must respect others, practise compassion and justice and who welcome those who seek community, liberty, freedom, and the opportunity to discover, explore, grow in knowledge, wisdom, compassion and justice. Some parents saw spirituality as transcendental experiences that cannot be explained, but just is, similar to Belzen’s (2004) view about transcendence referred to earlier.

No parent ever questioned whether spirituality exists, or whether young children display spirituality. In this they all seemed to agree with Hegel (1807) and Berdyaev (1935) that spirit just is. The main differences were in the way the parents described spirituality with the emphasis or lack thereof in regard to a person’s chosen religion.

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Concluding Remarks about parental definitions of spirituality.

In these examples parents show that they believe in a higher force or power which exists regardless of people acknowledging it or not. In one case this power is the Christian God. To be a spiritual person one needs to consider other people and the environment; one needs to recognise that there is another dimension which adults tend to block off emotionally, thus requiring harder knocks to get through a difficult situation; and one needs to be mindful and respectful of that presence or power.

All parents in the study acknowledged that spirituality exists and that everyone has some form of spirituality, whether this was defined as awareness and wonder, or whether it was defined as part of the person’s ‘soul-ishness’. Some parents saw spirituality as a connection to a force or power with some parents calling this force ‘God’. Parents saw children’s spirituality as an awareness of themselves as being alive and wonder where their future is, just like adults do, with Catherine’s father contemplating whether adults would be any wiser if we were lost. It was as if he was saying “Would we even know we are lost?” Children have not yet formed blocks which may slow down the spiritual journey of the individual. One parent saw children as being on a different level to adults. Parents saw children as aware, sensitive and caring, which are all seen as important spirituality traits or characteristics.

6.6

Spiritual characteristics as seen by the children’s parents.

In this subsection I make a very brief literature introduction to a spiritual trait or characteristics followed by illustrative examples from the parent conversations. In section 6.6.1 I make an attempt to summarise parental opinions about which traits parents have noticed in their children.

Compassion. The Dalai Lama (1999, McLeod, 2007) says about love and compassion that they are not mere luxuries, but are fundamental to the continual survival of the human species. They are innate sources of all spiritual qualities: forgiveness, tolerance and all the virtues. This is similar to Montagu’s (1989, p. 163) statement that: “compassion ... of the child [is] seen in solicitude and love for younger children .... [and] suffering of

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any kind... Compassion refers to deep sympathy and desire to help the sufferer ... and [has an element of intelligence to] make appropriate successful response to the particular challenge of the situation”. Thompson (1990) describes cases of children as young as 14 months showing empathy for other children with empathy being defined as being able to enter into the feelings of another person.

Saskia’s (4y8m, INT 19) mother said that Saskia “has a lot of care and compassion for the younger children”. She would also show compassion towards peers who may have fallen over or for some reason were crying, which I saw regularly during field visits (FN, 1999).

I saw similar incidences in Matthew (4y2m, INT 22, see also section 5.11) as discussed with his mother: AG:

With spirituality I see that as an ability to show love and compassion and awareness of what goes on around you. It's much bigger than religion and -

AD:

Yah.

AG:

- and I noticed one day that Matthew met one of the children in one of the other groups and he was sort of a bit 'iffy' that his father left him. And Matthew comes along a put and arm around him and started - sort of caring - and observing: oh this one is not quite coping with saying good bye - I'll go over and help. And it's quite amazing. He's one of the few children I've seen doing that on a regular basis.

AD:

He's done that since he's been tiny. Just always adopts the new people in the centre and makes sure that they settle in OK over the first couple of days. I don't know where he gets it from, but often off his own bat. He's not told to do it.

AG:

No - this particular one that was - I put the keyword to this one as care and compassion, which are keywords in adult writings about adult spirituality.

A third child, Robert (4y6m, INT 6) also showed compassion towards his peers as told by his mother: AG:

And um, from what I have observed with Robert and his play he is certainly very, very aware and capable, if anyone falls over he is 'are you OK?'

KP:

Yeh

AG:

Sort of in a quick way

KP:

Yeh

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AG:

But he is there, just reassuring

KP:

“Is everything fine?”

AG:

Yes

KP:

Yeh, no, he's always, he's always done that actually, ever since he's been small

AG:

Right

KP:

His little friends, like even at playgroup as well, he looks after, even kids his same age as him, if someone gets hurt, he goes straight to their Mum and says so-and-so's hurt and being the dobber he is, also says this person did it, but he's always making sure they are OK

AG:

Yes, that seems to be his first reaction, well if somebody is hurt, checking that they are OK and then as you said, well so-and-so did it

KP:

Yes, exactly (chuckle).

Robert (4y6m) also wondered about seeing the images of a major earthquake in Turkey on TV and showed his compassion in the questions about how people there were coping. His mother told me: KP:

He wonders [about] things, about everything

AG:

Does he notice little details?

KP:

Yeh, little details like, like the Turkey earthquakes like that, he saw the pictures on telly and then for days we got it about Turkey and the earthquake in Turkey.

Joy. Montagu (1989) claims that joy is a vital developmental need. Everyone is born with a capacity for joy, but it is essentially a shared experience. He further claims that the joyful laughter of children is one of the most pleasant sounds to the human ear. Montagu warns against the tendency in the Western world to teach children games in order to win and thus corrupting and deforming the joy of just playing a game. Rather adults should encourage playing games for fun and enjoy the laughter with children around them. Fahlman (2002) describes joy in painting by a young child as the child’s face being “lit up”, his steps being strong and gaining momentum, his painting movements described as thrusts. The joy and satisfaction of painting is described as a touch of hands, mind, heart and spirit. Fahlman says that imagination and fantasy are integral to all human beings, but that adults have to work to re-capture it. Anya (in Latham, 1996) would probably say that people over the age of 9 years should wake up

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their imagination and enjoy it. The young child constantly lives and displays joy, similar to the statements discussed earlier that young children are sentient beings (Champagne, 2003). The early childhood educator pioneer Froebel (1900/1974p. 89) once said: “Let us learn from our children, let us live with our children: then will the life of our children bring us peace and joy, then we shall begin to grow wise, to be wise”.

All parents mentioned their children expressing joy on the Rating Scales (Appendix 7) with those being interviewed confirming their statements that the children showed joy both in words and actions. Ji-Shen’s (3y10m, Illustration 29) BIG happy monster described earlier is one example of a child showing joy with the following excerpt from the conversation with Alick’s (4y6m, Int. 10) mother being illustrative of the examples parents gave:

AG:

and um, you have written that expressing joy is a constant state

DS:

yes, yes - always talking, always laughing

AG:

yes

DS:

He's been like that since he was born - always used to laugh

AG:

Yes.

DS:

he was great; he was always laughing always smiling

AG:

yes always big smiles, yes - and showing love and compassion towards other people, he does that.

DS:

Oh, yes, very much so.

Awareness and Wonder. For children, Nye and Hay (1996) describe awareness in spirituality as a reflexive or meta-cognitive process in which one is attentive to a situation or a moment. They relate moments where a person listens to music as awareness of aesthetic experiences. For the adult Eyre (1999) identifies three types of awareness: 1) sensual awareness experienced through the five senses, 2) spiritual awareness experienced through knowing oneself and a higher spirit and where the person is pulled to prayer, 3) attitudinal awareness which allows a person to expect discoveries of interest and joy. According to Champagne (2003) spirituality in young children is displayed through their sentient being, so it seems that at least two of the three types of awareness described for adults are also present in young children. Wardell and Engebretson

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(2006) explain awareness as being cognisant or having knowledge about something both in regard to everyday events, but also about anything extraordinary.

Awareness is closely related to wonder, which Montagu (1989) claims is at the beginning of all knowledge and of philosophy. Siejk (1999) suggests that wonder is a troubling, reflective and transformative experience that opens a person to the mysteries of life and at the same time makes that person conscious of the surrounding world. She says that wonder is open-ended meaning that questions will not go away or end, that there will always be something people can wonder about. Montagu (1989) expresses the warning that we can lose the extent of the landscape to wonder at and the ability to satisfy our wonder, but that adults must always encourage children’s natural and neotenous ability to be curious and to wonder. Hyde (2003, p. 31) says about a young child’s spirituality that “children have much to teach us about spirituality. Do we listen?” He claims that adults need to display awareness about their surrounding world just as children seem to be constantly doing.

The parents of the children in this study seemed to be aware of their children and they listened to their children’s expression of spirituality. One parent described her son’s reaction to and awareness of serious illness:

Alick (4y6m, INT 10) had been seriously ill for several months during the year prior to him attending his early childhood setting (FN, 1999). In the following excerpt his mother describes Alick’s awareness of his illness which paralysed him and his disappointment over his body ‘letting him down’. In the section about hope following below there is a further excerpt describing Alick’s reaction to this illness. AG:

-[Spirituality is] being aware of what’s goes on around you and doing it together with you, that’s sort of the love part of spirituality that you do things together and you share good experiences, and share bad experiences like the hospital, -

DS:

[It’s] the opposite to my eldest son, his side of an argument or what he wants. [He’s] not actually consider [sic] other people -

AG:

Right. Is that something that has come out, has he always been like that?

DS:

Yes, he's always been like that, as soon as he could talk, as soon as he could think, even as a small child, as a toddler he was always very reasonable.

AG:

That is actually quite, well, according to the text books, that is unusual, but I have

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seen it several times and you have observed the two differences in [your children]. DS:

Well, this is the problem we had in the hospital because the neurologist was discussing Alick, he basically shut down, as soon as anybody came near him and asked about his legs, where he was sore, or asked him 'how are you feeling', he would just shut down, you could see his eyes, he'd either physically close his eyes or would just -

AG:

He would turn off?

DS:

[nods] He'd switch off. Where I want to go? He didn't want to be part of the conversation, and sometimes he'd put a sign up -

AG:

The problem with a situation like that is, the staff need to ask those questions

DS:

Yeh, but it got to a point, I'm just trying to remember back, it got to a point where the pain, because the nerves had stopped the pain, we had to try to find out whether there was still pain there -

AG:

Mmmm

DS:

- and he'd say 'no' and the next day he'd say 'yes' or it would be in a different spot, and um, he actually in a child that young before, this awareness of that there was something severely wrong with him, most children that age when they're sick, that just, they're just sick -

AG:

yes

DS:

- and all they want is attention, they want people to look after them, whereas Alick didn't, he basically wanted - . He was aware that something was dreadfully wrong with him -

AG:

yes

DS:

- the neurologist eventually agreed with me that that is what he was doing, to try and cope with, he had only seen one child who was seven [do this].

Other parents were aware of their children’s abilities to think about and act on their awareness of the world around them. Paige’s (4y4m, INT 9) parents saw her as a child being very aware of people and their physical and emotional needs particularly if someone had knocked themselves, or in the case of her mother having a bad back Paige would come and rub the sore spot for her mother without even talking about the situation. Paige would also come and give her mother a hug just after the family had lost a long time friend due to illness. Mary’s (6y2m, INT 17) mother saw her daughter as being very much aware of everything around her, the world, the universe and showing an appreciation of all this. She said that she was often surprised over her daughter’s knowledge and the surprises she gave her mother. Carl’s (4y6m, INT 8)

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father saw awareness and wonder as the expressed state of young children’s spirituality and that children are more powerful than adults in such expressions.

Hope. Witmer and Sweeney (1992) say that hope is a characteristic of spirituality which is innate and closely related to optimism. Montagu (1989, p. 158) states that optimism for children is a hope that they will obtain “grown-upedness”. He also says that optimism is creative so that difficult problems are solved and new discoveries are made. Montagu is confident that a child who is encouraged to be hopeful and optimistic will display confidence and perseverance thereby developing socially useful skills and the ability to contribute to one’s own and other’s mental, physical and social health.

In the case of Alick’s illness (4y6m, INT 10, see above), his mother told me that despite his body letting Alick down badly, he none-the-less had almost recovered fully from his paralysis. He participated in most activities offered in his early childhood setting (FN, 1999) which could be interpreted as an innate ability of hope in Alick and his surroundings that he would recover fully. AG:

- If they are aware of what happens to people if something drastic happens to them? And Alick has sort of had a bit of a situation himself, he recently had. [Has], he talked about his experiences in hospital at all?

DS:

um, oh, not really, I think it was too traumatic for him

AG:

[Did he] mention anything, because that was quite a difficult situation for him?

DS:

- quite frightening for him

AG:

Yes, and not knowing what brought that about

DS:

It has changed him

AG:

yes?

DS:

changed his personality - in his misbehaviour - [like before he was] physically confident what he could do.

AG:

Yes

DS:

- and now

AG:

He had to relearn a couple of things?

DS:

(nods) walking

AG:

Yes

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DS:

everything basically - his back was paralysed

AG:

Mmmm

DS:

His recovery was quite rapid once it started

AG:

Yes - well it would have been, well he's participating in most things now -

DS:

He's very, not as secure as he was, I mean his body let him down badly (-)

Two parents mentioned hope in relation to their children thinking about the future. One was Jane (6y4m, INT 2) whose mother was expecting a baby which Jane was looking forward to arriving and wanting to participate in the care of this baby. The other child, Kinsey (5y6m, INT 3), had discussed with her mother that she wanted to be a mother herself one day. This last instance appears to be an example of Montagu’s (1989) view that young children want to be grown-ups.

Humour. Hyers (1996) says that anything that is serious is worthy of humorous consideration with Montagu (1989) claiming that children revel in the comic. Cohen (1990) recommends accepting reality with its inherent contradictions while sometimes using humour to do so. Kinsey’s (5y6m, INT 3, Illustration 86) mother chuckled when I showed her the drawing of a person with Chicken Pox with the marks being different colours, all drawn in rhythm with the gentle recorder music of Vivaldi (Petri 1980). Even the seriousness of itchy Chicken Pox was worthy of being treated with humour!

Contemplation. Witmer and Sweeney (1992) claim that contemplation is an important part of a person’s spirituality. Contemplation is the free ‘gaze of the mind’ (Berryman, 1997, p. 10) where a person is wondering about something and is clearly happy about being in the situation. Berryman compares a situation of contemplation with the FLOW theory described by Csikszentmihalyi (1992) which is characterised by deep concentration, altered sense of time, immediate feedback, skills matching challenges, and problems are forgotten. Moore (1992) explains about contemplation that it is necessary so one can get the full pleasant experience of beauty and imagination. Both Muscari (2006) and Dowling (2005) recommend that children are encouraged to have quiet periods of time available for them to think and contemplate in order for them to enhance their spiritual awareness.

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I told Cedric’s (5y2m, INT 12) parents about a situation where I had observed Cedric in the school garden quietly sitting and not talking to anyone. It would appear that he was contemplating the beauty of the garden and perhaps enjoying his own experience of sitting in that particular spot.

AG:

I've noticed children, I've noticed Cedric sort of just quietly sitting - just sitting - [in] the garden lately. They made this garden this year at the school.

MM:

yes, yes.

AG:

- and just sitting, I'm not sure just what he did, but um, and what was going on in his head, but not doing anything and if someone wanted to talk to him he just totally ignored them, he was absorbed in something within himself -

MM:

Some thought process.

AG:

Yes. Whether he was listening to himself or whether he was just sort of contemplating and watching something, I don't know, but that was one situation when I - I was wondering: "if you are listening to something, or thinking about something", he couldn't tell me afterwards, I said: "what were you doing up there in the garden?" "sat".

MM:

chuckle

AG:

OK, so that was really, he wouldn't tell me, or maybe couldn't. I don't know - couldn't express what he was doing -

EM:

Not conscious of what he was doing probably!

MM:

Not afterwards anyway!

AG:

No, but at the time - it was quite some time. I'm thinking some seven - eight minutes where he just ignored what was going on around him and he just sat there, so I was wondering, if that’s he’s just listening to himself.

MM:

Himself -

AG:

Or thinking about something, contemplating, meditating, I don't know what he was actually doing at the time.

EM:

He loves to listen, that’s what he, he just sits down, he winds back, and he just listens, concentrates.

AG:

Yes, yes sort of with the stories and what Teena tells them.

MM:

Oh yes he just sits there and takes it in

AG:

Simply absorbs it?

MM:

Yes

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Understanding. Montagu (1989) claims that ignorance is voluntary and causes impoverishment of the spirit and therefore children are constantly looking for knowledge and understanding through their explorations and questions. He says that the need to know is not the same as the need to learn. In Montagu’s opinion knowing is to have a clear perception or understanding. It is possible to learn without knowing, but in the young child the two: knowing and learning, go together. Mayall (2000) says that understanding is temporal, and that knowledge only comes from going to the source of the information, in this instance from the children and their parents, as good information about childhood must start from the children’s experience.

All parents, through the conversations, through the Rating Scales or through the general ‘hello-type’ conversations when I met them in the field, made comments about their children wanting to know about things. As discussed earlier the children wanted to understand what was going on around them, how things work, why people do what they do, whether the victims of war and earthquakes would get help. One direct example of this is Snow (3y8m, INT 11), who is, according to his mother, a “Why” person:

CL:

He's - you know - a "why" person, so he - eh - he'll ask questions about things that he doesn't understand. Particularly if you give him a command - it'll be "why?" so -

AG:

So you need to have your reasons ready?

CL:

Well - at the time it's probably doing MYCP as well - a management program behavioural modification - behavioural management. And yes - be asked to be - for him to be asked to do something - he'll want to know why. Not necessarily "why do I have to do that"- "Why do I have to do anything" - you know "why". But he'll ask questions about his environment as well. Like - we were driving along in the street and he sees someone working on a piece of equipment - and he'll ask what's that fellow doing - you know - and now it's the same thing - now what are those guys doing up on that bridge, so - he'll want to -

AG:

He'll want to find out?

CL:

Yes!

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6.6.1 Concluding Remarks about Spiritual characteristics in adults and children.

Parents were generally aware that their children showed compassion and were pleased that other people, such as myself, also noticed this important spiritual trait. They would elaborate on the examples I was telling them about or they would give further examples. They knew their children were happy and joyful and sometimes children would express humour as well. Parents told me about awareness and wonder in their children and they were very interested in the examples I showed them in the observations and artwork from the children. Some parents saw contemplation and hope in their children as well, while other parents were unable to give me examples. The majority of parents told me about their child’s desire to understand their surrounding world. It seems that the significant adults in the world of the children in this study were aware that one needs to encourage the spirituality traits identified in the conversations with parents: compassion, joy, awareness, wonder, hope, humour, contemplation and understanding. It appears that Cohen (1990) is correct when she suggests that for a person to remain young one must retain into adult life those traits that are usually associated with childhood like love, curiosity, imaginativeness, playfulness, willingness to experiment and eagerness to learn.

6.7

Dark side of spirituality.

In the present study the emphasis is on the positive traits of spirituality as listed in Appendix 1, for example love, care, compassion, awe, wonder, acceptance, wisdom and trust, but nonetheless there are also negative aspects of spirituality. For example, in Buddhism there is the notion of suffering: that suffering exists (Dalai Lama, 1996, 1999; Rahula, 1978; Smith, 2002). In Christianity and Judaism there is the aspect of homosexual conduct and menstruating women being sinful, evil or unclean (NIV, 1985, Leviticus, Chapters 12 and 15; Spong, 2005). In Islam and Christianity there is the concept of holy war: jihad or crusades (Britannica, 1988). In certain Muslim countries Shariah law is enforced (Illustration 1; Suhuyini, 2007). In education students can meet bullying (Berne, 1996; Pratz, 2003). In nursing, and in every other area of human life, there is the fact of human mortality (Lamers, 1997; Lancaster,

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1997). The daily news programs on various TV channels tell about the effect of war, of natural disasters and of people committing criminal acts towards each other.

In the literature about spirituality in education (Section 2.7) Raban (1990) recommends using storytelling and guided imagery when working with children and stimulating their spirituality. Steiner (1965) also recommends using story telling when teaching children. However, one of the first early childhood educators, Froebel (1900/1974, p. 117) said in regard to story telling and the young child’s development of language: “The plot should be true - i.e. the events should be possible and should have some logical connection. All that is hideous or vicious should be left out. Cruel or wanton punishments or accidents or ludicrous situations should be avoided: they blunt or pervert the moral sense of the child.” One can only ask: What about the daily news reporting on wars, which appear to have very little relevance except to a selected few politicians worldwide, but have devastating effects on the people living in those conditions? How would these images seen daily on TV affect young children’s minds and their spirituality or in Froebel’s words “pervert the moral sense of the child”?

There are some writers who look at the effect of events like

“September 11” on children (Carey, 2003; Johnson and Holness, 2003), but, as earlier discussed, much more research is needed before we will know how such dramatic events may affect children’s spirituality.

During the conversations with parents they sometimes asked me about other aspects of human life like anger, hate, bullying, jealousy and fears and whether I would be looking into these areas as well. When I answered that I was concentrating on the positive aspects of spirituality, but acknowledging this area of possible research, Carl’s father (INT 8) said that those areas “have been studied to death.” He further said that young children are more powerful than are adults in the way they show compassion, love, awareness and empathy. In regard to bullying Berne (1996) has written a book for parents on how to recognise bullies and victims. She gives suggestions on how to approach the problem.

In regard to children’s fears, particularly bad dreams, parents told me how they helped their children cope with these with making dream catchers (see section 6.3 above).

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Cedric’s (5y2m, INT 12) mother suggested that it would be interesting to compare the current study with one looking at anger and fears:

EM:

Did you ask the children as well to draw anger or fears?

AG:

No, I didn't. I have concentrated on the positive side of spirituality, because they are quite - a few studies on bullying and anger and on fears, there are quite a lot of studies of those. But there are little about the positive side of spirituality.

EM:

Yep.

AG:

And that's where I want to come in. I haven't actually done that -

EM:

But it would be interesting what comes out with fear or anger, you know!

AG:

Yes, but that would be an interesting study -

EM:

Just to compare!

Sheree’s (3y4m) mother told me that she was in hospital rooming in after having Sheree at the time when the shooting massacre happened at Port Arthur, Tasmania. She wonders whether such events are absorbed by the young infant.

MG:

That was really interesting; I have found that at home. She is a really reflective child and articulates with the kids. She is really intelligent and - um - in all spheres and I don't think it's just a parent’s perspective I think it's a....

AG:

Yes, because I think that children actually do pick up more that what we as adults generally give them credit for.

MG:

Oh yes, oh yes.

AG:

And would your reflections from the Port Arthur massacre? That's well we don't know what is absorbed in a very young mind -.

MG:

- a new born baby, and the emotions. Well, what I remember sitting on my bed in that hospital room, she was rooming in with me so she was in the room and I was there for a week. We think, when I - I mean we all wept, it was terrible.

AG:

Yes, yes.

MG:

And seeing the survivors sharing their testimonies and I really, because I was in a vulnerable position with this little baby, I couldn't go out shopping and things like that, so I was absorbed in it, in the papers. And watching the TV and even ABC killed it, thrashed it to death, and she was there with it.

AG:

Yes, yes.

MG:

She knew about it, and um -. I feel very hostile about massacres and it really drummed something into me. And I think she picks that up.

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Montagu (1989, p. 149) says that children are surprisingly resilient and that resiliency is present in everyone before birth. He also says that the younger the child is, the more resilient it is and will rapidly recover from ‘psychological insults’, which may be what Sheree experienced in that hospital room with the TV telling about the massacre where many people were killed.

Concluding Remarks about the Dark Side of Spirituality.

Only three parents mentioned anger, adverse effect of dramatic events and fear. They are all important aspects of normal life. I agree with Cedric’s mother that it would be interesting to compare the current study on compassion, love, beauty and awareness to a study looking at anger, fear and other negative aspects of human life. However, such a comparison is beyond the scope of this study and therefore the suggestion will be noted as a possible area for further research.

6.8

The Importance of Religion.

As stated in Appendix 2 spirituality is often defined as ‘being’ and religion as ‘doing’ (Appendix A.2.2). Belzen (2004) discusses whether there are different types of spirituality seen in relation to a person’s belief or non-belief in a religion. He recommends that studies looking at spirituality must include and compare both religious and non-religious spirituality. However, Belzen (2004) appears to look at adults only, whereas Hyde (2004) looks at spirituality in children within a religious environment such as the Catholic school system in Australia. Hyde quotes Ranson (2002, in Hyde 2004) who states that without religion, spirituality can never attain its depth, and without the spiritual, religion becomes doctrinaire. This statement ties in with that of Lawton (2003) who claims that spirituality without any religious framework can easily become a kind of self-indulgence. Lawton, writing as a Jew, recommends that adults working with children, whether they are parents or teachers or any other significant adult in children’s lives, must introduce the children to a religious community where the children are taught the cultural background for that particular religion and where the children are important members belonging to that community. Lawton further claims that religion and spirituality need each other in

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religious communities, which, when these communities avoid their dogmas and are at their best behaviour, are those environments where children (and adults?) have the best chance of having meaningful spiritual experiences.

In the conversations with parents I met both religious and non-religious views of spirituality. The following detailed excerpt from the conversation with Jane’s (6y4m, INT 2) father represents the view that several parents held that religion is not important in a person’s spirituality or spiritual development. Jane’s parents preferred to teach their children the overarching rule: “Do onto others what you want them to do to you” (NIV, 1985, Matt. 7, 12) with some acknowledging that this rule is found in all major world religions (see section 2.7.4 for a full list of quotations). MB:

I'm not a very spiritual person. I honestly don't know. It's something I don't think much about. I probably have a fairly non-spiritual household I'm afraid. None of us are religious at all. So they pick up about religion, it's generally from school, friends, or wherever.

AG:

Because with the rating scale here there are a couple of religious things in it. But, I found it is, as I said, the items here they are from adults. Texts about adults -

MB:

Jane started talking about God a lot more lately over the last three or four months. Just - um. Happily one day, "you and Mummy don't believe in God do you?" "no, not really" she said "I believe in God", so, I said "that's OK, it's up to you".

AG:

Yes.

MB:

And away she went.

AG:

Yes, that was just a statement of fact?

MB:

Yes, a statement of fact, it was nothing to do with "you and Mummy don't believe in God, do you" "I do, I believe in God".

AG:

Yes, that's quite interesting in itself.

MB:

She has made up her mind herself, that there is a God of some sort. And he must be a good thing to have, and she is going to have one.

AG:

Yes, because I've actually found that children don't spontaneously, not to me anyway in the settings, in the four centres I have visit. They haven't spontaneously talked about God and I thought that -.

MB:

Jane doesn't very often either.

AG:

So perhaps spirituality is, - a religious spirituality - is really an adult phenomenon rather then a child phenomenon?

MB:

Yeh, I think so. It's something that, well it's almost impossible to get a completely

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insulated development of a child. It's always going to pick up some sort of religious references from outside. AG:

Yes.

MB:

Um, even if you deliberately go out of your way to try and avoid it. But it is interesting to see what would happen if it did happen in so far as religious beliefs later on.

AG:

Yes.

MB:

Because even when I was going to school I was -. Well my family was completely non-religious, but because we had religious education at school. So I got chucked out of a couple of them for discussing something completely illogical with the Nuns...... I really approached it as a very mental problem if you like, who could possibly generate all this sort of thing. - This stuff happen, I was a bit of a scientist when I was young as well, so, so probably [a] complete, shall we say teacher shock -!

AG:

[It] probably worried them?

MB:

I was a little toad yes! So um, I sort of got exposed to spirituality - religious spirituality fairly early, and decided it was not for me anyway. Anyway, Jane sort of hasn't had the formal exposure to it. And she's just picked up little bits here and there so, from the other kids mostly, I think, and the teachers. Which isn't a bad thing. She is going to have to make her own mind up eventually, if she's going to be a religious person or not so -.

AG:

Yes, it seems to be mainly an adult issue with having associated spirituality with religion.

MB:

It's very important to adults I think.

AG:

It probably is, whereas children go -.

MB:

Different religions around.

AG:

Yes, and different religions have their different rules.

MB:

Exactly, well as far as spirituality goes, it's just treating others properly, you know.

AG:

Yes?

MB:

Or ethically, moral and ethical consequences. We find -. And that is what we try to instil into our kids that you treat people as you want to be treated and -

AG:

Yes, one of the Maria Montessori writers, I think it's on the shelf there you can borrow. She has some references to six or seven different world religions, on their sentiments, that you treat people the way you want to be treated yourself.

MB:

Exactly!

AG:

She used it as an example. It really is the basic human law -.

MB:

One thing is: you are part of something bigger then you. I mean everything you do affects: - don't go pulling flowers out of the garden because, don't go breaking the

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flowers off and just leaving them there, let someone else benefit -. AG:

Yes.

MB:

And it's that philosophy I guess that you - . Trying to get along with the world, don't try to force the world to do what you want it to do.

AG:

Yes, so there is actually an overarching rule that we are part of a --

MB:

Exactly!! If you look at it, that's more what I am into than anything else.

Only three parents mentioned that they went to church regularly and brought their children with them. Sheree’s (3y4m, INT 13) mother, who as earlier mentioned described herself as a strong Christian, represents the other end of the spectrum in regard to spirituality being religious or not. She specifically said that in her view I should concentrate on making my thesis religious: MG:

What’s missing is ... see when I've heard you talking to me; you don't mind me saying this. [....] You are very nice and your personality appears to be very honest. A dominant person like I am ... which I think you are, you got your ideas, I am not saying you don't, but you are not a pushy person and so, but don't make it a wishy washy experience to do this. [...] Try to make a definition that's more religious spirituality here and more than on the other end of the spectrum, which is more the personality, soulish, spirituality discussion and get - narrow your thesis down about children’s spirituality in the end to the religious, because that would be the commonly excepted thing by everyone, that spirituality definitely is religious (-) umbrella, but kind off the broader stuff, but then focus on the religious.

Keshu’s (4y0m, FN 1999) mother explained her understanding of religious spirituality seen from her Hindu background that each individual religion shows a way to God using a graphic illustration as copied below:

God

Christianity - Islam - Judaism - Hinduism - Buddhism - Taoism - Other beliefs

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Annabel’s (4y2m, INT 23) mother explained God this way: AG:

Does Annabel talk about [God]?

Am:

That's what we try and teach the children, and I think that God works beyond what institutional church would - you know. [We] sort of put in a box - sort of in a formula. I think he works in many and wonderful ways. Through nature - through love and through all those things you were saying. So we talk about all the traditional stuff - also we talk about - what do you call different aspects -

AG:

Why I'm asking this: Sometimes when I've mentioned to adults what I'm doing and discussing what I'm actually studying and when I say I'm looking at young children's spiritual development a lot of people immediately put a religious connotation to it and I think spirituality is [larger] than a religious aspect.

Am:

Um.

AG:

Much bigger than institutionalised religion.

Am:

Oh, yes! Absolutely! Whatever religion that is.- - -They're really highly aware and alert to their intuition. In adult life we rationalise away from it - you know - .

AG:

This is what Annabel has given me - I really appreciate that you took your time to come. It's good to talk to parents about my findings!

Am:

I was finding it fascinating. They are much more in tune in lots of ways than we are.

Some parents explained God in anthropomorphic terms to their children like Paige’s (4y4m, INT 9, Illustration 36) parents: AG:

No - it's quite interesting because she's included weather and -

CD:

Yeah.

AG:

Rain is a common one when I asked them to - I actually asked them - because in the texts that I've read about spirituality to love, compassion and care for the world around and everything really - nature, people, animals and whatever - that's an important aspect in those texts for adults. And I was wondering if it is for children too.

CD:

Yes, right. Well basically - sort of - like Paige asks does she know - - well why does it rain and stuff like that. And we say that basically always put it down - we've said to her: you know - that's God watering his garden. She says: “is it his garden?” I said it's because I say “he's got to water the grass and if there's no water - we don't drink, and if we don't drink - sort of, you know, we can die” and stuff like that. So it's important to life.

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One parent told me that her child Jacob (5y0m, FN, 1999) had for a period of time asked a lot of questions of her in regard to God, including many that she could not answer. She decided that she needed a rest from those questions and said to her son: “Why don’t we have a God-free day today?” Jacob’s answer? “Oh goody! Then we can have a Retravision day tomorrow!” And his questions about God continued! (‘Godfrey’ and ‘Retravision’ are electrical goods retailer chain stores).

It was not often that parents would mention other religious issues which their children talked about. One example is Daniel (4y4m, INT 21) who mentioned Jesus to his mother: AG:

Um, so do you have any examples of - um -, when he talks about religious issues?

SP:

A specific one, but we are Christians and we go to church. And he sees it in our lives so he questions things quite a lot.

AG:

Yes.

SP:

Um, I think, I told you the example the time he came home (-) "Mummy what happens, does Jesus give you a party" (when you die?)

AG:

Yes, yes I did actually write that one down the day you told me it. I thought "that’s an interesting one". I've actually heard that one about um, a child who had a newborn cousin that died, and - because of congenital heart failure, defect, -, and this baby died. And then the cousin asked "will Jesus, is Jesus painting the room for Eunice now” and that um -. She must have observed the aunty and uncle painting the room, getting ready for this new baby, and then it's not there.

SP:

Yes.

AG:

So it the same kind, sort of the same kind of issues that's going on in Mark's mind. Saying: do you get a birthday party?

SP:

Exactly.

AG:

Yes.

SP:

Exactly, does life still go on, basically, or is it finished?

AG:

Yes, yes.

SP:

Yes, a lot of questions are very specific to God and Jesus, asking about what happens, where, why, how. He talks about good and evil quite a lot.

Only a couple of parents mentioned that their child sometimes attended Sunday School (see Section 2.7.6) with Julian’s (5y6m, INT 1) mother saying that the Sunday School environment was a controlled environment and that her feeling was that Julian

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did not get anything out of the experience, so he did not attend Sunday School any more.

Four parents mentioned ‘soul’ in conversations. David’s (4y4m, INT 7) mother said that she had explained to David that a person’s soul is the good bit which goes to heaven, and that a person’s body stays. Veronica (5y6m) and Virginia’s (4y4m) mother told me in a telephone conversation that she found the Rating Scale (Appendix 9) was very easy to fill in, but that she did not use the word ‘soul’ when discussing this concept with her children. She preferred to use the word ‘heart’ instead (FN, 1999). The third parent who mentioned ‘soul’ was Sheree’s (3y4m, INT 13) mother who said that my definition of spirituality expressed soul-ishness rather than spirituality (see section 6.5 above). The fourth parent said about her son Matthew (4y2m) that he was an ‘old soul. Definitely an old soul’. However, she did not elaborate on the statement and interruptions prevented me from asking her what she meant by the comment.

Concluding Remarks about the Importance of Religion

Only very few parents regarded spirituality as a part of religion with the majority seeing it as a much broader aspect of a person’s life. Some parents said they found the study fascinating and that they were looking forward to the final findings because maybe the findings would clarify the issue of young children’s spirituality. Only one parent made the comment that the thesis about young children’s spirituality should be religious, because that would be what everyone would expect it to be. Overall parents saw spirituality as broader than religion and that young children do not necessarily include a religious aspect in their spirituality unless they were exposed to a religious culture, either at home, in a school setting or with friends. It appears that the majority of parents prefer to cultivate a personal spirituality in their children rather than participate actively in a religious community such as suggested by Lawton (2003).

6.9

Life and Death.

Myers (1997) tells us that communities are, as well as the living people, made up of people who lived in other times and places. Some families have a tradition of going to

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the cemetery visiting the graves of family members or friends, particularly on anniversary dates for the deceased, and it is accepted to ask questions about dying and death in these families. Myers recommends that adults talk with young children about death and accept their questions attempting to give honest answers. This is a similar view to that of Shenandoah (1992) who explains her Native American tradition of Thanksgiving in all areas of life. She explains one part of it as a celebration for a person passing from this life to the next. By following this tradition and celebration their little children are not shocked and frightened and driven into all sorts of emotional disturbances when death comes close to them.

Several parents mentioned death, dying and funerals in the conversations. Many parents seemed to have a need to discuss the matter with someone and they told me their private fears and concerns in regard to their own mortality. The examples below relate only to the children and the questions the children asked. Some parents told their children that when you die you go to heaven and it is nice there. They emphasised that even if a person is dead and no longer with the family, there is still the aspect of remembering the person and what that person meant to the family. David’s (4y4m, INT 7) mother told David that where the dead people go they are not sick any more, it’s good there and it’s happy there. She also told him that “we don’t see them any more, but they can still see us”.

Paige’s (4y4m, INT 9) parents told about a TV program they had watched about a counsellor helping parents cope with the death of a child. They also told me of Maori funeral practices in New Zealand which they had attended and where the whole family would stand around the open casket and talk to the deceased person. They were comparing these funeral practices with funeral practices in a funeral home in Australia which they found very impersonal. They also told me about the loss of a family friend. He was a rally driver and at the time Paige was scared of thunder storms. They had told Paige and her sister how this friend now makes the thunder when he drives his rally car, that the lightening is the beam from the car and how this explanation had helped Paige overcome her fear of thunder.

Snow’s (3y8m, INT 11) mother told about a conversation she had heard between Snow and his friend Alick (4y6m) in the back of the car while driving home:

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AG:

(Referring to the Rating Scale) Well the next one there when talking about heaven or life after death - -

CL:

I distinctly remember that one! Because he - I picked up Alick and Snow to take them home one day and - or his brother - I can't quite recall - Somebody in the back of the car said: "My gran" - that his grandmother was dead. And Snow - well I think that's why I ticked that - he wanted to know more about - you know - where was she before that and where is she now. He wanted to know to know more about why was - where is grandma now that she's dead - that sort of thing.

AG:

Yes?

CL:

So it wasn't necessarily to me - it was in conversation with his peers in the back of the car that he was -

AG:

So what did they decide on?

CL:

I think it was just you know - we won’t see her - she's not coming - we won't ever see her again. She's not coming back. I'm not - I can't recall whether they discussed where she'd gone. Whether she'd gone to heaven or they buried her. That was probably the finality to it - well she's buried and that's it.

AG:

So they didn't discuss - - ?

CL:

They didn't go beyond that.

Some children learned about death when an animal had died. One parent told about the time when her daughter Racheal (5y10m, INT 16) realised that death is final. The neighbour’s guineapig “Wombat” got swallowed by a carpet snake! Damien (4y0m, INT 25) also experienced death with his cat being run over by a car. His mother said it had been quite difficult for them to explain as they had to do the explaining there and then with the dead cat on the road.

Only two parents had taken their children to a funeral. One was a grandparent’s funeral; one was a great aunt’s funeral. Generally parents commented that funerals are a special way of saying ‘good-bye’ but that they would prefer not to bring children to a funeral.

Concluding Remarks about Life and Death.

It would seem that some of the children knew about death and the finality of it. They would ask questions and their parents would attempt to answer if they could. The 247

majority of parents seemed to avoid such discussions with their children until such a time where there had been a death in the close vicinity of the family. Maybe a literature study on death, dying and funerals would reveal incidences where parents allow their children to be part of saying farewell to their loved ones similar to the Maori traditions mentioned by Paige’s parents or recommended by Myers (1997) and Shenandoah (1992) above.

6.10

Reincarnation.

In several religions there is a strong emphasis on reincarnation (Hinduism: Younger and Younger, 1978; Buddhism: Rahula, 1978; Smith, 2002; Jains: Parrinder, 1995). Christianity claims that reincarnation is not considered to be part of this religion (Britannica, 1988). However, Teekamp (1999) questions this thought, and claims that reincarnation was part of Christian beliefs prior to the Nicean Church Council in 325 C.E. where the Nicean Creed was formulated. Myers (1997) says that our communities are made up of people who lived in other times and places, and that we meet them and take them into ourselves through their stories, lives and writings. So maybe the concept of ‘cumulative knowledge’ could be part of a person’s reincarnation, a thought also expressed by Cerminara (1967). Shroder (1999) has investigated several cases of people who remember past lives, as have Neiman and Goldman (1994). Together with writers who have investigated people’s Near Death Experiences, NDEs (Eason, 2005; Moody, 1978; Rinpoche, 1992; Sutherland, 1992, 1995), they claim that there are too many instances of people telling convincing stories of previous lives and a life after death to dismiss the concept of reincarnation in regard to its importance concerning spirituality. Berdyaev (1935) says that a person as such does not possess immortality; the person needs a spiritual life to possess the quality of eternal life. This is consistent with Cerminara’s (1967) view that it is a person’s soul which is reincarnated, sometimes several generations later and it may be in a totally different geographical and cultural setting to where the person lived in the earlier life.

One parent was certain that her child had lived before (INT 7; FN 1999). David (4y4m) had told her about the time when he was a soldier, and how this had puzzled her at the times when it happened. She did not think he had got information from TV

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about the life of soldiers, but he seemed to know a lot which surprised her. There are similarities in David’s story to those told by Eason (2005) where Eason tells about children who dreamt about previous lives. During our conversation she told me a little about her thoughts in this regard:

VT:

“- but David has been here before, several times I think.”

AG:

“Has he made any comments?”

VT:

“No, no - he seems to know things, you know. Even when he was little, because he was - he’s got those eyes, you know, those eyes David has got? It’s like he has done it all before. - I think that’s why he is not bothered with a lot of things, it’s just - - . I often think babies have been here before and they sort of lose -. They seem to know more when they’re born and lose it when they get older, yeh.”

In a comment on the Rating Scale, Morgan’s (4y0m) mother wrote that he often opened discussions with statements like “Before I was born, I was in Heaven”. His mother did not elaborate further, except to say that he also used expressions like being a soldier in the war.

Another parent (INT 24) told about a close family friend of 12y who was run over by a car and killed. For several weeks after this, her daughter, Hannah, (5y0m) would talk about the friend.

MT:

And at first it was quite strange. It was as if - . You are probably going to think this is a rather odd thing to say, but Hannah could actually see her -- after she'd gone,

AG:

Oh, right.

MT:

- like she'd be there. I don't know if it is like an imaginary friend or something, but Hannah would be sitting there talking, to nobody -.

AG:

Yes?

MT:

We were walking from the park, my husband told me that. Because the kids are not allowed to walk on the road and Hannah just turned around, looked at the road and said: 'get off the road’ and nobody was on the road.

AG:

Oh, right.

MT:

- just all little things like that, and that was for about two months after C had died and then -. There was C’s birthday party, we had this - . We celebrated with the parents, with a cake and everything, even though she'd died.

AG:

A kind of goodbye celebration, too?

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MT:

(nods) And then after that, Hannah never talked to her imaginary person again.

AG:

Yes.

MT:

Quite odd.

AG:

Yes.

MT:

I don't know - . If, in her mind that's how she sort of, as a coping mechanism maybe?

AG:

Yes, you don't really know how -.

MT:

You just don't know.

AG:

Amazing.

MT:

But Hannah was talking to nobody and it was more than once.

AG:

Yes.

MT:

If it was just me, I'd think it was me going crackers. She was doing it with my husband, too - - -.

The last example about reincarnation and being able to ‘see’ a deceased person was in regard to a sibling to one of the children in the study. The parent mentioned her older child (a boy of approximately 6y6m) talking about “when he was a mother” several times. There appeared to be no indication of this being an imaginative story for the child, as he was able to describe a house and its contents in detail to the mother - this being a place the child would never have seen (FN, 1999).

Concluding Remarks about Reincarnation.

The concept of reincarnation requires more research, as the four psychic examples given here are not enough to draw any conclusions from. They are mentioned because of the importance put on the belief in karma and reincarnation in some religions. More information about psychic children can be found in Eason’s (2005) book, where she concludes that it is important to listen to children’s stories about their experiences and for surrounding adults to take such stories seriously because the experiences are very real for the children involved.

6.11

Children’s Artwork.

Montagu (1989, p. 132) says that in drawing children express their imagination using the words of a child: “First I think, and then I draw a line round my think”. Montagu further claims that the world is a mystery to the child and mystery is a spur to the

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imagination. Picasso said (in Montagu, 1989, p. 132) that “Every child is an artist. The problem is how to remain an artist once he grows up.” Along this line of thought Hegel (1807, p. 713) claimed that a person’s spirit is artist and that “the first work of art is, because immediate, abstract and particular”. Hegel also said that self-conscious human beings are artists and that they make the very inner being external through their art. So maybe adults should help children keeping their imagination awake after the child’s 9th birthday, so their imagination does not turn off the light and go to sleep (Latham, 1996).

Goodnow (1977, p. 145) claims that children’s graphic work is truly visible thinking. “The features it displays - thrift, conservatism, principles of organisation and sequence - are features of all problem-solving, whether by children or adults. If you can begin to note these features in one area of experience - children’s graphic work then you may begin to note them in your own thinking and problem-solving. In short, I hope you may begin to see children’s graphic work not only as visible thinking but even as a ‘slice of life’.”

Children’s art is often disregarded by adult researchers (Gardner, 1980) with some exceptions like Bindl (1965), Harms (1944) and Goldman (1964) who collected children’s art to determine their religious understanding and religious development (See Appendix A.3.7). Gardner (1980) claims that at the end of a child’s preschool period the child’s drawings are characteristically colourful, balanced, rhythmic and expressive. He warns against interpreting a child’s drawings in purely cognitive, emotional or affective terms. Rather, Gardner suggests that there is a relationship between children’s art and the children’s mental, social and emotional development as well as the aesthetic status of the work the children produce. Thomas and Silk (1990) compare children’s art with modern art and say that it was only in the twentieth century that there are similarities between child and adult art using the example that no-one would ever be likely to compare the art of Rembrandt with that of a child. It seems that Thomas and Silk (1990) consider children’s art as an incomplete art form which is in need of further development. They do acknowledge that in their book children’s works of art have been studied by adults without the children having been asked about their thoughts in relation to the artwork.

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In the present study the children were given specific tasks and their comments recorded as described earlier. I used a different approach to the children’s drawings than that mentioned by Montagu (1989) in that I gave a “think” to the children to draw or paint about. They then drew about this “think” whether this was listening to and drawing the music, think about ‘love’ or thinks about a ‘beautiful day’.

Several children commented that colour is important. For example, Julian (5y6m, INT 1, Illustration 87) painted dinosaurs when asked to paint ‘love’ and saying in the end that love is colours. When I showed Julian’s mother the painting she told me that Julian was very interested in dinosaurs and that he often drew or painted dinosaurs. She made no comments in regard to love being colours. Julian paints quickly - carefully choosing the colours and waiting for the child at the other side of the easel if he is using the brush Julian needs. He started by painting the green stripes at the lower half of the painting, then the sun in top right corner.

J:

I'm going to paint dinosaurs - can you paint a dinosaur for me, Anna?

AG:

But I don't know what your dinosaur looks like inside your head!?

J:

Oh - (Pauses, and looks at AG). No, you don't - do you? 'cause I have a picture in my head and it can't get into your head.

AG:

That's right.

J:

I'll paint it then, 'cause then you can see my picture.

AG:

Yes, that would help me.

Julian paints the blue stripes in the middle, making no comments while doing so, but painting it in several carefully placed sections, frowning as he works. When he puts the blue paint brush down, he stands back a bit and looks at the painting. He then nods, and takes the brush with yellow paint.

AG:

What is the blue thing in your painting?

J:

It's a comet - it killed all the dinosaurs and all that - and some of it got eated [sic].

AG:

Oh - is that what happened to the dinosaurs?

J:

Yep!

He paints the yellow, red and blue spots in the top part of the painting.

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J:

I've finished now!

AG:

Can you tell me about what 'love' is in your painting?

J:

It's all the splotches 'cause love is colours.

Strauss (1978, p. 65) says that colour is a mediator of soul experience using the expressions of a child of 5 years who said about some colours: “Sing a cheerful song that is such a lovely red” and “White is such a stiff colour” and “It hurt very much - a yellow hurt with black spikes”. One can almost feel how strong a yellow pain with black spikes is!

Carl (4y6m, INT 8) also told me that music is red, just like the child Strauss (1978) told about and that the sun was in the music, too. Carl did not draw very often telling me that he was unable to draw. I got his explanation for this inability as recorded in the excerpt below. Carl’s father made no comments about Carl’s drawings, but towards the end of the conversation he said that there are certain aspects of spirituality like compassion and empathy that children show in more powerful ways than adults. AG:

And Carl was just sitting there looking at the tape recorder a couple of times, I wrote that out

MB:

Right, yeh

AG:

- and um, the music is red and he drew all that actually in rhythm

MB:

to the music? OK.

AG:

(nods) with the music

MB:

OK.

AG:

And then he tells me “I can't draw” and I say “well why not”, and he said “because I'm left handed!”

MB:

Chuckle

Cedric’s (5y2m, INT 12) parents told me about some meditation tapes they had bought for Cedric. On one of the tapes there was talk about brain waves and colours and they had found that Cedric would relax when listening to these tapes. They also told me about a book they had called “Colour Healing” which Cedric was very interested in.

EM:

Ah yes, I can think of a very good situation. Cedric's spirituality plays a big role, I

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have a book that’s called 'Colour Healing' and AG:

Oh right

EM:

And having it on the bookshelf, I read it a while ago, I have it all under by bed, the books, but then it disappeared and got back into the bookshelf. This is for about two years. He goes back to the bookshelf and gets this book out, and he wants me to read out of this book. And the book is for adults and some passages I can read to him. He asked me many times "this is about the healing yourself with colours". He talks about spirituality and how you ask yourself and find yourself, how you find the truth in yourself, with healing yourself with colours. And he is very much on to that and I um - we decided to find something for Christmas for him that is for children. To know more about healing and spirituality what they have within themselves.

AG:

Yes.

EM:

For what that reason is, is it for healing, or for expressing or whatever they want to do with it.

AG:

The strength within?

EM:

Exactly, there is not much around for children.

AG:

No, there isn't.

MM:

Very little.

EM:

So - I, we found a few things, we found tapes at a relaxation centre.

AG:

Oh yes.

MM:

Sort of meditation tapes.

EM:

Meditation tapes and we bought those for Christmas and he loves it, it follows rainbows and things like that.

AG:

Are they instrumental or is there lyrics and texts in?

MM:

Just texts.

EM:

Texts in there, one of them is -

MM:

Soft music -

EM:

Yes, a lot of music, and one of them talks in the brainwaves, talks about colours too.

Some children included rain and colours in their pictures about a beautiful day or a birthday picture like Annabel’s (4y4m, INT 23, Illustration 26)

AG:

Annabel has made a few paintings. She's not talking very much at all, but she really spent quite some time concentrating on which colours (inaudible) - spirituality as an awareness of the world around them. And by asking them to paint a beautiful day I asked them to put on paper what a beautiful day is. And including rain - that's actually quite a common thing when I've asked them to paint a beautiful day. It's a kind of

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explanations to see that this is actually her concept. [It’s] from her birthday. Am:

Yes.

AG:

She painted a birthday picture and again working with the colours. I just sort of observed her working and asked her: “what did you paint?” They sang “Happy Birthday” for her. This is all the people singing Happy Birthday. It's quite amazing how she can put things like that into colour. It's another common theme that I've seen the young children do: that they put their concepts - they can put [it] into colour.

It seems as if Annabel made her inner being external through her art just as Hegel (1807) said. She hummed quietly to herself but allowed no-one to disturb her. Her mother said in the conversation that this was normal behaviour for Annabel: that noone could interrupt her once she was engrossed in a task.

Concluding Remarks about Children’s Artwork.

Sometimes parents would comment that their children’s artwork was much more interesting to look at when combined with the observations and explanations that went with an individual piece of work. This corresponds with the comments made by Thomas and Silk (1990) that the interpretation of children’s artwork must be seen in relation to the actual piece of work as well as the child’s thoughts and comments made at the time of making the artwork. Many of the children’s paintings and drawings (following page 268) are abstract to look at and do require the child’s explanations to be fully appreciated. When considering that Picasso saw every child as an artist (Montagu, 1989) and that Hegel (1807) claimed that it is a person’s spirit which is the artist, it would appear that young children do express their spirituality through artwork - another way of being a sentient being (Champagne, 2003).

6.12

Concluding Remarks about Parent Conversations.

The conversations with parents gave me a rich source of data. Some of the information given by parents clarified issues I had been wondering about when observing individual children; other information was totally new for me in relation to how parents viewed their children’s spirituality. It was a great experience and a privilege to obtain the data from parents with some parents sharing their personal and 255

private views on the topic of spirituality. The data given by parents showed me that parents did acknowledge their children’s sense of the beautiful, encourage excitement of the new and unknown and enhance their children’s feelings for others like sympathy, pity, admiration and love. These are all areas which Carson (1956) said should be prepared just like soil in which seeds must grow which is a resonance of Froebel’s (1900) idea of a Kindergarten (Children’s Garden), i.e. of early childhood education as discussed earlier. They are also areas considered to be parts of a person’s spirituality.

In retrospect I could have scheduled conversations with parents twice during the time on the field: the first soon after collecting the consent forms (Appendix 6) where I explained my view at the time about what spirituality is and the approach I would take in collecting the data. Then we could have had a second conversation towards the end of the time in the field where parents would have a fully informed chance of thinking about their children’s spirituality. However, the phenomenon of young children’s spirituality was described well in the quantity and the quality of the data provided by the children, parents and teachers as discussed above.

6.13

A Revised Definition of Spirituality

What is spirituality then - particularly for young children? According to Canda (1988, in Lindsay, 2002 p. 32) spirituality is 1) intrinsic and an irreducible aspect of the person, 2) is expressed through individual development and relationship with the environment, 3) integrates all aspects of the person, 4) involves the search for meaning and purpose, 5) involves loving relationship with all which exists 6) provides a way of understanding human suffering and alienation, and 7) integrates the everyday worldly aspects with the transcendent aspects. All these aspects are illustrated in the examples described above in young children. However, God is only mentioned once (Beatrice, 5y6m, Illustration 41).

Spirituality in young children is expressed in what they do in play, in actions, in artwork and in what they say. In the present study into young children’s spirituality it seems that young children do live their spirituality, it is part of their being. They display their spirituality in actions, in their artwork and in their conversations with

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peers and adults around them. However, there is only very little evidence that young children spontaneously talk about a Supreme Being, at least in their early childhood settings. It seems that young children must be asked directly about things celestial for their knowledge to be displayed (Giesenberg, 1996). Perhaps that part of the definition about spirituality including a Supreme Being, as set out at the end of Chapter 2 for adults, is not necessarily the same for young children. It would appear that the definition could now be re-written thus:

Spirituality is an innate part of a person. It is an awareness or consciousness of the surrounding world, a sense of compassion and love towards this world and anything in it shown

through

wonder

and

through

activities

and

relationship with peers and significant adults in the child’s life.

In the final chapter I draw out the major conclusions from the discussion of the data as presented above. It will clarify some areas of young children’s spirituality and identify areas for further research.

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CHAPTER 7.

FINDINGS, IMPLICATIONS AND FURTHER STUDY.

In the child we can find the natural human characteristics before they are spoiled by the harmful influences of society. Aline Wolf (1989), Peaceful children, peaceful world

7.0

Introduction to chapter.

In this concluding chapter I draw out the main findings from the work presented in previous chapters, particularly the data discussed in Chapters 4, 5 and 6. I ask that the reader accept my explanation of spirituality, as it is informed by the data and literature. While conscientious effort has been made to present the interpretation of data in the least biased manner I am aware that another researcher may have interpreted data differently, considering that another researcher might have had a different background in regard to cultural and religious upbringing than mine.

The sections of this chapter look firstly at the phenomenology of young children’s spirituality seen in relation to the research question stated in Chapter 1: “What is the nature of spirituality in preschool children?” Secondly, I raise some issues identified in the literature and the data and the implications these issues could have for the early childhood educator. Thirdly, I present some suggestions for further studies into young children’s spirituality. Lastly, I present some concluding comments about the study as a whole and my perceptions as a researcher conducting the study.

7.1

The Phenomenon of young children’s spirituality.

This study has confirmed that spirituality is a phenomenon, which exists in young children as was also found by Champagne (2003), Dowling (2005) and Nye (1999). This very brief conclusion is elaborated below. A related question: “Is young children’s spirituality different from adult’s spirituality?” can be answered in the affirmative: Yes. Young children’s spirituality is different in that all aspects of nonreligious spirituality identified as being unique for adults (section 2.9) apply to

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children as well, like the display of spiritual characteristics and traits such as compassion, love, wonder, awareness, joy and sense of beauty, but that they do not express a relationship with a Supreme Being.

The nature of spirituality in young children is evident in the way the children display the traits and characteristics of spirituality as listed above and in Appendix 1. The phenomenon of spirituality in young children is demonstrated by their behaviour. None of the characteristics of spirituality are emergent in young children, they are already present and observable given the right conditions, for example in play, while painting and drawing, while listening to music or when asked about abstract concepts like love and beauty.

Much of the literature about adult spirituality in Appendix 2 refers to a religious aspect of spirituality or a relationship with a supreme being regardless of any specific religion the person may adhere to. Some of the parents considered themselves as spiritual, but not religious, just as many studies have found (Bergin, 1990; Hughes, 2004; Ryan & Malone, 1996; Zinnbauer et al., 1997; Zwartz, 2004).

However, young children do not necessarily have a relationship with a Supreme Being. The children in this study did not talk much about the Judeo-Christian God as much as they have done at home as reported by the parents of children in the study (5.7, 6.8). Giesenberg (1996) found that preschool children have an amazing knowledge about God, but they must be asked directly about this knowledge for it to surface in discussions with a visiting researcher. In a phenomenological study it is not possible to determine what and how a relationship with a supernatural being is, particularly in young children who may not have the vocabulary or abilities to explain such a relationship. This statement is supported by Orleans (2006) who claims that in a phenomenological study there are no propositions that can be empirically tested and it does not generate deductions. Many of the children came from non-religious homes according to the information given by parents (section 6.8). This could also be an explanation for why the children did not mention a supernatural being.

In the Jewish kindergarten all children, regardless of their religious affiliation, participated in the Sabbath celebrations and said the specific brakha before mealtimes 259

(Appendix 2, A.2.4). They celebrated Jewish festivals like Passover, Purim and Hanukkah (FN, 1999). In the three other early childhood settings the teachers told the children about Christmas and the specific Christian Christmas story of the Nativity (FN 1999). Participation in such practices is recommended as part of the development of a person’s spirituality (Muscari, 2006). However, it did not appear that these religious practices have much influence on the children’s spirituality.

It is clear from the data given by the children themselves that the definition for the spirituality in adults given in section 2.9.6 derived from the literature about adult spirituality is too broad in that it includes a relationship with a transcendent being. Spirituality for young children is a-religious, but highly spiritual with the characteristics of spirituality being innate in the child, or neotenous as described by Montagu (1989), thus indicating that the abilities are there and will be displayed by the child when the right conditions are present. The nature of young children’s spirituality can be expressed in the revised definition of spirituality as concluded in Chapter 6:

Spirituality is an innate part of a person. It is an awareness or consciousness of the surrounding world, a sense of compassion and love towards this world and anything in it shown through wonder and through activities and relationship with peers and significant adults in the child’s life.

The question stated in section 1.2 “How do young children show spirituality?” is answered in detail in the Chapter 5: “Data from the Children”. They draw, paint, wonder, love their peers, family and friends, contemplate, play, show compassion, are aware of their surrounding world and they express all this in their actions. Young children’s spirituality is a part of them - not apart as is often the case with adults who tend to compartmentalise.

One specific example of spiritual characteristics being shown comes from Rebecca (3y6m). Her compassion and care for other people was a strong aspect of a child’s spirituality as illustrated in her response to my worry about my foot being ‘lost’ in the sandpit (section 5.11). She was concerned on my behalf and pleased that my foot 260

turned up again. Clearly her response was a display of spirituality. However, I am in no position to determine whether her reaction was a learned response or whether she would take such action any given time without having been taught previously, with Myers (1997) claiming that young children learn such responses in their immediate culture surrounded by caring adults.

Another question related to the main question is: “Are children restricted in their expression of their spirituality, such as Hay (1985) claims adults are, calling it a ‘social taboo’ to talk about spiritual matters?” The data discussed throughout Chapters 4, 5 and 6 tell the story that children in this study are not restricted at all in expressing their spirituality. They constantly live their spirituality: they express joy, love, compassion and wonder. They show their spirituality in their artwork as noted by Montessori (1966, p. 31-32): Before any effects are outwardly apparent, an inner work must be performed which is not the simple reproduction of an already pre-existing type, but the active creation of a new type. The end product, when it does appear, is as a consequence something surprising and enigmatic. It is like a masterpiece, which an artist has kept in the intimacy of his studio and into which he has poured himself before showing it in public. This aspect of inner spiritual work was evident in Julian’s (5y6m, Illustration 87) dinosaur painting and the excerpt of the corresponding observation in 6.11.

Young children express their spirituality in everything they do, say and are. They show it in their attention to detail and in their gestures. They are sensitive, relational and existential, just like Champagne (2003) found. Young children’s spirituality ‘is’, similar to the claim made by Hegel (1807) about the existence of ‘spirit’. Parents of the children in the study were aware of their children’s spirituality as indicated in the Rating Scales (Chapter 4) and there is no indication that children are restricted in expressing their spirituality. The quote opening this chapter (by Wolf, 1989, p.336 above): “In the child we can find the natural human characteristics before they are spoiled by the harmful influences of society”, is very appropriate when considering the open and spontaneous way children express their spirituality, especially when contrasted with the claim by Hay (1985) that adults are restricted in expressing their spirituality. 261

7.2

Implications for educators of young children.

In Chapter 1, I raised the question “How relevant might knowledge about young children’s spirituality be for a child’s ‘significant adults’ (parents and teachers)?” It is my belief that this study presents some answers that are applicable to educators of young children. I look firstly at answers in the literature and then at answers derived from the data discussed in previous chapters.

Several authors claim that young children must be guided along in their spiritual development (for example Bowley & Townroe, 1953; Cavaletti, 1983; Hyde, 2003; Liddy, 2002; Muscari, 2006; Myers, 1997; Schweitzer, 2005). However, there is some indication that adults can hinder children’s spirituality in developing to its full potential. Ben (in Cram, 1996) stated that the Sunday school teachers just tell him what to think, not allowing him to discuss what he is wondering about, or like Anya (in Latham, 1996), who indicated that adults fail to enhance children’s imagination after the age of 9 years. Educators (and parents) of young children need to provide opportunities for the expression of their spiritual characteristics. Carson (1956) Dowling (2005), Muscari (2006) and Myers (1996) make several recommendations for educators of young children such as helping children to appreciate stillness, recognise and value the beauty of the natural world, think of beautiful things, provide places for quiet reflection, listen: to self and others, show love and acceptance, read stories together, share precious memories, encourage a sense of values like caring for and show compassion for others. This requires time and the necessity of avoiding hurrying children along for them to become adults too soon (Elkind, 1988).

Stewart and Mickunas (1990, p. 103) claim that in phenomenology “Spirit is pure actuality, and its very being is not a substance but a continuously self-executing, ordered structure of acts. The person is only in and through his acts..... Spirit does not possess faculties or characteristics such as reason or vitality. Spirit is an immediate co-experiencing unity of all lived experiences, hence it is concrete and not formal. Spiritual acts are experienced only in their enactment and can never become intentional objects for formal investigation.... The moral autonomy of a person is not a “law rule” 262

(logonomie) of pure reason, nor can it become a logical subject of propositions”. From this statement about spirit in phenomenology it appears that a person’s spirit is a central part of the human being as illustrated in Figure 6, (p. 28). All developmental areas as mentioned in Appendix 3 and 4 interact as ‘a unity of all lived experiences’. Therefore adults working with young children must continually be aware of the general developmental levels of the children in their care for them to be able to implement the recommendations made by Dowling (2005) and Muscari (2006) above, at a level appropriate to an individual child’s development and without asking for reasons why the child may look after a crying friend for example.

The support and guidance given to the children in this study by their parents at home and by their teachers in their early childhood settings are commendable in that the children are supported in expressing their spirituality. They are allowed and encouraged to draw, paint, sing, play and interact with each other. They are given opportunities to contemplate and have quiet moments, they are encouraged to ask questions and get appropriate answers like Cedric (5y2m) when he needed information about “Africa People” (Illustration 15). They are allowed to wonder like Melitta drawing in the dirt (section 5.2.13).

In summary: Adults caring for and working with young children must ensure that for the children there is time to play, be quiet alone and with peers, ask questions, be creative, wonder about the surrounding world, share stories and experiences and use one’s imagination. In some settings and home there must also be time to pray and participate in rituals important for that particular setting or religion. It is important to keep Lawton’s (2003) warning in mind: that spirituality can easily become an exercise in self-indulgence if spirituality alone is nurtured, because he sees spirituality alone as an individual concept, whereas religious affiliation is the social aspect of a person’s spirituality.

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7.3

Suggestions for further study into the area of young children’s spirituality.

The findings in the present study indicate that young children’s spirituality is a phenomenon which is as strong as is, for example, the phenomenon of young children’s cognitive development. The strand in the whariki mat denoting spirituality is somewhat clearer in its colour (Appendix A.3.9). Champagne’s (2003) study is another example of clarifying the phenomenon of young children’s spirituality, but more studies are needed before young children’s spirituality becomes an area which will be part of the general knowledge base in regard to young children’s global development.

It is my suggestion that any researcher, who wishes to study young children’s spirituality further, must first of all allow the time it takes to get to know the children in a setting to build up a trusting relationship for the children (and their parents and teachers) to feel comfortable in providing the data needed. When studying young children one cannot expect to do field visits over just a few weeks, one must allow several months for the data collection (Corsaro & Molinari, 2000; Hatch, 1990).

A second suggestion is that a researcher should attempt to find settings with a wide cultural diversity considering the claim by Belzen (2004) that religions and spirituality are cultural phenomena similar to a person’s nationality. Such settings should be at a distance from the researcher’s own familiar areas of contacts to prevent possible tainting of data if the researcher knows the children and the families privately. It would have been quite difficult for me to have collected similar data as that described and discussed in this thesis in the smaller towns in which I used to live, as I knew most of the families outside of the early childhood setting.

Anyone researching in an early childhood setting as a participant observer must be aware of falling into the trap of becoming a teacher (section 5.6), but at the same time be aware of ‘duty of care’ requirements (Corsaro & Molinari, 2000) in case a child is at risk of getting hurt.

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I would have liked to have sent out a second revised Rating Scale (different from the Rating Scale in Appendix 9) to parents where I only used spirituality items relating to young children as identified in the discussion in Chapter 5. I would leave out the item about ‘soul’ or ‘consciousness’ as only one parent ticked that item (section 4.11). I would add items about children’s enjoyment of music, their understanding of ‘beauty’ and an item about ‘dreams’. Over the page I have included a suggested revised Rating Scale with the reasons added for the inclusion of sections.

In section 6.7 a few parents mentioned the ‘dark side of spirituality’ and stated that it would be interesting to compare the present study with studies about anger, adverse effect of dramatic events and fear. They are all important aspects of normal life and some that are mentioned by Muscari (2006) as being opposites to the positive aspects of spirituality. The dark side of spirituality (anger, hate, arrogance, intolerance, superiority = the evil wolf, p. ii) constitute the absence of the goodness of spirituality (joy, peace, love, tolerance, understanding, humility, kindness, empathy, generosity, compassion = the good wolf, p. ii). In my opinion such a comparative study would be best conducted as a literature search on existing findings in the areas mentioned by the parents.

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Rating Scale: YOUNG CHILDREN'S SPIRITUALITY: REVISED. Child's Name:_____________________________________ Week ending_________ Please observe your child over a week and tick when you notice any of the following behaviours: I observed my child: Watching a natural phenomenon.

This area had 89 ticks - therefore it should stay. Also, children often painted or drew things from nature

Showing love towards another person.

184 ticks. Love is mentioned in almost all sources listed in Appendix 1. It is seen as a very important part of spirituality

Showing awareness of mysterious things.

41 ticks. Although children did not mention mysterious things to me, they did so to their parents. This Rating Scale is for the parents to fill in about areas which a researcher cannot always get information about. 62 ticks. Children occasionally mentioned “When I grow up. . .” or similar comments.

Expressing hope about the future. Wondering about things he/she doesn't understand. Expressing joy.

Talking about God or Supreme Being. Talking about heaven or life after death, or previous lives. Displaying creative abilities.

Listening carefully to self and others Showing interest in world events & their effects on people. Showing interest in life and death. Showing enjoyment of music

Being aware of beauty in the environment Telling about dreams

100 ticks. Children asked questions constantly - a phenomenon often occurring with young children. They expect answers, but will accept if the adults genuinely don’t know 137 ticks. Joy is mentioned in the majority of sources listed in Appendix 1. It is important in a person’s spirituality and overall development (Dowling, 2005) 36 ticks. Although only 4 children mentioned God in their early childhood setting, many more talked about God at home. Therefore it is an important item 29 ticks. See above.

164 ticks. With so many ticks from the parents and the fact that the children displayed creativity in their settings every day and in their artwork collected, creativity is important in spirituality. 112 ticks. This area is important in contemplation and awareness and thus also in spirituality 46 ticks. Children are aware of the surrounding world, they take in what they see on TV and this may have impact on their spirituality 55 ticks. Children also mentioned death of pets, a teacher’s relative and death in general. Death is part of being a human being and is therefore also important in spirituality NEW. Considering the responses from the children in their artwork, music is an important aspect of young children’s spirituality, just as it is for adults (Mathew, 1998; Moore 1992) NEW. See above, substituting ‘music’ with ‘beauty’.

NEW. Children in the study were able to tell about their dreams and how they affected them in their daily life. However, a researcher should not attempt to analyse the dreams, just record what the children say.

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7.4

Conclusion

The present study investigates the phenomenon of young children’s spirituality. It surprised me to note that young children do not spontaneously talk about God or a Supreme Being, considering my research into preschool children’s concepts of God (Giesenberg, 1996), which was the study that prompted me to undertake the study at hand.

Conducting this research has been a truly exciting experience although there have been periods of frustrations, particularly with personal moves and having to change supervisory teams twice. I would gladly undertake a similar study if the opportunity arose and compare that with new studies about children’s spirituality which seem to emerge in greater numbers than was the case when I commenced the field work. However, there is still a gap in studies looking at the young children which needs to be filled and the whariki strand about spirituality is still somewhat ‘dull’ in colour. Much more research is required about young children’s spirituality.

The main conclusions are that 1) The broad definition of spirituality (section 2.9) meets all the requirements for adults, but that young children do not necessarily have a relationship with a supernatural being. 2) Young children have an innate consciousness and understanding of spirituality, but their spirituality is fragile. It is the responsibility of the significant adults in young children’s lives to avoid damaging children’s spirituality. Often adults, while attempting to enhance young children’s overall development inhibit, or indeed damage, the children’s spiritual development by hurrying them along too soon and too fast. 3) Young children need to be in environments where they have time to contemplate and ‘sit’, just like Cedric (5y2m) did in the school garden.

Young children need opportunities to philosophise about everyday things and events. They need to wonder and ask questions about life in general. Adults must encourage children when they are in awe of small everyday things like ants on the garden path or of big everyday things like the vastness of the sky above. Adults need to provide space, time and opportunity for young children to work things out by themselves. Most importantly, young children need to be allowed to play and work out their 267

thoughts in their own ways. At times this gives young children opportunity to show compassion which is what Matthew (4y2m) did when a peer was crying as his father left him at the centre (section 5.11). Children must have opportunities to express their spirituality in quietness, awe, wonder, dance, creative arts, music and play.

To enhance young children’s spirituality adults must avoid damaging or inhibiting children’s spirituality. They must provide space and time for children to philosophise, think and work out their lives through play, contemplation and creativity. One of the most difficult aspects for adults in this regard is to allow children to seemingly ‘do nothing’! It is through these ‘boredom’ (i.e. contemplation) situations that young children work out the world around them. They might not understand the intricacies of the world like the adult world’s obsession with the recent anniversary of “9-11”, Islam, terrorism, Christian or Islamic fundamentalism, wars and general unrest in the world - many adults don’t either. But young children are informed by their environments and their culture. If we, as adults, learn to understand the phenomenon of young children’s spirituality, we may learn to understand our own spirituality better as well. This in turn can give us hope for a better future for them and for us.

“Ludo, ergo sum!”

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List of Appendices:

“Jeg er altid beskyldt for at bruge lange Parentheser. Min Examenslæsning er den længste Paranthes, jeg har oplevet”. (I am always accused of using long parentheses. My exam studies are the longest parenthesis I have experienced). Søren Kierkegaard, 1840 (in Thulstrup (1911, p. 19). AG’s translation from Danish

Appendix 1:

Traits and Characteristics of Spirituality (Table)

Appendix 2:

Religion and Spirituality (Text)

Appendix 3:

Developmental Theories Explained (Text)

Appendix 4:

Developmental Theories with relevance to Spirituality (Table)

Appendix 5:

Letters from centres that they will participate in study

Appendix 6:

Letter to parents introducing study + consent form for parents to return

Appendix 7:

QUT Human Research Ethics Committee’s approval of study

Appendix 8:

Guiding questions for interviews with parents

Appendix 9:

Rating Scale: Parents Rating Scale: Teachers

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Appendix 1 Traits and Characteristics of Spirituality.

Author

Philosophy: Humanist

Development begins as Child / Adult Possibly Innate

Traits or Characteristics of spirituality. Search for Meaning, Awareness, Stillness, Self-control, trust, gratitude, love, wisdom, awe, wonder, sense of belonging.

Alexander & McLaughlin (2003) Beck (1986)

Humanist

Child = is innate

Burkhardt (1989)

Humanist (Nursing)

Child = is innate

Dorr (1984)

Religious (Christian Politics) Religious

Not stated

Humanist (psychological) Religious (Buddhist)

Young child

Awareness, Breadth of outlook, A holistic outlook, Integration, Wonder, Gratitude, Hope, Courage, Energy, Detachment, Acceptance, Love, Gentleness Peace, Hopefulness, Creativity, Joy, Enthusiasm, Courage, Flowing easily with change, Reverence, Awe, Humour, Serenity, Sharing with others, Finding meaning in struggle and suffering. Act justly, Show commitment, Rectify injustice, Enhance social justice, Love, Be loyal, Committed to relationships, Walk humbly with God, Wonder, and Awareness. Show forgiveness, Express gratitude, Be humble, Display Compassion, Display Sacrificial Love. Hope, Willpower, Purpose, Competence, Fidelity, Love, Care and Wisdom

Hyde (2003)

Humanistic

Innate

Kessler (2000, in Liddy, 2002)

Religious

Child, possibly innate

Liddy (2002)

Religious

Child, possibly innate

Lindsay (2002)

Humanist

Maslow (1964)

Humanist (psychological)

Child. Sensitivity to [the spiritual dimension] can be present long before intellectual understanding is possible. Not stated

Montagu (1989)

Humanist

Neotenous, i.e. present during foetal life.

Montessori (1936, 1949, 1955) Muscari (2006)

Humanist

Baby = is innate

Humanist

Child (possibly innate)

Emmons (2000) Erikson (1963) Goleman (1980)

Not stated

Not stated

Healthy mental factors: Impartiality towards others, Equanimity in all circumstances, Ongoing alertness, Calm delight in experience, Compassion, Loving-kindness, quick and accurate perception, Composure and skill in taking action. Ontological (=belongs to every human), Mystery, Wonder, Awe, Holistic, Meaningmaking, Love, Lived relation to the other. Yearning for deep connection, Longing for silence and solitude, Search for meaning and purpose, Hunger for joy and delight, Creative drive, Urge for transcendence, Need for initiation. Creative personal act, Creative inner point of being, Life force, Meaning, Will to live, Love, Value, Yearning, Hope Love, hope, compassion, forgiveness, faith, self-giving altruism.

Being-values: Wholeness, Truth, Playfulness, Perfection, Justice, Simplicity, Beauty, Goodness Love, friendship, sensitivity, think soundly, to know, to learn, work, organisation, curiosity, wonder, playfulness, imagination, creativity, open-mindedness, flexibility, experimental-mindedness, explorativeness, resiliency, enthusiasm, sense of humour, joyfulness, laughter and tears, optimism, honesty and trust, compassionate intelligence, song, dance. Spiritual embryo grows and develops throughout life through: Wonder, Awareness, Acceptance, Absorption, Holism, Faith, Hope, Love, Forgiveness, Spiritual Well-Being,

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Appendix 1 Traits and Characteristics of Spirituality.

Newby (1996)

Humanist

Child = is innate

Nye & Hay (1996) Otto (1923)

Humanist

Child, possibly innate

Meaningful life-narrative, Continuity, Coherence, Creativity, Evaluating the narrative, Listening to wisdom, Appraising effects, Reflecting on the future, Finding happiness in that of others, Independence of material wealth, Living with uncertainty, Self-control, Wariness of ‘external’ goods, Strength. Flow, Awe & wonder, Imagination, Meaning, Ultimate goodness.

Religious (Christian) Religious

Adult

Gratitude, Trust, Love, Reliance, Dedication, Humble submission, Awe, Wonder

Directed towards adults

Faith, Love, Dreams, Courage, Unity, Joy, Trust, Character, Thanks, Intention. = the ten gifts of peace Wisdom, Loving kindness, Compassion, Joy, Equanimity, Calm & balanced mind.

Silverman (2000) Spretnak (1986) Wolf (1996)

Humanist (Green Politics) Humanist

Not stated Child = is innate

Silence and reflection, A reverence for nature, An appreciation of the interconnectedness of things, Cultivation of peacefulness, Compassion, Generosity, Love

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APPENDIX 2.

RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY.

This appendix gives a detailed literature review of how spirituality is perceived in various world religions. The conclusions of individual sections are also found in the main body of the thesis. A.2.1 Introduction. In the study by Zinnbauer et al. (1997) referred to in section 2.1.4 it was found that 74% of participants saw themselves as religious and spiritual. This implies that there is a religious aspect of spirituality, which is important. A corresponding figure for Australia says that 72.7% of the population claim an affiliation with a religion (AusStats, 2003; Strahan, 2004). For many people, including children, 'spirituality' implies a relationship with a transcendent reality, whether this is God, Yahweh, Allah, Tao, or another deity depending on religious and cultural background. Hyde (2004) claims that the history of spirituality is at least 70,000 years old, but the organised religions have only existed for about 4,500 years. This could indicate that the concept of spirituality is one of the most important concepts for human beings, whereas religion arose to assist people in expressing their spirituality. The young children (3y5m-6y4m) in Giesenberg's (1996) study were never asked about whether they had a personal belief in God, but they nevertheless showed a noticeable knowledge about God, Jesus, heaven, angels, and life after death, as did the older children (8-12 years) in Coles’ (1992) study. In each section of a specific religion's spirituality there is a brief introduction to that religion's history and major beliefs. It will appear that the Christian religion's view of spirituality occupies the larger part of this literature discussion. This is due to the fact that the linguistics and history of the concept of 'spirituality' appears to have derived from the Christian church (Jones, Wainwright & Yarnold, 1986; Principe, 1983; Ryan and Malone, 1996; Sheldrake, 1992). The words ‘spiritual’ and ‘spirituality’ will be used about other religions as well, keeping in mind the warning about cultural relativism that Christian Dharma or Hindu spirituality are equally odd in their respective cultures (Chatterjee, 1997). Where biblical quotations are used in this paper, the New International Version is referred to (NIV, 1985). Definitions in Macquarie Concise Dictionary (2001) are also used. The linguistics and history of 'spirituality' form part of this section followed by definitions of spirituality as Christian theologians see it. Then the views about spirituality as defined by Jews, Moslems, Hindus, Buddhists, Taoists, and Australian Aboriginals are explored. 272

However, there are people who do not believe in a deity or in religion. Therefore atheist views are also included in this section with the aim of documenting a possible spiritual sphere for this group of people as well. The last part of this section deals with prayer, worship and meditation in a person's spirituality as it appears that these notions are important in religious writings. It must be noted that almost no literature refers to children when defining spirituality within the various religious beliefs. In the rare event where this happens, it will be mentioned and receive specific comments. A. 2.2 History and linguistics of spirituality in Christianity. Sheldrake (1992) and Principe (1983) have researched the history of the concept of spirituality in the Christian church since the first century. In the centuries up till the seventeenth century the actual word was not used and both Sheldrake (1992) and Principe (1983) traced the concept through history. In the first centuries the general doctrine for the spiritual message of the Christian church was set by the leaders of the Christian community as they worked out the central features of its understanding of God, Christ and redemption. Most writers of early church history were bishops and therefore the written theology was pastoral, because the bishops were in contact with the Christian communities building these up and administering the sacraments to members. Later the writers were monks living in celibate communities who appeared to believe that such a life was the best choice in which one could study and live a holy Christian life. Many of these writers were from the élite classes and all were men. So the spirituality of the first thousand years of Christianity became a “grafting on to the biblical vision of Christianity of the humanistic values and traditional philosophical attitudes of the contemporary upper-class and male élite” (Sheldrake, 1992, p. 40). Later this aspect will be discussed from the point of view of feminist theologians like Carr (1986) and Durka (1989). Sheldrake (1992) then describes briefly the spiritual theology of the High and late Middle Ages, mentioning names such as St Bernard, St Thierry, and St Thomas Aquinas. The writings of that period were generally homilies or scriptural commentaries, except St Thomas Aquinas's 'Summa theologiae'. St Thomas Aquinas appears to be the first theologian who divided the study of theology into the study of dogma and moral theology, the latter being the part that dealt with spirituality. Later medieval spiritual writers were very interested in mysticism and alchemy. This was an area which Carl Jung (Jacobi, 1968) studied in depth during the 1920s when he formed his psychological theories of archetypes and the subconscious. The mystical texts were written 273

as guidance texts for eremitical and community-oriented Christian people. It was around this time (circa 1200 CE) that systematic prayer and meditation was first described and later used extensively in texts, not only for the monasteries, but also for the general population and church members. So, according to Principe (1983) and Sheldrake (1992), there was from the twelfth century onwards a separation of theology and spirituality, a division of knowledge from affectivity. However, the study of spirituality was neglected in the following centuries. In the Western Christian church it was not until the 1700s that spirituality was again discussed as a distinct branch of theology, particularly in France and Germany, and then most often as a subdivision of moral theology dealing with what was considered as obligations of the Christian person. There were two schools of thought: one that spirituality was reserved for the few and the study focused on special experiences and extraordinary phenomena, the other that mystical prayer and spirituality was a goal for all (Jones et al., 1986; Principe, 1983; Sheldrake, 1992). The phrase 'spiritual theology' was first used around this time, and by identifying specifically spiritual areas of human experience and existence, spiritual theologians began to describe stages of growth in people's spiritual development. In England theologians published books and leaflets on pious life, but they refrained from using the terms 'spiritual' and 'spirituality' until the early 1900s. Ryan and Malone (1996) look at the terms 'spiritual' and 'religious' and, similarly to Sheldrake (1992), they see spirituality as the non-material aspect of a person. They explain the Latin roots of both words. Spirare means to breathe, and the connection between breathing and spirituality is that both are vital and essential to being alive. Religare means to bind together as in an oath taken by a human towards a deity and the corresponding commitment to a religious community (Kidd, 1985; Maas, 1990; Ryan and Malone, 1996). The Dalai Lama (1999) also emphasises that spirituality is an aspect of a person’s being. Weaver, Pargament, Flannelly and Oppenheimer (2006) claim that over the past 35 years, spirituality has become increasingly differentiated from the construct of religiousness with the latter having become synonymous with institutionalised religious practices particularly in relation to the psychology of religion and spirituality. Ryan and Malone (1996) observe that there is a lack of clarity between the uses of the two terms, similar to the critique mentioned earlier by Zinnbauer et al. (1997). Ryan and Malone (1996) claim that if, in Christian teaching, the distinctions between the terms are taken into consideration, it can be assumed that everyone has a spirituality, even if they do not see themselves as religious. The distinction between spirituality and religiosity was also 274

observed by Sheldrake (1992). Since the 1930s there has been an increasing body of literature describing Christian spirituality and using this term to describe a dynamic and inclusive concept in a person's everyday life, whilst moving away from an analytical and abstract Christian theology and religiosity. Sheldrake (1992) claims that the term 'spirituality' has four central characteristics: 1) It is not exclusive to Christianity alone, 2) it refrains from prescribing absolute and dogmatic principles to life, 3) it surveys the mystery of living in a relationship with the Absolute rather than define perfection, and lastly, 4) it seeks to integrate all aspects of human life and experience. This integration of spirituality is illustrated in the holistic model of a person in Figure 6 (p. 28). According to Jones, Wainwright and Yarnold (1986) the word spiritual was initially used as a distinction between people who worked with temporalities as opposed to people who worked as clergy. In the twentieth century spirituality and spiritual theology became the terms formerly covered by mysticism as referred to by Jung (Jacobi, 1968). It later appeared that the word spirituality seemed to express what people wanted for religious practice as different from religious creed, maybe as a form of living and breathing as implied by Ryan and Malone (1996). The tenth volume of Dictionnaire de la Spiritualité (1980, in Jones, Wainwright & Yarnold, 1986, p. xxvi) explains the term thus: “[Spirituality] is by no means to be confused with theology, which is chiefly an elaboration of concepts. It is a life. All human existence has a spiritual aspect... Although the notion of spirituality is definitely a Christian notion, it by no means limits its attention to...the Christian world. To exhibit the spirituality of human reality is to embrace this reality to its full extent, and as such a quest does not just interest a few specialists”. This quote ties in well with many of the sources referred to earlier, for example Chandler et al. (1992), Farran et al. (1989), Helminiak (1996), Jones (1994), Montessori (1949) and Steiner (1965) that the concept of spirituality is of interest to people other than Christian believers. As will become clearer later in this chapter, the concept of spirituality is also of interest to politicians, philosophers, nurses and educators regardless of their personal beliefs and any religious adherence.

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A. 2.3 Christian theologians and spirituality. Christianity was founded in the first century CE by followers of Jesus of Nazareth, a Jew, who is believed by Christians to be God's son and the saviour that God had promised would come to mankind [sic] (Britannica, 1988; Bruce, 1969; Josephus, 1890; NIV, 1985; Parrinder, 1982; Tillich, 1952; Walsh, 1986; Wilson, 1984). The main Christian belief is that Jesus, as God's son, is the saviour of the world, and by believing in him and keeping the commandments God has given mankind, the believer will inherit eternal life with Jesus (NIV, 1985, John, 6,40). To help the believer in the task of living a just Christian life, God has sent the Holy Spirit as a helper or counsellor (NIV, 1985, John, 14,16). God, Jesus and the Holy Spirit are commonly called the Trinity (Britannica, 1988). The most important commandment Jesus cited is that believers must love God with all their hearts, and love their neighbours as themselves (NIV, 1985, Deut. 6,5; Matt. 22, 36-39). Because Jesus was a Jew, the Christian Bible contains a large section of Jewish writings, the Old Testament, which forms an important part of Christianity. The New Testament contains some of the writings and earliest history of the early church, which spread throughout Israel, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy with mainly the apostle Paul as documented in his letters to various Christian churches (NIV, 1985). The texts in the Christian Bible were selected in the fourth century by a group of bishops (Spong, 1991), and there are several other texts from the early Christian church, which are not included in the New Testament (Eisenman, 1996; Giversen, 2000). Christianity is in this century the most widespread religion worldwide with more than one billion people calling themselves Christians (Britannica, 1988). Zwartz (2004) quotes a figure of 33% of the world population, approximately 2 billion people. Historically the era in common use currently is often called the Christian Era, often written ‘A.D.’ meaning Anno Domini (“the year of the Lord”). Although there is some discussion about its correctness, year one denotes the year of Jesus' birth = the Anno Domini (Britannica, 1988; Bruce, 1969; Spong, 1991; Wilson, 1984). Considering the discussion Schlosser (2003, pp 48-49) presents in regard to Christian Privileges in a country like the USA, which perhaps also applies to Australia, (“I can be sure to hear music on the radio and watch TV that celebrates the holidays of my religion”. “I do not need to worry about the ramifications of disclosing my religious identity to others”. “I can be sure that if I need legal or medical help, my religion will not work against me”. “I can be sure when I hear someone in the media talking about g-d that they are talking about my (the Christian) g-d”. “I can, if I wish, arrange to be in the company of people of my religion most of the time” and 21 other 276

examples), it would appear that a notion like which year it is throughout the world, is yet another privilege which Christians enjoy. The thorough spread of Christianity throughout the world is due to the strong missionary zeal by the Christian Church since the early Christians started to proselytise among the gentiles in the first century of this Era. Some of this missionary work is tainted by the oppressive methods used to convert people to Christianity, such as forced baptisms, wars and the medieval crusades. People with other beliefs suffered persecution if they refused to convert to Christianity (Armstrong, 1994; Britannica, 1988; Clark, 1986; Harpur & Westwood, 1989). How strong the legacy of the Crusades still is can be seen by the reaction of Muslims and Europeans, especially in the Middle East, to President Bush of the USA calling the so-called “War on Terror” a crusade (Carroll, 2004; Wikipedia, 2006; Woods, 2003). Other parts of the history of the spread of Christianity are represented by the humanitarian and conversion works of Christian missionaries like Mother Theresa in India, Albert Schweitzer in Gabon, Equatorial Africa, and Niels H. Brønnum in Nigeria (Britannica, 1988; Nissen, 1988; Schweitzer, 1957). In the past almost 2000 years various groups or denominations have developed within Christianity including the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox churches, various Protestant churches and several independent Christian churches have developed. The following section includes evaluations of various Christian denominational definitions of spirituality. There is no attempt to distinguish between denominations, unless a specific writer claims that a view particularly concerns his or her particular denominational beliefs. Spirituality is life according to the Dictionnaire de la Spiritualité (1980, in Jones, Wainwright & Yarnold, 1986, p. xxvi) quoted on page 32. It thus ties in well with Ryan's and Malone's (1996) explanation of the Latin root that spirare means to breathe. Along this train of thought Kinerk (1985) claims that spirituality can be described as 'life-style' meaning more than possessions and appearance. It includes the way in which a person lives life in accordance with basic values. He says that a definition of human spirituality must deal with the mysterious depths of the human person in relation to God, but that this relationship cannot be adequately expressed, not even symbolically. The definition must also include the idea of personal growth beyond the self, i.e. self-transcendence. Spiritual growth through any human activity, for example through words, art, and music, implies that there is a simultaneous 'yes' to one thing, and a 'no' to something else. This growth is also expressed by Peck (1978, p. 72), when he claims that in order for a patient to benefit fully from psychotherapy, the person must say 'no' to the old self, perhaps depressed or neurotic, in order to be able to say 'yes' to a successful transition to a more developed self. But where Kinerk (1985) looks at this 'yes'/'no' dichotomy in purely Christian terms in regard to 277

spiritual growth, Peck (1978) sees it as a growth factor in all areas of human development, including the religious and spiritual areas. Fortosis (1992) has a similar view of Christian spirituality. An individual constantly strives to find God and God's will in life. It is important to reach for greater wisdom and virtue through the power of the Holy Spirit. The spiritual development of a Christian cannot be forced, but encouraged following a rate and quality that the individual allows, similar to Gobbell's (1980) view that each individual constructs his or her own spirituality. When people encounter situations that throw them off balance, they attempt to understand and adjust and thus resolve the imbalance. This is also a matter of saying 'yes' to one thing and 'no' to another. According to Fortosis (1992) the spiritual Christian is a person who displays characteristics like love, humour, generosity and compassion (see Fox, 1990, following), whilst being able to smile at human foibles in self and others and at the same time confess a deeply seated faith in God. These spiritual characteristics are very similar to the spiritual traits listed in Appendix 1. The spirituality of compassion is explored in detail by Fox (1990). Throughout the book Fox uses the word compassion as a synonym for Christian spirituality. He explains his use of the word compassion as a sharing of solidarity, to suffer with other people, an undergoing with, i.e. a sharing of common difficulties, which then provides strength. It is not to pity or feel sorry for someone else as is often meant by the word in Western culture thus implying that the other person is suffering as well as being weak and inferior. He claims that no Christian can be fully spiritual without showing compassion towards other people in all situations, including situations that are often seen as not having anything to do with religious beliefs. This is very much in line with the Dalai Lama’s (1999) views on spirituality where individuals should strive to show compassion towards all other people regardless of one agreeing with that person’s religious persuasion or not. Fox (1990) looks at compassion as being public and cosmic in its scope, and that compassion is a way of life, i.e. similar to Kinerk's (1985) view that spirituality is a life-style, and the quote from Dictionnaire de la Spiritualité above that spirituality is life. Fox (1990) describes how Christian compassion should manifest in areas such as sexuality, psychology, creativity, science, medicine, nature, economics, politics and the healing of the global village in regard to pollution and how the Third World countries are being exploited by the developed world. Fox compares the world with Humpty Dumpty from the nursery rhyme and says that humankind, unlike the King's horses and men, can put Humpty Dumpty together again, provided that compassion is applied in all situations. Compassion is thus seen to be a most important spiritual characteristic in a person, and maybe one that is observable in adults and children alike. 278

Where Fox's (1990) book contains a lot of practical suggestions for solving the world's problems, provided that people cooperate and show true compassion (read: spirituality), Doran (1988) looks at personal Christian spiritual development and self-transcendence in relation to Jungian psychology. He says that no Christian can avoid confronting the problem of evil, as described by Fox (1990) in regard to, for example, pollution, politics and exploitation, and that one must believe that there is a divinely originated solution to the problem of evil, or there is no solution at all. Doran (1988) claims that this problem solving is part of people's overall development and is related to cognitive and moral development. The elements in Christian spiritual growth involve developing familiarity with God and knowledge of Christ1, a growing ability to discern what God wants from self and one's community, and a growth in self-transcendence. This growth is fundamentally a transformation of the individual's interiority and an understanding of the self and one's consciousness. This understanding has five levels: 1) the individual experiences a situation, 2) then understands, followed by 3) judgment of the situation, 4) a decision about what to do next, and 5) deciding how the matter should be dealt with in relation with God, which is also an experience of mystery. All these operational levels are permeated by feelings experienced interiorly, and on all five levels of consciousness described above there is a corresponding opposite. Doran (1988) explains Jungian psychology in this connection as the individual's search for an inner reality in relation to God, or as the person's projection of archetypes. This search also includes the power archetypes hold over the individual through the collective unconscious manifesting itself in dreams. The collective unconscious is, according to Jung (1966, in Doran, 1988, p. 90; Jacobi, 1968), the innate tendency for people to have powerful images of a primal force or deity which is significantly cross cultural or universally human. Maybe the unconscious can be compared to Montessori's (1936) spiritual embryo. Later Doran (1988) emphasises that in religious experience a psychological understanding of spiritual development is important, but he warns that Christian spirituality should not be reduced to psychology, nor should psychology ignore spirituality. In regard to children's religious spirituality, Grønbæk (1962), a Danish psychologist, looks at Christian religious experiences in children, and says that there is no answer to the A1 The name 'Christian' derives from 'Christ' which means 'the Anointed One', and which was the Jewish term used for a person anointed with oil for a significant purpose, such as a king, or the long awaited Messiah (NIV, 1985: John, 1, 25, plus note p. 1594). Jesus' baptism and the descendence of a dove as the Holy Spirit (NIV, 1985: Matt. 3, 13-17, plus notes p. 1446) marked him as Christ or Messiah. In Acts 26, 28 (NIV, 1985) it appears that the expression Christian is used for the first time as a term defining a person who believes in Jesus. Flavius Josephus, a Jewish historian, also describes Jesus as the Christ and his followers as 'the tribe of Christians' (Josephus, 1890, Antiquities, Book 18, Chapter 3; § 3). 279

question of how early a child may have a spiritual experience. Hay (1985) and Robinson (1977) refer to a British study conducted in the 1970s which confirms that very young children can also have spiritual experiences. Grønbæk (1962) refers specifically to Jung's theory of the collective unconscious described earlier by Doran (1988) when talking about possible religious experiences in very young children, even babies. Later the child's environment plays an active role in religious development (Grønbæk, 1962). Grønbæk also looks at the influence of prayer, worship, religious art and feelings in a child's religious development. Throughout the book there are examples of children's religious experiences. Grønbæk (1962) asks the question of how such experiences are described as religious, and in answering in the affirmative he refers to the works of Rudolf Otto (1923, 2003) whose specific terminology, numinous, mysterium tremendum, fascinans, and wholly other is explained below. Otto (1923; 2003), a German theologian and philosopher, uses the term numinous for the feeling of awe and wonder which any religious believer from any religion has towards the chosen belief or deity as a holy being. Otto speaks of a numinous state of mind and claims that this specific feeling cannot be taught, but only be evoked and awakened in a person's mind. The numinous feeling includes gratitude, trust, love, reliance, dedication and humble submission, but is at the same time qualitatively different from these traits. Otto also says that the numinous is outside the self, thus connecting with Kinerk's (1985) and Fortosis's (1992) claim that Christian spirituality is self-transcendence. When a person encounters situations where the numinous is felt as being present, there comes a feeling of mysterium tremendum. Otto (1923) explains that this phenomenon can be both positive and negative. It can manifest itself in beautiful art and music, or in unexplainable fear, but it has nothing to do with the intensity of the feeling. When an individual worships the chosen deity, in this case the Christian God, the feelings of mysterium tremendum combined with the numinous becomes a person's being. This can be compared to Benner's (1992) claim that a person's spirituality is 'being' and the religion is 'doing'. Otto (1923) defines a person's chosen deity as the wholly other which can be a deity other than the Christian God. The wholly other is a positive aspect of the numinous and is a special character that can be felt. When a person prays or worships God, there is a feeling of fascinans, which is a feeling that the sincere believer possesses. In the last part of his book, Otto (1923) describes that the numinous can be experienced through art, music, admiring landscapes and buildings, observing silence, and participating in worship in churches, synagogues, temples and mosques. These specific terms coined by Otto (1923) were used in the analysis of a study about children's (3-18 years) religious experiences by Bindl (1965) discussed in Appendix 3.7.

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A.2.4 Feminist Christian spirituality. One of the most vocal groups in regard to Christian religious spirituality appears to be that of feminist theologians. Anne Carr (1986), a Christian feminist, claims that feminist spirituality is the spirituality of those who have experienced feminist consciousness raising seen in relation to the historical and cultural restrictions placed on women in general, which in Christian history was described earlier by Sheldrake (1992). Seen negatively, feminist spirituality is a healthy suspicion towards taken-for-granted cultural and religious views that limit women to 'traditional' roles of submission and passivity. Seen positively, feminist spirituality includes a vision of mutuality, respect and equality. Carr (1986) claims that both men and women can have a spirituality, which understands the wider dimensions of human oppression in relation to racism, classism, sexism and élitism. In the Christian context it could mean that an individual with a feminist spirituality could see God as a friend - male or female - rather than father or mother. Carr (1986) describes spirituality as an individual pattern yet shaped by the person's culture. Belzen (2004) agrees, saying that religion is a phenomenon on a cultural level and claims that anyone studying religion or spirituality must give full attention to the different forms of religion or spiritual traditions in which the individuals and/or groups are embedded. Carr (1986) further claims that spirituality is holistic and involves the total being of the person and because of its all-encompassing and pervasive qualities it is larger than theology or a set of values. This can be compared with the views by the Dalai Lama (1999) and Chatterjee (1997) mentioned earlier. Spirituality is the whole of a person's deepest beliefs and reaches into the unconscious or half-conscious depths and is thus deeply personal. This links well with Jung's (1933) view about spirituality and the collective unconscious. However, a person can consciously orient his/her spirituality towards the social contexts of everyday life as also suggested by Fox (1990). Spirituality is expressed in everything a person does and is influenced by family, teachers, friends, community, class, race, culture, sex, time in history, beliefs, intellectual positions and moral options (Carr, 1986). This is similar to Benner's (1992) view that spirituality is 'doing' and also encompasses the holistic model of the human being as illustrated in Fig, 6 (p.28). The importance of culture and history is followed up by Gloria Durka (1989) who looks at feminist spirituality in a historical context, particularly the cultures of three female Christian mystics: Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179; Hart & Bishop, 1990), Julian of Norwich (13421416) and Teresa of Avila (1515-1582). Not all historic writers were male as reported by Sheldrake (1992), although it appears that these three mystics were from the élite. All three had several things in common and Durka (1989) believes that their examples are useful to both men and women today. Among the similarities are an integrated spirituality where the 281

body and soul are cared for as parts of spiritual wellbeing, an understanding that spirituality is a part of the unique place in which the person lives, an understanding that spirituality is the value of living simply with an awareness of God who liberates people and that spirituality is 'companionhood for the second-half of life' (p. 40). This compares with Carr's (1986), Dalai Lama’s (1999) and Fox's (1990) views that spirituality is expressed in everything a person does. The conclusion on Christian spirituality is that it is a direct relationship with God as a numinous being, where the individual believer worships God in awe. It involves feelings such as compassion and love towards fellow human beings. For the Christian, spirituality is a part of life and as such must include all aspects of life like economics, relationships, politics, sexuality, and science. The Christian spiritual person strives towards selftranscendence, understanding of own unconscious and a unity with God, Jesus and the Holy Spirit, the Trinity, as the chosen belief. A.2.5 Judaism and spirituality. According to Smart (1996) the Christian, Jewish and Islamic religions are the only historical religions known to humankind. Smart (1996) gives the reader a brief history of Judaism from the days of Abraham (estimated to be around 19th century B.C.E.), to present days’ modern state of Israel. The tribes of Israel were originally called Hebrews, later they were called Israelites after the change of name that the patriarch Jacob was given by God, and the word Jew comes later from the tribe of Judah (NIV, 1985: Gen. 14,13 & 32,28 & 49,8-12, Deu. 33,7; Parrinder, 1982). The most important Jewish belief is that God, or Yahweh, is the only God, who is the creator ruling over all the earth, and as such must be worshipped and respected. God is a spiritual and numinous being, who is invisible and active everywhere, yet distant from his creation. (Britannica, 1988; Davidson, 1991; Levy, 1995; NIV, 1985, Ex. 20; Shulman, 1960; Smart, 1996). In Moses, whom Parrinder (1982) and Smart (1996) suggest is the founder of Judaism, the Hebrew people had a leader who led them out of slavery in Egypt around 1300 B.C.E. and into Canaan (Israel). This Exodus out of Egypt is called the Passover, which is one of the most important festivals in Jewish worship. During the Exodus God made a covenant with the Israelites with Moses as their spiritual and political leader. The covenant, of which the Ten Commandments are part, forms the basis for Jewish spirituality and beliefs, and is often 282

referred to as the Torah or the books of Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deutoronomy (Britannica, 1988; Josephus, 1890; Levy, 1995; NIV, 1985; Parrinder, 1982; Shulman, 1960). A broader definition of Torah is that it refers to the entire body of Jewish teaching (Levy, 1995) with Lawton (2003, p. 281) including the Talmud as a “compendium of Jewish knowledge”. Some of the Jewish Bible was written in Hebrew, some in Aramaic, and some in Greek. One of the more important archaeological finds in regard to Biblical texts was that of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which are the oldest known texts confirming many Biblical narratives, and supporting the writings of Flavius Josephus of Jewish history and early Christianity (Davies, 1956; Josephus, 1890; Parrinder, 1982; Smart, 1996). Two Jewish historians, Sabbah and Sabbah (2002) are questioning the claim that the Israelites were in fact slaves in Egypt. There is no evidence in Egyptian history of a whole foreign population leaving the country, and no evidence of anyone called Joseph, Abraham or Moses. There is, however, evidence of a group of people led by the two pharaohs, Akhenaten (thought to be Abraham) and Ramesses I (thought to be Moses) who left Egypt to settle in the Egypt province of Canaan. This group of people had a monotheistic belief contrary to the pantheistic beliefs of the remaining Egypt (Sabbah and Sabbah, 2002). The long and detailed history of the Jewish religion and people following Moses is well described both in the Old Testament section of the Bible (for example NIV, 1985), and by the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus (Josephus, 1890) and others, for example Britannica (1988), Eisenman (1996), Isaacson (1999), and Romer (1988). The Torah, as God's blueprint by which He created the world, gives specific guidelines and laws on how Jews must behave as individuals, and as a society (Levy, 1995). Levy (1995) states that the Torah addresses all of human needs and relationships by providing a structure, the mitzvot (commands /directives) and the halakha ("paths on which to walk"). The examples of everyday life where the Torah provides guidelines include food, clothes, education, visiting and caring for the sick, sexual relations, marriage, divorce, death, safety, pollution, waste, business and prayers. This is easily compared with Fox's (1990) view that Christian spirituality should encompass all areas of a person's life. Lawton (2003), Levy (1995), Isaacson (1999) and Silberman (2003) claim that to be responsible and caring in everyday life in regard to other people and the world God has created, the most important prerequisite is to show awareness of that which surrounds the individual, animate and inanimate objects alike. This corresponds with Nye and Hay's (1996) view that in a spiritual sense, awareness is to be attentive or conscious towards one's surroundings and activities. In Jewish teaching the believer says a blessing or prayer, brakha 283

(plural: brakhot), or an expression of praise whenever appropriate. Through the blessing the believer recognises God as the source of the blessings and challenges in life (Lawton, 2003; Levy, 1995; Rose, 1992). The brakhot most commonly used are said before and after meals, comparable to the grace said before meals in some Christian homes (Wulff, 1991). Brakhot are also used when a believer sees natural phenomena and beauty, or for good or bad occurrences (Levy, 1995). Another aspect of Jewish belief is the importance of keeping the Shabbat (Sabbath), which means 'to rest'. In the Torah, God commands the Jews to keep the seventh day of the week holy by worshipping him in a certain manner and doing no work (Levy, 1995; Isaacson, 1999; NIV, 1985, Ex. 20,8; Parrinder, 1982; Smart, 1996). According to Britannica (1988) there is no other known calendar where a seven-day week fits, and the notion of the Sabbath recurring every seventh day of the week on Saturdays is unique to ancient Israel, but is in use throughout the world today. Levy (1995) explains that the current understanding of the modern week-end has its origin in ancient Egypt where Moses suggested to Pharaoh that the Israelites as slaves should have every seventh day free from work so that they could rest and perform better the other days of the week. This explanation is a rather pragmatic one, and appears to have little spiritual influence. However, by resting and having time to reflect on life in general as well as on spiritual matters such as remembering that God is the creator of all and thus all have equal status before God, the Jewish believer is reminded that God is the only true master. The Sabbath was God's final act of creation (NIV, 1985, Gen. 2,2-3), and one Jewish scholar, Midrash, said 1500 years ago that on the seventh day God created "tranquillity, quietness, peace and calm" (in Levy, 1995, p. 86). On the Sabbath a Jew experiences a taste of the spirituality that is within each person, a taste of peace, calm, tranquillity, and freedom. A Jew observes the Sabbath by refraining from working and performing various tasks as prohibited in the Torah. But the Sabbath is also a time for reflection, prayer, study the Torah, and to reconnect with friends and family (Lawton, 2003; Levy, 1995). Levy (1995) further explains the importance of keeping the Sabbath holy. Believers, by not doing their own things on the Sabbath, create an awareness of who they are and what they should be doing according to God's law. Also, by not working on the Sabbath, the believers are reminded of how they should interact with the world on the other six days of the week (Levy, 1995). Another aspect of the Sabbath concerns the use of agricultural land. In ancient Israel the Jews were commanded by God to let every field lie fallow every seventh year (NIV, 1985, Ex. 32, 10-12). This command was given so that the land also had a Sabbath time or Shemitta in which to recover. Riskin (1992) tells us that the last time Israel had 284

Shemitta was in 1987, so it appears that this command may still be adhered to. The Shemitta also reminds believers that everything, including the land, was God-given and that humans only are stewards of his creation (Coward, 1995; Levy, 1995; Riskin, 1992). There are numerous other guidelines for worshipping God in the Jewish faith, for example the festivals of Passover (Lawton, 2003), Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. All are important festivals, and most are to a certain extent celebrated by all Jews, similar to how Easter and Christmas are celebrated in Christian communities by believers and nonbelievers alike. For the believing Jews these festivals have an important spiritual aspect in connecting them with God in an even deeper sense than observing the Sabbath does (Britannica, 1988; Rose, 1992; Smart, 1996). Jacobs (1986) states that prayer is a most important aspect of Jewish spirituality. The Jewish Shema Israel ('Hear O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is One') is recited twice a day, morning and evening (Jacobs, 1986; Wilson, 1984). Lawton (2003) describes an experience he had in India saying his morning prayers in a busy railway station. He claims that in his ‘little corner of the globe’ (i.e. as an English Jew, Lawton, [2003], p. 285) he had been led to believe that morning prayers were an eccentric minority activity, but at that railway station in India he witnessed many people of various religions saying their morning prayers. He says that it is a natural thing for human beings to get up and pray in the morning. Jacobs (1986) claims that Jewish spirituality is a mixture of personal inwardness and outward obedience of the Law. One example of Jewish Law is that of consuming food and the degree of ‘holiness’ of food, with food grown in the Land of Israel being on a higher level of holiness than food grown outside Israel (Randrup & Bagchi, 2006). Jacobs (1986, p. 494) mentions a Rabbinic concept kavannah as 'direction', as reflecting on the meaning of words, and "that prayer without kavannah is like a body without a soul". Steiner (1913) explains that in meditation one's thoughts are directed towards the divine, spiritual and cosmic forces. Perhaps kavannah in the Jewish spiritual tradition is meditation in the way Steiner explains it, or as in yoga as explained below in the Hindu and Buddhists beliefs. Levy (1995) shows in a table how many Jews there were in the Jewish world population in selected years since 48 C.E. (8 million) and 1990 (12.8 million), with the peak being in 1939 (18 million), and the drop during the Holocaust to 11.3 million in 1948. Smart (1996) says that contemporary Jewish theologians are struggling to make sense of this event in Jewish history, because Jews generally believe in an omnipotent God, who is good and shows social justice, and why then did God not prevent the Holocaust? However, it is a 285

concern to note the way that present day Israel is treating its neighbouring countries considering Israel’s own history of persecution. Both Israel and its neighbours express that they want peace, but actions from either side give the opposite message with the war in Lebanon and bombings in the Gaza strip (ABC TV and SBS TV news programs, July/August 2006, Jan/Feb 2007). Considering that there are approximately 7 billion people in the world, it is interesting to note that the spiritual beliefs of a relatively small number of Jews are considered to be a world religion. This is most likely due to the fact that Christianity - which is the most widespread single religion in the world - shares the Jewish history up to the time of Jesus (Britannica, 1988; Wilson, 1984; Zwartz, 2004). It might also be due to the fact that there are Jewish communities in almost every country in the world, including Australia (AusStats, 2003; Carey, 1996; Parrinder, 1982; Strahan, 2004). In conclusion Jewish spirituality encircles a believer's whole existence in remembering God and in caring for his creation. It is part of everyday life, socially, politically, environmentally and psychologically. The importance of the sabbath and prayer helps the believer in getting closer to God. A.2.6 Islam and spirituality. Islam is the youngest of the three Semitic faiths: Judaism, Christianity and Islam (Britannica, 1988; Parrinder, 1982; Smart, 1996; Zwartz, 2004). It was founded by the prophet Muhammad (570-632), who saw that the pagan ways of his contemporaries were against the revelations of God, or Allah, which he got while meditating in the hills near Mecca (Koran, 1930). These revelations were fairly soon compiled into the Qur'an (transliterated: Koran), the holy text of Islam (Ammar, 1995; Britannica, 1988; Kepel, 1997; Koran, 1930; Smart, 1996; Zimmermann, 1986; Zwartz, 2004). In Islamic worship of Allah, the Koran is always cited in Arabic, and all translations to other languages are considered to be incomplete interpretations of the poetic language of the original authorised text which was compiled around 660 C.E. This early complete compilation makes the Koran an unique holy text compared to other main religions' holy texts, because it was compiled and authorised while several of Muhammad's first followers were still able to verify the authenticity of the original revelations Muhammad received from God (Ammar, 1995; Parrinder, 1982; Smart, 1996). Muhammad was, in addition to being an important religious leader and prophet, also a 286

social and political reformer, who within very few years had taken rule of a large area of land on the Arabic Peninsula by means of jihad, holy war (Koran, 1930; Parrinder, 1982; Smart, 1996). The people in the countries won over appeared to prefer the Islamic rule rather that the rule of the previous kings, and within a relatively short time (approximately two centuries) Islam had spread from Spain and Africa to India and the Indonesian Islands (Smart, 1996). Currently Islamic communities can be found throughout the world with a concentration in the Middle East and Indonesia, with small communities throughout the Western World, including Australia (AusStats, 2003; Britannica, 1988; Carey, 1996; Davidson, 1991; Kato, 1999; Kepel, 1997, Smart, 1996; Zwartz, 2004). There are several Islamic denominations (Ernst, 2003), but, as with the section on Christianity, a specific denomination will only be mentioned if it is relevant to the discussion about spirituality. According to Ammar (1995) and Bennett (1997) the notion of political jihad is not as strong in Islam generally, as the notion of preserving Allah's creation is, as well as pursuing inner spiritual health. English (2003), an Australian Muslim, reports that many Muslims are strongly against the violent terrorism masked as jihad as was seen in New York on September 11, 2001, and in Bali in October, 2002 (ABC News; SBS News; 9/9/2003). Preserving Allah’s creation is done by means of using nature in a balanced manner, treating nature and its resources with kindness, by not abusing, damaging or distorting nature in any way, by sharing natural resources, and by conserving nature. This conservation is very much in line with Fox's (1990) view that in Christian spirituality a person must show compassion towards the whole planet in all areas, including environmental issues. The life and example of Muhammad as a prophet of Allah forms the basis of spirituality in Islam with specific rules of ethical and spiritual conduct laid down in the Koran (Ammar, 1995; Bennett, 1997; Britannica, 1988; Kepel, 1997; Koran, 1930; Parrinder, 1982; Smart, 1996; Zimmerman, 1986). Spirituality in Islam is considered a way of life, where the individual Muslim, a follower of Islam, is directly responsible to Allah in his or her everyday conduct of all aspects of life with no priesthood as intercessors (Ammar, 1995). The main importance is to adhere to the five pillars of Islam: regular repetition of the creed of Islam (La ilaha illa Allah: Muhammad rasul Allah = There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his Prophet), prayer, almsgiving, fasting, particularly in the holy month of Ramadan, and pilgrimage to Mecca, at least once in the person's lifetime (Britannica, 1988; Carey, 1996; Davidson, 1987; Smart, 1996). Bennett (1997) claims that upholding justice, ensuring a fair distribution of resources and caring for the handicapped or the disabled are just as important as obedience to prayer, fasting and pilgrimage. The dress code for some Muslims is an important statement of personal faith telling society that the spiritual beliefs 287

are important to the individual (English, 2003; Khadem, 2004). A very important spiritual act for a Muslim is prayer to Allah, which must happen at least five times every day: dawn, midday, afternoon, evening, and night (Koran, 1930, SURAH xvii v. 78). In Islamic countries the call for prayer comes from the muezzin in the mosque, and often this happens using loudspeakers with a recorded message (Giesenberg, 2002a). The Muslim must pray facing Mecca (Koran, 1930, SURAH ii v. 149) the correct direction being indicated by a niche in the wall in the mosque. Elsewhere the Muslim attempts to face Mecca as closely as possible, using a small prayer mat where one prays barefoot, and prostrates before Allah (Parrinder, 1982). The term 'Islam' means to surrender to the will of Allah (Britannica, 1988; O’Hagan, 2004; Smart, 1996). There are set prayers, there is a fixed order and they are usually recited in Arabic, which is considered to be a holy language. Therefore all translations of the Koran are considered to be interpretations, although the Muslim can use a translation of the Koran privately (Smart, 1996). Private prayers are often added to the regular prayers (Ammar, 1995; Parrinder, 1982). The rituals surrounding the Muslim's prayers make for an important interplay between the individual and Allah in a spiritual sense. Erikson (1977, in Wulff, 1991, p. 380) explains that ritualisation is "a deepened communality, a proven ceremonial form, and a timeless quality from which all participants emerge with a sense of awe and purification". By following the prayer rituals, as laid down in the Koran (1930), the Muslim is part of a worldwide community where the prayers are said simultaneously (Kepel, 1997; Parrinder, 1982). Ammar (1995) says that Islam is a strong religious and spiritual factor in the Muslim world. The Koran is considered to be the most important text and as such should be followed literally. Although Smart (1996) claims that Islam generally retains a fundamentalist attitude to its scriptures, there is still room for adjustments to the contextual setting of this century. Ammar (1995) suggests that Muslims should re-examine traditions carefully in order to determine how the Koran could guide, for example, the environmental dialogue in light of the religious and spiritual importance of Islam. Oman and Thoresen (2003) emphasise the power of spiritual modelling and say that Islam celebrates Mohammad as a “beautiful exemplar” (Koran, 1930, Surah, 33:21). As well as prayer, the other four pillars in Islam, almsgiving, fasting, pilgrimage and repetition of the Islamic creed, are also important factors of the Islamic faith and rituals. Smart (1996, p. 297) explains these as religious duties of the faithful, and that adherence to 288

these five pillars has resulted in a "remarkable cohesion of a movement that has never relied upon a hierarchy of organised priests". This cohesion appears to have resulted in a way of life where Islamic spirituality permeates the everyday life of the faithful. It is explained by Zimmerman (1986) as religion residing in the heart of the believer, thus parallelling Benner's (1992) view that spirituality is 'doing'. The faithful Muslim lives his or her faith in all that is said and done. Islamic spirituality appears not to be a private belief, although the believer often prays to Allah in privacy. It appears to be a total way of life, permeating all the believer does, privately, socially and politically. A.2.7 Hinduism and spirituality. Hinduism is according to Britannica (1988) the oldest known religion in the world with texts dating from 1500 B.C.E. Some may be even older, but are not yet deciphered (Britannica, 1988; Younger & Younger, 1978). The name 'Hinduism' is derived from the name of the river Indus in the North-Western part of the Indian subcontinent, and is a name that English writers gave the multi faceted religion of India around 1830 (Britannica, 1988; Klostermaier, 1995). According to Zwartz (2004) there are approximately 750 million Hindus in the world thus making it the third largest religion following Christianity and Islam. One of the main characteristics of Hinduism is that there are many gods and demigods, whom Hindus can worship (ABC TV (14/9/2003); Britannica, 1988; Cole, 1983; Duncan & Derrett, 1986b; Maharshi, 1972; Parrinder, 1982 & 1995; Younger & Younger, 1978). Stutley (1992) explains that Hinduism includes animism, polytheism, theism, magic, pantheism and even atheism, but that none of these exclusively represents Hinduism. Some of the most frequently mentioned gods are Shiva, Brahman and Vishnu, respectively the gods of destruction, creation and preservation. They form the Hindu trinity Trimurti 'the One or Whole with three forms' (Britannica, 1988; Younger & Younger, 1978). Other important deities in Hinduism are Sarasvati, the goddess of learning and Brahma's wife, Agni, the god of fire, Ganesha, the elephant-headed god who removes all obstacles, Hanuman, the monkey god, Indra, the warrior god, Kali, wife of Shiva, Parvati, another wife of Shiva, Kama, the god of love, Surya, the sun god, Skanda, Shiva's son, a warrior god, Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, Nara-Simha, another incarnation of Vishnu, and Kubera, the god of wealth (Britannica, 1988; Younger & Younger, 1978). Hinduism is a religion of tolerance, where a person can worship a god or gods as the situation requires. The Hindu can also have a dual faith, for example Christianity and 289

Hinduism simultaneously without the other religion affecting the Hindu beliefs (Britannica, 1988; Parrinder, 1982). It does not appear that Christianity is as tolerant. According to Smart (1996), for example, the three Semitic faiths have been alike in their distrust of compromising with religions whom they consider pagan. A Hindu does not necessarily practise pantheism (worship of many gods), but can chose which god/s to worship (Duncan & Derrett, 1986b; Miltenburg, 1990b). However, Klostermaier (1995) claims that Hinduism is becoming increasingly exclusivistic by distancing itself from religions like Christianity and Islam. Duncan and Derrett (1986b) say that Hindus find no particular value in monotheism, and that gods may be honoured indiscriminately, but at the same time they have a favourite deity on the principle that the deity will accept the offerings the individual brings. Worshipping a certain deity is to some extent a regional phenomenon where a god may be more popular in mountainous areas than on the river plains and vice-versa with major public festivals held regularly in the god's honour (Britannica, 1988; Cole, 1983; Younger & Younger, 1978). The personal worship of the god/s takes the form of prayer and sacrifices. In a Hindu home there is a shrine where an offering of food is placed daily, and before which the morning and evening prayers take place (Britannica, 1988; Cole, 1983; Parrinder, 1982; Younger & Younger, 1978). The Gayatri mantra, prayed in the morning, is considered to be the most important prayer addressed to the sun in gratitude for removal of darkness and which is praying for spiritual stimulation for the day (Britannica, 1988; Khadke, 1983). Festivals, fasts and rituals are important forms of social worship, each with their own particular ways of acknowledging a god's specific area of life (Britannica, 1988; Cole, 1983; Klostermaier, 1995; Parrinder, 1982; Younger & Younger, 1978). According to Khadke (1983) children are taught about OM, the symbol of a god who is omnipotent and omnipresent and watchful. One can deceive fellow humans, but a person cannot deceive oneself or god, because OM is aware of what goes on in a person's mind and keeps account of all deeds and actions (refer to Karma discussed later in this section, 2.3.6). Parrinder (1995) says that this omnipotent and omnipresent god is Brahman as told about in the holy text Upanishad. There are several holy texts in Hinduism, for example the Upanishad, Brhadaranyaka, Chandogya, Rigveda, and Bhagavadgita (Britannica, 1988; Cole, 1983; Parrinder, 1982 & 1995; Smart, 1996; Younger & Younger, 1978). The believer may recite texts individually and worship the patron deity through personal meditation and yoga, or in social worship in the temple with the Brahmin (priest) as intermediary, or at big festivals, although visible signs of religiosity are not necessary (Duncan & Derrett, 1986b). 290

Hinduism is, as well as being a personal belief in the variety of gods, also a social system of initially four classes, varna. These originally four classes (priests, noblemen, merchants and farmers, and servers) may have developed to the present social systems of nearly 3000 castes, of which groups are regional, and into which a person is born. Each birth group, jati, within a caste has its own social rules of marriage, ritual, taboo, totemism and occupational differentiation with the highest caste being priests (Bhagavadgita, 1993; Britannica, 1988; Cole, 1983; Parrinder, 1982, Younger & Younger, 1978). According to Duncan and Derrett (1986b) Hinduism now accepts converts to their religion where it is no longer necessary to be born into a hereditary caste. The caste system forms an important part of Hindu spirituality and the belief in Karma, which has been parallelled with fatalism (Britannica, 1988). Karma is the belief that according to one's good conduct a person will in the next life be reborn in a higher caste, or maybe even as a god. Correspondingly, a person may be born into a lower caste or as an animal. Samsara is the endless cycle of birth, death and rebirth, and time in Hindu belief is seen as a circle, not linear as in Western thought (Stutley, 1992). In the Upanishad the sage Yajnya-valkya says that one becomes good by good action, bad by bad action, i.e. the law of Karma = action (Coward, 1995; Parrinder, 1995), and with the god OM keeping account of various deeds and actions (Khadke, 1983). The Hindu fears rebirth into a lower caste, and is constantly striving for a rebirth as a god living in Nirvana in peace. There one is released from impurity and ignorance. Nirvana could be explained as the Hindu and Buddhist equivalent to the Christian, Jewish and Muslim belief of heaven (Parrinder, 1982, 1995; Zwartz, 2004). Once in Nirvana the Hindu's soul may be born again in an earthly being, man or animal according to one's personal store of good deeds. To reach Nirvana, a believer must consistently follow the path of eight steps: right understanding, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration (Younger & Younger, 1978). The strongest spiritual belief in Hinduism is that everyone has an indestructible soul with the person's name (Parrinder, 1995), which is the part that is reborn either as a god, a person or an animal according to Karma (Britannica, 1988; Coward, 1995; Duncan & Derrett, 1986b; Maharshi, 1972; Miltenburg, 1990; Parrinder, 1982 & 1995; Younger & Younger, 1978). One Hindu sect, the Jains, believe that inanimate objects such as rocks, water, air and plants have a soul and that one can be reincarnated as a rock or a plant (Britannica, 1988; Coward, 1995; Klostermaier, 1995; Parrinder, 1982). The consequence of this belief would be that people should treat animals, plants and humans with equal respect and dignity. 291

The law of Karma, as explained by Cerminara (1967) and Coward (1995), maintains that every time a believer performs an action or thinks, a memory trace is laid down in that person's soul, in the unconscious. So good deeds or thoughts leave good memory traces, whereas bad deeds or thoughts leave bad memory traces. Each has corresponding impulses to repeat the actions in later similar situations. However, the believer has the free will to choose which action to take, good or bad, the next time a similar situation arises. By suppressing bad impulses the memory trace dies, and by repeating good deeds a reinforced memory trace is formed, thereby giving the believer a stronger basis for a higher rebirth in the next life, maybe as a Brahmin (priest) or even as a god. With the memory traces in the soul from many previous lives, each person has a huge store of ideas, impulses, desires to do good or bad, which are controlled by the free will. Some of these memory traces can result in physical or psychological disorders in future lives as described by Cerminara (1967). The individual person’s free will can then choose an action which will improve that person’s Karma. Parrinder (1995) claims, that in accepting the Hindu law of Karma, the believer therefore also accepts that a soul is indestructible. Coward (1995) further explains that once a person is reborn as a god at the highest level, there is a catch: the believer will be reborn as a person once the store of good deeds is spent. Correspondingly, the believer will be reborn as an animal due to the evil actions one may have done during a human lifetime, but when the store of evil actions is used, the next rebirth will be that of a person with the free choice to do good actions (Coward, 1995). Coward (1995, p. 7) illustrates the law of Karma figuratively as a ladder:

This figure is not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library

Fig. A1: The ladder of Karma (Coward, 1995, p. 7) 292

There is also importance placed on knowledge about life in general (Younger & Younger, 1978). Knowledge is obtained by regular education and by meditating about life in general or specific things through yoga (Britannica, 1988; Duncan & Derrett, 1986b; Prabhupada, 1990; Rinpoche, 1992; Younger & Younger, 1978) and through the teaching of the holy texts, either written or orally (Britannica, 1988; Cole, 1983; Khadke, 1983). Yoga (meaning union or one-ness, [Kent, 1992]) is a specific method of meditation where the believer clears the consciousness of all disturbing factors and concentrates on a specific text or a mantra. Younger and Younger (1978) explain that the consciousness gets entangled with the world and cannot flee this entanglement unless the person exercises mastery over the body, breathing and thoughts in the various forms of yoga, where the soul is temporarily liberated (Jacobi, 1980). The beliefs in Karma, samsara, caste and the deities, and the daily prayers and practice of yoga, indicate that the Hindu religion is a complete way of life influencing diet, occupation, sex roles, ethical conduct, ritual practices and beliefs. Hindu spirituality is a culture strongly intertwining religious practices and social beliefs. Hindu spirituality is 'doing' and living the beliefs of Karma with the help of preferred deities in everyday life in the hope of obtaining an even better existence in the next life. A.2.8.

Buddhism and spirituality.

The founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gotama, lived in North India in the 6th century B.C.E. He knew the Hindu holy texts of his day, but in his secluded and protected environment as a prince he only met the reality of life and suffering of mankind at the age of 29 years. He left his luxurious lifestyle and went out to seek the truth on how to relieve mankind from suffering. He met several traditional religious teachers, but did not find any solutions to his questions about the absolute truth Nirvana. One evening after six years of wandering he sat down under a tree and resolved that he would not wander any further, but would let truth come to him. Gotama attained Enlightenment Buddha under that bodhi tree 'The Tree of Wisdom'. He was from then on known as Buddha Gotama, and started teaching his first group of five followers. For the next 40-45 years he went around in India teaching anyone who would care to listen about the truth as he saw it founding an order of monks who lived according to his teachings. He never claimed to be a god, nor did he claim to possess any divine powers (Britannica, 1988; Parrinder, 1982; Rahula, 1978; Shearer, 1992; Smith, 2002). Buddhism is found in various forms throughout Asia with the most widely known schools being the Tibetan Buddhism with the Dalai Lama (1996; 1999; Wijers, 1990) as the spiritual leader, and Shinto and Zen Buddhism with followers mainly in Japan 293

(Ama, 2005; Britannica, 1988; Suzuki & Oiwa, 1996). Carey (1996) and Roof (1994) say that there are Buddhists in many Western countries as well with 1.9% of the Australian population being Buddhists (AusStats, 2003; Strahan, 2004). This figure is higher than the number of adherents of the Christian denomination Baptists in Australia (Burke, 2004). According to Rahula (1978), Shearer (1992) and Smith (2002), Buddha means The Enlightened One. Anyone who wishes to become a Buddha has within himself or herself the potentiality to do so, and by claiming to be a Buddhist, one is simply one (Rahula, 1978). In Buddhism a believer has complete freedom to seek the path to Nirvana. To help one along the path, Buddha taught several principles, for example The Four Noble Truths, The Noble Eightfold Path, The Five Aggregates, The Seven Factors of Enlightenment, and The Five Hindrances (Britannica, 1988; Dalai Lama, 1996; Parrinder, 1982; Rahula, 1978; Smith, 2002). The principles mentioned are listed and discussed below. The four noble truths are briefly that 1) suffering exists, 2) there is an origin of suffering, 3) there is a cessation of suffering, and 4) there exists a path to that cessation: the noble eightfold path (Jinpa, 1996, in Dalai Lama, 1996; Smith, 2002). Rahula (1978) and Nelson-Jones (2004) explain suffering as referred to in the first noble truth to be in any human part of life: birth, ageing, sickness, sorrow, pain, grief, and in not getting what one wants. The Pali (sacred language of Buddhist texts) word for suffering dukkha also means imperfection, impermanence, emptiness or insubstantiality. Therefore the term can also be used in situations which are commonly seen as happy, such as family life, sense pleasure and spiritual experiences, but which are impermanent and relative to what other happenings occur in a person's life. Therefore they are also dukkha (Rahula, 1978; Shearer, 1992; Smith, 2002). The second noble truth concerning the origin of suffering says that suffering comes from the negative mental states of people thirsting, craving or greedily wanting things or conditions for themselves (Britannica, 1988; Rahula, 1978; Shearer, 1992). Rahula (1978) says that in Buddhist belief all personal, economic, political and social problems arise from this selfish 'thirst'. The third noble truth is that this suffering, dukkha, will cease by finding Nirvana, which in Buddhist thinking means to blow out or to eliminate and which is often explained as a person finding personal enlightenment. Nirvana is the absolute truth where desire, hatred and illusion are extinguished, and where there is freedom from all evil, craving, hatred and 294

ignorance (Britannica, 1988, Duncan & Derrett, 1986a; Rahula, 1978; Shearer, 1992). However, the end of suffering is difficult to explain in language. Buddha himself said that people get stuck in words as an elephant gets stuck in mud (Shearer, 1992), and Rahula (1978) claims that language is considered to be deceptive and misleading when it comes to explaining Truth. The fourth noble truth is the path which the believer must walk to find Nirvana, i.e. The Noble Eightfold Path. This path is almost identical to the Hindu belief (Younger & Younger, 1978) about how a person reaches Nirvana. In Buddhism the noble eightfold path is divided into the three major areas of Wisdom: 1) right understanding, 2) right thought, Morality: 3) right speech, 4) right action, 5) right livelihood, and Joy: 6) right effort, 7) right mindfulness and 8) right meditation (Britannica, 1988; Rahula, 1978; Shearer, 1992; Smith, 2002; Zwartz, 2004). Smith’s (2002) book is divided into eight chapters, with an individual chapter dealing with one aspect of the Noble Eightfold path as listed above. The path to Nirvana concerns every part of a person's life: how one understands and perceives the world, one's thoughts, negative and positive, and knowing what to say and when to say it, as it is more important to be aware of what comes out of a person's mouth than what goes into it (Shearer, 1992; Smith, 2002). It is more important to keep a noble silence, if one cannot say something useful (Rahula, 1978). In regard to right action, the Buddha taught the Five Precepts (Shearer, 1992, Smith, 2002): 1) not intentionally take life, including the slaughter or hunting of an animal for food, 2) not take anything unless it is freely given, 3) not indulge in irresponsible sexual behaviour, 4) not speak falsely, abusively or maliciously, and 5) not misuse intoxicants that dull mindfulness. These five precepts are important in observing one's karma. Right livelihood concerns the way a person earns a living, and also the way a nation functions. For example it is not permissible according to Buddha to earn a living producing and trading in arms (Rahula, 1978). The area of joy in the noble eightfold path concerns right effort, mindfulness and meditation. The right effort includes awareness of one's habits and change, and to be able to laugh at oneself. The believer must cultivate this awareness of what one is doing, thinking and feeling any time through being mindful, for example in practising yoga (Rahula, 1978; Shearer, 1992; Smith, 2002). This meditation technique is part of right meditation, the last aspect of the noble eightfold path, which Shearer (1992) compares with Christian prayer life. Rahula (1978) explains that the Buddhist ethical and moral conduct, as outlined in the noble eightfold path above, aims at promoting a happy and harmonious life for everyone. This conduct is the basis for all higher spiritual developments, and such development cannot take 295

place without this moral basis. The Dalai Lama (1996, 1999) says that there is in everyone an inherent seed of perfection or enlightenment, and that it manifests itself in a human capacity for empathy. This seed could perhaps be compared to Montessori's (1949) theory of a 'spiritual embryo', or Steiner's (1913) 'drop of the divine' mentioned in sections 2.5.3 and 2.5.4, or the central spiritual core of a person as illustrated in Fig. 1. But according to the Dalai Lama (1996) it is not enough to possess this seed. To help the seed grow, the individual needs the assistance of a teacher or guru. The Dalai Lama further explains that in Christianity this guru is Jesus. In Buddhism the guru can be a monk from the local temple. It is common, for example in Thailand, that boys and young men spend several months each year in a monastery receiving Buddhist education (Shearer, 1992). In Buddhist meditation the believer may also think about the Five Hindrances which are in the way of a person's progress towards Nirvana: 1) lustful desires, 2) ill-will, hatred or anger, 3) torpor and languor, 4) restlessness and worry, and 5) sceptical doubts (Rahula, 1978, Smith, 2002). When possible the believer must act so the effects of these hindrances are minimised. Rahula (1978) and Smith (2002) also suggest that the Seven Factors of Enlightenment, the Bojjhanga, are worthy to meditate over as well as practising the virtues mentioned. The seven factors are: 1) mindfulness, both physical and mental, 2) investigate various problems and doctrines, including religion and philosophy, 3) energy to work on a task with determination to the end, 4) express joy as a contrast to pessimism, gloom and melancholy, 5) relaxation regularly of both body and mind, 6) concentration at any task, and 7) equanimity as in facing life with a calm mind and tranquillity. Yoga is the meditation technique used to develop mental concentration. It is used in both Hinduism and Buddhism (Shearer, 1992; Smith, 2002; Younger & Younger, 1978). The believer aims for perfect mental health. Rahula (1978) describes a second meditation technique leading to complete liberation of the mind, where the believer learns to examine personal states of mind (for example sadness or happiness) as an observer and to analyse what actions should be taken if necessary. Smith (2002) describes meditation techniques used in Tibetan and Zen Buddhism, some of which are similar to the yoga techniques used in Hinduism. Some people are fortunate enough to observe perfect physical health for many years, but perfect mental health is a rarity among people generally (Crow, 2000; Nelson-Jones, 2004; Rahula, 1978). The perfect human being in Buddhism shows a prevalence of impartiality, 296

ongoing alertness and calm delight in all kinds of experience, strong feelings of compassion and loving-kindness, quick and accurate perception, composure, and skill in taking action (Dalai Lama, 1999; Goleman, 1980). The primary mental factors in classical Buddhist psychology, Abhidhamma, are listed by Goleman (1980) as opposites in two groups: the Perceptual/cognitive group: Delusion vs. Insight, False view vs. Mindfulness, Shamelessness vs. Modesty, Remorselessness vs. Discretion, Egoism vs. Confidence, Perplexity vs. Rectitude, and the Affective group: Agitation vs. Composure, Greed vs. NonAttachment, Aversion vs. Non-Aversion, Envy vs. Impartiality, Avarice vs. Buoyancy, Worry vs. Pliancy, Contraction vs. Efficiency, and Torpor vs. Proficiency. According to Goleman (1980) and Crow (2000) healthy and unhealthy factors tend to come in groups. According to Buddhist psychology and medicine the presence of any one of the unhealthy factors results in that person being unhealthy. By having insight and mindfulness, the other healthy factors tend to arise (Crow, 2000; Goleman, 1980). Insight and mindfulness are obtained through right meditation (see '8' in the noble eightfold path described above) particularly yoga and other action described by karma. Karma, as good and/or bad actions, is in both Buddhism and Hinduism considered important. In Hinduism a person's actions have influence on the person's next life in reincarnation, whereas in Buddhism a person's actions influence the whole situation the person is in at any one time, as well as possibly influencing the surroundings. The Dalai Lama (in Wijers, 1990; 1999) claims that to change an external situation a person must first change within by getting a vision of how the situation could improve. The vision must first emerge in the person's mind, with mind being an important part of Buddhist belief. Rahula (1978) and Crow (2000) explain the Buddhist perception of a human as five aggregates comprising a person, where 'mind' is part of the physical aggregate, with each aggregate having six corresponding elements. Table A1 shows these relationships: PHYSICAL, FORM MENTAL, FEELING PERCEPTION

VOLITIONAL ACTION, INTELLECT CONSCIOUSN ESS

eye

nose

tongue

body

ear

Mind

6 sense organs

vision

odour

taste

touch

sound

6 senses

e.g. recognise colour looks

smells

sweet/ sour/ spicy etc

recognise s sounds

smells

tastes, eats

proprioception & kinaesthetic feels, touches

Thoughts/ ideas Understandin g/ cognition

listens

Thinks contemplates

6 groups: total 52 activities

olfactory

gustatory

tactile

auditory

Mental

6 types of consciousness

visual

6 types of perception

Table A.1: The Buddhist view of a human being: A constantly changing combination of elements and aggregates. 297

A person consists of these aggregates and elements and according to Buddhist thinking, "I" or "self" is only a convenient way of labelling all these elements. They are constantly changing and are impermanent (Rahula, 1978; Nelson-Jones, 2004; Smith, 2002). Because of this constant changing there is nothing that can be called a permanent self, and therefore there is no "soul" which will live again after death (Rahula, 1978; Shearer, 1992) as understood by Hindu, Christian, Jewish and Islamic religions. Buddha also taught that "nothing exists in and of itself, but requires everything to be what it is" (Coward, 1995, p. 9). Thus everything is important in itself, and everything co-exists, preferably in harmony with one another (Coward, 1995; Rahula, 1978; Shearer, 1992). The Buddhist universe is one of interconnectedness, and it goes on forever without a supervising God according to inner laws (Coward, 1995). Death is seen as a stage in a Buddhist person's life and the universe, where the elements of a person are reborn consistently and continuously (Britannica, 1988; Coward, 1995; Dalai Lama, 1996; Parrinder, 1995; Rahula, 1978; Shearer, 1992; ). A person's ultimate goal is to reach Nirvana where no further rebirth takes place. Only very few people have reached Nirvana, among these Buddha Gotama himself (Parrinder, 1995). Rahula (1978) maintains that Buddha taught that Nirvana cannot be explained, because it is the ultimate truth or the great death of emptiness, which, according to Wilber (1980), is the final stage of consciousness development. Coward (1995) says that Nirvana is like the wind: one can feel it, but cannot see it or point to it. As mentioned earlier, Buddha never claimed to be a God, nor did he claim to possess any divine powers. Nevertheless, in due course Buddha became a highly revered being who is celebrated and worshipped throughout the Buddhist world (Coward, 1995; Dalai Lama, 1996; Parrinder, 1982 & 1995; Rahula, 1978; Shearer, 1992; Smith, 2002). There are three important festivals: commemoration of Buddha's birth, the date of his Enlightenment under the bodhi tree, and the date of his death (Britannica, 1988). There are shrines built to Buddha's memory and believers go on pilgrimages to places of importance in Buddha's life. Some shrines and temples claim to have relics from the tree under which Buddha sat, others claim to have parts of his ashes (Shearer, 1992). Parrinder (1982) says that Buddhist worship generally is private, either in the home or at the temple or the shrine. According to Rahula (1978) Buddha himself taught that a believer should worship the six cardinal points of the heavens: east - parents; south - teachers; west - wife, husband; north - friends, relatives, neighbours; nadir - servants, workers, employees; and zenith - religious men. As with everything Buddha taught there are specific guidelines in regard to each point of 298

worship, and there appears to be no point of reference for prayer as understood in religions that have deities. From the discussion it can be observed that Buddhism is concerned with the believer's total being, both mentally and physically. Buddhist spirituality is seen as an integral part of the believer's everyday life, with guidelines regarding all aspects of life. There is no deity to worship, but the Buddhist must adhere to the four noble truths which are the truths that form the basis for all further Buddhist conduct in life. A.2.9 Taoist Spirituality. Taoism is one of China’s three major religions: Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism. Confucianism and Taoism have almost contemporary origins (about 2500-2600 years ago) with a similar view of nature, a respect for human nature and a belief that human beings have an innate predisposition to goodness (Britannica, 1988; Tao, 2003). Neither Taoism nor Confucianism were originally religions with deities to worship, rather they were originally life-guiding philosophies guiding everyday life (Cooper, 1992; Palmer, 1998). Confucius was a scholar born in China in 551 B.C.E. He was a bureaucratic state official advocating strongly for legal rules and regulations, and that people should conform to these and adhere to the hierarchy of the day. He saw five relationships, which regulate moral behaviour and give everyone a place in society. The five relationships are between father and son, husband and wife, older and younger brother, ruler and subject, and friend and friend. Confucius supported these relationships and the governing laws and was seen very much as a spokesman for strong government (Fischer-Schreiber, 1996; Smith, 1974; Tao, 2003). These relationships are still very strong in everyday Chinese life (Bloomfield, 1983).

In contrast, Taoism rejects government as Confucius saw it. Everything can live in spontaneous harmony with nature without interference from anyone and without excessive use of technology (Britannica, 1988; Foster, 1987). Taoism is based on the definition of the term Tao which is a term meaning the way, the ultimate Way of the Universe (Palmer, 1998) or the Teaching the human behaviour and laws (Fischer-Schreiber, 1996). Tao is everywhere. It is that which fills the whole space, it is the breath to everything, but asks nothing back (Palmer, 1998; Tao Tch Ching, 2003). The main text of Taoism Tao-te Ching (or Tao Tch Ching, 2003) was written by Lao-Tzu, who was a scholar and archivist at the court of the Chinese king Chou around 6th-5th century B.C.E. 299

Lao-Tzu was asked by a

gatekeeper, Yin Hsi, at a mountain pass to write down his thoughts about The Way, before leaving China never to be heard of again (Britannica, 1988; Fischer-Schreiber, 1996; Palmer, 1998; 2001). Another major Taoist text is Chuang-Tzu’s writings with the same name. In this text Chuang-Tzu describes meetings between Lao-Tzu and Confucius, as well as giving philosophical advice for a person’s private life (Britannica, 1988; Cooper, 1992; Fischer-Schreiber, 1996). A third major Taoist text is written by Lieh-Tzu, a Taoist recluse, who advocates that each individual should value self and despise wealth and power, not sacrificing even a single hair to save anything or anyone (Fischer-Schreiber, 1996).

Tao, as the way of life, is the overarching philosophy guiding Taoist belief. It is sometimes described as the empty centre of a hub (Britannica, 1988), easily comparable with the model of the human with spirituality in the centre of the person (Fig 6, p.28). Tao existed prior to anything, but cannot be described as “God”, because this term is too restrictive (Cooper, 1992). Nothing can produce Tao, but Tao is in everything. Perhaps this could be the ‘spiritual embryo’ as Montessori (1936) suggests every child has. In Tao Tch Ching, 42, (2003), Tao splits into two which are Yin

Fig A.2: Yin and Yang with the embryo of the other within each.

and Yang. They are symbols of absolute balance with Yin symbolising the female, creative, dark and wet power of things, and Yang symbolising the male, expansive, bright and dry side of things. They are total opposites which complement each other and are graphically viewed as a circle with each half carrying within it the seed or the embryo of the other. They cannot be separated, and must always be in balance. All dualisms or pairs of opposites are within yin and yang, and in a harmonious world all such dualisms are in perfect balance representing cyclic revolution and dynamism (Bloomfield, 1983; Britannica, 1988; Cooper, 1992; Fischer-Schreiber, 1996; Macmanaway, 2001; Palmer, 1998; 2001). Neither yin nor yang is better than the other; they simply are (Palmer, 1998). There must be an ongoing change and transformation of these complementary energies, and always in balance (Britannica, 1988).

In 215 C.E. Taoism was officially recognised as a religion with Lao-Tzu advancing to a god around 140 C.E. (Britannica, 1988). With this there is a belief in pantheism with the various gods having different tasks to fulfil. Three of the main ones are T’ien-kuan, ruler of Heaven, 300

Ti-kuan, ruler of Earth, and Shui-kuan, ruler of Water. They respectively bestow wealth and good luck, forgive sins and transgressions, and help overcome obstacles. All three keep records of people’s good and evil deeds (Fischer-Schreiber, 1996). Palmer (1998) describes the Zhongyue Temple in the Henan Province, in which seventy-two statues of deities stand, each with the task of judging humanity for wicked crimes against nature: One punishes those who pollute water, those who kill animals for pleasure, those who trap birds, those who cut down ancient trees, those who destroy habitats for no good reason, etc. Palmer (1998) does not indicate which punishments these judges or deities can inflict. Perhaps each religion should have similar judges for crimes against nature!

There is a triad of Heaven (Yang), Earth (Yin), and humanity (both yin and yang) with ch’i as the life-giving primal breath (Britannica, 1988; Fischer-Schreiber, 1996; Palmer, 1998). Ch’i was released into the world at the death of Pan Ku when the chicken egg of chaos separated into yin (=earth) and yang (=heaven). Pan Ku worked hard to fill the barren earth with landscapes whilst growing all the time to fill the space between heaven and earth. One day he collapsed and died worn out by his labour, and life ch’i came (Fischer-Schreiber, 1996; Palmer, 1998). Pan Ku’s flesh became the soil, his hair the plants, his blood the waters, and his breath the wind and rain. Humanity evolved from the parasites on Pan Ku’s bottom (Kauffman, 1975; Palmer, 1998)! But due to Pan Ku’s death, everything has ch’i. Once a person’s store of ch’i, given at birth, is used up, the person dies. Ch’i is the life energy used in meditation so the believer can purify the self. Fischer-Schreiber (1996, p. 17) quotes the Taoist alchemist Ko Hung that “ch’i is in man, and man is in ch’i. . . Anyone who knows how to allow his ch’i to circulate will preserve himself.” There are several schools of thought in regard to preserving one’s ch’i, some of which claim that immortality is possible, if the believer can control ch’i (Britannica, 1988; Fischer-Schreiber, 1996).

Dragons are important in most Chinese beliefs – not only in Taoism (Bloomfield, 1983; Britannica, 1988). Macmanaway (2001) describes ways in which an individual can locate such mythical dragons in one’s surroundings and use their energies to obtain better health. The dragon king/s Lung-wang have jurisdiction over rain and funerals, and during droughts they are called on to produce rain. In Taoism there are various types of Lung-wang: the celestial dragon king, the dragon kings of the four oceans, and the dragon kings of the five cardinal points (Fischer-Schreiber, 1996). Bloomfield (1983) describes various festivals in which dragons play important parts bringing good luck and prosperity. These dragons are 301

always richly decorated and carried at the front of processions.

Nature is very important in Taoist belief. There must be solidarity between nature and man, and a reverence between the five agents, phases or powers: water, fire, wood, metal and earth (Britannica, 1988; Palmer, 2001). Man is seen as a microcosm of the universe having five organs corresponding with five holy mountains and the five directions in the universe: North, East, South, West and Nadir. Each of these has their own dragon king as described above. There are 360 articulations of the blood stream corresponding with the days of the year, perhaps also with the degrees around the compass. The body is inhabited by the same gods as the macrocosm of the universe, particularly those gods who live on the sacred mountains (Fischer-Schreiber, 1996).

The believer sees superior virtue as the perfect

activity which leaves no tracks, and that civilisation is considered to be a degradation of the natural order of things. One must live in perfect harmony or balance with nature, preferably through observing wu-wei which means non-action or non-interference (Britannica, 1988; Cooper, 1992; Lao-Tzu, 2003; Palmer, 1998, 2001; Tao, 2003). Wu-wei is a belief that one should work without effort, anxiety and complication. In doing so, one does not work against nature, but with it, thus achieving natural and spontaneous development (Tao, 2003). The principle of wu-wei also advocates that though there are weapons, there should be no occasion to display those (Foster, 1987). Lao-Tzu (Tao, 2003; Tao Tch Ching, 2003: Chapter 57) recommends that to govern well, the ruler should “...take no action, and people are reformed. I [the ruler] enjoy peace and people become honest. I do nothing and people become rich. I have no desires and people return to the good and simple life”. The ideal Taoist society is a small agrarian community where each person is an individual caring for nature and through discussions among all the people in that community governing it together without any need for laws and restrictions (Tao, 2003). Wu-wei never means absolute non-action, but rather a form of action that is free of any desires, intentions or motivation (Fischer-Schreiber, 1996).

Disease is in Taoism seen as punishment for evil deeds, but by using flame and smoke from an incense burner, one can submit petitions to the appropriate bureau of the Taoist heavens. There is a long list of generals and officials who have specific areas of complaints to look after; each could marshal the celestial forces against the offending demons (Britannica, 1988; Fischer-Schreiber, 1996). This could perhaps be a Confucian influence in belief in bureaucracy. One can also obtain healing through meditation and fasting to eliminate the 302

five corpses of impure energy found in the five organs. These impure energies reduce a person’s life span and thereby shorten the life giving ch’i (Fischer-Schreiber, 1996). Taoist belief uses alchemy where spiritual beings help the faithful in changing cinnabar powder (mercuric sulphide) into gold to make vessels from which one eats and drinks, thus increasing one’s life-span (Britannica, 1988; Crow, 2000; Fischer-Schreiber, 1996). Through various breathing techniques the believer creates a new being – a sacred embryo – which is synonymous with the Western idea of a soul. This embryo leaves the body at the time of death and is often illustrated as a golden flower symbolising that the dead person has attained enlightenment. The goal of alchemy is to become one with the Tao by balancing one’s personal yin and yang (Fischer-Schreiber, 1996). One has to accept that life and death are two parts of a cyclical phase (Britannica, 1988). In addition, healing can be had by following nature through wu-wei, or the vast knowledge of natural medicine in herbs, minerals and animal matters (Britannica, 1988; Crow, 2000; Fischer-Schreiber, 1996; Macmanaway, 2001).

An important part of Taoist belief is that the perfect believer has identified one’s life rhythm so completely with the forces of nature that one is indistinguishable from these forces, and shares immortality and infinity, i.e. has become pure spirit, a hsien (Britannica, 1988). To attain this stage, the Taoist believer observes various stages and phases, ranging from simple pacifying of the mind to the highest stage of spiritual realisation. Briefly they consist of five periods: 1) Mind is restless and moving, 2) Mind begins to settle, 3) Calm and movement is in balance: yin and yang, 4) Mind is calm and only rarely moves, 5) Mind is totally still in meditation; and seven time spans: 1) Worry and sorrow subsides as the believer realises Tao, 2) The believer’s body becomes supple, and the mind at peace, possessing supernatural powers, 3) The believer is assured of a long life and becomes a hsien, 4) The believer purifies his body and perfects breathing, the ch’i, 5) Energy is purified and spirit is perfected in becoming a saint, 6) Mind is purified and brought into harmony with all forms reaching the level of a perfect human being, 7) The believer passes beyond all rites and rules and is free of all motivation, the highest realisation in Taoist practice (Fischer-Schreiber, 1996). As in Hinduism and Buddhism there are ways of meditation and physical stances to observe in meditation, similar to yoga. Some of these physical meditation techniques are used in martial arts (Cooper, 1992).

The Taoist lives his [sic] religion in everyday life through observance of wu-wei, the non303

action in which no-one can get hurt through inadvertently doing the wrong thing. The believer lives spontaneously with nature and resists unnecessary government and rules. Everything must be in balance with nature: yin and yang, including what one eats, drinks and does. Through meditation and observance of the Tao one will eventually reach immortality which is the highest attainment possible.

A.2.10 Aboriginal spirituality. The following discussion of Australian Aboriginal spirituality mainly describes the beliefs held by Aborigines living in 'traditional' hunter gatherer communities. However, many contemporary Aborigines have maintained their unique spirituality despite their dramatic and tragic history following European settlement in 1788 (Brennan, 1998; Carey, 1996; Charlesworth, 1997; Clark, 1986; Cowan, 1992a & 1992b; Lawlor, 1991; Mountford, 1981; Stockton, 1995; Swain, 1991).2 The history describing Australian Aboriginal spiritual beliefs has in the first 100 years of European settlement been characterised by anthropologists, settlers and explorers as there is no religion among Aborigines (Carey, 1996; Charlesworth, 1997; Swain, 1991). This conviction had its basis in the fact that there were no visible man-made places for worship, there appeared to be no specific Supreme Being, whom the Aborigines worshipped, and there appeared to be only magical rites, which were seen to be at a lesser stage in the evolutionary theory of the development of human beings (Charlesworth, 1997). The Aborigines also had very little material possessions, no particular building skills as compared to the European way of building, as well as no developed agriculture. This was in accordance with Darwin's theory of evolution regarded as a deficiency and a proof that this population group was at a lesser developed stage than the European settlers, who saw themselves as bringing civilisation to a population of uncivilised natives (Carey, 1996; Charlesworth, 1997; Clark, 1986; Lawlor, 1991; Swain, 1994). It has only been in the past 100 years that anthropologists and missionaries realised that Aborigines have very detailed and highly sophisticated religious beliefs which govern all aspects of life (Carey, 1996; Charlesworth, 1997; Hume, 2002; Lawlor, 1991; Swain, 1994). One of the earliest and most detailed descriptions of Aboriginal beliefs was T.G.H. Strehlow's (1971, in Carey, 1996; in A2 Only Australian Aboriginal beliefs and spirituality will be discussed in this literature review. The spirituality of other indigenous groups such as Inuits, North American Indians, African tribes, Maoris and Samic groups are well described by authors such as Asp-Poulsen (2004); Attwood & Magowan (2001); Browner (2002); Burland (1968); Clarke (1997); Cox (1987); Fagan (1998); Goode (1951); Günther (1997); Hackett (1996); Hart (1977); Marriot & Rachlin (1968); Mbiti (1970); Mitchell (1977); Mukonyora (1997); Podeman-Sørensen (1988); Shenandoah (1992); Stover (1986); Williams & Hunn (1982); and Wunder (1996).

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Swain, 1994; in Charlesworth, 1997; and in Cowan, 1992b) Songs of Central Australia collected by his father Carl Friedrich Strehlow around 1900-1920. Only one of the earliest missionaries, Günther (1839, in Carey, 1996), claimed to have found a belief in one allpowerful creator spirit, Baiamai, who appears to be the same as Baiame in Reed's (1984) anthology of Aboriginal Dreamtime myths. Later descriptions of Aboriginal beliefs have found that Baiame as well as other spirits are known to Aborigines throughout Australia (Carey, 1996; Charlesworth, 1997; Charlesworth, Kimber & Wallace, 1990; Cowan, 1992a; Cowan, 1992b; Hume, 2002; Lawlor, 1991; Stockton, 1995; Swain, 1994). Lawlor (1991) claims that the apparent lack of wanting possessions and the Aboriginal hunter-gatherer societies without agriculture were conscious choices in order to adhere to ancient Dreamtime Law. This law is the longest continuous belief documented anywhere in the world manifested in thousands of legends, stories and myths. The stories are fairly common with local varieties throughout Australia and represent a unified world view where the goal is to preserve the earth in its initial purity (Hume, 2002; Lawlor, 1991). There are several selections of these Dreamtime stories available (for example Lambert, 1993; Reed, 1984). Baiamai means the All-father (Cowan, 1992a) and he is the superior being who ensures that everything goes well for people provided that they follow the laws of their land. There are many theories in regard to Baiamai being the Aboriginal equivalent to the Christian God (Lawlor, 1991; Stockton, 1995), but they are being criticised by Aborigines such as Gondarra (1996), who claims that such comparisons are white peoples' way of simplifying things, and that Aborigine’s way of life is much closer to nature than the 'Whitefellas' way of life. One group of Aboriginal people in eastern Arnhem Land, the Yolngu people, is currently in the process of combining European law and Aboriginal law. Both are intricate systems of social and individual life and morals, but the Yolngu law is seen as a gracious gift from the creator. The gift of the law covers the whole of life, including land titles (Aboriginal land rights is discussed in 2.4.2), business, marriage and community life as well as justice (Journey, 1998). Charlesworth (1997) is critical of the terms Dreaming or Dreamtime because they are invented by anthropologists to describe a very complex phenomenon in Aboriginal beliefs. This phenomenon is that the Ancestor Spirits shaped the physical world at the beginning of things, and also laid down the law in ethical, social, religious, ceremonial and ritual matters which must be followed always. The mythic journeys of the spirits became known as the Dreaming Tracks. In addition the term could give the wrong impression that the Dreamtime tradition is a unitary phenomenon for Australian Aborigines, kinds of 'once upon a time' fictive or unreal stories, or that Dreaming is a prehistoric determination of what happens 305

today (Charlesworth, 1997). None of these impressions is correct. For the Aborigines the Dreaming is present and valid today and the spiritual value of the belief is as important as ever. However, Charlesworth (1997) acknowledges that the term is used by Aborigines and non-Aborigines alike, and that there appears to be a mutual understanding of what lies behind the term. The concept of Dreaming implies that all parts of the cosmos (animals, humans, plants, sun, etc) are alive, that all parts are conscious and capable of knowing and acting, and that all parts are related to one another, directly or indirectly. All parts act upon each other so that there will always be a balance, and one important law is that no one is allowed to destroy another (Rose, 1984, in Charlesworth, 1997). It appears that there are strong parallels to Taoist beliefs in Yin and Yang, and to Buddhist and Hindu beliefs as well. It is with this understanding of the concept of Dreaming that the term is used in this thesis. The strongest belief in Aboriginal spirituality is that everything in the surroundings has a spirit which was given to that particular thing, animal or person a long time ago (Lawlor, 1991). According to Mountford (1981) some Aboriginal tribes called this time the tjukurita time where giant beings wandered around the world, and performed the same rituals and had the same lifestyle as do some Aborigines today. The giants created the landscape features, e.g. the snake's tracks became water courses (Charlesworth, 1997; Cowan, 1992a & 1992b; Lawlor, 1991; Reed, 1984). In regard to human beings the giants left an inexhaustible number of spirit children behind at certain places which have specific totemic significance. Here is one example of spirituality where children are specifically mentioned. These spirit children are eternal and live in their totemic places, although they may wander around seeking a kindly faced woman whom they consider would make a good mother, or they seek out a kind and strong man who is out hunting and ask him to find a mother for the spirit child (Cowan, 1992b; Lawlor, 1991; Mountford, 1981; Stockton, 1995; Tonkinson, 1986). This belief is widespread and although Aborigines are aware of the physical significance of conception through intercourse, there is among certain groups a strong belief in spirit children. Santrock (1998) compares this to the practice of thanking God for a healthy child by many Christian parents, inferring that the child comes from God, although the parents are aware of the physical side of creation. Mountford (1981) claims that the belief in spirit children is unique to Australian Aborigines, but Malinowski (1954) found similar beliefs among the Trobriand islanders, which also have elements of reincarnation in it. Among the Trobrianders it is believed that when a person grows old and dies, his or her spirit sheds the skin just like a snake would do, becomes young again as an embryo, then goes to the salty water at a beach and awaits a 306

female relative of a woman of child bearing age to carry the spirit to the new mother. Women, who do not wish to have a child, are warned not to bathe in the sea under certain conditions, particularly at high tide. There is a similar medieval belief about a group of women warriors, who would become pregnant by drinking water, and who lived near the Baltic sea, as recorded by Adam of Bremen, an 11th century (CE) historian, who wrote about the history of Scandinavia and Germany (Lund, 1993). These conception beliefs could be parallelled to Montessori's (1936, 1949) theory that a person is born with a 'spiritual embryo', and Steiner's (1970) view that a child is born with a spirit-soul being that unites itself to the physical embryo. These beliefs may be more widespread both in time and space than these few examples show. The belief in spirit children as being an eternal and ongoing part of the Dreamtime creation is carried further in the belief that everything in the surroundings has spirits, which must be cared for and respected in set ways and through set rituals (Charlesworth, 1997; Charlesworth et al. 1990; Cowan, 1992a & 1992b; Lawlor, 1991; Stockton, 1995). Aborigines have a numinous respect for all creation around them (Cowan, 1992a), and the correct conduct in regard to the creation is laid down in a complex system of laws (Brennan, 1998; Cowan, 1992a & 1992b; Hume, 2002; Lawlor, 1991). The contact with the spiritual world is often found by the Aborigine on a Dream Journey (Cowan, 1992a). The journey is to some extent comparable with the seasonable search for food, but in addition to this pragmatic reason there is also the seasonal spiritual rituals, which must be followed to guarantee spiritual renewal and contact with the land (Brennan, 1998; Cowan, 1992a; Charlesworth et al., 1990; Lawlor, 1991; Stockton, 1995). The Dream Journey, derogatively known by 'whitefellas' as 'going walkabout', is an important part of the Aborigine's life to one's sacred places to seek out and renew one's spirituality (Rowan, 1996). Ungunmerr (1988, in Stockton, 1995, p. 104; Derrington, 2000) in her tribal language calls this aspect of Aboriginal life dadirri. It is defined as "an inner deep listening and quiet still awareness", and it can happen during a walk alone in the bush, telling stories around the camp fire, or taking part in a ceremony. In all instances there is a sense of togetherness in spirit, wholeness, renewal, peace and internalisation. Dadirri also implies quiet contemplation and waiting, including waiting for God, similar to the Buddhist tradition of meditation awaiting enlightenment (Rahula, 1978). Ungunmerr (1988, in Stockton, 1995; Derrington, 2000) has combined her ancient Aboriginal spiritual beliefs with a belief in the Christian Trinity, similar to the suggestions of the Rainbow Spirit Elders (1997).

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Aboriginal spirituality includes an esoteric knowledge of the rituals, stories, and sacred places throughout tribal lands (Cowan, 1992a, 1992b; Derrington, 2000; Lawlor, 1991). All aspects of their lives have a numinous meaning, and according to Cowan (1992b) they often have an experience of the wholly other (Otto, 1923) as a presence in their surroundings. They do not own the land, as white people understand land ownership. Rather they have by their ancestor spirits been given the rights to use the natural resources of a particular part of the land as determined through their spiritual connection with this land (Brennan, 1998, 2005; Carey, 1996; Charlesworth, 1997; Cowan, 1992a; Lawlor, 1991; Mountford, 1981; Swain, 1991). In this regard the Aborigines are a unique group of people because they are spiritually possessed by the Dreaming (Cowan, 1992a) and therefore also by their land. A.2.11 Atheists and spirituality. In all of the religions above, except Buddhism, there is a strong belief in supernatural deities which govern the world and a believer's conduct, beliefs and general attitude to life and its problems, which thereby influence the believer's spirituality. The Buddhist thought, however, implies strong personal spirituality through meditation and also demands that the believer observes certain conduct. Atheism is generally understood as a person not believing in a deity. So when talking about atheism it is implied that there is an understanding of a distancing, a negation as in the prefix a-, from a certain god, -theos. Atheism is therefore difficult to explain unless the nonbeliever explains which theos one does not believe in (Achermann, 1981). In the Western world the god renounced is most commonly the Christian or Jewish monotheistic God. It is important to differentiate between atheism and agnosticism. The latter implies that a person says that it is impossible to know whether there is a God, but convincing arguments for or against may sway the belief. Williams (2003a) says that when a person says he or she is an atheist, it often means that the person does not believe in the Christian God or a God from any religion, but that which really matters, is the spiritual condition of the person’s heart. According to Roof (1994) there are only very few people in the USA (1%) who claim to be atheists, i.e. having no belief in God, whereas 72% believe in a personal God, 8% believe in a Higher Power, and 16% are uncertain, but lean toward believing. There are no specific comparable figures for Australia, but Strahan (2004) says that 26.86% of the Australian population had “No Religion” or “Inadequately Described” in the 2001 census. This would 308

imply that there are some people who do not believe in a deity, or, as Zwartz (2004) explains, the majority of these people are probably agnostics not being certain one way or another about the existence of deities. Some of this population group would be atheists who do not believe in any god at all, but there is no definite figure of the number of atheists in Australia. In his religious judgment development theory, Oser (1991; Appendix 4,17) claims that within the transition from one stage to the next is a period of atheism. By doubting the beliefs of a previous stage the person is in a psychological stage of disequilibrium, which results in building an atheistic view of the old stage. Tamm (1986) calls this stage a faith crisis (troskris). This disequilibrium can be compared with Kinerk's (1985) and Peck's (1978) simultaneous 'yes' to one thing, and a 'no' to something else. But, as earlier mentioned, where Kinerk (1985) looks at this 'yes'/'no' dichotomy in purely Christian terms in regard to spiritual growth, Peck (1978) sees it as a growth factor in all areas of human development, including the religious area. In Achermann's (1981) study a group of self-determined atheists was asked to discuss various moral dilemmas regarding correct conduct and consequences if the conduct was incorrect morally. He found that atheists have a similar belief system development as do people who confess a religion. He used Oser's (1991) preliminary work carried out in 1979, as a basis and comparison for his analysis in regard to stages of development in atheist judgment. Acherman (1981) found four developmental stages of atheism corresponding with the last four stages in Oser's (1991) stage development theory of religious judgment. Achermann (1981) also found that in the moral dilemmas used in the interviews, the atheists most commonly saw unfortunate happenings as being determined by fate, and that people can only work towards a better result on their own.

There is no possibility of God

intervening, as God does not exist. Acherman (1981) therefore concludes that to become an atheist, a person must first develop an understanding of God as being an ultimate God with the power to intervene any time, any place, and also that God punishes or rewards as deserved, which are the beliefs of the first two stages in Oser's (1991) religious judgment theory. However, most of the people Achermann (1981) interviewed did not reject faith in God as such, they rejected the institutionalised religion as represented by various denominational churches. This corresponds with Roof's (1994) findings about 'baby boomers' preferring to leave an established church if they were disappointed in what happened there, and with Sutherland's (1992) study about NDEs (near-death experience) who found their newfound spiritual beliefs being stifled in traditional Christian churches.

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One interesting aspect of atheism is Nietzsche's (1892) claim, through the character Zarathushtra, that God is dead. Nietzsche says that God is a conjecture, a result of human's imagination. He states that there is instead an Übermensch, a superhuman, who ultimately has the meaning of the earth. Rahula (1978) calls Buddha superhuman in the sense that he was perfect in his human-ness. Nietzsche (1892) lets Zarathustra compare humanity with a polluted stream with contempt for fellow human beings, running towards the sea, which is the superhuman, where the great contempt and pollution can disappear so power, strength and beauty can prevail. Zarathustra is the Persian prophet Zoroaster who lived in the 6th century B.C.E. (Britannica, 1988; Robinson, 2001; Smart, 1996; Temple of Zoroaster, 1999). Zoroaster believed that there is a cosmic struggle between the Supreme Good Spirit, whom Parrinder (1982) says is God, and the Evil Spirit, which in Christian and Jewish thought is Satan (Smart, 1996). This dualism in Zoroastrianism is ultimately dealt with at the point of death where a person must cross the Chinvat Bridge to paradise. If a person's good deeds in life outweigh the bad deeds, then the crossing is simple, but the wicked will fall into the regions of punishment. Today's Zoroastrianists live mainly in the former Persia and in India (Britannica, 1988; Parrinder, 1982; Robinson, 2001; Smart, 1996). If the claim that God is dead (Nietzsche, 1892) is true, then Nietzsche appears to have failed in fully exploring the Zoroastrian beliefs, which seem to have parallels in many major religions where God is seen as The Supreme Being ruling over the earth. For the religious believer and the atheist alike there is a need to find meaning with things unexplainable (Peck, 1998). But according to Ellis (1980, in Kelly, 1995) any belief in spiritual and religious entities is irrational and constitutes a psychological deficit for the individual, and ultimately a barrier for well-being. Kelly (1995) argues against this standpoint that the atheist has chosen to be an atheist. The person has within a definition of that deity which he or she refuses to believe in, and therefore the atheist also has a conception of spirituality and transcendent matters. According to Roof (1994) the belief, that there exists nothing metaphysical governing the world, creates a void. Roof says this void is often filled by the atheist engaging in social justice issues. He further claims that for some people the spiritual search includes reclaiming authority over oneself. For the atheist this includes the denial of a God, which must first be defined (Achermann, 1981). It appears that an atheist also has a spiritual dimension Williams, 2003a), although this dimension must first go through a definition and rejection of God as a transcendent being.

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A.2.12 Spirituality in prayer and meditation. Throughout the religious texts prayer and worship have been mentioned as important aspects of spirituality in all religious beliefs (for example, Ammar, 1995; Dalai Lama, 1996; Doran, 1988; Duncan & Derrett, 1986a & 1986b; Gondarra, 1996; Grønbæk, 1962; Jacobs, 1986; Levy, 1995; Parrinder, 1995; Rahula, 1978; Roof, 1994; Smart, 1996; Wijers, 1990; Younger & Younger, 1978). Other texts refer to meditation as a means to reach one's inner self, as well as meeting the chosen divine being/s (for example, Bloomfield, 1983; Farran et al., 1989; Fischer-Schreiber, 1996; Genia, 1995; Palmer, 2001; Rahula, 1978; Steiner, 1913; Sutherland, 1992; Ungunmerr, [1988, in Stockton, 1995]; Wulff, 1991; Zinnbauer et al. 1997). The importance of prayer, worship and meditation is further explored by Kress (1998). Kress says that one of the most primal instincts of human beings is to pray to a deity or to spirits in order to have a conversation with the chosen Supreme Being/s. He then discusses several recent publications of prayer books and self-help books, which a spiritual seeker can obtain, ranging from traditional Christian prayer books and homilies, to specific prayer books for men, women, ethnic or religious groups. Kress (1998) claims that human beings pray because they want a result - to a certain extent using prayer as a magic formula, similar to what Brown (1966) found among adolescents in her cross-cultural study of adolescents' prayer beliefs. McCullough and Larson (1999) say that to pray when one’s needs are greatest is a human phenomenon, which stretches across a variety of stressful circumstances, where prayer acts as a stress buffer. Steiner (1913) strongly criticises using prayer this way, because the believer leaves out the ultimate sight of prayer, which should be to let the will of God happen. Ultimately, prayer is claimed to be about the spiritual relationship with the divine and about connecting with the divine of one's choice being the most important aspect of prayer in the texts Kress (1998) reviewed. In addition to his view that prayer should not be a selfish petition, but a desire to let God's will happen, Steiner (1913) says that in prayer and meditation an individual soul unites with the divine currents in the world. He claims that humans originally came from a country lying between India and Australia. Here the Spirit-Self, the Life-Spirit and the Spirit-Man combined with what Steiner calls the four lower principles of human nature: the physical, etheric and astral bodies, and the ego. This might have been a concurrent happening to when the Aboriginal spirit Baiamai created humans (Reed, 1984) or when God created Adam in his image from the dust (Koran, SURAH iv, 2; NIV, 1985, Gen. 2,7), i.e. yellow clay, white sand, black loam, and red soil from all over the world, thus representing all races (Rabbi 311

Eliezer, 1944, in Levy, 1995; Lawlor, 1991). It is these initial divine currents that people want to communicate with according to Steiner (1913), who also claims that in meditation and prayer a person receives strength, compassion and wisdom which is given by the great spirits. Fox (1990) says that these characteristics are most important when interacting with fellow human beings, particularly compassion, which he says is a substitute for spirituality and a necessary characteristic if the global village is to survive. Prayer and meditation takes place and can take place in any religious belief, in any setting, and at any time (see for example Ammar, 1995; Cowan, 1992a; Genia, 1995; Fox, 1990; Levy, 1995; Nelson-Jones, 2004; Rahula, 1978; Steiner, 1913; Stockton, 1995; Younger & Younger, 1978). O’Hagan (2004) describes several work places in Australia which have made changes to policies, canteen menus and calendars in order to accommodate workers with a variety of prayer requirements and religious festivals. Such changes make it possible for workers to pray when they are required to do so according to their religion. Hay (1985) and Nelson-Jones (2004) claim that meditation in Christian spirituality is now drawing on the rich sources of meditation techniques in the Eastern religions of Hinduism and Buddhism (Dalai Lama, 1996) and also from areas such as psychoanalysis (e.g. Benner, 1992; McCullough & Larson, 1999), psychology (e.g. Helminiak, 1997), science (e.g. Maas, 1990), and arts (e.g. Miltenburg, 1990). McCullough and Larson (1999) found an interesting ‘side effect’ of prayer: that it appears that in intercessory prayer (i.e. where a person prays for someone else) the person who prays had increased improvements in own well-being, as did the person being prayed for. In Drovdahl's (1991) article Touching the Spirit the spiritual benefits of camps and bushwalking are described, particularly the near contact a person can have to the chosen divinity while being close to nature. Wolf (1996) describes a teacher retreat seminar, where teachers were taught that to be able to model peaceful behaviour to children, teachers must first have peace within themselves. This could be found in beautiful nature settings. Drovdahl (1991) suggests that stories and prayer enhances this closeness to nature, and there seems to be strong parallels to the Australian Aboriginal belief that everything in the environment has a spirit. Raban (1990) uses stories in her examples of assisting children in developing their spirituality. In a similar vein Ryan and Malone (1996) give specific examples on how the Catholic teacher can teach the importance of prayer and ritual, using Ungunmerr's (1988, in Stockton, 1995) concept of dadirri (deep inner listening and quiet awareness) from Aboriginal spirituality as explained earlier. Prayer and meditation are seen as important spiritual links between a believer and the 312

chosen deity. There is communication between them, and as with all communication there are varieties of prayer ranging from cries for help, quiet thankfulness, angry accusations asking 'why', outpourings of opinions between friends, to intercession for other people (Heiler, 1932, in Wulff, 1991). A.2.13.Religious spirituality, a summary. To reach a combined definition of spirituality in a religious sense it is important to remember the earlier caution about the English word spirituality being derived from the Christian church and should therefore be used with care when other religions are discussed. King (1996) maintains that any use of the word must be coherent with the language and beliefs of the people, the religions and the relationships with the deities which are described. The changes and various circumstances that people constantly face as in for example the Buddhist understanding of a person (Table 1), influence a religious definition of spirituality. Keeping this warning in mind, the following summary of religious spirituality is suggested: Spirituality in a religious sense is holistic and involves the total being of a person. It is larger than theology and beliefs or a set of values. It is expressed in everything a person does, and it involves the person's relationship with the chosen transcendent being. It involves meditation and prayer where the person prays for self and others. Religious spirituality involves all developmental domains as illustrated in Figure 6 (p. 28). In the spiritually and psychologically healthy person, there is balance between domains. Religious spirituality is also important for the believer when social, political and environmental issues are considered, as well as the individual's perceived place in the community, privately, locally, nationally and globally. The religion is intrinsic as described by Allport (1966).

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Appendix 3. DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES EXPLAINED. “If we take man [sic] as he is, we shall make him worse; only if we take him as he ought to be shall we make him better.” Goethe in Stewart and Mickunas (1990, p. 123)

A.3.0 Introduction. In this appendix some developmental theories relevant to a person's spirituality, as illustrated in Figure A.3, are discussed briefly using the names of domains in the holistic model of the human (Fig. 6, p. 28) as subheadings. It would appear that there are more theories discussed under the heading 'Faith/belief'. This is due to the nature of the present study and the fact that all religions place a great emphasis on spirituality as discussed in Appendix 2. These theories may not be as commonly known as theories in other domains such as for example those of Piaget, Erikson, Kohlberg, and Maslow. Although Piaget, Erikson, Kohlberg and Maslow's theories are included in Figure A.3, they will be discussed only very briefly in this thesis. There are several excellent descriptions and discussions of these theories in other professional literature (for example Beilin, 1994; Graham, 1972; Hock, 1992; Hoffman, Paris & Hall, 1994; McInerney & McInerney, 1998; Munsey, 1980; Santrock, 1998; Sigelman & Shaffer, 1995; Woolfolk, 1995). From the literature reviewed in Chapter 2, it appears that spirituality is an aspect of human life that permeates a person’s whole being. Therefore the two psychological theories of FLOW (Csikszentmihalyi, 1992) and Multiple Intelligences (Gardner, 1983, 1999) are seen as important due to their holistic view on the human. These theories, together with the early childhood curriculum used in New Zealand, ‘Te Whariki’ (Ministry of Education, 1996) are discussed in this appendix for their perceived relevance to the present study. It is important to note that all developmental domains are considered equal and should be in balance in the individual, which was also emphasised by Farran et al. (1989) in 2.1.1. To assist the overview of the theories discussed here in Appendix 3, there is in Appendix 4 a chart of various developmental theories that have relevance to spirituality. The ages/stages listed in the chart are guides only. They indicate the approximate ages where the authors of the various theories claim a certain development can be expected. However, it should be

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3.1 Self Awareness Development 3.7 Faith/Belief Development

Engel, 1 Maslow, 2 Loevinger, 3

3.2 Social Development

Goldman, 15 Tamminen, 16 Oser 17, Fowler, 18 Harms,19 Bindl 20

Vygotsky, 4 Erikson, 5 Garvey, 6

3.8 Spiritual Development Wilber, 21 Genia 22 Helminiak 23 Steiner 24 Montessori 25 Peck 26

3.6 Creative Development Helmholtz, 27 Wallas, 28 Wright, 29

3.5 Cognitive Development

Kohlberg, 7 Piaget, 8 Milne, 9

3.4 Emotional Development

Piaget, 12 Vygotsky, 13 Gardner, 14

Figure A3:

3.3 Moral Development

Freud, 10 Greenspan, 11 Engel, 1

Developmental theories in areas that influence a person's spirituality. Numbers following the name of a theorist refer to rows in Appendix 4.

noted that "a chart is only a tool to think with, and cannot aspire to be a prescription to abide by, whether in the practice of child training, in psychotherapy, or in the methodology of child study" (Erikson, 1963, p. 262). Spiritual development is at the centre of the figure corresponding with the holistic model of the human in Figure 6 (p. 28). Each of the developmental domains is discussed making links with texts reviewed in Chapter 2 as relevant. The theories about spiritual development are 315

also discussed with the recommendation that spirituality in young children should be studied further, as there appears to be very few previous acknowledgments of spirituality in children, with those of Montessori (1949) and Steiner (1988) being some of the best known theories. References to Appendix 4 and specific row/s is in the coming discussion referred to as (Appendix 4,2) for Maslow’s theory and (Appendix 4,12) for Piaget’s theory. A.3.1 Self awareness. In order to be able to display a healthy spirituality an individual must have a sense of self which makes sense to that individual, including the young child (Myers, 1997). According to Engel (1995) a child develops a sense of self through storytelling. Engel’s theory appears to be word based rather than based on artistic symbols. The acquisition of language is an important aspect of this process, and is discussed in more detail in section A.3.2 where social development is addressed. With increasing language capacity a child's self develops through the use of stories (Engel, 1995). Engel found five phases of self-development from birth to the age of approximately 12 years (Appendix 4,3). During the first phase in infancy the self emerges directed by parents who use stories to construct a child's past by looking at photographs together with the child. The parents direct the infant child's attention to the extended self before the child can formulate the stories independently, thereby encouraging the child's sense of wonder. The second phase is primarily concerned with consolidating this knowledge of the self by the child actively creating the past with parents and other people. Children listen carefully to stories and will be able to recite a story themselves without the assistance of an adult. These two first phases are dependent upon parental input, but this is not as important in the third phase. Engel (1995) says that children branch out towards same age friends during this phase, which usually occurs around the age of 3-5 years. This is the age where Piaget claims that children display egocentric views and often are unable to consider the view of other people than themselves (Beilin, 1994). However, Engel (1995) uses examples where children were very much aware of other children's viewpoints and there is a strong influence of fantasy in the stories the children tell. Anna Freud (1972) claims that adults often show egocentric thought and fantasy as well in their stories about the self, for example in daydreams. Engel (1995) claims that everyone needs to be able to relate a story and its details to the self-image one has. To question details in a person's story, including children and adults, could be to question the person's self. Often the details in a child's self are not questioned by same age peers, and therefore the stories shared with friends are very important parts of the child's identity formation. Self-identity is consolidated in the fourth phase where children often return to the same storyline in their 316

play, maybe also to a variety of genres of stories. These genres represent different aspects of the self, and at this stage there is much more potential for expressing the self through stories, depending on the environment and the audience's feedback (Engel, 1995). Around 9-10 years of age children make up fewer stories (the fifth phase), but the stories they choose to stay with are refined and rehearsed so the self can be further defined towards friends and acquaintances. Adults remembering their childhood appear to view the memories from this age as an onlooker would see a playground, and the details or lack thereof included in these memories, reflect and contribute to the adult's sense of the childhood (Engel, 1995). It is interesting to note that Engel's (1995) theory of development of self through stories is found to be completed at the age of 9-10 years of age. Maybe Anya (referred to earlier, in Latham, 1996) is correct when she claims that around the age of 9 years a person's imagination just goes to sleep. Considering Steiner's (1970a; 1988) claim, that children learn best through storytelling during middle childhood and by using their imagination, it would seem to be important that children's imaginations are consistently stimulated, so their spirits and imaginations can be fully developed. Vice versa: Engel's (1995) theory that the extent of the use of imagination diminishes at around 9-10 years may be correct, and Steiner's claims that children's imagination must be stimulated may be incorrect when children grow beyond the age of 10 years. They may no longer need the imagination to the same extent. Another way in which children develop their understanding of 'self' is through their use of songs to tell a story repeatedly. Cram (1996) looks at a school yard song, which his daughter Katherine Naomi (7 years) and her friends sang and played a lot. Called the "Pebbles Song", it describes verse by verse the life of a girl named Pebbles from infancy through childhood, adolescence, marriage, motherhood, divorce, stepmotherhood, grandmotherhood, death and becoming an angel, a devil, a skeleton and ending in nothing, only Katherine Naomi explains the 'nothing' as air. "One knows it is there, but you can't see it" (p. 62). Cram (1996) interprets the song as providing the children with a ritual which they return to day after day, and which suggests that, despite their young ages, they know about the total lifecycle of a person. The song, which Cram eventually calls a hymn, is a vehicle for the children to create meaning in their lives. For example did the children include the verse about 'stepmother' because one in the group had just become a member of a combined family. The children showed compassion towards that group member by acknowledging the changed home situation. Cram (1996) compares the ritual, the meaning making and the knowledge with what happens in a church community and argues that churches should begin to draw on the rich theological and meaning making knowledge that children possess. Another important theorist regarding the development of self-awareness is Abraham Maslow 317

(Appendix 4, 4). The thought that people’s actions are determined by the most pressing need resulted in Maslow's (1970) theory of a hierarchy of needs. The four lower levels in the pyramid are the general types of needs, or deficiency needs, i.e. physiological, safety, love, and esteem, which must be satisfied before a person can act unselfishly (Gwynne, 1997; Maslow, 1970; McInerney and McInerney, 1998). These needs can thus be regarded as selfish needs although no one can completely fill these needs as an individual. A person needs a culture and a social environment for these needs to be fully satisfied. These needs are also part of the culture in a school setting as described by McInerney and McInerney (1998). Once deficiency needs are filled a person can strive towards self-actualisation, which is at the top of the hierarchy (Gwynne, 1997; Maslow, 1964, 1970; McInerney and McInerney, 1998). Self-actualisation is a person's need to become everything that one is capable of by striving for knowledge, self-fulfilment and working for peace (Gwynne, 1997). It would seem appropriate to include in this striving the spiritual aspects of showing compassion and love towards the world and anything in it. Maslow (1970) wrote that a musician must make music, an artist must paint and a poet must write to reach the ultimate self-development. He further claimed that to find the highest possibilities for spiritual growth, value growth or moral development, then those who display these characteristics must be those who should be studied (Hoffman, 1996). Maslow was inclined to be sceptical towards religion, but through interviewing college students and others he discovered that many people regularly had what he called peak experiences, and he suggested that they were a key to the unrealised inner spiritual potential of people. Among the feelings most often reported during such peak experiences were feelings of wonder and awe, great happiness, and a feeling of unity with everything else (Hoffman, 1996). This description of a peak experience is almost identical to the definition of spirituality as used in this thesis. Maslow also noticed that peak experiences often leave profound and transformative effects in the individual (Maslow, 1959, in Hoffman, 1996). Further studies into this aspect of a person's self resulted in Maslow listing Being-values such as wholeness, truth, playfulness, perfection, justice, simplicity, beauty and goodness as results of such peak experiences (Hoffman, 1996; Maslow, 1964). These characteristics are comparable to the spiritual traits mentioned by Beck (1986), and Maslow (1964) says that the world in such peak experiences is always seen as good and beautiful, and never evil or undesirable. However, all Maslow's subjects were adults, and according to Loevinger (1976, p. 142) children and infants might also have peak-experiences. Where Maslow (1964, 1970) looked at the development of self through the fulfilment of 318

various needs, and Engel (1995) saw the importance of storytelling in the development of a child's self, Loevinger (1976, pp. 15-26, Appendix 4, 5) suggests that there are six milestones in Ego development. The first two stages consist of two milestones each. Stage one is the Presocial stage at birth where the child is not seen to have an Ego. This may be in opposition to the views of Montessori (1939) and Steiner (1988) and the definition of spirituality in this thesis, that a child has an innate personal spirit which only needs to be developed. According to Loevinger (1976) the child must learn to differentiate the self from the surroundings. A second part of the first stage is the acquisition of language, the Symbiotic stage, where the child consolidates the knowledge of being an individual, similar to Engel's (1995) theory above. After infancy the child enters the second stage, the Impulsive stage. The child needs adults who are rated according to what they give the child, or whether they are good or bad towards the child. Emotions are often very strong and directed towards a present situation rather than past or future. When the child gradually learns to control these strong emotions, he or she enters the Self-protective stage where the child can understand short-term rewards and punishment and thus learns to protect personal interests. In the Conformist stage the child is able to identify own welfare with that of the group, particularly as the child enters adolescence. It is important that the child has built up elements of trust towards other members of the group, so the child obtains what are considered good rules to conform by. Loevinger (1976) observed that children and young people at this stage are prone to stereotyped gender roles, but also that niceness, helpfulness and cooperation are valued. The transition to the next stage in Loevinger’s (1976) theory is called the ConscientiousConformist level. Here a person begins to be able to see multiple possibilities in situations, and an awareness of an inner life, which may not be according to the norms the person has, and which should be conformed by. Loevinger claims that this level is found in all age groups, but that it is the modal level for adults generally. The fourth stage is the Conscientious stage where actions are seen as right or wrong, not people being good or bad as was a feature of the more infantile Impulsive stage. In the conscientious stage a person is goal-oriented, displays self-criticism and a sense of responsibility. According to Loevinger (1976) only very few young teen-agers reach this stage. It is usually a feature of mature adults. The transition to the fifth stage is the Individualistic level where a person displays a heightened sense of individuality and a concern for emotional dependence, rather than a dependence based on economy or physical needs. To proceed beyond the conscientious stage and past the individualistic level a person must become more tolerant of self and others in recognition of individual differences. At the fifth stage, the Autonomous stage, the person is able to acknowledge and cope with inner conflict rather than projecting such conflicts upon other people or the environment. Reality is seen as multi-faceted and complex. Ideas, that 319

appear as incompatible to those at lower stages, are at the autonomous stage united and integrated and there is a high tolerance for ambiguities. Motives for actions are seen as being developed as a result of past experiences, and self-fulfilment becomes a frequent goal. The autonomous person usually has a broad and objective view of the world. The last stage in Loevinger's (1976) ego-development theory is the Integrated stage, which is seen to be very rare, and which Loevinger compares to Maslow's (1964) Self-Actualising person. In this stage the person reconciles any inner conflicts and cherishes individuality in conjunction with the surrounding world (Loevinger, 1976). At any time in a person's life it is important to have a balanced development in any domain (Chandler et al., 1992), and a healthy self concept is part of this development. But regardless of whether the self-concept is healthy or not, a person also lives in a social world where relationships with other people are important. A.3.2 Social development. Language forms a significant part of social development, for without means to communicate a person cannot become a social being with the capacity to believe and use imagination when conversing with other people (Goodenough, 1990). Edelman (1992) and Newberg and D’Aquili (2001) agree with this view and see human beings' capacity for acquiring, using and understanding language as an important part of human consciousness. Engel's (1995) theory of self development through the use of stories in language (Appendix 4,3) shows one way in which children communicate, and in that process it is important for the child to have adults and other children around. Therefore language acquisition is necessary for appropriate social development to take place so one can communicate with other people in a given culture (Beilin, 1994; Edelman, 1992; Engel, 1995; Goodenough, 1990; Vygotsky, 1994, 1994a). Language is a part of a culture, so much so that Charlesworth (1997) says that there are philosophical concerns as to whether one language can be adequately translated to another and thereby give an adequate picture of a given culture. (See for example discussion about terminology in psychiatry regarding Freud’s definition of a seelsorger and the lack of an equivalent English word, section 2.1.4). To participate fully in one's culture a person needs to be able to participate in storytelling and narratives (Engel, 1995). Engel further claims that language is children's passport into their culture, and thereby into their social environment. In regard to language acquisition, or to obtain the passport into the culture, Goodenough (1990) says that people must first learn the relevant conventional use of grammar, syntax and words for the entry into the culture to be 320

successful. For multilingual children this is supported by the parallel stimulation given by adults speaking the various languages the child grows up with (Vygotskij, 1982)1 Goodenough’s (1990) view is supported by Vygotsky and Luria (1994) who assert that the ability to form speech is a product of a process of development in a person's individual history linked with his or her social history and place in the social environment. Luria (in Engel, 1995) says that humans have a double world where things and ideas from both past and future can be dealt with together with other people. This can be compared with Jung's (Jacobi, 1968) concepts of the collective unconscious and personal unconscious. Vygotsky (1978; 1994a; Appendix 4,6) claims that the development of language starts with the child being able to master one word, then connecting two or three, then from simple sentences to more complex sentences and finally to coherent speech consisting of many such sentences. The child proceeds from a part to the whole, but in regard to meaning, a child's first word represents a whole sentence. Montessori (1949), who claims that children absorb language meaning from their environment well before they are able to communicate independently, also made this observation. However, Vygotsky (1994a) says that this process can only take place in a social context with other people, thus agreeing with Luria's (in Engel, 1995) and Montessori's (1949) observations that humans need other humans to discuss things and ideas with. In the social development area then a child's use and understanding of language forms an important part. But when using language one must be careful not to get stuck 'in words like an elephant in the mud' (Rahula, 1978, p. 36). Rahula claims that words are symbols representing things and ideas, and often these symbols fail to convey the true meaning one wishes to bring across, particularly when one wishes to understand the Truth in for example Buddhist belief - and maybe any other beliefs as well. Vygotsky (1994a) further states that it is important to distinguish between the vocal and the semantic aspects of speech and that their developments do not coincide. This is, in regard to the language used in hymns and prayers, supported by Bowley and Townroe (1953, p. 13) who claim that some of the finest words in worship will 'remain beyond the reach of full intellectual understanding'. The aspect of understanding language, as part of language development is further discussed under the heading of cognitive development. Developing language is only part of a person's social development. Erikson's (1963; Appendix 4,7) epigenetic theory of psychosocial development emphasises a positive outcome for a person between the opposites at each level: Basic trust vs. mistrust at the oral/sensory 1

My personal experience, having migrated from Denmark to Australia with two young children, is that both my now adult children speak and understand Danish very well. This is due to the house rule that they had to speak Danish at all meal times, if there was only the immediate family present, i.e. the partly Danish culture in the home. With visitors present, we always spoke English with the partly Australian culture in the home.

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stage, Autonomy vs. shame and doubt at the muscular/anal stage, Initiative vs. guilt at the locomotor/genital stage, Industry vs. inferiority at the latency stage, Identity vs. role confusion at puberty and adolescence, Intimacy vs. isolation in young adulthood, Generativity vs. stagnation in adulthood, and Ego integrity vs. despair in maturity. Perhaps each of these stages could be graphically illustrated as yin/yang with each of the pairs holding within them the seed or embryo of the other, e.g. trust vs. mistrust (see Appendix 2, section A.2.9). All of the epigenetic stages require interaction with people around because they can only be successfully achieved through contact with people. Erikson (1963) claims that each of the levels is present at any one time, and that each item exists in some form before the critical time for its full development arrives. In regard to spirituality Erikson suggests that by completing each of the eight epigenetic stages successfully, there are corresponding virtues for each stage, namely: hope, willpower, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care and wisdom (Erikson, 1963, p. 266). Because the levels are epigenetic it should therefore be possible to observe any of the eight virtues listed in a child to a greater or lesser extent, provided that the definition of spirituality being an innate part of a person is true. Another aspect of social development is the importance of play. Berryman (1997) compares Garvey's (1976, Appendix 4,8) theory of play with Csikszentmihalyi's (1992; 1990, in Berryman, 1997) FLOW theory. Both theories have parallels with the act of contemplation as a spiritual characteristic as described by Richard of St Victor (1979, in Berryman, 1997). While play may be solitary for the very young child, Berryman (1997) claims that contemplation, also for the very young child, is very much part of the child's play. He thus agrees with Montessori's (1949) observation that even very young children absorb stimuli from their surroundings while wondering about aspects of their play. Garvey's (1977, in Berryman, 1997) play theory has five characteristics: 1) Play is enjoyable. 2) Play has no extrinsic goals. It is played for itself. 3) Play is spontaneous and voluntary. The player freely chooses it. 4) Play involves active engagement on the part of the players. 5) Play is pleasurable, but also has certain systematic relations to what is not play. For example, play has been linked with creativity, problem solving, language learning, and the development of social roles. For play to be a part of social development Garvey (1976) sets down the distinction that children must be engaged in the same activity using mutually accepted rules, which can be changed according to the circumstances of the play. In such play children learn to interact appropriately with other people, to share with other children while consolidating their knowledge about their world thus enhancing their social development (Charlesworth, 1987). Play for children is often a FLOW experience. Csikszentmihalyi and Rathunde (1993) place 322

play together with work, study and religious ritual as activities where people most often experience FLOW. In a FLOW experience there are several factors: 1) there are clear goals, 2) skills match challenges, 3) action and awareness emerge, 4) there is a high level of concentration, 5) the individual is in control, 6) there is a loss of self-consciousness, 7) sense of time is altered, usually it seems to go faster, and 8) the experience is autotelic, i.e. it is worth doing for its own sake. Singer and Singer (1990) found that when a group of children tire of one type of play they will change the rules, assign roles and reverse roles. Gradually they will depend very little on realistic objects. Play can thus allow children to experiment with different roles, acquire language skills and apply what they already know to the cognitive and social demands they meet (Singer & Singer, 1990). This is similar to Elkind’s (1988) finding that children will make contracts with each other according to the rules of the game they are playing at a given time, provided that they are given the time to play and are not been hurried along without opportunity to play. So to be able to show compassion for and awareness of the surrounding world, a person needs a healthy social development where everyone is treated well and is a respected member of a group. For the young child it includes an environment where play is an important part of the child's day where social roles can be consolidated in conjunction with other people, adults and children alike. A.3.3 Moral development. For adults it appears that moral development is often linked with religion, particularly in a psychotherapy situation (Jones, 1994; Peck, 1990), but this does not seem to be the case when studying children's moral development. Here moral development is closely connected to social development as part of getting on well with peers. Sunal (1993) says that morality has three aspects - cognitive, affective and behavioural which should all be included in a social studies program with young children. These three areas all develop in stages which follow the same sequence, but are not skipped in a child's development. A child needs adult guidance to go through these stages in the social environment where the child is taught appropriate behaviour. Social interaction requires children to consider their concepts of right and wrong, regulate own behaviour and decide if socially accepted standards should be adhered to (Sunal, 1993). It appears that for children to be able to show empathy and compassion they need guidance from adults (Sunal, 1993). Sunal then goes on to explain Kohlberg's (1969, in Sunal 1993) moral development theory and its perceived lack of relevance to early childhood education due to the ages (ten years and older) of children in Kohlberg's study. 323

Kohlberg's (1974; 1980; Appendix 4, 9) moral development theory has six stages divided evenly into three levels of basis for moral judgment. He used stories describing moral dilemmas in interviews of participants and then analysed the answers, which were grouped according to the way in which people responded. The first level has moral values residing in external happenings, acts or needs, rather than in persons and standards. Stage one is obedience and punishment oriented, with egocentric deference to superiors, or trouble avoiding. Stage two is naively egoistic, and what is right for the individual is also fair. There is a naive egalitarianism and some understanding of other people's rights. The second level has moral values where it is important to 'do the right thing', maintain the conventional order and adhere to the expectancy of others. Stage three is a 'good boy'/'good girl' orientation, where the individual seeks to please and help others by conforming to stereotypical images, and to judgment by intentions. Stage four is the stage where authority and social order is maintained. One does one's duty and shows respect for authorities and social order is maintained for its own sake. There is some regard for the earned expectation of others. The third level is based on moral values, which reside in conformity with shared standards, rights or duties. Stage five has a legalistic orientation and recognition of an arbitrary element or starting point in rules. Duty is defined in terms of contract, general avoidance of violation of the will and rights of others and the welfare of the majority. Stage six is conscience or principle oriented, not only towards social rules, but to choice involving appeal to logical consistency, mutual respect and trust. Kohlberg (1974) claims that in his cross-cultural studies he found that these moral developmental stages always occurred in the same order in countries as diverse as Taiwan, India, Great Britain, Mexico and Israel. He also states that there is no variation in the order of stages, although there often were differences as to how quickly or slowly an individual moved through stages. If a person stops at one stage, there cannot be a jump to a later stage. The development always happens in the sequence listed, according to Kohlberg (1974). There are certain similarities to Loevinger's (1976; Appendix 4,3) theory of the development of the Ego. For example, Kohlberg (1969, in Graham, 1972) claims that it is rare to find people at the sixth stage, and Loevinger states that her sixth stage, the Integrated stage, is also very rare. Kohlberg's (1963, 1974) moral development theory has been criticised as not being crossculturally applicable, and pertaining only to males of certain ages (Gilligan, 1982, and Simpson, 1974, in Hock, 1992). The observation that the stages of moral reasonings may not correspond with moral actions has been noted. Critique was made that Kohlberg has not taken this aspect into account (Kurtines, 1986, in Hock, 1992). Although Kohlberg's (1974) theory is important in regard to moral development there seems to be little relevance to 324

spirituality. However, both Oser (1991; Appendix 4, 17) and Fowler (1981; Appendix 4, 18) used the theory in the formation of their religious judgment and faith development theories (see A.3.7). Piaget (1932, in Graham, 1972, and Duska & Wheelan, 1977; Appendix 4, 8) looked at moral development in children aged six to ten years. Graham (1972) says that the material used (stories describing situations where undesirable things happened and the consequences of possible punishment for the perpetrator, depending on whether action was intended or not) was not suitable for younger children. Duska and Wheelan (1977) give specific examples of these stories and it does appear that they are unsuitable for young children. Piaget (1932, in Graham, 1972) found three areas in moral development with three or four stages of development within each. The first area concerns rules of a game. 1) A child follows individual rules, and is more or less unconscious of these rules. They are seen as mainly habits. 2) The egocentric older child may consciously follow given rules if they are seen as beneficial to the child who may not be able to discriminate between how others would like the rules, and how oneself wants them to be. 3) At around 7-8 years a child accepts social rules and often shows genuine cooperation with other children. 4) The older child is interested in rules for the rules' sake, and they may be considered almost sacred. The second of these levels seems to be quite contradictory to the observation made by Garvey (1976) that children engage in the same activity using mutually accepted rules, which can be changed according to the circumstances of the play. The second area in Piaget's (1932, in Graham, 1972) moral development theory is about moral realism. Here there are three stages. 1) The young child believes that to be 'good' is to conform to the adults' rules. 2) Later the rule must be followed, regardless of whether it may harm someone. 3) In late childhood it is important to follow the rules and not think about the motives which prompted the rule. The third area in Piaget's (1932, in Graham, 1972) moral development theory concerns children's sense of justice, where Piaget also found three stages. 1) Up till the age of 7-8 years children think that what is just is what adult authority says. 2) Later equality is important, and 3), in late childhood individual circumstances are taken into account about what is fair. According to Piaget's (1932, in Graham, 1972) moral development theory there is no single simple scale of stages, but a progression from heteronomous to autonomous attitude. Duska & Wheelan (1977) set up the three areas in charts and they do not appear to happen at corresponding ages, so the stages within each area of moral development do not necessarily correspond in the individual child. The theory is almost exclusively a cognitive theory, which tends to disregard emotions. Bull (1969 in Graham, 1972) criticises Piaget's moral development theory as ignoring non-cognitive elements and the desires of a child, as well as 325

placing an overemphasis on parental authority in a negative way. According to Bull, Piaget ignored questions about moral conflicts between children, he failed to take into consideration positive parental guidance and explanations, and he failed to pay sufficient attention to gender, social class and cultural differences (Bull, 1969 in Graham, 1972). There appears to be only one Australian study about moral development in young children which is Milne's (1983; Appendix 4, 9) investigation of moral development in early childhood. She saw the gap left by Piaget and Kohlberg in regard to young children and her study is cognitive in its approach. Milne (1983) looked at one aspect of moral development only, that of fairness. Her study involved 83 preschool children from 13 preschools and 200 teachers involved in In-service programs on moral development in young children. Using 'Piaget-type' and 'Kohlberg-type' dilemmas suitable for young children (Milne, 1983, p. 180), videotaping and interviewing the children, as well as observing their play, Milne found eight levels of reasoning and behaviour related to the concept of fairness in the age-groups of 3-5 years. She has five sub-categories with one or two levels in each. The initial level 0 is the Pre moral level where there is no use of fair or not fair. First justifications has two levels. In level 1 fair relates to own desires: what is fair is what the self desires, and compensation is instrumental to gaining own desires. Level 2 adds ad hoc justifications to these desires, but the basis is what the self wants. Compensations are aimed at the advantage of self, but may include adult appreciation or approval for a loss. The First moral criterion also has two levels, where a child on level 3 equates fairness with each child having some with sharing being a basic factor. Compensation is to give others some, even if it is just a token. On level 4 fair means absolute equality where compensation is truly reciprocal and with children sometimes giving up items that cannot be shared. The First Modifiers has two levels as well. Level 5 sees personal relationships being involved when children share: friends are entitled to preference, and perhaps also siblings, but babies are favoured. Compensation may influence whether one wants to be friends or not, thus justifying not sharing by breaking a friendship. On level 6 children use different criteria for sharing according to the situation. The criteria are not consistent and may contradict between situations. Compensation seems to be influenced by the child's search for a 'true' criterion, which will result in absolute fairness for all. The last subdivision of Moral relativity has level 7 where the child judges what is fairest to all according to the greatest number of one's criteria. The compensation is to restore conditional equality. The last level for preschool children regarding fair, not fair, is level 8, where fairest to all include compromises. Other children's criteria have added weight and time is an important factor. Milne (1983) says that it is assumed that these levels will extend beyond these levels. She observed that the younger 326

children (3-4 years) appeared to place importance on smiles, expressions and posture, whereas the older children used language to a greater extent, particularly at the 6th level and beyond. Milne (1983) compares her findings with Kohlberg's stages and found that the levels provide seven discriminations below Kohlberg's stage two. It appears that Kohlberg (1980) may have found some stages appropriate to children school age and up, but Milne (1983) claims that the younger children are ignored in his study as well, just as they are in Piaget's study (1932, in Graham, 1972). Moral development can then be seen as a part of spirituality by becoming aware of other people's needs and rights. Through this awareness a person should be able to show compassion. A.3.4 Emotional development. Two of the most widely known theories in emotional development, Erikson's (1963, Appendix 4, 5) and Freud's (1962, in McInerney & McInerney, 1998; Appendix 4, 10) will be discussed in this section. Erikson's theory covers a person's whole lifespan, where Freud's covers the stages until adulthood. The last theory to be discussed under this heading is Greenspan (in Wieder & Greenspan, 1993; Appendix 4,11). It looks at emotional development in early childhood only. Engel's (1995, Appendix 4,1) findings about the importance of stories and narratives in emotional development will also be discussed. Donaldson's (1992) observations regarding emotional responses to religious stimuli seem particularly relevant to this discussion. In regard to religious and spiritual development Donaldson (1992) claims that these areas are dependent on emotional responses to stimuli, similar to Mathew's (1998) findings about brain functions when people responded to emotional stimuli as described in 2.2.3. Usually emotional responses are cognitive and value laden. They relate to the perceived importance the individual gives to experiences which happened in early childhood (Donaldson, 1992). Donaldson (1992) critiques that emotional development is seen as less important compared with intellectual development which is often regarded as the most important part of a person's development. This view is shared with Gardner (1983) whose theory of Multiple Intelligences is discussed in section A.3.5 below. However, to be a complete person, Chandler et al. (1992, discussed in 2.1.1) found that a person needs to be emotionally well balanced as well as having balance in other developmental domains. One of the earliest theorists writing about emotional development is Freud (1962, in 327

McInerney & McInerney, 1998; Appendix 4,10) whose theory is called the psychosexual stages of development. From birth to 1 year is the oral phase, characterised by the child learning about the world by using the mouth to check things out. The nurturing received during this phase affects a child's dependency and trust of the world. The toddler stage from 1-3 years is the anal stage, which is characterised by the child being toilet trained, at least in the Western world. With emphasis on independent control, the child gains self-confidence, whereas if experiences are overly restrictive and punitive, the child may develop characteristics such as messiness and destructiveness. During the third stage from 3-6 years, the phallic stage, a child identifies with the same-sex parent and a sexual identity is developed. Middle childhood from 6 years to puberty is the latency stage, where skills, knowledge and personal rights are further developed and consolidated until the child reaches adolescence, which is the genital stage. Here emotional development focuses on becoming a reality-oriented, socialised adult while learning to handle sexual attraction. Freud's (McInerney & McInerney, 1998) notions of three elements of personality, the id, the ego, and the super ego, are seen as integrated parts and together they form a balanced whole in a healthy person. Parallel to Freud's theory about emotional and psychosexual development is Erikson's (1963; Appendix 4,5) epigenetic theory of psychosocial development which was discussed in Appendix 3, (A.3.2) in regard to a person's development of self. In relation to healthy emotional development Erikson (1963) emphasises a positive outcome for a person between the opposites at each level. Trust born in care at the first level, basic trust vs. mistrust, is the actuality of a given religion. At the second level, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, the environment protects a child against meaningless experiences of shame and doubt while finding a balance of autonomy. The emotional importance of the third level in the epigenetic theory, initiative vs. guilt, is to allow for initiative in actions while protecting the emerging personality from unnecessary guilt when things don't quite work out. The fourth level, industry vs. inferiority, parallels Freud's latency stage. Here children in every culture receive systematic instruction in using tools utensils and knowledge particular to that culture. The instructors and teachers need to enhance the child's abilities without making the child feel inferior. The emotional development on the fifth level in adolescence, identity vs. role confusion, focuses on the formation of ego-identity, where the danger is role confusion and uncertainty of occupational identity. The remaining three levels concern emotional development in adulthood. The young adult at the sixth level, intimacy vs. isolation, is ready for intimacy where the initial trust basis forms an important part in being able to build meaningful relationships. If this intimacy is not met, the individual may resign into isolation. Middle adulthood at the seventh level, generativity vs. stagnation, is characterised by an 328

emotional need to establish and guide the next generation, and it includes productivity and creativity. The negative side is stagnation. The last level, ego integrity vs. despair, has as the main emotional development an acceptance of life and a spiritual sense of world order. The opposite is a despair that things didn't quite work out the way they should. Throughout the levels Erikson (1963) emphasises the importance of a healthy outcome of the two opposites. It would seem obvious that if a person is to develop the spiritual virtues, Erikson (1963; see A.3.2) mentions, then there must be a positive outcome, particularly if the person is to show awareness, love and compassion towards the surrounding world. Greenspan's developmental-structuralist theory of emotional experience was developed by carefully observing infants, toddlers and young children (Greenspan, 1979, 1981, 1989, 1991 in Wieder & Greenspan, 1993; Appendix 4,11). In the first 18 months of life a child is seen to go through four stages, and with two more stages covering the ages up to 48 months of age. The stages have the following characteristics: At stage one, Ego functions (1 month), the baby is able to convey interest in the surrounding world by posture or looks. During second stage, Attachment (2 months), the baby's emotional interest is shown by using all senses: looking, touching, listening and moving. These are synchronised with the adult caregiver's actions. The third stage, Purposeful communication, covers the age from 3 to 10 months. The baby can differentiate between senses and begins to realise the cause and effect of communication through reciprocal interaction patterns. The baby is capable of showing a wide range of emotions: anger, joy, dependency, protest and curiosity, and through interaction with caregivers the baby learns to differentiate between emotions. The fourth stage, Complex sense of self, is the age from 9-18 months where the young toddler becomes mobile, and where contact with caregiver is not necessarily as close as in the earlier stages. The child can communicate emotions using vocal and facial gestures and begins to understand and use language, but extreme emotional situations often result in emotions being expressed intensely. The toddler at 18-30 months is at the fourth stage, Representational capacity, which is portrayed by the child being able to explain experience in play and words, and thus having ways of communicating emotions such as anger and frustration in ways so the child is satisfied and gratified. The last stage of emotional development Representational differentiation described by Greenspan (1991, in Wieder & Greenspan, 1993) covers the age from 24-48 months. The young child is now able to communicate emotions, experiences, relationships, and psycho-social advances through language. The child's emotional range includes excitement, assertiveness, curiosity, self-limit setting, empathy and love. The child is able to understand what is seen, heard, touched and felt, not only as ideas, but also in regard to what is the feelings and emotions of the self, and those of other people. The child begins to be able to think logically also in regard to emotions. Fantasy and reality are being 329

differentiated, and through play and conversations the child learns to control feelings appropriately. All this development requires interaction with a culture and a social world as claimed by Vygotsky (1994a; see A.3.1). The conversations in Greenspan's (1991, in Wieder & Greenspan, 1993) representational differentiation stage are often part of a child's storytelling (Engel, 1995; Appendix 4,1). Through storytelling about happenings in the child's life, the child lives through the experienced emotions depending on the details included in the story. Often such retelling is aided by parents or other adults, who can assist the child in handling the emotions as they reemerge. However, the events in the stories must have real meaning for the child, otherwise the child will only recall the very basic details and not work through the emotions displayed in the event (Engel, 1995; Wolf, 1993). The emotional intensity of a child's experience influences the way the memory is represented when the child tells the story to others (Engel, 1995). By repeating a memory through storytelling several times the child has opportunity to re-live the situation and with the help of hindsight learn to master similar situations later. A child can also incorporate imaginative events in a story, which gives the added advantage of having power over the happenings in the story, a feature which is also recommended by Bettelheim (1976, in Engel, 1995) through the telling of fairy tales. Another way in which adults can assist children in their emotional development, particularly in a separation situation, is to let the child look after an object belonging to the parent, and then share stories about events that happened while the parent was away (Winnicot, in Engel, 1995). Engel (1995) claims that in telling and re-telling emotionally significant incidents a child works through the emotions in several ways. Each retelling gives a new thrust to the story, allows for and communicates the changing meaning the child gives the story, and it allows the child to explore the ever expanding complexity of the story. Engel (1995) maintains that children learn the art of storytelling in a natural way determined by the child's culture, society, and family values, thus agreeing with Wolf (1993) that storytellers are not born as such, they learn the art. Their stories develop with the child's language and cognitive development (Engel, 1995). In this aspect of emotional development children will be able to incorporate stories about things they wonder about, and at times their relationship with a transcendent being may also be revealed in their stories. A.3.5 Cognitive development. Several of the authors of theories discussed in this chapter use Jean Piaget's (1964; Piaget & Inhelder, 1969) theory of cognitive development when analysing data and for comparison of own findings, for example Kohlberg (1974), who was reviewed in section A.3.3, Goldman 330

(1964), and Fowler (1981), which is discussed in section A.3.7. Other authors base their work on these three theories with the result that their works are also influenced by Piaget's initial work, for example Milne (1983) discussed in section A.3.3, Oser (1991) and Tamminen (1991) to be reviewed in section A.3.7, as well as Wilber (1997), and Helminiak (1987) whose theories are discussed in section A.3.8. The first cognitive theory to be discussed is therefore Piaget's stages of intellectual development (1964, McInerney & McInerney, 1998; Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). Other cognitive developmental theories to be discussed are Vygotsky's (1978, 1994a) constructivist theory, and Gardner's (1983; Davis & Gardner, 1993; Gardner & Hatch, 1989) theory of Multiple Intelligences. The four stages in Piaget's (1964; Appendix 4, 12) theory are: 1) the sensory motor stage (birth to 2 years), 2) the pre-operational stage (2-7 years), the concrete-operational stage (712 years), and 4) the formal-operational stage (12 to adult). In the sensory motor stage the child learns mainly through the use of the body, thereby creating an understanding of the physical environment and the self in it. The child is able to assimilate new impulses and accommodate the new learning although it causes a temporary cognitive conflict disequilibrium, which then leads to equilibrium. Cognitive development is seen by Piaget to be a constant interaction of assimilation and accommodation to ensure equilibrium. Such disequilibrium could be compared to the observation made by Peck (1978) and Kinerk (1985) discussed in Chapter 2, that in order to change one must say a simultaneous 'no' to one thing and 'yes' to another. This interaction continues in the pre-operational stage. Here the child begins to understand that the world. In addition to being a physical world, it is also a world of symbols, particularly as the child acquires language. One aspect, nominal realism, (McInerney & McInerney, 1998; Piaget, 1964) of pre-operational children's thinking is their belief that anything, that has a name, also exists physically and the attributes in the name are attributes belonging to the item as well. Giesenberg (1996) observed the phenomenon of nominal realism in regard to preschool children's concepts of God: because 'God' has a name it is therefore possible to draw or paint him and talk about him. The children in the study were all able to do this and give information about their God concepts. Language is a most important part of the cognitive development in the pre-operational stage (Piaget, 1964), but the child's thinking is as yet egocentric in the sense that the child often believes that other people perceive a situation the same way as he or she does. The child appears to be unable to grasp that other people may think differently. Later in the preoperational stage the child begins to understand that things remain the same even if the shape 331

or form changes, with this aspect called conservation. In the concrete operational stage the school aged child consolidates the ability of conservation by adding the logical reasoning abilities of invariance, compensation and reversibility, as well as seriation and classification. Play is an important part of children's cognitive development with practice play being part of the sensorimotor stage, symbolic play part of the pre-operational stage, and games with prescribed rules parts of the concrete operational stage. Play formed an important part in Piaget's (Graham, 1972; Appendix 4,8) moral development theory as discussed in A.3.3. The last stage in Piaget's cognitive development theory is the formal operational stage where the young person has the ability to think abstractly in a scientific way, while also utilising the cognitive levels at earlier stages as the situation requires. For a person to learn anything new it is necessary that the new material is just a little bit more advanced than the current understanding thus creating a disequilibrium, which the person will be able to handle so the new knowledge can become assimilated. However, if the task is beyond current knowledge and understanding, the person will remain in disequilibrium and loose interest in the task. Vygotsky (1978, 1994a; McInerney & McInerney, 1998; Appendix 4,13) looked at cognitive development as a process mainly influenced by social, cultural and historical stimuli. These stimuli influence a child from the moment of birth by surrounding the child constantly. The child becomes part of the community, and vice-versa, the community becomes part of the child. Vygotsky uses language as an example of this bi-directional influence for without language there would be no meaningful interaction between people and thus no learning and development takes place. The zone of proximal development, ZPD, is the distance between the actual development of the child and the level of potential development. Learning takes place in the ZPD with the adults or a capable peer providing scaffolded instruction, which is gradually withdrawn as the child masters the task independently. Myers (1997) places the spiritual development of the young child in the ZPD, and suggests ways in which adults can provide support for the child's progress as mentioned in section 2.7.2. In Vygotsky's (1978, 1994a) theory of cognitive development adults and children engage in social interaction. Adults must guide and mediate learning so children reach their potential. In a learning environment such as Vygotsky sees it, the construction of knowledge happens best through a holistic mode where the whole is presented first, then learning the sub-skills required to reach to the whole. Such learning can only take place if teachers, parents and students interact in the social and cultural environment. It appears that Montessori's (1949) approach of teaching geography is similar to Vygotsky's (1978) holistic mode: Children in a Montessori school are first presented with a large puzzle map of the world where pieces have the shapes of the countries, with knobs at the place of the capitals, rather than in the centre of the puzzle piece. Then the children are gradually introduced to country after country until at last they work 332

with their immediate community (Chattin-McNichols, 1992). This process starts at a very early age with elements of varying difficulties introduced as the children understands the initial scaffolded information. Where Piaget (1964) tends to concentrate on logical and mathematical thinking, and Vygotsky (1978; 1994a) concentrates on the importance of the social environment in cognitive development, Gardner (1983; Appendix 4,14) claims that there are several intelligences influenced both by the individual and the surroundings. The Logicalmathematical intelligence shows sensitivity to logical or numerical patterns, and ability to handle long chains of reasoning. The Linguistic intelligence shows sensitivity to sounds, rhythms and meanings of words and the different functions of language. The Musical intelligence has ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre and appreciation of forms of musical expressiveness. The Spatial intelligence can perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and perform transformations according to initial perceptions. The BodilyKinaesthetic intelligence shows ability to control body movements and handle objects skilfully. The Interpersonal intelligence is able to discern the moods, temperaments, motivation and desires of other people and respond appropriately. The Intrapersonal intelligence has ability to discriminate among own feelings and draw on these to guide behaviour, as well as having knowledge of own strengths, weaknesses, desires and intelligences (Gardner, 1983; Gardner & Hatch, 1989). In addition to these original seven intelligences Gardner (1993, in Berryman, 1997) suggests that these are also the intelligences of Creativity and Naturalistic Intelligence. Gardner (1999) speculates about the existence of a ninth intelligence: Spiritual Intelligence, a view shared by Edwards (2003), Emmons (1999; 2000), and Hyde (2003a). However, Gardner (1999) concludes that his criteria for an intelligence are not met when looking at spirituality, whereas Emmons (1999; 2000) says that the criteria are met and that there is a spiritual intelligence. Gardner (1993, in Berryman, 1997) claims that the development of the various intelligences happens when 1) There is surprise, wonder, a crisis, boredom or some other disruption to the person's circle of meaning. 2) The person scans the surroundings for patterns to replace what is perceived lost in the disruption, which 3) Results in insight resulting in a new pattern, usually in the unconscious. The connections will eventually become part of awareness. 4) Once the insight is recognised, the person begins a period of evaluation and articulation, thereby 5) Making the new pattern more and more conscious, differentiated and available to others. Each person, if given the chance, will develop something of every intelligence, but there seems to be a core in each intelligence upon which further development is based (Gardner, 1983). 333

Gardner (1990, in Davis & Gardner, 1993; Appendix 4,14) also found that there are different kinds of knowledge with the first called intuitive knowledge. This is attained through interaction with the physical and social environment from early infancy and remains throughout life and could be compared to Montessori's (1949, see 2.5.3) notion of sensitive periods. The second kind is first-order symbolic knowledge, which uses pictures, words and simple symbols to represent knowledge from about the second year of life. Around 5-6 years old children begin to acquire a notational system of knowledge, which is for example written language and musical notes. This system requires formal instruction of some sort as do the fourth kind of knowledge, formal bodies of knowledge. This knowledge is represented by the child's culture's written works in for example science, literature and history, and it requires a basis in the notational system for the person to be able to use the formal bodies of knowledge. These first four kinds of knowledge seem to follow a developmental path with each kind fitting in neatly. However, the fifth kind of knowledge, skilled knowledge, does not fit in as easily. Skills are acquired from infancy and increase in complexity throughout life. Gardner (1990, in Davis & Gardner, 1993) claims that skills weave their way through the other four kinds of knowledge. These five kinds of knowledge may at times clash or be inconsistent with each other with a child's notational knowledge suppressing intuitive knowledge. This happens in a child's ability to draw pictures as the child perceives the world, and not as convention may want the child to draw so people other than the child can 'tell' what is drawn (Davis & Gardner, 1993). The cognitive aspect of development is important in a person's spirituality because it allows the individual to wonder and seek further knowledge, while at the same time become aware of where compassion may be required. A.3.6 Creative Development. Creativity is often seen as something belonging to very few people only (Vygotsky, 1990). They are seen to have particular talents in given areas, and are particularly good in these areas. Examples of such people are composers, painters, statesmen and authors (Gardner, 1993; Vygotsky, 1990). Sawyer (2003a) claims that the field of creativity study has rarely studied children and creative development, although scholars have noted similarities between artistic creativity and children, particularly pretend play in early childhood. Vygotsky (1987; 1990) claims that every field, such as art, science, technical areas, requires creativity coupled with fantasy. No new idea is developed without creativity and fantasy, regardless of the idea being in technical scientific inventions or arts.

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The notion of creativity appears to be as difficult to define as is the notion of spirituality. Sawyer (2003, p. 20) uses the broad conception that creativity is a “socially recognised achievement in which there are novel products”. A person is considered to be creative if various ideas and knowledge are combined in new and different ways, often resulting in a new product, be this a technical or an artistic item. Brown (1989) refuses to define the notion. He refers instead to various studies, which explain creativity as a series of traits, as an aspect of intelligence, as an unconscious process, and as problem solving. Wright (2003) claims that nothing is creative in and of itself. Creativity is a cultural judgment and the creative person needs the surrounding environment and culture to flourish. This is in line with Vygotsky’s (1990) argument that in everyone there is the necessary force of creativity based on previous experiences in the individual’s surroundings. The richer the person’s experiences, the more material that person has to his or her disposal. In this Vygotsky (1990) says that the child has less creativity than do adults due to fewer experiences to draw from. Several scholars (Sawyer, John-Steiner, Moran, Sternberg, Feldman, Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi, 2003) discuss whether children are more or less creative than adults. They agree that particularly young children are creative in their individual environments, and that a child making something new – for that child – is creative. However, their main claim for creativity is that a truly creative idea will have impact on a culture, such as a technical invention, or a major piece of art. This is Creativity with a capital ‘C’. The achievement of the individual child, as important as it may be for that child, is creative with a lower case ‘c’. This is in line with Wright’s (2003) claim that creativity is the process of generating ideas that are relatively novel and original. The ideas are appropriate, serve a useful function and have importance. The creative person displays traits as listed in Appendix 4,29. Cameron (2002) claims that every person has creative abilities – it is just a matter of finding these, using these and nurturing these, as suggested by Dowling (2005). In this she agrees with Bachman (1985), who says that every person is creative, and who lists creative traits similar to those listed by Wright (2003). Cameron (2002) states that creativity is spiritual and that creativity can be nourished in the right conditions. She gives ideas on how to develop these conditions so that individual spiritual creativity can grow and she describes several people who have released their creativity (lower case ‘c’) or Creativity (capital ‘C’) by their activities in personal or communal living.

Perhaps the definition of creativity with ‘c’ can be used to describe the person selling craft items at a country fair: each item is novel to that individual and perhaps to the buyer as well, 335

but the items don’t necessarily change a community. The craft-seller may display traits of originality, energy, concentration, independence, artistic, and open-mindedness. He or she may visualise the finished product, analyse the steps in the production of the items, and evaluate the product/s. However, the cottage industries of third-world countries supported by organisations such as Oxfam (www.oxfamtrading.org.au) could be described as Creativity with “C” due to their potential to improve that community’s standard of living because of each of the artisans’ creative traits.

Helmholtz (1971, in Sawyer, 2003, App. 4, 27) has described creative development as a stage theory, wherein there is an initial investigation, a period of rest and then an emergence of the sudden unexpected solution. A similar theory is that of Wallas (1926, in Sawyer, 2003, Appendix 4,28) which has four main stages of creativity: preparation, incubation, illumination and verification. Neither of these two theories mentions children. There seems to be a general agreement that creativity can be found in children and adults alike, but that actual development in creativity and creative ideas only happens in adults who feel secure in their environments (Cameron, 2002). Feldman (2003) tells the story of how Gardner’s (1983) theory of Multiple Intelligences came into being through a very generous grant from the Bernard van der Leer Foundation. This grant secured Gardner’s work for four years and is a strong example of the environment supporting a creative idea.

However, Vygotsky (1990) and Cameron (2002) both claim that creativity is an important part of every person, adult or child. To develop this creativity, there need not be a big grant forthcoming. It could be that the creative person requires general support from the environment such as practical ways to decide for creativity as defined by Sternberg (2003). Sternberg explains 21 ways in which teachers can support children in their creativity, some of which are: encourage idea generation, redefine the problem, encouragement to identify and overcome obstacles, the importance of delaying self-gratification, allow time for creative thinking, model creativity, allow mistakes, and maximise person-environment fit. Cameron (2002) suggests practical ways in which the individual can re-discover the creative self, but her text is aimed at adults, not children. The support needed for the creative person may be to allow for that person to be alone -–for a child to be ‘bored’, so that the child must work out what one can do with one’s time. Buchholz (1997) claims that ‘micromapping’ a child’s whole life in details can be debilitating to that child’s creative self. She claims that a child needs times of beneficial benign neglect. These are times where the child uses the imagination, for example, to create post-offices in the room. For the child it could also be to 336

read self-chosen books, or to hide away in the attic or up a tree in the garden when there’s too much going on in the household. Cameron (2002) and Zohar & Marshall (2000) claim that creativity is spiritual. Spirituality is called upon when a person feels a need to be creative, and acts upon that feeling. Spirituality is present when the person looks at great pieces of art, listens to great pieces of music, creates great handicraft works, admires great technological inventions, and listens to great speeches such as “I have a dream” (King, 1963). In any such situation the creative part of an individual is stirred – to get new ideas – to enhance old ideas – to gather information for further incubation so that new combinations are created.

A.3.7 Faith/Belief development. Of the theories discussed in this section, Fowler's (1981) is the only theory which covers the total lifespan of a person. Other theories, such as Bindl (1965), Goldman (1964), Harms (1944), Oser (1991; Oser and Gmünder, 1991) and Tamminen (1991), studied the faith development of school age children, some as young as 3 years of age. Acherman's (1983) theory of belief development in atheists as reviewed in Appendix 2 included only adults. The theories are dealt with according to the main method of data collection and analysis used. Two types dominate, mainly a cognitive-logical approach (Fowler, 1981; Goldman, 1964; Oser, 1991; Oser & Gmünder, 1991; and Tamminen, 1991) and a creative descriptive approach (Bindl, 1965; and Harms, 1944). The discussion will commence with Goldman's (1964) study which appears to have had great impact on the later studies of Oser (1991; Oser & Gmünder, 1991) and Tamminen (1991). Goldman's (1964; Appendix 4,15) British study involved 200 children, 100 boys and 100 girls, between the ages of 6y4m and 16y7m. All children went to state schools, most were Protestants, and all were IQ tested with an average IQ of 108.2 for girls and 106.7 for boys. The children were interviewed individually with the aid of pictures and three selected Bible stories. Other aspects of the study were to determine the children's concept of the Bible, God, Jesus, prayer, church and religious behaviour. Results were analysed in relation to Piaget's theory of pre-operational, concrete and propositional abstract thinking (see Appendix 2, 12). Goldman (1964, p. 51) dismisses the first period of sensori-motor intelligence as irrelevant to the sample group. He found that up to the age of 9 years children are in a pre-religious stage where religious education must concentrate on concrete aspects of religious belief. Goldman 337

(1964) claims that children in this age group are incapable of understanding the abstract nature of God. This finding was clearly disputed in Giesenberg's (1996) study of preschool children's concepts of God. Giesenberg's study showed that young children are aware of God as a numinous being, as the creator of the world, of God being in charge of heaven and life after death and that they have an anthropomorphic view of God (p. 88). Between the ages of 9-12 years Goldman (1964) found that children are sub-religious where the God representation is seen to be anthropomorphic leaning towards an understanding of God being omnipresent, all loving and caring, but also judging. The child is much influenced by the concrete operation thinking in the cognitive domain, and believes that good behaviour will be rewarded accordingly. After 12 years of age a child is seen to be Personal religious where individual religious belief is influenced by the emerging ability to think abstractly. Following Goldman's (1964) lead, Tamminen (1991; Appendix 4,16) conducted a longitudinal study in Finland involving a total of 2734 students over twelve years (19741986). Questionnaires were gathered from 956 parents in 1974. His research method was similar to Goldman's (1964) with the use of selected Bible stories, pictures of scenes such as a family going to church, a child praying, and children visiting a grave. He conducted regular interviews with the same children as they grew up. He also used older children's written essays about religious topics, and limited use of younger children's drawings. Tamminen's (1991) results indicate that the 7-9 year old children have a strong religious belief in God being close. He found that the youngest children (6-7 years) in the study reported transcendent and spiritual experiences more often than did the older children. This seems to dispute Goldman's (1964) finding that children in this age group are pre-religious, and it corresponds with Mathew's (1998, discussed in 2.1.3) study that children are more spiritual than adolescents and adults. The pre-adolescents had an unaltered belief in God, but they were more careful in their expressions than were the younger children (Tamminen, 1991). Their thinking was more abstract than at earlier interviews. During puberty, 13-15 years, the children expressed doubts about God, and their overall religious thinking was critical compared to earlier. They talked about God in anthropomorphic terms, and the Bible was questioned in regard to being literally true. In late adolescence (16-20 years) the young people had either developed a personal faith in God or alienation towards religion. They seemed to emphasise spiritual rather than literal explanations of supernatural events. There are similarities between Goldman's (1964) and Tamminen's (1991) findings which could be due to the fact that Tamminen (1991) also used Piaget's theory of cognitive development as well as Goldman's (1964) theory when analysing the results. Oser used Kohlberg-type stories (See section A.3.3 for explanation) in his study of religious 338

judgment (Appendix 4,17; Oser, 1991; Oser & Gmünder, 1991). The sample group covered the ages 7-75 years with genders evenly represented. In a pilot study using semi-clinical interviews it was revealed that all individuals show seven polar dimensions within each stage. They were 1) Freedom vs. Dependence, 2) Transcendence vs. Immanence, 3) Hope vs. Absurdity, 4) Transparency vs. Opacity, 5) Faith/Trust vs. Fear/Mistrust, 6) Holy vs. Profane, and 7) Eternity vs. Ephemerity.

The polar dimensions were used to develop

questions for the interviews in the main study, where six stages of religious judgment were identified. The initial stage up to 6-7 years of age was determined as being a time when children are incapable of differentiation in religious judgment, thus agreeing with Goldman's (1964) assumption that children in the youngest age group (0-7 years) are incapable of religious thinking. One can wonder how such sweeping statements can be made in studies that are otherwise well planned and conscientiously carried out, when children of these ages were not even included in the studies. Oser's (1991; Appendix 4,17) six stages of religious judgment all include the seven polar dimensions mentioned earlier. The first stage begins at age 7 years and is Absolute religious heteronomy, which is characterised by a belief in God as an active God who intervenes unexpectedly, who is omnipotent and pictured anthropomorphically. Second stage, Give so that you may receive (do et des) begins at age 11. God is an all-powerful being who punishes and rewards as deserved, and people's actions can influence God's decisions. The third stage, God is outside human realm, is characterised by a belief in human beings as autonomous with God's influence much reduced. Humans have their area of responsibility and God has his. The fourth stage often coincides with early adulthood where People mediate with the God in immanence. There are many forms of religiosity, and social engagements may become a religious form of life. The fifth stage is characterised by an understanding of Transcendence and Immanence and religious beliefs are inter-subjective and autonomous, universal and unconditional. There is complete balance in the seven polar dimensions, and the person may have a feeling of being related to the Ultimate, the Buddha or similar (Oser, 1991; Oser & Gmünder, 1991). Oser also discusses the belief development of atheists. Using Achermann's (1983; see 2.3.9) study he argues that atheists have a similar developmental pattern as do people who believe in a Supreme Being. In order to be able to say that one does not believe in something, the person must be able to define which Supreme Being one does not believe in (Achermann, 1983; Oser, 1991). The last developmental theory in the logical-cognitive group is Fowler's (1981) Stages of Faith. This is the only theory which covers the total lifespan of a person. However, Fowler (1981) included only children from the age of 4y6m in his study. The faith development for 339

children in the earlier years is derived from studying Stern's (1985, in Fowler, 1989) infant developmental theory and incorporating this into the empirical results of the main study. In developing his theory, Fowler (1981) used psychological developmental stage theories such as those of Piaget, Erikson, and Kohlberg and he recognises that there is a synchronous development across the domains. He did not use other religious or faith development theories such as Harms (1944) or Goldman (1964). Fowler (1981, 2004) claims that his Faith Development Theory is a-religious in nature and can therefore be applied to any belief. However, Heron (2003) says that the majority of theories about spirituality are dominated by male viewpoints and derived in Western countries. Fowler's (1981; Appendix 4,18) theory is the result of a study where 359 people were interviewed in semi-clinical interviews. The ages ranged from 4y6m till 84 years. The first stage in Fowler's (1981) theory is the Intuitive-Projective faith, which emerges in early childhood with the acquisition of language. The child's imagination is uninhibited and unrestrained by logical thought and knowledge is dominated by how the child perceives the world. God is represented as similar to the child's significant others, most often a parent (Fowler, 1981, 1989). The second stage: Mythic-Literal faith is characterised by the child's beginning cognitive ability to think logically. Therefore the child can sort out make-believe from the real, and can begin to see the world from other people's viewpoints. The child begins to see God as an anthropomorphic being. The third stage Synthetic-Conventional faith is the stage characteristic for adolescents where beliefs and values are taken from 'worthy' significant others, who hold a position of authority, but not necessarily the young person's parents. During the fourth stage Individuative-Reflective in young adulthood a person forms an independent ideology where symbols are translated into conceptual meanings. Faith becomes part of the personal sphere and there is no longer a dependency upon other authorities. The individual is aware of and accepts responsibility for own actions. During middle adulthood the fifth stage Conjunctive faith is prevalent. A person accepts opposites in life as parts of meaning making. The individual recognises the past and develops a capacity to see the relativeness of transcendent reality. Truth is often found to be a paradox. The last stage, Universal faith is, according to Fowler (1981, 1989) very rare. Here a person is grounded in an oneness with the chosen belief and carries this belief out in a committed lifestyle to create liberation from social, political and ideological ideas. The person has a very close relationship with the chosen Ultimate Being. The preliminary 359 interviews were conducted in 1972-1978 with one interview only per subject, lasting an average of 2 - 2½ hours. There is only one reference to how interviews with children younger than adolescence were conducted: "Our interviews with children are 340

briefer and do not expect as much self-aware reflection as does the adult and adolescent approach" (Fowler, 1981, p. 310). It is surprising that Fowler and associates were able to get any information from a young child at a once only interview. The doubt lingers that these interviews would have been very brief indeed, considering that most young children need to build up a trusting relationship with an adult before they will tell the adult anything, let alone talk for 1-2 hours (Hatch, 1990). However, Fowler (1981) fails to inform the reader whether the theory of children's faith has been or will be further investigated using appropriate research methodologies when working with young children. A number of articles critique Fowler's theory. For example, Francis (1987) looks at faith development from the religious educator's point of view and warns against believing the theory too rigidly and expecting to see the various stages develop as Fowler has described them. Korniejczuk & Jackson (1993) see Fowler's theory as too secular and rigid, and they generally ask for research into the development of a new theory of faith development seen from a Christian point of view. Jardine & Viljoen (1992) say that faith is placed as a part of human psyche, whether it is represented in religion or not, and that Fowler, in his later works, fails to take personality differences into account, as described by Myers-Briggs (1985, in Jardine & Viljoen, 1992). They also maintain that his sample and methodology are described inadequately and point out errors in calculation. They call for more sophisticated ways of presenting research findings so errors in interpretation can be avoided. Ford-Grabowsky (1987) also finds the theory too secular, and says that it fails to take into account the spiritual dimension of faith in God. When considering the definition of spirituality underpinning this present study, it does appear that Fowler's (1981) faith development theory fails to take spiritual aspects into consideration as well as failing to reflect upon the importance of a person's emotional, self awareness and social developments. The remaining two theories regarding faith and belief development were carried out by Bindl (1965) in Germany and Harms (1944) in the USA. They both used a creative descriptive approach, where children were asked to draw their religious understandings with older children also given the option of writing an essay. Harms (1944) studied the God concepts of more than 4,000 American children aged 3-18 years. His method was to let the children imagine and/or draw what they thought God looked like, as well as noting what they said about the drawings. The research took place in the children's regular classrooms and the regular teacher gave the instructions. In his data Harms (1944; Appendix 4, 19) saw three broad stages of religious experience. The first is the Fairy-Tale stage (3-6 years), in which God is seen as a king, a daddy of all children, and as a being living above the sky. Harms mentions that children in this age group are often unwilling to describe their religious 341

experience verbally, and explains this reluctance as the child having a special awe for the high and exalted, similar to Bindl's (1965) finding that young children have awe for the wholly other. Harms (1944, p. 115) claims that it is a fact "that children have a leaning toward a God experience from the time their consciousness awakens". The second stage in Harms' (1944) theory is called the Realistic stage of juvenile religion (611 years) where conventional religious symbols (cross, Star of David, a priest) were used, and where the children made anthropomorphic drawings of God, angels and saints helping and supervising people on earth. The third stage, the Individualistic stage (11 years onwards), is divided into three groups: a) conventional drawings with religious symbols such as crucifix, angels, and church or synagogue scenes; b) abstract drawings with lights and sunrises; c) religious motifs, which Harms interpreted as cult symbols, but which often were beyond the influence of parents. Harms (1944) claims that all humans have an equal development in regard to religious drive, and that every child develops an individual religion connected with his or her natural disposition. The adults' task, then, is to help the child find that individual religion. This study clearly showed that children as young as 3 years are aware of God as a transcendent being, and that they are conscious about the world and God's influence in it. Bindl's (1965; Wulff, 1991) study involved 8205 children aged 3-18 years. The children were asked to draw their understanding of God after being told selected Bible stories, and if they so wished they could supplement the drawing with written impressions. There were no guidelines on what or how the children should draw. The emphasis was on a "free impression", because Bindl believes that drawing allows children a better way of communicate their understanding than interviews and essays regardless of their ages (Bindl, 1965). The drawings were analysed using Rudolf Otto's (1923; 2005) description of the numinous consciousness (discussed in Appendix A.2.3) with the specific terms of numinous, fascinans, tremendum, and Wholly Other being used in the description of the four phases. Five aspects of analysis of drawings were used: 1) the spatial arrangement of symbolic significance, 2) symbolism of drawing's elementary components, 3) symbolism of imagery in form of the human body, 4) symbolism of colour, and 5) the feeling content of the whole. Bindl (1965; Appendix 4,20) found four phases in children's religious experience. The first one covers the age up till 6-7 years, where children are seen to have a naive relatedness to the Wholly Other. There is an emotional and personified "I-Thou" relationship. Tremendum (awe) emerges without form and is gradually joined by fascinans (magical imagery) which eventually takes over, much in line with Harms (1944) fairy-tale stage described earlier. The second phase starts at 6 years, where there is a decline in spontaneous experience of the 342

numinous. The Wholly Other gradually fades for the child, reason replaces fantasy and mystery. The child acquires a more rational and selfish interest. Tamminen (1991) found that older children report religious experiences less than do younger children, so Bindl (1965) and Tamminen (1991) agree on this point. In the third phase in early adolescence the children show a Narcissistic reversion towards oneself. The child becomes very critical of what was once seen as natural, and the Wholly Other exists only as aspects of personal experience. The fourth and last stage shows in late adolescence: Consciously-strive-for relation to transcendence. The Wholly Other is now actively sought, and the young person allows imagination to make the transcendent "Thou" a living presence (Bindl, 1965; Wulff, 1991). The theories reviewed in this section all consider the religious development of children, but only three (Bindl, 1965; Fowler, 1981 and Harms, 1944) studied children younger than 6 years of age. Fowler (1981) however, adopted the research method of the semi-clinical interview, which is unsuitable for young children (Giesenberg, 1996; Hatch, 1990, 1995; Kjellgren, 1981; Martin, 1994; McGee-Brown, 1995; Robinson, 1977; Sunal, 1993; Waksler, 1986). The research methods of Harms (1944) and Bindl (1965) utilised children's "gift of expression" in drawings (Davis & Gardner, 1993) and through this medium the children were able to more adequately express what they knew about religious matters. A.3.8 Spiritual development. Developmental theories, which claim that they deal specifically with spiritual development, are discussed in this section (Genia, 1995; Helminiak, 1987; Peck, 1990; Wilber, 1997). In Section 2.9 the claim was made that throughout this thesis there is an assumption that spirituality is an innate and central part of an individual. In both Figure 6 and Figure 9 this assumption is graphically illustrated with spirituality in the centre of a person. Other domains of a person's development interact constantly with the spirituality aspect. Along this line of thought Wilber (1997) considers whether there are two types of spiritual development. Is spirituality the ultimate, highest level of other developmental domains, or does spirituality have a separate 'style' of progress as compared with for psychological or emotional development? Wilber (1997) believes that both views are correct, depending on how spirituality is defined. If being spiritual means to transcend consciousness and transcend the person's ego, then it is necessary to have developed in all other areas before such transcendence can take place. And if spiritual development is a separate line, then it would develop alongside other domains such as moral, cognitive and social developments. The latter explanation is compared with Gardner's (1983) theory of multiple intelligences, where 343

Gardner says that there are definite parallels across development in particular domains, but that each level of development does not necessarily correspond with that of other domains (Gardner, 1983, in Wilber, 1997). Wilber (1997) asserts that such progress does not happen through a series of a few comprehensive stages. These may be in tension with one another with not all showing comprehensive stages. Cognitive development might be high, moral development might be on a medium level, and emotional development could be low. The developmental lines in a person move on different waves and so it is with spiritual development. This is similar to Oser's (1991) observation that the participants in his study appeared to have certain focal points, i.e. they seemed to develop more in one domain of thinking, for example social cognition, than in others, for example moral or religious reasoning.2 Oser claims that these focal points must be identified so cross-domain influences could be studied further, particularly in regard to religious judgment. Wilber (1997, Appendix 4,21) then adopts the definition that spirituality is a separate line of development, which has specific characteristics. He is wary of describing spiritual as emotional openness, or as love, or as moral compassion, but choses instead to follow Tillich’s (1957, in Wilber, 1997) lead that spiritual development is that line of development in which the subject holds its ultimate concern. This line of ultimate concern will follow a path from the general expanding spheres of consciousness which goes from preconventional or egocentric concern, to conventional or sociocentric concern, to postconventional or worldcentric concern, and lastly to post-postconventional concern which is bodhisattvic, or the Buddhist level of Nirvana. This last stage of development is only attainable when all areas of development have reached their peak. Wilber (1997) asserts very carefully several times that when he talks about a separate spiritual line of development, he defines that line as the line of ultimate concern. It runs through the same general waves of development, as do all other domains. Some lines are pulled through development, others are pushed, others run in circles and some unfold from within. The individual self has to juggle all these ways of development as best it can. According to Wilber (1997; Appendix 4,21) the spiritual area of development starts at the very basic sensorimotor level, where one's religion is food, i.e. that is one's ultimate concern. The spiritual line goes through five levels: 1) the early pre-rational egocentric and magical level, with 2) the next level being that of the ultimate concern moving from the self to others and the person becoming a member of a group. Then comes a time 3) where the ultimate concern is to take a more universal perspective with emphasis on the welfare of a global humanity, regardless of race, gender or creed. 4) That awareness becomes a global vision-logic with the ultimate concern involves all sentient beings. From here 5) the 2

For further discussion on the interaction between developmental domains, see section A.3.9 on Te Whariki, the New Zealand early childhood curriculum.

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last rare level is that of the total liberation of consciousness (Wilber, 1997). Wilber concludes his chapter about spiritual development with the reflection that everyone, according to the definition of spiritual development being one's line of ultimate concern, can say he or she is spiritual, and they are, because everyone has some type and level of concern. If spirituality is awareness and consciousness about the surrounding world, then one's ultimate concern should be to show compassion and love towards the world and anything in it, maybe with the aid of one's chosen immanent and transcendent Supreme Being. Genia (1995) also describes five levels of psychospiritual development. She maintains that all human development is a lifelong process which is never fully completed, particularly the stage she describes as the last one, that of Transcendent faith. This appears to be correct for most of the psychological developmental theories discussed in this chapter. The last level is only reached by a few people, as mentioned by for example Loevinger (1976) and Maslow (1964) on self awareness, Kohlberg (1974) on moral development, Fowler (1981) and Oser (1991) on religious and faith development and Wilber (1997) above. Genia's (1995) theory of psychospiritual development is derived from her experience as a psychotherapist and her wide knowledge and theoretical sensitivity. Like Wilber (1997) Genia (1995; Appendix 4,22) found five stages in adults which are firstly Egocentric faith where people identify with an omnipotent God, or a sadistic God who punishes them. Religious practice includes petitionary prayers, magical thinking and emotional comfort seeking while being highly unstable. Stage two, is Dogmatic faith where the constant seeking of God's approval results in mistrust and fearfulness of other people. They feel excessively guilty about their own sexuality and anger, which they try to suppress. They are characterised in their religious life by self-denial, submission to authority and intolerance of diversity. In Stage three, Transitional faith, people critically examine their faith and reformulate their spiritual values and ideals. Their search may leave them confused and homeless, and they may switch to other religions. Many of Roof's (1994) baby boomer generation appear to be in this stage in their spiritual search. The fourth stage, Reconstructed faith (Genia, 1995), is characterised by people being committed to their self-chosen faith which provides meaning, purpose and spiritual fulfilment. They have constructive internalised morals and ideals, which may be in danger of stagnation if they receive no further spiritual insights. The last stage Transcendent faith is known by people's devotion to goodness and truth while sharing experiences of community with people of all faiths and with God. They strive towards universal ideas and the highest possible potential in themselves and humankind. The ultimate spiritual development is the attainment of eleven criteria. Some of these are: a transcendent relationship with something greater that oneself, lifestyle and behaviour are consistent with 345

the chosen belief, an appreciation of spiritual diversity, a mature concern for others, ample room for both traditional beliefs and private interpretation, and a display of tolerance. However, each stage also has negatives. Using case studies Genia (1995) explains how the psychotherapist can help the client. For example, Genia (1995) attempts to define different types of 'spirituality' at the level of dogmatic faith by describing five different types of spiritual people in terms of their domineering behaviour: 1) The spiritual legalist is the overconscious person who has often grown up in an environment of shame and guilt; 2) The spiritual martyr is the compulsive caretaker who depresses his or her own needs in order to take care of others' needs; 3) The spiritual crusader is the overzealous moralist who is intolerant of behaviour that is considered 'wrong', and who wishes to convert others to his or her own belief; 4) The spiritual intellectual is the person who knows exactly how everything should be and is habitually engaged in religious or theological studies; and, 5) The spiritual recluse withdraws permanently from any position involving responsibility and obligations. Here the psychotherapist's task is to assist the client in working through their type of spirituality so they can progress to the next stage (Genia, 1995). Genia (1995) describes a spiritual developmental theory in which only adults are considered. Helminiak (1987) who states that spiritual development is a specific adults-only domain supports this. His theory is based on results from the “Center for Human Development” in USA, which adopts a holistic approach to spirituality where a healthy spirituality informs all other areas of life, physical, emotional, social and intellectual. Helminiak (1987) says that spiritual development is defined as an intrinsic principle of authentic self-transcendence (see also section 2.1.2). This development involves the whole person. Wholeness implies a growing self-consistency and mutual influence between being and acting, and the intrinsic dynamism of the human spirit. The interaction results in the person becoming a more integrated self. Helminiak (1987) argues that only adults can reflect on what they are because of earlier experiences, evaluate the information and decide on further action. It is through this decision that spiritual development takes place. Everything happening in a person's life influences the person's growth in authenticity. Such growth in children is called 'learning', 'upbringing', 'education' or 'formation'. Helminiak (1987) thus implies that growth in children is caused by extrinsic forces working with the child and appears to dismiss that a child has an innate spirituality, which would also influence the growth of authenticity. It appears that Helminiak may see children as ‘empty vessels’. One may wonder when a person begins to have an integrated spiritual self, and how this self is discovered according to Helminiak. In Helminiak's (1987; Appendix 4, 23) theory of spiritual development he states that it begins 346

at a point of transition between Fowler's (1991) stages three and four. The theory is appropriate for middle-class American or equivalent cultures (Helminiak, 1987). Stage one is the Conformist stage in adolescence. It is characterised by a deeply felt and rationalised worldview, accepted on the basis of external authority and supported by the approval of one's significant others. In stage two, Conscientious Conformist stage, the young adult begins to take responsibility for self, as awareness begins to dawn that if one continues to accept external authority for the self, one has abdicated responsibility for own life. The third stage, Conscientious stage, is characterised by the achievement of structuring own life according to own understanding of things. There is optimism over one’s own responsibility and unbending commitment to one's principles. In the Compassionate stage in middle adulthood a person is able to surrender some of the world and principles created earlier. Commitments are less intense, but more realistic and supported by deeply felt emotions. The person becomes gentle with self and others. The last stage Cosmic stage is full of integration, where the person's personality is an inadequate instrument for the fully authentic person, i.e. mysticism is no longer regarded as a passing experience, but is a way of life (Helminiak, 1987). Peck (1990) describes four stages of spiritual development based on Fowler’s (1982) faith development theory discussed earlier (Fowler, 1981; Appendix 4,18) and Peck’s own experiences as a psychiatrist. Peck (1990; Appendix 4,26) maintains that most children and perhaps one in five adults fall into Stage 1 called Chaotic, Antisocial. He claims that people in this stage are governed by their own will having no principles and lack integrity. The people in stage 1 are seen as manipulative and self-serving. Occasionally they go on to Stage 2, the Formal, Institutional. This group of people thrives in formalised institutions: churches with rigid rules, the military, or other tightly structured organisation. They feel threatened by anyone who questions the rules or wish to change the structures. In Stage 3, Sceptic, Individual, people have questioned the rules and regulations encountered in stage 2. They are often involved in social justice issues, they question anything being claimed as ‘the truth’ and wish to make up their own minds. Stage 4, Mystic Communal, is characterised by people acknowledging the enormity of the unknown and trying to understand even more of it, but gracefully accepting that one cannot know everything. They see everything as a connected whole even though they do not fully comprehend the mystery of being a human. In these theories about spiritual development (Wilber, 1997; Genia, 1995; Helminiak, 1987; and Peck, 1990) spirituality is clearly understood as being something belonging only to adulthood. However, if Montessori's (1949; section 2.7.4) notion of a 'spiritual embryo' and Steiner's (1988; section 2.7.5) notion of a spirit as 'a drop from the ocean of God' attaching itself to a physical person are correct, then spirituality should be discernible in young children 347

as well as in adults. A.3.9 Te Whariki – another developmental illustration.

Figure A3 illustrates a number of developmental theories in areas that influence a person’s spirituality pictured in a circle to correspond with the model of a human in Figure 6, p. 28. Another, much more artistic way of describing a human, is the art work in Figure 1, (page i, at the beginning of this thesis) “The Quampie Story” (Martin, 2006), which illustrates a person using a mollusc from the Moreton Bay as inspiration. This mollusc has as its centre the core of the being. The lines that go out from the centre take in nutrient and deposit waste in a never-ending flowing way. The curved surrounds protect the being and the hairlines at the edges help it move. The metaphor is that everyone has a spiritual centre which is protected by layers and that the centre needs nutrients and needs to deposit waste, just like the mollusc needs to.

Another way of illustrating various developmental areas in a person is to adopt and adapt the metaphor of a Whariki – a Maori grass mat. This idea is taken from the first national early childhood curriculum in New Zealand “Te Whariki” (Meade, 1996; Ministry of Education, 1993; 1996). It is named using the Maori word whariki meaning a weaving or a mat. A whariki consists of several strands, usually grass, loosely woven together as illustrated below.

Figure A4: An example of a whariki – a mat loosely woven together

The Whariki model gives the New Zealand early childhood professionals a framework in which they develop the curriculum for the children in their care, using the children’s and their families’ experiences. The framework consists of several strands: the Principles, ie. Empowerment, Holistic Development, Family and Community, and Relationships. Interwoven with these are other strands: the Goals, ie. Well-Being, Belonging, Contribution, 348

Communication, and Exploration.

One of the points under the heading Holistic Development is that New Zealand early childhood professionals must recognise the spiritual dimension in culturally, socially, and individually appropriate ways (Meade, 1996; Ministry of Education, 1993, 1996). However, all other areas, for example the developmental areas as discussed throughout this chapter, are equally important.

To illustrate an individual person using the Whariki concept, each strand in the mat would constitute a developmental area, for example cognitive development, social development or moral development. Some of the strands would be clear in colour and relatively easy to find documented studies and texts about a given developmental area, for example the developmental areas discussed in this chapter. Other strands or developmental areas would be dull in colour and would require further study, such as spiritual development in young children. Some strands may even be totally dark and denote developmental areas that are not thought about yet, corresponding with the empty text box in Figure 6, (p 28).

If a strand is removed, the mat is incomplete, just as a human being is incomplete if a section of the model in Figure 6 is removed. Each strand or section is important for a person to be a complete human being and to have a holistic life where all areas are equally important.

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Appendix 4. Developmental theories with relevance to spiritual development. (i) Row #

Theorist

Developmen tal Domain

Age

0-1

1-2

2-3

4-6

6-11

Dev. Stag e

Infancy

Toddler

Early Childhood

Preschool

School Age

1

Engel (1995)

Self through story telling

2

Maslow (1964; 1970) Loevinger (1976)

Self awareness

Self Awar enes s Devel op ment

3

4

Vygotsky (1978)

5

Erikson (1963)

Language as part of socialisation Psycho social

6

Garvey (1976)

Play as socialisation

Soc ial Deve lop ment

Self Awareness

Emergenc Creating past Creating and consolidating crystallisation e of self with parents sharing self self through of childhood through with friends many stories self. parents' stories A constant striving for the fulfilment of the deficiency needs: physiological, safety, love, esteem, with the help from surrounding culture. Intermittently there will be peak experiences, eventually there will be complete self actualisation. Impulsive 1) Presocial Self protective Conformist learns to differentiate self Emotions are Understands Stage Self from surroundings 2) directed short term identifies Symbiotic consolidation of towards rewards and welfare with knowledge that one is an present punishment group. individual Continues into early adolescence

Child begins to understand that language is important and begins to take part as a member in the social context. The world represents a whole, and gradually child can dissect this whole into smaller meaningful parts. Trust vs mistrust Autonomy vs Initiative vs Industry vs Doubt and Guilt Inferiority Shame Practice Solitary Play Symbolic Play with friends Games with Play. rules with Contempla friends tion and Interactio n with adults

350

12-18

L18-40

Adolescence

Young Adulthood

40-60

60+

Middle Adulthood

Mature Age

Individualistic Sense of individuality and emotional dependence

Autonomous Acknowledges and copes with conflicts. Reality is multifaceted and complex. Objective view of world. Integrated Reconciliation of inner conflicts.

Continues throughout life.

Conscientiou s/Conformist Begins to see multiple possibilities in a situation + awareness of inner life.

Conscientious Actions are seen as right or wrong, not people as good or bad.

Continues throughout life.

Identity vs Role Confusion Not stated

Intimacy vs Isolation

Generativity vs Stagnation

Integrity vs Despair

Developmental theories with relevance to spiritual development. (ii) Row #

Theorist

Development al domain

Age

0-1

1-3

3-4

4-6

6-11

12-18

18-40

40-60

60+

Dev. stage

Infancy

Toddler

Early Childhood Obedience and punishment oriented

Preschool

School Age

Adolescence

'Good boy/good girl' orientation

Authority and social order is maintained for its own sake.

Middle Adulthood Legalistic orientation: Recognition of arbitrary elements

Mature Age

Naively egoistic: What is right is what is fair.

Young Adulthood Moral values are parts of shared standards.

7

Kohlberg (1974)

Moral Development

8

Piaget (in Graham 1972) Milne (1983)

Moral realism

Moral Deve lop ment

9

10

Freud (in McInerne y& McInerne y 1998)

Psychosexual development

11

Greenspa n (in Wieder & Greenspa n, 1993)

Emotional Experience

Emo tional Deve lop ment

Fairness

6-11 years: Rules in games: 1) to be good is to obey rules. 2) rules must always be followed 3) don't worry about motives prompting the rule. 3-6 years: First justification: 1) what is fair is what I want. 2) I also want adult appreciation. First moral criterion 3) Sharing begins 4) Sometimes gives up own wishes First modifiers: 5) Friends entitled to more than non-friends 6) Sharing depends on situation. Moral relativity 7) What is fair is when everyone gets some. 8) Other children's wishes count, too. Levels are assumed to continue beyond this level after child's 6th year. Oral Anal Phallic Phase Latency Phase Phase Phase

Infancy and early toddler hood: 1) Egofunction: Conveys interest by posture and look. 2) Attachment: Uses all senses synchronised with adult. 3) Purposeful communication Realises cause and effect of actions 4) Complex sense of self: mobility results in complicated communication patterns.

Early Childhood: 5) Representational Capacity a) Language development results in better communication and explanations of emotions. b) Emotions are usually in late E.Ch. communicated through language rather than actions. 6) Representational Differentiation Internal life can be symbolised and categorised

351

Genital Phase

Conscience or principle oriented. Choice of appeal to logical consistency, respect and trust

Developmental theories with relevance to spiritual development. (iii) Row #

Theorist

Development al Domain

Age

0-1

1-2

3-4

4-6

6-11

12-18

18-40

40-60

60+

Dev. Stage

Infancy

Toddler

Early Childhood

Preschool

School Age

Adolesce nce

Young Adulthoo d

Middle Adulthoo d

Mature Age

Concrete Operational

Formal Operatio nal: Early

Formal Operatio nal: Full

Dialectic

Unitive

12

Piaget (1964) Piaget & Inhelder (1969)

Cognitive

13

Vygotsky (1978; 1994, in Diaz et al., 1993)

Cognitive

14

Gardner (1983; Davis & Gardner, 1993)

Cognitive

Cogni tive

Deve lop ment

Sensorimotor

Preoperational 2-7 years. 1) preconceptual period. Nominal Realism. 2) Intuitive period

R primar secon CoTertiaBegins e y dary ordina ry cirrepresencircula tion of cular tatorial fl circula r sec. reacthought e r x reacti reacti reacti tions e ons ons ons s Child progresses in cognitive development through interaction with social world, with older children and adults providing stimulation and scaffolded instruction in child's zone of proximal development, using a holistic approach to teaching. Stage of Beginning Create & Internalisati natural & mediation actively on of primitive by means manipulat relations responses of e signs to between external achieve stimuli, signs desired signs & response behaviours Intuitive First order symbolic Rotational System Formal bodies of knowledge knowledge knowledge

This cognitive development continues throughout life in interaction with environment.

Formal bodies of knowledge continues Skilled knowledge: Begins at first stage and continually develops throughout life in the various intelligences: Linguistic, Musical, Spatial, Body-Kinaesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Logical-Mathematical, possibly also creative.

352

Developmental theories with relevance to spiritual development. (iv) Row #

Theorist

Developmenta l Domain

Age

0-1

1-2

2-3

4-6

6-11

12-18

18-40

40-60-

60+

Dev. Stage

Infancy

Toddler

Early Childhood

Preschool

School Age

Adolescence

Young Adulthood

Middle Adulthood

Mature Age

9-11: Sub-Religious

12 years +: Personal Religious 13-15: Age of doubt

20-25 People mediate with God Individual freedom is given by God.

Later: Transcendence Immanence: God becomes integral part of the individual.

Individuativ e-Reflective Faith

Conjunctive Faith

Faith and Belief Devel op ment

15

Goldman (1964)

Religious Thinking

16

Tammine n (1991)

Religious Thinking

Pre-religious

17

Oser (1991)

Religious Judgement

Incapable of religious judgment

18

Fowler (1981; 1989)

Stages of faith

Primal Faith:

19

Harms (1944)

20

Bindl (1965)

Religious experience: God concept Religious experience

1) 2) 3) 4)

7-10: Concrete Religious Thinking 11-12: Abstract Religious Thinking 8-11: Absolute Religious Heteronomy: God is omnipotent & pictured anthropomorphically

Intuitive Projective Faith

Mythic Literal Faith

3 years Fairy Tale Religion

6 years Realistic stage of juvenile religion 6 years Decline in spontaneous experience of the numinous

16-20: Personal belief or rejection 15-18: 11-15: God is Give so that you may outside receive. human God can be realm. influenced God has by deeds. specific domain of action Synthetic Conventional faith

Awareness of self Emergent self Core self Subjective self

3 years Naive relatedness to the Wholly Other

353

11 years + Individualistic stage. Early adolescence: Narcissistic reversion towards self. Late adolescence: Consciously striving for relation to transcendence

Universalisin g Faith

Developmental theories with relevance to spiritual development. (v) Row #

Theorist

Development al Domain

Age

0-1

Dev. Stage

Infancy

2-3

6-11

Wilber (1997)

Spiritual Development of the Ultimate Concern

22

Genia (1995)

Psychospiritual development

23

Helminia k (1987)

Spiritual Development

24

Steiner (1965; 1988) Montesso ri (1949) Peck (1990)

Spirit

Physical body grows and develops

Spiritual Embryo Spirituality

Develops through correct stimuli during appropriate sensitive periods. Stage 1: Chaotic, Antisocial. Undeveloped spirituality.

25 26

Early Pre-rational egocentric and magical level

4-6

21 Spiri tual Deve lop ment

1-2

Moving from self to others

Astral body grows and develops.

354

12-18

18-40

Adolescence

Young Middle Adulthood Adulthood Emphasis on global humanity

Ability to take more universal perspective.

Etheric body grows and develops.

Stage 2: Formal Institutional, rigid rule keeper

40-60

60+ Mature Age Global vision-Logic where Ultimate concern involves all sentient beings Eventually: Total liberation of consciousness.

Adults Only: 1) Egocentric Faith 2) 2) Dogmatic Faith 3) Transitional faith. 4) Reconstructed faith. 5) Transcendent faith. Adults Only: 1) Conformist Stage. 2) Conscientious/Conformist Stage. 3) Conscientious Stage. 4) Compassionate Stage. 5) Cosmic Stage. Eventually the person reaches total consciousness: Buddhi.

Stage 3: Sceptic, Individual principles. Strong social commitment

Stage 4 Mystic, Communal. Aware that the whole world is connected.

Developmental theories with relevance to spiritual development. (vi) Row #

Theorist

Developmen tal Domain

Age

0-1

1-2

2-3

4-6

6-11

12-18

18-40

40-60

60+

Dev. Stag e

Infancy

Toddler

Early Childhood

Preschool

School Age

Adolescence

Young Adulthood

Middle Adulthood

Mature Age

27

28

Helmholtz (1971, in Sawyer, 2003) Wallas (1926, in Sawyer, 2003)

Creativity

Wright (2003)

Creativity

Three stages: An initial investigation followed by a period of rest, and then

emergence of a sudden unexpected solution.

Creativity

Preparation: Collection of data and information, searching for ideas, listening to suggestions. Incubation: Term used for the frequently observed delay between preparation and illumination. In this period the person elaborates and organises the information gathered. Illumination: The moment of insight. Verification: Evaluation of the insight, elaboration of the complete form, verification by the conscious mind as to the suitability of the idea.

Creat ivity 29

Creativity is a communal or cultural judgment in a given culture. Creative success requires (whether grand or modest scale): Certain Personality Traits (e.g. Awareness of Creativity; Originality; Independence; Energy; Curiosity; Artistic; Concentration; Childlike Qualities). Intelligence and Knowledge; Creative Processes (e.g. Flexibility; Elaboration; Transformation; Objectivity and Selectivity; Aesthetic and Practical Standards); Thinking Styles (e.g. Visualisation, Analysis, Logical Thinking, Experimentation, Evaluation). Motivation and Commitment. Environmental Support.

355

356

Appendix 5

357

Appendix 5

358

Appendix 5

359

Appendix 5

360

Appendix 6

361

Appendix 6

362

Appendix 6

363

Appendix 7

364

Appendix 7

GUIDING QUESTIONS FOR INTERVIEWS WITH PARENTS OF PARTICIPATING CHILDREN:

(Ask permission to audio-tape the conversation. Ensure that confidentiality and privacy will be respected. Briefly explain my interest in the area being studied, and my gratitude to parents that I can include their child in the present study. Show child’s portfolio, and ensure parents that they have access to child’s portfolio at any time).

How do you define spirituality?

How do you define a spiritual person?

Is spirituality a religious phenomenon only? Why? Why not?

How do you see spirituality illustrated in your child?

Has your child ever mentioned religious spiritual matters to you? (For example: life after death, God or Supreme Being, or heaven).

Has your child commented on my presence in the kindergarten/ Preschool in regard to the questions I ask of the children and the activities that we do together? (e.g. drawing to music). Please elaborate.

Please comment further to the Rating Scales sent home earlier this year.

THANK YOU.

365

Appendix 8.

Rating Scale: YOUNG CHILDREN'S SPIRITUALITY:

Child's Name:____________________________ Week ending_________ Please observe your child over a week and tick when you notice any of the following behaviours: I observed my child: Watching a natural phenomenon. Showing love towards another person. Showing awareness of mysterious things. Expressing hope about the future. Wondering about things he/she doesn't understand. Expressing joy. Talking about God or Supreme Being. Talking about heaven or life after death, or previous lives. Displaying creative abilities. Listening carefully to self and others Talking about 'soul' or 'consciousness' Showing interest in world events & their effects on people. Showing interest in life and death.

Please make brief notes about a couple of individual episodes on the back of this paper. Feel free to use additional paper if required. Return to Anna Giesenberg in two weeks, i.e. next time she visits your child's preschool. This paper will be kept in your child's portfolio and used in the development of the theory about young children's spirituality. For clarification of how to use this rating scale, please phone Anna on 3269 8784.

366

Rating Scale: YOUNG CHILDREN'S SPIRITUALITY: Please observe the children in your classroom over a period of one week and tick when you see any of the behaviours listed. Children's names

Watching a natural phenomenon. Showing love towards another person. Showing awareness of mysterious things. Expressing hope about the future. Wondering about things he/she doesn't understand. Expressing joy.

Talking about God or Supreme Being. Talking about heaven or life after death, or previous lives. Displaying creative abilities.

367

Listening carefully to self and others Talking about 'soul' or 'consciousness' Showing interest in world events & their effects on people. Showing interest in life and death.

Please make brief notes about a couple of individual episodes on the back of this paper. Feel free to use additional paper if required. Return to Anna Giesenberg in two weeks, i.e. next time she visits your preschool. This rating scale will be used in the development of the theory about young children's spirituality. For clarification of how to use this rating scale, please phone Anna on 3269 8784.

368

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Illustration 1: Shariah Law in Northern Nigeria

Illustration 2: Example of Keyword Card

Illustration 3: The Music goes ‘round and round and round’. Dominic (5y6m)

Illustration 4: Jade (4y4m): Love is people hugging together.

Illustration 5: Saskia’s (4y6m) dream about a kind monster.

Illustration 6: Alick’s (4y6m) tree with leaves, a fireplace and an orange sun.

Illustration 7: Melitta’s (3y6m, p. 151) musical circles.

Illustration 8: Ji-Shen’s (3y10m, p. 152) drawing of Vivaldi’s music.

Illustration 9: Julian’s (5y6m, p. 152) pirate picture: The music makes you sad.

Illustration 10: Virginia’s (4y4m, p. 153) sad music (Teleman’s concerto in C).

Illustration 11 and 12:

Virginia’s (4y4m, p.153) happy and sad faces

Illustration 13: Ebony’s (3y8m, p. 153) sad friend with a broken arm and Anna.

Illustration 14: (Keshu’s (4y0m, p. 153) self portrait

Illustration 15: Cedrick’s (5y2m, p. 153) “Africa People”.

Illustration 16: Jane’s (6y4m, p. 154) band playing music.

Illustration 17: Darren’s (5y2m, p. 154) happy alien.

Illustration 18: Susan’s (4y4m, p. 154) fairy saving her friends.

Illustration 19: Morgan’s (4y0m, p. 154) pink and black music.

Illustration 20: Faith’s (4y6m, p. 154) pink music.

Illustration 21: Kate’s (4y4m, p. 154) sunny music.

Illustration 22: Robert’s (4y6m, p. 155) music rainbow.

Illustration 23: Jason’s (6y4m, p. 155) whale picture.

Illustration 24: Racheal’s (5y10m, p. 155) whale picture, where she went “whoooo”.

Illustration 25: Sheree’s (3y4m, p. 155-156) angry people.

Illustration 26: Annabel’s (4y2m, p. 156) birthday song.

Illustration 27: Monique’s (4y2m, p.156) “put a spot over here” song.

Illustration 28: Jason’s (6y4m, p. 158-159) roller coaster.

Illustration 29: Ji-Shen’s (3y10m, p. 159) BIG monster.

Illustration 30: Malcolm (4y10m, p. 160) and his mum.

Illustration 31: Ellen’s (4y6m, p. 160) mum: “She loves me”.

Illustration 32: Robert’s (4y6m, p. 160) mum: “She loves me”.

Illustration 33: Annabel’s (4y2m, p. 160) dad: “He loves me”.

Illustration 34: Kirsten’s (6y6m, p. 160) dad: “He loves me”.

Illustration 35: Miriam’s (4y4m, p. 160) family, who love each other.

Illustration 36: Paige’s (4y4m, p. 160-161) dad, the fireworks, rain and Ashley.

Illustration 37: Keshu’s (4y0m, p. 161) rainbow.

Illustration 38: RT’s (4y8m, p. 161) ‘blutterfly’.

Illustration 39: Ebony’s (3y8m, 161) rainbow.

Illustration 40: Murray’s (4y2m, p. 161) rainbow.

Illustration 41: Beatrice (5y6m, p. 161-162) and her family at the park.

Illustration 42: Jasper’s (5y2m, p. 164) rooms for animals to hide in.

Illustration 43: Cedrick’s (5y2m, p. 165) house in a storm.

Illustration 44: Ida’s (4y0m, p. 165) house and herself.

Illustration 45: Daniel’s (4y4m, p. 165) house with lights inside.

Illustration 46: Damian’s (4y0m, p. 165) house where his mum and dad live.

Illustration 47: Monique’s (4y2m, p. 165-166) scary skeleton.

Illustration 48: Racheal’s (5y10m, p. 166) Ferocious Raptor.

Illustration 49: Ellen’s (4y6m, p. 166) monster in her bedroom.

Illustration 50: Faith’s (4y6m, p. 166) dream about monsters.

Illustration 51: Jane’s (6y4m, p. 166) fairy land.

Illustration 52: Elizabeth’s (4y6m, p. 166) magic night.

Illustration 53: Jason (6y4m, p. 166) fishing.

Illustration 54: Hannah’s (5y0m, p. 166) mother and the baby.

Illustration 55: Veronica’s (5y6m, p. 166-167) “Vet”.

Illustration 56: Hannah’s (5y0m, p. 169) beautiful day, when she listened to music.

Illustration 57: Faith’s (4y6m, p. 171) pink rainbow picture.

Illustration 58: Robert’s (4y6m, p. 171) rainbow.

Illustration 59: Virginia (4y4m, 171) playing on the monkey bar.

Illustration 60: Kate’s (4y4m, p. 171) love hearts and herself.

Illustration 61: Kieran (6y0m, p. 171) and his mother on a beautiful day.

Illustration 62: Keshu’s (4y0m, p. 172) gumtree.

Illustration 63: Jason’s (6y4m, p. 172) sunset at the beach.

Illustration 64: Malcolm’s (4y10m, 172-173) orange alien.

Illustration 65: Jordan’s (4y6m, p. 173) big “baddie” man.

Illustration 66: Paige’s (4y4m, p. 183) music picture with the phone ringing.

Illustration 67: Kieran (6y0m, p. 193) killing the baddies.

Illustration 68: Jordan’s (4y0m, p. 194) birthday present, rockets and missiles.

Illustration 69: David’s (4y4m, p. 194) building falling down.

Illustration 70: Sheree’s (3y4m, p. 194-195) angry spiders.

Illustration 71: Catherine’s (5y4m, p. 199) peacock.

Illustration 72: Snow’s (3y8m, p. 200-201) dancing dinosaur

Illustration 73: William’s (6y8m, p. 203) house boat.

Illustration 74: Faith’s (4y6m, p. 207) “I love you” about her brother.

Illustration 75: Kate (4y4m, p. 207): When people love, they smile.

Illustration 76: Hannah (5y0m, p. 208): Kirsten and me.

Illustration 77: William’s (6y8m, p. 208) mother: “’cause I love her”.

Illustration 78: Jane (6y4m, p. 209): A wedding at night time.

Illustration 79: Saskia’s (4y8m, p. 209) wedding picture.

Illustration 80: Kinsey’s (5y6m, p. 209) rain and love heart.

Illustration 81: RT’s (4y8m, p. 214) dream

Illustration 82: Mary’s (6y2m, p. 217) trees.

Illustration 83: Snow’s (3y8m, p. 218-219) green bug

Illustration 84: Annabel’s (4y2m, p. 218) beautiful rain

Illustration 85: Annabel’s (4y2m, p. 218) garden and a house.

Illustration 86: Kinsey’s (5y6m, p. 233) Chicken Pox

Illustration 87: Julian (5y6m, p. 252-253) Love is colours.