The Ministry of Higher and Secondary Special Education of the Republic of Uzbekistan Karakalpak State University

The Faculty of Foreign Languages English Department

Introduction to Germanic philology docent Yuldashev N.Y.

Nukus - 2010

Introduction to Germanic Philology LECTURE 1 Theme: Subject and Aims of the Introduction to Germanic Philology Problems for discussion 1. 2. 3. 4.

Subject and aims of this course Genealogical classification of the Indo-European languages Modern Germanic languages Connection of the Introduction to Germanic Philology with other linguistic disciplines

Subject and Aims of the introduction to Germanic Philology A language can be considered from different angles. In studying Modern English we regard the language as fized in time and describe each linguistic level - phonetics, grammar or lexics - synchronically, taxing no account of the origin of present - day features or their tendencies to change. The synchronic approach can be contrasted to the diachronic. When considered diachronically, every linguistic fact is interpreted as a stage or step in the never-ending evolution of language. In practice the contrast between diachronic and synchronic study us not so marks as in theory. We commonly resort to history to explain current phenomena in Modern English. In describing the evolution of language we can present it as a series of synchronic cross-sectional e.g. The English language of the age of Shakespeare (16th-17th c) or the age of Chaucer (14th c). Through learning the Germanic philology every student achieves a variety of aims, both theoretical and practical. Since English belongs to the Germanic group of languages, it would be natural to expect that it has many words or roots in common with cognate Germanic languages: German, Swedish, Danish and others. You may find many more words in Modern English exact parallels in the Romance language: French, Latin, Spanish and others. English give peace

other Germanic languages g. geben sw. Giva g. Frieden sw. Fred Dutch - vrede

Romance languages Fr paix L. pace It pace sp paz

The word - give - is of native, Germanic origin. The word - peace- is borrowing from Romance languages. In present-day English the proportion of Romance roots is higher than that of native roots. One more aim of this course is to provide the student of English with a wider philological outlook. The history of Germanic languages shows the place of Germanic philology in the linguistic word, It reveals their ties and contacts with other related and unrelated tongues.

Another important aim of this course is of a more theoretical nature. While tracing the evolution of Germanic languages through time, the student will be confronted with a number of theoretical questions such as the relationship between statics and dynamics in language, the role of linguistic and exteralinguistic factors, the interdependence of different processes in language history. These problems may be considered on a theoretical plan within the scope of general linguistics. Modern linguistics has improved on the methods of comparative linguistic research th applied in the 19 century. In addition to external reconstruction which was based on comparing different languages, the reconstruction studies history from internal sources alone. This method is based on the assumption that every language is a all organised and well balanced structure of elements. Therefore, it among the productive systems there occur some smaller non-productive systems one can surmise that they are relies of preceding stages of development. When traced into the past, these systems often appear more numerous and more productive, for example, modern plural forms like oxen, teeth isolated now, were found in larger groups of nouns at an earlier period. It follows that the past history of languages can also be reconstructed by considering their dialectal varieties, since the dialects often preserve forms, words or pronunciations which have become obsolete in the literary standard. Genealogical Classification of the Indo-European languages. There are more than 2700 languages to be found in the world today and all these fall into linguistic groups which are part of linguistic family which may have appeared in different parts of the globe. The Indo-European languages as a whole are divided into major branches, in addition to which there are known to have been others which dies out without learning any written records. The major branches and their main representatives are as follows: 1. Indian group (the oldest form is Sanskrit). The main representatives of the Modern 2.

3.

4.

5.

Indian languages include Bengali, Marathi, Hindi, Gypsy and some others. Iranian group, which is represented by such languages as Avestan or Zend (old form) the so-called Pahlavi (the middle form) and Baluchi, Pushtre, Kurdish, Yagnobi, Ossetic and some other modern languages. Baltic group, which is divided into Lithuanian, the language spoken by three million th people, the old texts of which go back to the 16 century and Lettish, spoken by two million people. The Slavonic languages, which are divided into three large groups: a) Eastern Slavonic where we find three languages: Russian, spoken by more than 122 million people. Ukrainian, spoken by some 40 million people. Byelorussian, spoken by 9 million people. B) Southern Slavonic, which include: Bulgarian, spoken by 7 million people; Serbo-Croatian, spoken by 12 million people; Slovenian, spoken by 2 million people. Germanic groups of languages. Germanic languages are divided into three groups: a) North Germanic or Scandinavian which includes Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic. The songs of Edda written in Icelandic are important landmarks in world literature. B) West Germanic with: 1) English, spoken today by about 2770 million people. 2) Frisian, spoken in the provinces of Northern Netherlands, with their oldest literary sources dating from the 14th century. 3) German, spoken by about 83 million people, with two dialects - Low German and High German. 4) Dutch, spoken by 12

million people. 5) Yiddish, now spoken by Jewish population. C) East Germanic which has left no traces. The only representative of this group is Gothic, whose written records have been preserved in the fragmentary translation of the Bible by the Bishop Ulfila. 6. Italo-Celtic languages have two large groups: 1) Italic, the only language of which has survived is Latin. Latin has developed into the Romance languages: French, Italian with numerous dialects, Spanish, Portuguese, Rumanian, Moldavian. 2) Celtic includes Irish, Scottish, Briton subgroup with Breton, spoken in Wales. 7. Greek, with numerous dialects, such as Doric, Ionic-Attic, etc. The literature begins th with Homer’s poems the Iliad and the Odyssey, dating from the 8 century BC. 8. Armenian, spoken by three and a half million people in Armenia and in many settlements of Armenians in Iran, Turkey, etc. 9. Albanian, spoken by two million people in Albania. th 10. Tocharian dating from the 7 century AD. 11. Hittite, which survives in cuneiform tablets recovered from Boghazkoy in Anatolia, the site of the capital of the ancient Hittite kingdom. The Hittites or Hethites of the Bible may have been the Indo-Europeans (the Khatti mentioned in Egyptian records). The interpretation of this language and its close relation to Indo-European was announced by Bedrich Hrozny in December 1915. Its discovery has raised many new and interesting problems. Modern Germanic Languages. Languages can be classified according to different principles. The historical, or genealogical classification, groups languages in accordance with their origin from a common linguistic ancestor. Genetically, English, Geran belong to the Germanic or teutonic group of languages, which is one of the twelve groups of the IE linguistic family. Most of the area of Europe and large parts of other continents are occupied today by the IE languages, Germanic being one of their major groups. The Germanic languages in the modern world are as follows: 1. English is spoken in Great Britain, Ireland, the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the South African Republic and dominions. In India English is considered a second official language. 2. German - in Germany, Austria, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein, part of Switzerland. 3. Netherlands - in the Netherlands and Belgium, Flanders. 4. Afrikaans - in the South African Republic. 5. Danish - in Denmark 6. Swedish - in Sweden and Finland 7. Norwegian - in Norway 8. Icelandic - in Iceland 9. Frisian - in some regions of the Netherlands and Germany 10. Faroese - in the Faroe islands 11. Yiddish - in different countries, spoken by Jewish population. List of Germanic languages given in manuals and reference books differ in some points, for the distinction between separate languages, and also between languages and dialects varies.

It is difficult to estimate the number of people speaking Germanic languages. The total number of people speaking Germanic languages approaches 440 million. All the Germanic languages are related through their common origin and joint development at the early stages of history will show where and when the Germanic languages arose and acquired their common features and also how they have developed into modern independent tongues. The connection of the Introduction to Germanic philology with other linguistic disciplines. In studying this course you find a number of peculiarities which appear unintelligible from the modern point of view. These are found in the vocabulary and in the phonetic and grammatical structure of the language. In the sphere of vocabulary there is considerable likeness betten English and German. For example, the German for winter is Winter, the German for summer is Sommer, the German for sit is sitzen, etc. English has something in common with French. For example, English autumn is automna in French, English river is riviere in French. These similarities are easily observed by anyone having some knowledge of German and French. Similar facts are also found in the phonetic structure of the language, for example, in pronunciation and selling. You may be faced with a serried of phenomenon, which cannot e explained from the modern point of view. Forinstance, why does the spelling ‘ea‘ indicate different sounds in the words “speak, great, heard, heart, bear”? This question can only be answered by resorting to the history of language. Consequently, this course is also connected with disciplines studying present-day languages of Germanic, that is, with theoretical phonetics, theoretical grammar and lexicology.

Recommended Literature 1. Мейе А. Введение в сравнительно-историческое изучение Индо-Европейских языков, м-л, 1938 2. Мейе А. Основные особенности германской группы языков, М., 1952 3. Введение в германскую филологию, М., 1980 4. Morgan Dave. A short history of the British people, Leipzig, 1974 5. Tursunov B. German filologiyasiga kirish, Samarqand, 2001

LECTURE 2 THEME: Proto-Germanic classification.

Language.

Ancient

Germanic

Tribes

and

their

Problems for discussion 1. Proto-Germanic Language 2. Greek Traveller Pytheas, Greek geographer Strabo gave the first information about the ancient Teutons. 3. Julius Caesar gave a characteristic of Germanic tribes. 4. Pliny the Elder’s classification of Germanic tribes 5. The great Roman historian Cornelius Tacitus characterised the social structure of the old Germanic tribes Proto-Germanic language The history of the Germanic group begins with the appearance of the ProtoGermanic (PG) language. Photo-Germanic is also termed common or Primitive Germanic, Primitive Teutonic and simply Germanic. PG is the linguistic ancestor or the parentlanguage of the Germanic group. It is supposed to have split from related IE tongues sometime between the 15th and 10th centuries BC. The Germanic tribes belonged to the western division of the IE speech community. The Indo-European extended over a large territory, the ancient Germans (Teutans) moved further north than other tribes and settled on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea in the region of the Elbe. This place is regarded as the most probable original home of the Teutons. It is here that the Teutons developed their first specifically Germanic features which made them a separate group in the IE family. PG is an entirely pre-historical language. It is never recorded in written form. In the 19th century it was reconstructed by methods of comparative linguistics from written evidence in descendant languages. Hypothetal reconstructed PG forms will sometimes be quoted below, to explain the origin of English forms. It is believed that at the earlier stages of history PG was fundamentally one language, though dialectally coloured. In its later stages dialectical differences grew, so that towards the beginning of our era PG divided into dialectal groups and tribal dialects. Dialectal differentiation increased with the migrations and geographical expansion of the Teutons caused by over population, poor agricultural technique and scanty natural resources in the areas of their original settlement. Towards the beginning of out era the common period of Germanic history came to an end. The Teutons had extended over a larger territory and the PG language broke into parts. Ancient Germanic Tribes and Their Classification.

Old Germanic tribes in the first centuries of our era were passing through the stage of development which is signalised by the term “barbarism”. Our knowledge of the ancient Germans is based on testimonies by Greek and Roman writers, who for some reason or other were interested in them. The earliest of these was Greek traveller and astronomer Pytheas, from Maiseiller, who lived in the 4th century BC. He sailed from his native town through the straits of Gibraltar along the west coast of France, along the channel, and he may even have reached the Baltic. Pytheas’s work has not come down to us, only a few fragments have been preserved by the Greek geographer Strabo (63 BC - 20 AD). Strabo was the author of a large work “Geography”. Some fragments have also been preserved by Roman writer Pliny the Elder (Cains Plinius Secundus 23-79 AD). The Roman general, statesman and writer Julius Caesar (Cains Julius Caesar - 10044 BC) gives several chapters in his work “Commentaries on the War in Gaul (Commentarii de bello Galico)” to the Germans, whom he combated and dealt with on the Rhine. Caesar’s statement that the Germans lived in tribes and tribal unions is of particularly great value for the historians. It also follows from Caesar’s account that the Teutons were nomads in his time. About a century later, Pliny the Elder wrote about the Teutons in his great work “Natural History”. Pliny gave a classification of Germanic tribes, which has been basically accepted by modern historians. According to Pliny, Germanic tribes in the 1st century AD consisted of the following groups: 1. the Vindili (among them were the Goths and the Burgundians). They inhabited the eastern part of Germanic territory. 2. the Ingraeones (or Ingaevones). They inhabited the north-western part f Germanic territory, that is the shores of the Northern Sea, including what is now the Netherlands. 3. the Iscaevones (or Istaevones). These tribes inhabited the western part of Germanic territory, on the Rhine. Among them were the Franks, who eventually conquered Gaul. 4. the Hermiones (Herminones). They inhabited the southern part of Germanic territory, i.e. what is now southern Germany. 5. the Peucinl and Bastarnae. They lived close to the Dacians, close to what is now Rumania. 6. the Hilleviones, who inhabited Scandinavia. If we include Pliny’s group 5 into group 1 we obtain the five groups. The mutual relation between classification of Germanic tribes based on Pliny’s work and that of Germanic languages based on analyses made by nineteenth-century linguists appears in the following shape: Tribes Vindili Inguaeones Istraevones Herminones Hilleviones

Languages Eastern Germanic Western Germanic Northern Germanic

This natural correspondence is additional proof of the value of Pliny’s classification. Later research undertaken in the twentieth century and applying the methods of linguistic geography have somewhat modified the classification. East Germanic languages have been dead for many centuries. Next after Pliny comes the Great Roman historian Cornelius Tacitud (born ab. 55, died ab. 120 AD). In his short work “Germania” (the full title is De Situ, moribus at populis germaniae) Tacitus characterised the social structure of the old Germanic tribes around 100 AD. Tacitius results were widely used by Friedrich Engels in his work “On the History of Ancient Germans.”

Recommended Literature 1. Мейе А. Введение в сравнительно-историческое изучение индо-европейских языков, 1938 2. Введение в германскую филологию. М., 1980 3. Morgan D. A short history of the British people. Leipzig, 1974 4. Tursunov B. German filologiyasiga kirish. Samarqand, 2001

LECTURE 3 THEME: The classification of Germanic Languages Problems for discussion: 1. The migration of the Germanic tribes 2. East Germanic languages 3. North Germanic languages 4. West Germanic languages 5. The invasion of the British Isles The earliest migration of Germanic tribes from the lower valley of the Elbe consisted in their movement north, to the Scandinavian peninsula a few hundred years before, our era. This geographical segregation must have led to linguistic differentiation and to the division of PG into the northern and southern branches. At the beginning of our era some of the settled closer to the visual basin, east of the other continental Germanic tribes. It is only from this stage of their history that the Germanic languages can be described under three headings. The classification of Germanic languages. Germanic languages are classified into three groups: 1) East Germanic, 2) North Germanic, 3) West Germanic. East Germanic Languages. The East Germanic subgroup was formed by the tribes who returned from Scandinavia at the beginning of our era (1242 -era). The most numerous and powerful of them were the Goths. They were among the first Teutons to leave the coast of the Baltic Sea, and start on their great migrations. Around 200 AD they moved south-east and some time later they reached the lower basin of the Danube, where they made attacks on the Eastern Roman Empire, Buzantium. Their western branch, the “Visigota” invaded Roman territory, participated in the assaults on Rome under Alaric and moved on the southern Gaul, to found one of the first barbarian kingdom of Medieval Europe, the Toulouse kingdom. The kingdom lasted until the 8th century, though linguistically the western Goths were soon absorbed by the native population, , the Romanised Celts. The eastern Goths

“ostrogota” consolidated into a powerful tribal alliance in the lower basin of the Aniester. The short-lived flourishing of “ostrogothic” culture in the 5th - 6th centuries under Theodoric. The Gothic language, now dead, has been preserved in written records of the 4th6th centuries. The Goths were the first of the Teutons to become Christian. In the 4th century Ulfilas, a west Gothic bishop made a translation of the Gospels from Greek into Gothic using a modified form of the Greek alphabet. E.g. Parts of Ulfilas’ gospels - a manuscript of about two hundreds pages, probably made in the 5th or 6th c. This manuscript has been preserved and is kept now in Upsala, Sweden. This manuscript is written on red parchment with silver and golden letters. It is known as the “silver codex” (codex argenteus). Ulfilas’ Gospels were first published in the 17th c. Gospels have been studied by 19th and 20th c. philologists. The “Silver codex” is one of the earliest texts in the languages of the Germanic group. It represents a form of language very close to Proto-Germanic (PG). The other East Germanic languages are dead now and they have left no written traces. But some of their tribal names have survived as Bornholm and Burgundy. North Germanic Languages The North Germanic tribes lived on the southern coast of the Scandinavian peninsula and Northern Denmark. They did not participate in the migrations and were relatively isolated, though they may have come into closer contact with the Western tribes after the Goths left the coast of the Baltic Sea. The speech of the North Germanic tribes showed little dialectical variation until the 9th c. and is regarded as a sort of common North Germanic parent-language called “Old Norse or Old Scandinavian”. It has come down to us in runic inscriptions dated from he 3rd to the 9th c. An original Germanic alphabet is known as the “runic alphabet” or the “runes”. The runes were used by North and west Germanic tribes. The disintegration of Old Norse into separate dialects and languages began after the 9th c. when the Scandinavians started out on their sea voyages. The famous “Viking Age” from about 800 to 1050 AD is the legendary age of Scandinavian raids and expansion overseas. The principal linguistic differentiation in Scandinavia corresponded to the political division into Sweden, Denmark and Norway. The three kingdoms constantly fought for dominance of three languages altered. For several hundred years Denmark was the most powerful of the Scandinavian kingdoms. Norway fell under Danish rule. Sweden regained its independence in the 16th c. Consequently, both Swedish and Norwegian were influenced by Danish. West Germanic Languages Around the beginning of our era the West Germanic tribes dwelt in the lowlands between the Oder and the Elbe bordering on the Slovenian tribe n the East and the Celtic tribes in the South. The dialectal differentiation of West Germanic was probably quite distinct even at the beginning of our era since Pliny and Tacitus decrised them under three tribal names, on the eve of their “Great Migrations” of the 4th and 5th c. west Germans included several tribes. The Franks (or Franconians) occupied the lower basin of the Rhine, from there they spread up the Rhine and accordingly subdivided into Low, Middle and High Franconians. The Angles and the Frisians (known as the Anglo-Frisian group) the jutes and the Saxons

inhabited the coastal area of the modern Netherlands, Germany and the Southern part of Denmark. The High Germans included a number of tribes whose names a known since the early Middle Ages: Alemanians, Swabians, Bavarians, Thuringians and others. In the Early Middle Ages the Franks consolidated into a powerful tribal alliance. Towards the 8th c. their kingdom grew into one of the largest states in western Europe. But the empire lacked ethic and economic unity and in the 9th broke up into parts. Its western part eventually became the basis of France. Though the names France, French are derived from the tribal name of the Franks. The Franconian (or the Frank) dialects were not spoken there. The population, the Romanised Celts of Gaul, spoke a local variety of Latin, which developed into one of the most extensive Romance languages, French. The earliest part, the East Franconian Empire, comprised several kingdoms: Alemania, Bavaria, East Franconia and Saxony. As seen from the names of the kingdoms, the East Franconian state had a mixed population consisting of several West Germanic tribes. The Franconian dialects were spoken in the extreme North of the Empire; in the later Middle Ages they developed into Dutch - the language of the Low Countries (the Netherlands) and Flemisa - the language of Flanders. The earliest texts in Low Franconian date from the 10 th c. The Modern language of the Netherlands, formerly called “Dutch” and its variant in Belgium, known as the Gremish dialect, are now treated as a single language “Netherlandish”. Netherlandish is spoken by almost 20 million people. About three hundred years ago the Dutch language was brought to South Africa by colonists from Southern Holland. Their dialects in Africa grew into a separate West Germanic language, “Afrikaans”. Afrikaans has incorporated elements from the speech of English and German colonists in Africa and from the tongues of the natives. Writing in Afrikaans began at the and of the 19th c. Today Afrikaans is the Mother-tongue of over four million Afrikaans and coloured people and one of the state languages in the South African Republic (alongside English). The High German group of tribes did not go far in their migrations. The High German dialects consolidated into a common language known as “Old High German (OHG)”. The first written records in OHG date from the 8th and 9th c. The High German language in a modified form is the national language of Austria, the language of Liechtenstein and one of he languages in Luxembourg and Switzerland. The total number of German-speaking people approaches 100 million. Yiddish grew from the High German dialects which were adopted by numerous Jewish communities scattered over the Germany 11th and 12th century. These dialects blended with elements of Hebrew and Slavonic and developed into a separate West Germanic language with a spoken and literary form. Yiddish was exported from Germany to many other countries. At the later stage of the Great migration - in the 5th - a group of Germanic tribes started out on their invasion of the British Isles. The invaders came from the lowlands near the North Sea: the Angles, part of the Saxons and Frisians and probably, the Jutes. Their dialects in the British Isles developed into the English language. The territory of English was at first confined to what is now known as England proper. From the 13th to the 17th c. it extended to other parts of the British Isles. The first English written records have come down from 7th c. Frisian has survived as a local dialect in Friesland (in the Netherlands). It has an oral and written form, the earliest records dating from the 13th c. In the Early Middle Ages the continental Saxons formed a powerful tribe in the lower basin of the Elbe. Old Saxon known in written from the records of the 9th c.

Recommended Literature 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Мейе А. Основные особенности германской группы языков. М., 1952 Прокош Э. Сравнительная грамматика германских языков. М., 1954 Жирмунский В. Ш. История немецкого языка. М., 1959 Ильин Г.А. История английского языка. М., 1968 Введение в германскую филологию. М., 1980 Tursunov B. German filologiyasiga kirish. Samarqand, 2001

LECTURE 4 THEME: Germanic Alphabets. Gradation. Substratum theory. Problems for discussion: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The Runic alphabet The Gothic alphabet The Latin alphabet Gradation (Ablaut) Substratum Theory (The ways of an explanation)

Germanic Alphabets Germanic tribes used three different for their writings. These alphabets partly succeed each other in time. 1. The earliest of these was the Runic alphabet, each separate letter being called a Rune. The word rune originally meant “secret”, “mystery” and hence came to denote inscriptions believed to be magic. Later the word rune was applied to the characters used in writing these inscriptions. There is no doubt that the art of runic writing was known to the Germanic tribes long before they came to Britain, since runic inscriptions have also been found in Scandinavia. The runes were used as letters, each symbols to indicated a separate sound. In some inscriptions the runes were found arranged in a fixed order making a sort of alphabet. After the first six letters this alphabet is called futhark . The runic alphabet is a specifically Germanic alphabet, not to be found in languages of other groups. The letters are angular, straight lines are preferred, curved lines avoided. This is due to the fact that runic inscriptions were cut in hard material: stone, bone or wood. The order of the runes in the alphabet is certainly original. To this day the origin of the runes is a matter of conjecture.

The rune denoting the vowel «e» was , the rune denoting the consonant «f» was etc. The runes consisted of 24 symbols:

Just when and where the Runic alphabet was created is not known. It is supposed that it originated at some time in the 2nd and 3rd century Ad, somewhere on the Rhine or Danube, where Germanic tribes came into contact with Roman culture. The Runic alphabet was used by Goths, Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians, Numerous Runic inscriptions survive on rocks in different parts of Scandinavia.

II. The next alphabet is the alphabet of Ulfila’s gothic translation of the bible (4th century), a peculiar alphabet based on the Greek alphabet, with some admixture of Latin and Runic letters. The Gothic alphabet consisted of 27 letters. Every letter or symbol in Gothic alphabet had also a meaning as a number:

1

a

aza

7

z

ezec

40

2 3 4 5 6 10 0 20 0 30 0

b g d e q r

bercna gena daaz eyz quertra reda

8 9 10 20 30 400

h i k L w

haal thyth iiz chozma laaz uuinna

s

sygil

500

f

t

tuz

600

x

m

50 60 70 80 90 700

mann a noiez j u p w

n gaaz uraz pertra корра uuaer

fe

800

o

utal

enguz

900

-

sampi

(у)

(I)

Two letters «koppa - y» and «sampi - I» and only a meaning of a number. In modern edition of the Gothic text a Latin transcription of the Gothic alphabet is used. III. The latest alphabet to be used by Germanic tribes is the Latin alphabet «Introduction of

the Latin alphabet accompanied the spread of Christianity and of Latin language Christian religious texts. Latin alphabet superseded both the Runic and the Gothic alphabets when a new technique of writing was introduced, namely that of spreading the letters. The material used for writing was either parchment or papyrus. Like elsewhere in Western Europe Lain in Britain was the language of the church and also the language of writing and education. The monks were practically the only literate people. The read and wrote Latin and therefore began to use Latin letters write down English words. Like the scribes of other countries, British scribes modified the Latin script to suit their needs. The scribes changes the shape of some letters, added new symbols to indicate sounds, for which Latin ad no equivalents, attached new sound values to Latin letters.

The first English words to be written down with the help of Lain characters were personal names and place names inserted in Latin texts. Then there came glosses and longer texture insertions. Gradation, or Ablaut. In IE languages there is a special kind of vowel alternation, usually called gradation, or ablaut. Ablaut is an independent vowel interchange unconnected with any phonetic conditions, different vowels appear in the same environment surrounded by the same sounds. For example in Russian as вез-у-воз, греш-ит-грош, выбер-у-выбор. Vowel gradation did not reflect any phonetic changes, but it was used as a special independent device to differentiate between words and grammatical forms built from the same root. In the Gothic Bible of the 4th century, the system of gradation appears in a very clear shape, whereas in the earliest documents of other Germanic languages. Let’s take the first five classes of gothic strong verbs: class I II III IV V

Infinitive reisan «rise» kiusan «choose» bindan «bind» stilan «steal» giban «give»

past singular rais kaus band stal gaf

past plural risum kusum bundum stelum gebum

second participle risans kusans bundans stulans gibans

As can e seen from these forms, gradation is as follows: I II III IV V

i: iu i i i

ai au a a a

i u u e e

i u u u i

Substratum Theory Verner’s law, based on a comparison of Germanic words with their Greek, Sanskrit and Slavonic counterparts shows that in some cases the root vowel in Germanic languages was originally unstressed. This leafs to the inevitable conclusion that originally stress in Germanic languages had been free. In the earliest Germanic texts we find a system of fixed stress (on the first syllable), which was the result of a change of the original free-stress system. Such important events in the history of Germanic languages as the first consonant shift and the change in the stress system pose a important question: What could be the cause of the consonant shift and of the substitution of one system of stress by an different one? Obviously, there are two possible ways of an explanation: 1) internal factors which caused these changes; 2) external influences. If we consider the second possible view that it is the so-called substratum theory which has received wide popularity. Substratum means «under-layer». The essence of the substratum theory is the first consonant shift and the change in the stress system were caused by events in the social life of tribes speaking Germanic languages. According to this theory, that Germanic languages arose as a result of part of the tribes, who spoke IE languages conquering some other tribes, who presumably spoke some non-Indo-European

languages. The conquered tribes acquired the language of the conquerors. But in doing so they introduced some of their own pronunciation habits, characteristic of the language they had been originally speaking. These pronunciation habits determined the characteristic phonetic features of Germanic languages which came into being as a result of the conquest. As for the system of stress, it is natural to suppose that the original language of the conquered tribes had a fixed stress on the first syllable, which was adopted by Germanic languages. An eminent adherent of the substratum theory, the French linguist Antoine Meillet (1866-1936) has made an interesting attempt to explain all parts of the consonant shift by one common tendency. A. Meillet thought the main principle was the lateness of the vocal chords articulation as compared with that of the lips and the tongue. If this view is accepted the consonant shift and the change of stress appear as a result of the influence of a conquered «under layer» (Мейе А. Основные особенности герм. Груп. Яз., Ь. 1972, с. 39-41). Сторонники теории субстрата объясняют передвижение согласных влияние побежденного языка - «субстрата» на язык - победитель. Носители побежденного языка сохранили свои артикуляционные навыки при усвоении языка-победителяодного из индоeвропейских диалектов. The other view is that as the substratum theory cannot be proved to be right, you ought to look for some possible internal causes of the phonetic developments. However, many attempts in this direction cannot be described as successful. Психологическая теория. Э. Прокош полагает, что на произношение германцев мог повлиять язык вождей (Прокош Э. Сравнительная грамматика германских языков, М. 1954).

Recommended Literature 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Мейе А. Основные особенности германской группы языков. М, 1952 Прокош Э. Сравнительная грамматика германских языков. М., 1954 Ильиш Б.А. История английского языка. Л., 1973 Жирмунский В.Ш. История немецкого языка, М., 1959 Введение в германскую филологию. М., 1980 Tursunov B. German filologiyasiga kirissh, Samarqand 2001

LECTURE 5 THEME: Linguistic Features of Germanic Languages Problems for discussion: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Word stress Vowels in Germanic languages The first consonant shift J. Grimm’s Law K. Verner’s Law Process of rhotacism

Linguistic Features of Germanic Languages All the Germanic languages of the past and present have common linguistic features; some of these features are shared by other groups in the IE family, others are specifically Germanic. The Germanic group acquired their specific distinctive features after the separation of the ancient Germanic tribes from other IE tribes. Other common features developed later, in the course of the individual histories of separate Germanic languages, as a result of similar tendencies arising from PG causes.

Phonetics. Word-stress. It is known that in ancient IE, prior to the separation of Germanic there existed two ways of word accentuation: musical pitch and force stress. The position of the stress was free and movable, which means that it could fall on any syllable of the word - a root morpheme, an affix or an ending. (R. Домом, дома, дома, домовничать). In early PG word stress was still as movable as in ancient IE but in Late PG its position in the word was stabilized. The stress was fixed on the first syllable, which was usually the root of the word and sometimes the prefix; the other syllables were suffixes and endings were unstressed. The stress could no longer move either in form-building or wordbuilding. These features of word accent were inherited by the Germanic languages. In Modern English there is a sharp contrast between accented and unaccented syllables. The main accent commonly falls on the root-morpheme and is never shifted in building grammatical forms: German ‘Liebe, ‘lieben, ‘liebte, ge’liebt. Since the stress was fixed on the root, the weakening and loss of sounds mainly affected the suffixes and grammatical endings: PG - fiskaz, gt. Fisks, OIL - fiskr, OE - fisc=fish. PG - Proto-Germanic, gt - gothic, OIL - old Icelandic. Vowels Strict differentiation of long and short vowels is commonly regarded as an important characteristic of the Germanic group. IE short [o] changed in Germanic into the more open vowel [a]; PIE [a:] changed PG [o:];

PIE o

PG a

non-Germanic L. nox, Ir. Noch, R. Ночь R. могу, мочь

a:

o:

L. mater R.мать OInd. Bhrata

Germanic old modern Gt. Nahts SW. Natt Oicel natt G. Nacht OHG naht Gt. Magan SW. Ma OE mazan NE may Oicel. Mo ir SW. Moder OE modor NE mother GT bro ar SW broder OE bro or NE brother

In Late PG, in the vowel system contained the following sounds: short vowels - i, e, a, o, u; long vowels - i:, e:, a:, o:, u:. PIE - Proto-Indo-European Sw - Swedish WG - West Germanic MG - North Germanic Sanskr - Sanskrit Lith - Lithuanian

OE - Old English NE - New English OS - Old Saxon It - Italian e.g. example gratia - for instance Sp - Spanish R - Russian

L -Latin Ir - Irish

OInd - Old Indian OHG - Old High German

Consonants. The First consonant shift. Jacob Grimm’s Law. The specific peculiarities of consonants constitute the most remarkable distinctive feature of the Germanic linguistic group. Comparison with other languages within the IE family reveals regular correspondences between Germanic and Non-Germanic consonants. The changes of consonants stated in the law of the first consonant shift were found out by comparative linguistics early in the 19th century. These changes of consonants in PG were first formulated in terms of a phonetic law by Jacob Grimm (1785-1863). Jacob Ludwig Grimm was a great German Linguist and fairy-tales collector. These phenomena are also known as the «First or Proto-Germanic consonant shift». Grimm’s Law expresses regular correspondences between consonants of Germanic and those of other Indo-European languages. When we compare words of Germanic languages with the corresponding word of other Indo-European languages we find correspondences between them: 1. IE voiceless stops (p, t, k) correspond to Germanic voiceless fricatives (f, , h) 2. IE voiced stops (b, d, g) correspond to Germanic voiceless stops (p, t, k) 3. IE voiced aspirated stops (bh, dh, gh) correspond to Germanic voiced stops without aspiration (b, d, g) This consonant shift is called the first, to distinguish it from the second consonant shift, which occurred in High German dialects in the 5th-7th centuries.

Grimm’s Law Sounds IE Germ p f

Examples IE Latin - Pater - father Greek - pater Sanskrit - Pitar Latin - Plenus - full Greek - pleos Russian - полный Latin - piscis - рыба

t

Sanskrit - napat - потомок Greek - anepsios - племянник Latin - nepos - племянник Latin - tres Sanskrit - trayas Russian -три Greek - treis Latin - tu Sanslrit - vartati Russian - ты (вертитея)

Examples Germanic Gothic - fadar OE - f der OHG - fater Oicel - fa ir

Gothic - fisks OE - fisk OHG - fisk Oicel - fiskr OE nefa - родственник, племянник OHG - nevo - родственник, племянник Oicel - nefi - родственник, племянник

Gothic - reis, OE - reo, Oicel - rir, OHG - dri Gothic - u, Gothic - wair an OE - u, OE - weor an

k

h

b

p

d

t

g

Latin - edere - еда Russian - еда Sanskrit - yugam Greek - zygon Latin - iugum Russian - иго Latin - ego - я Greek - ego (n)

k

bh

b

dh

d (or

gh

Greek - kardia - сердце Latin - cord, cordis Sanskrit - daca - десять Greek - deka Latin - decem Lith. - bala Russian - болото Sanskrit - dva (u) - два Greek - dijo

g

)

Sanskrit - bharami - несу Greek - phero Latin - fero Russian - быть Sanskrit - madhya - средний madhyas Latin - medius Sanskrit - dhrsuh - смелый Sanskrit - hamsa - гусь, лебедь Greek - khen Latin (h)anser Latin - hostis - врач Russian - гость Latin - lectus Russian - залегать w IE gh Greek - omphe (*songwha) - голос

Gothic - hairto, OHG - hjarta, OE - heorte, OHG- herza Gothic - aihum -десять OHG - zeham OE - pol - пруд OHG - pfuol Gothic - twai OE - twa Oicel - tveir Gothic - itan OE - etan Gothic - itan OE - zeoc Oicel - OK Gothic - ik OE - ic Oicel - ek Gothic - bairan, Oicel - bera - нести OE - beran OHG - beran OE - beon, OHG - bin, bist Gothic - midjis OE - middel OS - Old Saxon - middi OE - dear - смеет OE - gos - гусь, Oicel - gestr - гость Oicel - gas Gothic - gasts - гость OE - ziest OHG - gast Gothic - ligan OE - liczan NE - lie German - liegen w Germanic g Gothic - siggwan - петь OE - singan , OHG - singan

K. Verner’s Law In some words we find in Germanic languages consonants which do not fit into Grimm’s law as formulated above. In some cases it is voiced stops, rather than voiceless fricatives, that correspond in Germanic to IE voiceless stops. Exemple gratia (e.g.), Latin pater, Greek - pater, Sanskrit - piter and Gothic - fadar, OE - f der. It is a Germanic «d» that correspond to IE «t». Greek - dekas ( a ten) and Gothic - tigus, where Germanic «g» corresponds to IE «k». Explanation of these apparent exceptions to Grimm’s law was offered in 1877 by the Danish scholar Karl Verner. The law, which has since been termed Verner’s Law, adds the following note to Grimm’s Law. If an IE voiceless stop was preceded by an unstressed vowel, the voiceless fricative which developed from it in accordance with Grimm’s law became voiced, and later this voiced fricative became a voiced stop. In the Greek word «pater» the voiceless stop «t» as preceded by an unstressed vowel. Under these circumstances the voiceless

fricative « « which developed from it in accordance with Grimm’s law became a voiced fricative « » and eventually this voiced fricative developed into the voiced stop «d». If the preceding vowel is unstressed, consonant «s» in Germanic languages becomes voiced, i.e. changes into «z». This «z» becomes «r» in western Germanic and Northern Germanic languages (but not in Gothic). This latter change «z>r» is termed rhotacism» (the term us derived from the name of the Greek letter «o (rho)»). Compare: Gothic - hausjan - «hear» OE - hieran German - horen laisjan - «teach» l ran lehren Recommended Literature 1. Мейе А. Введение в сравнительно-историческое изучение индоевропейских 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

языков. М-Л., 1938 Мейе А. Основные особенности германской группы языков. М., 1952 Жирмунский В. Ш. Общее т германское языкознание. Л., 1976 Гухман М.М. Готский язык. М., 1958 Введение в германскую филологию. М., 1980 Tursunov B. German filologiyasiga kirish. Samarqand, 2001

LECTURE 6 Theme: Grammatical Features of Germanic Languages Problems for discussion: 1. Morphological system of substantives 2. Stem-building suffixes 3. Types of stems 4. Declension of adjectives 5. Classes of pronoun Grammar. The Substantive The morphological system of substantives in Germanic, as well as in other IE languages is based on a common principle, which is not equally evident in all cases. The gothic language, that is, the Gothic text of the 4th century which has come down to us, shows this principle more clearly than any other old Germanic language. You must base

your analysis on Gothic facts. Because in those other languages the principle (Законы языковые) has been obscured by Latin phonetic and grammatical changes. The structure of a substantive in Germanic consists of three elements: 1) the root, 2) a stem-building suffix, 3) a case inflexion. The meaning of the root is the lexical meaning of the substantive. The meaning of the case inflexion expresses the relation between the thing devoted by the substantive and other things or actions. The meaning of the stem-building suffix is much core difficult to define. The text of Old Germanic languages belong showed that this suffix no longer has any meaning at all. It would appear that originally stem-building suffixes were a means of classifying substantives according to their meanings. There is only one type of substantive in Gothic which is characterised by a distinct semantic feature. There are substantives denoting relationship and derived by means of the stem-forming suffix “-r”, e.g.: fadar - father; bro ar - brother; swister -sister. In Gothic you can clearly see the stem-building suffixes in several types of substantives in the dative plural. e.g. dagam - to days; gibom - to gifts; gastim - to guests; sunum - to sons. Each of these forms is easily divided into three elements. The form dagam consists of the root dag-, the stem-building suffix - a- , and the case inflexion - m. The form gibom consists of the root gib-, the stem-building suffix - o - and the case inflexion -m. These suffixes are also clearly seen in the accusative plural of these substantives: dagans, gibos, gastins, sununs. In some other case forms the suffixes are no longer visible, as in the nominative singular forms: dags, giba, gasts, sunus. In the form sunus, the stem-building suffix -u- is clearly seen. This originally three-part structure is changed into a two-part structure in the earliest documents of Germanic languages. The stem-building suffix, having lost its own meaning coalesces with the case inflexion. As a result, the stem of the substantive, which originally consisted of the root plus the stem-building suffix, now consist of the root alone.

Types of Stems In Old Germanic languages there are the following types of substantive stems: 1) vocalic stems: -a-, -o-, -i-, -u- stems. Declension of these substantives has been called strong declension. 2) -n- stems. Declension of these is called weak declension. 3) Stems in other consonants: -s-, and -r- stems. 4) Root - stems. This is a peculiar type: These substantives never had a stem-building suffix, so that their stem had always coincided with their root. The Adjective Declension of adjectives in Old Germanic languages is complicated in a way which finds no parallel in other IE languages. In Latin declension of adjectives does not differ from that of substantives.

In Germanic languages from the earliest texts, things are different. Declension of adjectives differs from that of substantives in two-ways: 1. Every adjective is declined according to the strong declension (with a vocalic stem) and to the weak declension (with an -n- stem). Weak declension dorms are used when the adjectives is preceded by a demonstrative pronoun or the definite article, they are associated with the meaning of definiteness. 2. Strong declension of adjectives does not coincide with strong declension of substantives: forms of several cases correspond to declension of pronouns, so that strong declension of adjectives as a whole is a combination of substantival and pronounal forms. In Old IE languages, e.g. in Ancient Greek substantives with -n- stem are derived from adjectives, e.g. Greek “Strabos” - adjective. ”Squinting” gives rise to “strabon” “squinting man” and hence the proper name Strabon (a Greek astronomer and geographer of the 1st century AD); platys adj. - broad - shouldered - platon “broad-shouldered man” and hence the Platon of the Greek philosopher (5th-4th century BC). In English the corresponding names appear as Strabo and Plato. The forms of the Latin nominative case, where the -n- of the stem has been dropped. The Pronoun In the early periods of history the grammatical forms were built in the synthetic way: by means of inflections, sound interchanges, suppletion. The suppletive way of formbuilding was inherited from ancient IE, it was restricted to a few personal pronouns, adjectives and verbs. Compose the following forms of pronouns in Germanic and nonGermanic languages: L ego mei mihi

Fr. je mon me, moi

R я меня мне

Goth ik meina mis

OICU ek min mer

OE ic min me

NE I my, mine me

Germanic pronouns fell roughly under the same main classes as modern pronouns: personal, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, definite, negative, and relative. In OE, as in Gothic, there are besides singular and plural personal pronouns, also dual pronouns for the 1st and 2nd persons.

case nom. gen. dat. acc. nom.

First person singular dual ic wit min uncer me unc mec, me uncit Second person u it

plural we ure, user us usic, us e

gen. dat. acc

nom gen. dat. acc.

in incer e inc ec, e incit, inc Third person, singular m f n he heo, hio hit his hire, hiere his him hire, hiere him hine hie, hi, hy hit

eower eow eowic, eow plural all genders hie, hi, hy, heo hira, heora, hiera, hyra him, heom hie, hi, hy, heo

Recommended Literature 1. Сравнительная грамматика германских языков I-IV г.г. М., 1962-1966

2. Введение в германскую филологию. М., 1980 3. Жирмунский В.Ш. Оющее и германское языкознание. Л., 1976 4. Ilyish B. History of the English language. L., 1973 5. Tursunov B. German filologiyasiga kirish. Samarqand, 2001

LECTURE 7 THEME: The verb system of Germanic Languages Problems for discussion: 1. Strong verbs 2. Forms of the strong verbs 3. Classes of strong verbs

4. Weak verbs 5. Forms of the weak verbs 6. Germanic vocabulary The Verb The verb system of Old Germanic languages consists of different elements. The main mass of verbs are strong verbs, which derive their past tense and second participle by means of a suffix -d- ( -t- ). Besides these two large groups, there are also the preterit-present verbs, with a peculiar system of forms, and a few irregular verbs, which do not being to any of the preceding groups. Strong verbs J. Grimm called the verbs strong because they had preserved the richness of form since the age of the parent-language and in this sense weak verbs had not such variety of form. The system of strong verbs is based on vowel gradation, which is also found in verbs of other IE languages, especially in Ancient Greek. The Old Germanic languages have a system of two tenses, present and past. But comparing the facts of Germanic languages to the other IE languages, particularly Greek, we came to conclusion that the distinction was not between tenses, but between aspects. There appear to have been three aspects: the continuous, the momentaneous, and the resultative. Greek: leipo I leave (continuos) eli on I left (momentaneous - past) leloipa I have left (resultative - perfect) From these original three aspects the tenses of Germanic strong verbs developed: The continuos aspect yielded the present tense. The momentaneous aspect yielded the past tense. The fate of the resultative aspect was twefold. In the system of strong verbs it joined the momentaneous aspect to form the past tense. Forms of the strong verbs Every strong verb is characterised by four basic forms: the infinitive, the past singular, the past plural, the second participle. All strong verbs fall into seven classes according to the type of gradation. The first five classes have been discussed in connection with gradation. Class VI is built on a principle different from the first five. Here the gradation is ao-o-a. In Gothic class VI is represented, for example, by the verb “faran” - to go. infinitive VI faran - go

past singular for

past plural second participle forum farans

In Gothic we find the following forms of class VII verbs: VII haitan - call VII letan - let

haihait lailot

haihaitum lailotum

haitans letans

Verbs of class VII (haitan) type have no vowel alternation. Verbs of class VII (letan) type have an alternation - e -, - o -, which is, among long vowels, apparelled to the IE, short vowel alternation - e -, - o -. Weak verbs Weak verbs derive their past tense and second participle by means of a dental suffix. These verbs are peculiar to Germanic languages. In all Germanic languages except Gothic there were three classes of weak verbs, which were distinguished by their stem-building suffixes. In Gothic there was also a fourth class. The Gothic classes of weak verbs had the following forms: infinitive I hausjan - hear II salbon - salve1 III haban - have IV fullnan - fill

past singular hausida salboda habaida fullnoda

past plural hausidedum salbodedum habaidedum fullnodedum

second participle hausi s salbo s habai s -

As will be seen from these verb forms, the stem-building suffix is - j - in class I; - o - in class II; - ai - in class III; - n (o) - in class IV. Originally each of these suffixes must have had its meaning. It characterised verbs of a certain semantic group. However, if we consider Gothic weak verbs, we shall not be able to find any semantic feature common to the verbs of any of the first three classes. It is only in class IV that a common semantic feature can be found. These verbs are all intransitive, and they denote a change into a new state. Class IV verbs has not a second participle. In Modern English we find a suffix - en, used to derive either intransitive verbs meaning change into a new state or transitive ones denoting an action bringing about a new state, such as stiffen, worsen, redden, weaken, strengthen, etc. In conclusion we may say that the strong verbs built their principal forms with the help of root vowel interchanges plus certain grammatical endings. The weak verbs built the Past tense and Participle II by inserting a special suffix between the root and the ending. The strong verbs: PG mak - oj - an OE mac - ian past tense - mac - ode NE make, made The weak verbs: Goth domjan - infinitive domida - past tense domi s - participle II NE deem - [i:] - полагать, думать deemed The dental suffixes - d, are markers of the past tense and participle II. Germanic Vocabulary

1

salve [sα:v] v. смазывать (мазью); сглаживать; успокоить.

The most ancient etymological layer in Germanic language vocabulary is made up of words shared by most IE languages. They refer to a number of semantic spheres: natural phenomena, plants and animals, term of kinship, verbs denoting basic activities of man, some pronouns and numerals. Words which occur in Germanic alone and have no parallels outside constitute the specific features of the Germanic languages; they appeared in PG or in later history of separate languages from purely Germanic roots. They also belong to basic spheres of life, nature, sea, home life. The examples of Germanic words, whose roots have not been found outside the group: Old Germanic languages Goth Oicel hus hus drigkan drekka land land saiws s r visdomr

OHG hus trinkan lant seo wistuom

OE hus drincan land s wisdom

Modern Germanic languages SW Ger NE hus Haus house dricka trinken drink land Land land sjo See sea visdom wisdom

A large number of words must have been borrowed from Latin prior to the migration of West Germanic tribes to Britain. L. pondo L. strata L. schola L. magister

Goth pund OHG straza Greek - skhole -

OE pund OE str t OE scol OE mazister

NE pound NE street NE school NE master, teacher

Recommended Literature 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Сравнительная грамматика германских языков I-IV тт. М., 1962-1966 Смирницкий А.И. Древнеанглийский язык. М., 1955 Жирмунский В. Ш. Общее и германское языкознание. Л., 1976 Ильин Г.А. История английского языка. М., 1968 Введение в германскую филологию. М., 1980 Tursunov B. German filologiyasiga kirish. Samarqand, 2001

LECTURE 8 THEME: The Gothic language

Problems for discussion: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The Goths and their migrations. The vowel system of the Gothic language The peculiarity of the spelling of the Gothic vowels The consonant system of the Gothic language The morphological structure of the Gothic language

The Gothic language The East Germanic group was formed by the tribes who came from Scandinavia at the beginning of our era. Among them there were the Goths. The Goths were the most numerous and powerful. The Goths were the first Teutons who left the coast of the Baltic Sea and started on their great migrations. At the beginning of the 2nd century AD the Goths moved south-east and some time later they reached the lower basin of the Danube, where they made attacks on the Rastern Roman Empire, Byzantium. After some time the Goths moved the steppe of the Black Sea. The border between them was the Dniesster. In 258 Goths occupied the Crimea. The Gothic language, now dead and has been preserved in written records of the th th 4 -6 centuries. The vowel system of the Gothic language. Antoine Meillet, the French linguist, stated that the Gothic vowel system had the same character as in the other Germanic vowel systems. In Gothic there are three short phonemes: -i, -u, -a. For example, Goth - fisks (рыба); OE - fisc; Oicl - fiskr. Goth - wisan (быть); OE - wesan; Oicl - vesa. The Gothic short vowel -u corresponded to the other Germanic short vowel, for example, Goth - sunus (сын); OE - sunu; Oicl - sunr. The Gothic short -a phoneme had the same equivalent in other Germanic vowel system, for example, Goth - faran (идти); OHG - faran; OE - fara. The Gothic had four long phonemes as -i, -u, -e, -o. E.g. Goth - letan (оставлять); OE - l tan; OHG - lazzan; Oicl - lata. The Peculiarity of the Spelling of the Gothic vowels All Gothic vowels, including diphthongs, can be either short or long: 1. Digraph ei - was sounded as a long vowel [ i ] in eisarn - железо, seins - свой. 2. The letter u denoted short [ u ] and long [ u ]. Goth ut - прочь; OE - ut. 3. The lettres e, o are usually used to denote [ e ], [ o ]. Lekinon - излечиться, wopjan кричать вызывать. 4. Digraphs ai, au before r, h, correspond to monophtongs [ ], [ ]: hairto - сердце, saihan - видеть, sauhts - болезнь. 5. The letter was sounded like [ h ]: Goth eila - час; OE wil - время, час; OHG wila 6. The letter q corresponds to [ kw ]: Goth quis - живой; OE cwic; OHG quec. 7. Doubled ltters as gg correspond to « »: briggan - принести. The consonant system of the Gothic language

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

In the Gothic language consonant system may be grouped as: voiced consonants: b, d, g, z voiceless consonants: p, t, k, q (kw) voiceless fricatives: f, , h (hw) sonorous consonants: l, m, n process rhotacism as in the other Germanic languages, in Gothic this process was happened, for example, Goth - hausjan (hear); OE - hieran; Germ - horen. Goth leusjan (teach); OE - l ran; Germ - lehren.

Характеристика морфологического строя готского языка Имя существительное Гласные основы (сильное склонение)

о

с

н

о

в

а

н

а

-

а

мужской род ед.ч.

мн.ч.

им.п. род.п. дат.п. вин.п. им.п. род.п. дат.п. вин.п.

dags dagis daga dag dagos dage dagam dagans о

с

н

о

средний род день

в

а

waurd waurdis waurda waurd waurda waurde waurdam waurda

н

а

-

мн.ч.

им.п. род.п. дат. п. вин. п. им.п. род.п. дат.п. вин.п.

о с н о в а ед.ч.

мн.ч.

gast gastis gasta gast gasteis gaste gastim gastins н а

-

гость

ansts anstais anstai anst ansteis anste anstim anstins

j a -

мужской род им.п. harjis войско род.п. harjis дат. п. harja вин. п. hari им.п. harjos род.п. harje дат.п. harjam вин.п. harjans -u-

слово

i

мужской род ед.ч.

-

женский род милость

- wa kuni kunjis kunja kuni kunja kunje kunjam kunja

средний род род kniu kniwis kniwa kniu kniwa kniwe kniwam kniwa

-oколено

к о р н е в ы е

ед.ч.

им.п.

женский род handus рука

baurgs

женский род город

мн.ч.

род.п. дат. п. вин. п. им.п. род.п. дат.п. вин.п.

handaus handau handu handjus handiwe handum hunduns

baurgs baurg baurg baurgs baurge baurgim baurgs

женский род giba дар gibos gibai giba gibos gibo gibom gibos

о с н о в ы мужской род manna человек мужчина mans mann mannan mans mannans manne mannam mans mannans

Характеристика морфологического строя готского языка Местоимение

Л и ч н ы е

м е с т о и м е н и я

1 лицо - ед.ч. ik я meina mis mik 2 лицо - ед.ч. u eina us uk

Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc. Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc.

Возвратное местоимение Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc.

seina sis sik

себя

wit ugkara ugkis ugkis

дв.ч. мы оба

1 ,

2

мн.ч. weis мы unsara uns, unsis uns, unsis мн.ч. jus izwara izwis izwis

дв.ч. jut igqara igqis igqis

Личное местоимение 3 лица мужской род is он is imma ina

средний род ita оно is imma ita

м н о ж е с т в е н н о е Nom. Gen. Dat. Acc.

-

л и ц а

eis ize im ins

ija ize im ija

женский род si она izos izai iza ч и с л о ijos izo im ijos

Характеристика морфологического строя готского языка Глагол

О с н о в н ы е Класс I II III IV V VI VII

ф о р м ы

Инфинитив greipan - схватить biugan - гнуть bindan - связывать niman - брать qi an - сказать slahan - бить haitan - называть letan - оставлять

О с н о в н ы е г л а г о л о в I satjan - сажать II fiskon - удить рыбу III haban - иметь IV fullnan - наполниться

с и л ь н ы х

Прош.вр. - ед.ч. graip baug band nam qa sloh haihait lailot

Прош.вр. - мн.ч. gripum bugum bundum nemum qe um slohum haihaitum lailotum

ф о р м ы satida fiskoda habaida fullnoda

г л а г о л о в Причастие II gripans bugans bundans numans qi ans slahans haitans letans с л а б ы х

satidedum fiskodedum habaidedum fullnodedum

Recommended Literature 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Сравнительная грамматика германских языков. I-IV т.т. М., 1962-1966 Введение в германскую филологию. М., 1980 Жирмунский В. Ш. Общее т германское языкознание. Л., 1976 Гухман М.М. Готский язык. М., 1958 Tursunov B. German filologiyasiga kirish. Samarqand, 2001

Practical lessons

sati s fisko s habai s -

The 1st lesson Theme: Ancient Germanic Gribes and their classification The 2nd lesson Theme: The classification of Germnaic languages The 3rd lesson Theme: The Gothic language The 4th lesson Theme: Analysis of teh Gothic text “Matthaeus IX” The 5th lesson Theme: Analysis of teh Gothic text “Lukas IV”

Recommended Literature 1. Мейе А. Введение в сравнительно-историческое изучение индоевропейских языков. М-Л., 1938 2. Мейе А. Основные особенности германской группы языков. М., 1952 3. Прокош Э. Сравнительная грамматика германских языков. М., 1954 4. Жирмунский В.Ш. Введение в сравнительно-историческое изучение германских языков. М-Л., 1964 5. Сравнительная грамматика германских языков I-IV т.т. М., 1962-1966 6. Введение в германскую филологию. М., 1980 7. Гухман М.М. Готский язык. М., 1958 8. Tursunov B. German filologiyasiga kirish. Samarqand, 2001 9. Dave Morgan. A short history of the British people. Leipzig, 1974