THE MAN-NATURE DIALOGUE IN THE POETRY OF ROBERT FROST

APPROVED:

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Major Professor

Minor P r o f e s s o r

J

D i r e c t o r of the D e p a r t m e n t of E n g l i s h

Dean of the G r a d u a t e School

THE MAN-NATURE DIALOGUE IN THE POETRY O F ROBERT FROST

THESIS

P r e s e n t e d to the Graduate Council of the North Texas State University i n P a r t i a l Fulfillment of the Requirements

F o r the D e g r e e of

MASTER O F ARTS

By-

Edith J a c k s o n Luke, B. A. Denton, Texas August, 1965

TABLE O F CONTENTS

Chapter L II.

Page INTRODUCTION

1

FROST'S AMBIVALENT VIEWS O F NATURE

7

III.

FROST'S CHARACTERS--TWO TYPES

35

IV.

THE MAN-NATURE DIALOGUE

68

V . CONCLUSION

88

BIBLIOGRAPHY

92

iii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Although R o b e r t F r o s t did not c o n s i d e r h i m s e l f a " n a t u r e p o e t , " did not like to be c a l l e d o n e , and would point out t h e f a c t that a l l but a few of M s p o e m s have people i n t h e m , h i s f e e l i n g f o r n a t u r e w a s obviously a v e r y c l o s e one.

Many c r i t i c s of R o b e r t F r o s t ' s p o e m s ,

h o w e v e r , h a v e not u n d e r s t o o d h i s p o s i t i o n .

In 1938,, R o b e r t P . T r i s t r a m

Coffin s t a t e d that F r o s t p r e s e n t s n a t u r e w i t h people stuck into it w h e r e they belong

1

• 2 and t h a t he t r e a t s of people in a s t a t e of only good n a t u r e ,

views which now s e e m f a r f r o m a c c u r a t e , a s m o s t c r i t i c s a g r e e .

Even

a s l a t e a s 1959, R o b e r t JLangbaum r e m a r k e d t h a t F r o s t m a k e s m a n and n a t u r e i n t e r t w i n e so that they s e e m i d e n t i c a l , the individuality of F r o s t ' s c h a r a c t e r s .

an opinion that i g n o r e s

And in h i s book, The M a j o r

T h e m e s of R o b e r t F r o s t (1963), Radcliff J . S q u i r e s a s s e r t e d t h a t F r o s t 1

R o b e r t P . T r i s t r a m Coffin, New P o e t r y of New England: F r o s t and Robinson ( B a l t i m o r e , 1938), p. 58. 2 3

I b i d . , p. 60.

R o b e r t JLangbaum, "The New N a t u r e P o e t r y , " R o b e r t F r o s t : An Introduction, edited by R o b e r t A, G r e e n b e r g and J a m e s G. Hepburn {New York, 1961), p. 158.

2 would like n a t u r e to concur with h u m a n intuition m o r e than it i s willing to do and that he i s s u c c e s s f u l only in seeing n a t u r e a s a f r i e n d l y m i r r o r 4 in p o e m s that m e r e l y r e c o r d . Most m o d e r n c r i t i c s of F r o s t , h o w e v e r , s e e m m o r e a c c u r a t e l y to have apprehended the p o e t ' s intention.

One e a r l y c r i t i c and f r i e n d ,

Law r a n e e Thompson, stated that F r o s t ' s p r i m a r y c o n c e r n i s with the 5

inner s t r e n g t h and w o r t h of the individual.

In 1958, Reginald Cook

a s s e r t e d t h e opinion that F r o s t i l l u s t r a t e s the effect of m a n on his e n v i r o n m e n t and the e n v i r o n m e n t ' s effect on m a n .

The p r e s e n t decade

h a s brought f o r t h p e r c e p t i v e c o m m e n t s by such c r i t i c s a s John F . Lynen, John R o b e r t Doyle, J r . , and Robert F r a n c i s .

Lynea o b s e r v e s that 7 F r o s t ' s view of n a t u r e is a f r e s h a p p r o a c h to r e a l i t y . Doyle roe-: the 8 poet unobtrusively uniting the vegetable w o r l d and the human v/orld, and F r a n c i s points out that m a n ' s plight and what he does about it i s of m a j o r i m p o r t a n c e to F r o s t .

o7

^Radcliff J . S q u i r e s , The Major T h e m e s of Robert F r o s t (Ann A r b o r , 1963), p. 22. C Juawrance Thompson, F i r e and Ice: The A r t and Thought of Robert F r o s t (New York, 1942), p. 214. ^Reginald L.. Cook, The Dimensions of Robert F r o s t (New York, 1958), p. 161. •7

John F . Lynen, " F r o s t a s a Modern P o e t , " R o b e r t F r o s t : A Collection of C r i t i c a l E s s a y s , edited by J a m e s M. Cox (Englewood C l i f f s , N. J . , 1962), p. 188. ® John Robert Doyle, J r . , The P o e t r y of R o b e r t F r o s t : An Analysis (New York, 1962), pp. 6 - 7 . ^ R o b e r t F r a n c i s , C h a r l e s W. Cole, Reginald L. Cook, "On Robert F r o s t , " The M a s s a c h u s e t t s Review, IV (Winter, 1963), 246.

In g e n e r a l , m o d e r n c r i t i c s a g r e e that R o b e r t F r o s t i s n e i t h e r a m e r e " n a t u r e poet" nor a r e a l i s t , p e r se.

Though some still a c c e p t

m e r e l y s u r f a c e m e a n i n g s which i g n o r e the possibility that the l o c a l i z e d s u b j e c t s m a y have a b r o a d e r application than i s apparent at f i r s t r e a d i n g , o t h e r s s e e m u c h s y m b o l i s m in h i s p o e m s .

The c o n s e n s u s

among c r i t i c s is that R o b e r t F r o s t does have a c l e a r understanding of the l i f e of n a t u r e and a s p e c i a l feeling of c l o s e n e s s to it.

They a g r e e ,

too, that he c o n s i d e r soman's i n n e r s t r e n g t h i m p o r t a n t in his p e r p e t u a l s t r u g g l e with h i s surroundings,^ 1 T h e r e s e e m s to be no doubt that F r o s t ' s c h a r a c t e r s , although identified a s r e s i d e n t s of a specific l o c a l e , a r e a l s o r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of u n i v e r s a l human n a t u r e . N a t u r e , h o w e v e r , i s not the m o s t i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t in F r o s t ' s poems.

He e m p h a s i s e s human beings and t h e i r r e l a t i o n to t h e i r

surroundings.

People a r e the f o c a l point in the p o e m s that show them

with n a t u r e as a background f o r t h e i r actions.

Though it i s t r u e that in

h i s lines the poet gives a g r e a t deal of attention to n a t u r e , it i s m e r e l y attention to a background that h a s influence on his c e n t r a l f i g u r e .

Human

c h a r a c t e r s and t h e i r actions and r e a c t i o n s a r e the i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s in the p o e m s . T h e r e i s a pronounced ambivalence in the view of n a t u r e F r o s t p o r t r a y s in h i s poetry.

In one poem he m a y p r e s e n t n a t u r e as actively

h o s t i l e , in another a s m e r e l y i n d i f f e r e n t , and in a t h i r d a s w a r m l y benevolent.

It i s difficult to a t t r i b u t e r e a s o n s f o r t h e s e divergent views

of n a t u r e in p a r t i c u l a r p o e m s .

F r o s t did not date m a n y of Ms w o r k s ,

and, f r o m h i s l e t t e r s , it i s c l e a r that he did not o f f e r his v e r s e s to public view immediately a f t e r t h e i r composition; r a t h e r he tended to l e t t h e m age b e f o r e bringing t h e m out f o r g e n e r a l a p p r a i s a l .

Thus it

i s not p o s s i b l e to a t t r i b u t e definitely any p a r t i c u l a r poem to any specific p e r i o d of d e p r e s s i o n o r of high s p i r i t s that w a s a p a r t of his life.

For

e x a m p l e , the v e r s e " T r e e at My Window, 1 1 e x p r e s s i n g a feeling of kinship between the poet and n a t u r e , follows " B e r e f t , " l i n e s which s t a r k l y e x p r e s s the s p e a k e r ' s f e a r of n a t u r e i n hie t i m e of b e r e a v e m e n t .

These

two p o e m s a p p e a r in West-Running Brook, a collection that a l s o includes "Acceptance, " which p o r t r a y s the unquestioning acceptance that n a t u r e ' s c r e a t u r e s have f o r its w a y s .

Although two p o e m s m a y be

p l a c e d side by side in a volume of F r o s t ' s p o e t r y , t h e r e i s no evidence that they w e r e c r e a t e d together or in the o r d e r in which they a p p e a r . Robert F r o s t s e e s human beings as belonging to two m a i n c a t e g o r i e s with varying shades of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in each.

He p o r t r a y s

c h a r a c t e r s , either b a s i c a l l y strong or b a s i c a l l y w e a k , in r e l a t i o n to the s e v e r a l f a c e s of n a t u r e they o b s e r v e .

Among the s e c u r e , he

p r e s e n t s those who a r e s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t and,though they do not n e e d other people, enjoy healthy r e l a t i o n s h i p s with o t h e r s .

His w e a k c h a r a c t e r s ,

on the other hand, a r e t o r n by conflicts within t h e m s e l v e s .

They lack

w a r m r e l a t i o n s h i p s with o t h e r s , yet they cannot long s u r v i v e without them.

The p u r p o s e of this t h e s i s i s to examine F r o s t ' s u s e In h i s p o e t r y of ambivalent views of. n a t u r e , of v a r i e t i e s of h u m a n c h a r a c t e r , and of i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between m a n and n a t u r e .

Some s c h o l a r l y w o r k h a s

b e e n done in this a r e a , notably John Lynen's book The P a s t o r a l A r t of Robert F r o s t (I960) and L a w r a n c e T h o m p s o n ' s work F i r e and Ice; The A r t and Thought of Robert F r o s t (1942), but t h e r e h a s b e e n no detailed study m a d e of the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s of F r o s t ' s c h a r a c t e r s and t h e i r environment.! In t h i s t h e s i s , the contention i s that the view of n a t u r e p r e s e n t e d in F r o s t ' s p o e m s i s o f t e n directly r e l a t e d to the c h a r a c t e r ' s subjective r e s p o n s e to it.

Thus, the i n d i f f e r e n c e of n a t u r e i s s e e n in

a benevolent light by some of his character®,while the h a r s h n e u t r a l i t y , when o b s e r v e d by o t h e r s , a s s u m e s f i e r c e l y hostile p r o p o r t i o n s .

In the

d e m o n s t r a t i o n of this point, t h e r e f o r e , it will be n e c e s s a r y f i r s t to p r e s e n t r e f l e c t i o n s of n a t u r e a s the poet d e s c r i b e s I t - - b e n e v o l e n t , violent, indifferent; and next, to p r e s e n t h i s c h a r a c t e r s - - t h e weak and the s t r o n g - - w i t h all the v a r i a t i o n s that m a k e up the two m a i n g r o u p s , f o r t h e s e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d e t e r m i n e the individual's r e s p o n s e to his s u r r o u n d i n g s .

A f t e r t h e s e two a r e a s have been c a r e f u l l y defined,

a p r e s e n t a t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n of the t h e s i s contention follows. Such a study of F r o s t ' s p o e t r y should be of value to anyone i n t e r e s t e d in h i s w o r k s , f o r it p r e s e n t s a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s of his c h a r a c t e r s , of h i s u s e of n a t u r e a s a v a r i a b l e background, and of the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between m a n and n a t u r e .

The m o s t u s e f u l p r i m a r y s o u r c e s f o r this t h e s i s have been the editions of Robert F r o s t ' s p o e m s published by Holt, R i n e h a r t and Winston, The Complete Works of Robert F r o s t (1949), and In the C l e a r i n g (1962).

T h e s e two v o l u m e s contain all the published F r o s t

poetry. In addition to p r e v i o u s l y mentioned c r i t i c a l books, the m o s t valuable s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s , all of which have provided explicit d i s c u s s i o n s of F r o s t ' s p o e t r y , have been The Dimensions of R o b e r t F r o s t (1958) by Reginald L. Cook; Human Values in the P o e t r y of Robert F r o s t (I960) by George W. Nitchie; A Swinger of B i r c h e s (1959) by Sidney Cox; and "On R o b e r t F r o s t " in the M a s s a c h u s e t t s Review, IV (Winter, 1963) by Robert F r a n c e s , C h a r l e s W. Cole, and Reginald L. Cook.

Two b i o g r a p h i e s . The T r i a l by E x i s t e n c e by E l i z a b e t h Shepley

Sergeant and The Aim Was Song by J e a n Gould, give detailed background views of the poet, his p e r s o n a l i t y and life.

The Aim Was Song,

e s p e c i a l l y , h a s been of value b e c a u s e it c a l l s attention to the p a r a l l e l s between events in F r o s t ' s life and t h o s e that a p p e a r in h i s p o e t r y . T h r e e collections of Robert F r o s t ' s l e t t e r s a l s o have provided a c l e a r e r understanding of the m a n a s well as the poet.

These volumes

a r e Selected L e t t e r s erf Robert F r o s t (1964), edited by L a w r a n c e Thompson, The L e t t e r s of Robert F r o s t to Louis U n t e r m e y e r (1963), edited by Louis U n t e r m e y e r ; and the book by M a r g a r e t B a r t l e t t Anderson, Robert F r o s t and John B a r t l e t t ;

The R e c o r d of a F r i e n d s h i p (1963).

CHAPTER II

FROST'S AMBIVALENT VIEWS O F NATURE

The s e v e r a l opposing attitudes concerning m a n and n a t u r e e x p r e s s e d in the poetry of Robert F r o s t r e f l e c t a p p a r e n t i n c o n g r u i t i e s in Ms own l i f e .

Most r e a d e r s and c r i t i c s think of F r o s t as a poet of

New England, the a r e a h e employs m o s t often a s a background f o r h i s verse.

But Robert F r o s t w a s b o r n and lived the f i r s t eleven y e a r s of

his l i f e , 1874-1885, in C a l i f o r n i a , w h e r e h i s p a r e n t s had s e t t l e d soon after their marriage.

His f a t h e r , William Prescott; F r o s t , J r . , a

native of New England, w a s a political r a d i c a l , and h i s m o t h e r , Belle Moodie F r o s t , w a s a Scottish r e f u g e e t e a c h e r .

Because Robert had a

tendency t o w a r d consumption, they did not send the f r a i l young boy to school, but f r a i l or not, he w a s a l o v e r of the o u t - o f - d o o r s .

With h i s

f a t h e r , with p l a y m a t e s , or alone he r o a m e d the countryside a r ound San F r a n c i s c o , f a s c i n a t e d by the g r e a t f o r e s t s , the m o u n t a i n s , the s e a , and the c l i f f s . S e v e r a l of h i s l a t e r p o e m s a r e p r o d u c t s of h i s imaginative i n t e r e s t s at t h i s e a r l y age along the California coast. F r o s t ' s f a t h e r died of t u b e r c u l o s i s in 1885, leaving i m p o v e r i s h e d his wife and two c h i l d r e n , who w e r e f o r c e d to r e t u r n to h i s f a m i l y in

6 New England.

To support her young children, M r s . F r o s t returned

to the c l a s s r o o m a s a t e a c h e r , and Robert entered a f o r m a l school for the f i r s t time at the age of twelve.

Life in New England w a s difficult

for the mother b e c a u s e money w a s hard to c o m e by.

Robert w o r k e d

s u m m e r s a s a f a r m hand, thus acquiring through p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e a lasting knowledge of the New England character and way of l i f e . During h i s f r e e t i m e he r o a m e d the countryside gaining f i r s t - h a n d f a m i l i a r i t y with the f i e l d s , f l o w e r s , t r e e s , and birds of the region, all of which he later transmuted into his poetry.

After m a r r y i n g his high

school sweetheart, Elinor White, in 1893, and after giving up teaching school as a m e a n s to make a living, F r o s t settled his f a m i l y on a s m a l l plot of land near West D e r r y , New Hampshire, w h e r e he took up f a r m i n g , rather u n s u c c e s s f u l l y . A New Englander at heart and by a n c e s t r y , Robert F r o s t had a p e r s o n a l knowledge of the a r e a , and he r e c o g n i z e d that the h i s t o r i c a l background and c l i m a t i c environment of the region had helped to shape the character of its people.

New England had once been the center of

g r e a t activity, but as the nation had expanded to the w e s t , the a r e a had gradually l o s t its importance.

Many New Englanders had joined the

w e s t w a r d m o v e m e n t , and the o n e s left are t h o s e who a r e either strong and d e t e r m i n e d enough to m a k e a living in a rugged land or those too weak to attempt the m o v e .

The strong a r e stubborn or they would long

ago have given up the struggle with the land and c l i m a t e , and this

9 o b s t i n a t e , p e r h a p s proud, p e r h a p s m e r e l y o r n e r y , s t r e a k in t h e p e o p l e k e e p s them on their land.

The f a r m e r ' s fortitude, e n d u r a n c e , and

inner strength enable h i m to a c c o m p l i s h his daily t a s k s in spite of a d v e r s i t y in his i s o l a t i o n .

For the hill f a r m e r s a r e often i s o l a t e d .

The New E n g l a n d w i n t e r g u a r a n t e e s t h a t .

Such p e r i o d s of i s o l a t i o n a s

the f a r m e r s undergo tend to m a k e them a r e s e r v e d people, f e e l i n g no c o m p u l s i o n to s p e a k u n l e s s they h a v e something to s a y . Through h i s p o e m s , Robert F r o s t e x p r e s s e s w e l l - d e f i n e d v i e w s of nature and of the differing relationships between it and his human characters.

He s e e s it g e n e r a l l y a s a n o n - r e a s o n i n g , n o n - f e e l i n g

e n t i t y , a r e f l e x i v e c y c l e , and he e x p r e s s e s an o b j e c t i v e l y r e a l i s t i c view of nature as neutral and indifferent toward man. a s p e c t displayed in h i s p o e m s .

This i s the b a s i c

At t i m e s , h o w e v e r , h e a p p e a r s t o r

portray ambivalent v i e w s of this b a s i c concept.

On the one hand, h i s

c h a r a c t e r s m a y be influenced in their r e s p o n s e to t h e i r surroundings by the romantic view which s e e s nature a s a r e v e l a t i o n of Truth, B e a u t y , and Goodness.

Afid under such influence they f i n d what s e e m s to be

n a t u r e ' s benevolence toward man.

In s u c h p o e m s t h e r e i s no a p p a r e n t

conflict, and the atmosphere of p e a c e , harmony, and m a n ' s kinship with the natural e l e m e n t i s the s o u r c e of the p l e a s u r e .

On the other

h a n d , t h e c h a r a c t e r s m a y respond m o r e in t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c s e n s e which v i e w s the w o r l d of n a t u r e a s a h o s t i l e , w a r - l i k e environment within which there i s a perpetual s t r u g g l e .

10 The p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s of n a t u r e e x p r e s s e d in F r o s t ' s p o e m s a r e often d e t e r m i n e d by the subjective r e s p o n s e s of his c h a r a c t e r s to t h e i r surroundings.

He shows people who a r e emotionally s t r o n g , e i t h e r

within t h e m s e l v e s or through h u m a n t i e s , as feeling s e c u r e in t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p with a benevolent n a t u r e b e c a u s e they a r e able to accept it and i t s m o v e m e n t s without f e a r .

They a r e able to cope with the violence

that a l s o s e e m s a p a r t of the n a t u r a l w o r l d .

T h o s e , h o w e v e r , who a r e

alone, w e a k , and f e a r f u l find in t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t a r e a s o n f o r anxiety, and it is in t h e i r e y e s that n a t u r e a s s u m e s hostile and m a l e v o l e n t qualities. R o b e r t F r o s t ' s f i r s t - h a n d knowledge of the n a t u r a l e l e m e n t s h a s b e e n the chief s o u r c e in h i s p o e m s of that feeling of c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between h i s c h a r a c t e r s and t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s .

Though h i s attitude at

t i m e s b o r d e r s on the r o m a n t i c , it i s without sentimentality; he s e e m s simply to be a w a r e that any a p p r e c i a t i o n of n a t u r e ' s beauty m u s t , a f t e r all, be human.

T h e r e f o r e , in his p o e m s he o b s e r v e s the r u r a l s c e n e s

through the eyes of a n o r m a l l y strong individual who i s able to see and to e x p r e s s the q u i n t e s s e n c e of h i s s u r r o u n d i n g s .

The subjective

emotional condition of the p e r s o n i s a m a j o r f a c t o r in determining what a s p e c t of n a t u r e s e e m s m o s t a ppa r e nt.

Under c e r t a i n conditions n a t u r a l

phenomena or events s e e m to evidence a benevolent i n t e r e s t on the p a r t of a genial n a t u r e , w h e r e a s under o t h e r s the violence of n a t u r a l f o r c e s s u g g e s t s an u n d e r c u r r e n t of hostility and antipathy towa r d m a n .

Of h i s

11 p o e m s e x p r e s s i n g this seeming benignity, one of the loveliest i s F r o s t ' s "Rose Pogonias, " which, d e s c r i b e s the s e n s e of p e a c e and p l e a s u r e f e l t by a couple who happen upon a s m a l l meadow s m o t h e r e d with spring flowers. A saturated meadow. Sun-shaped and j e w e l - s m a l l , A circle scarcely wider Than the t r e e s around w e r e tail; Where winds w e r e quite excluded, And the a i r w a s stifling sweet With the b r e a t h of m a n y f l o w e r s , - A t e m p l e of the heat. T h e r e we bowed u s in the burning. As the s u n ' s right w o r s h i p i s , To pick w h e r e none could m i s s t h e m A thousand o r c h i s e s ; F o r though the g r a s s w a s s c a t t e r e d , Yet e v e r y second s p e a r Seemed tipped with wings of c o l o r , That tinged the a t m o s p h e r e . We r a i s e d a simple p r a y e r , B e f o r e we l e f t the spot, That in the g e n e r a l mowing That p l a c e m i g h t be forgot; Or if not all so f a v o r e d , Obtain such g r a c e of h o u r s , That none should mow the g r a s s t h e r e While so confused with f l o w e r s . * The poem a s a whole conveys a s e n s e of n a t u r e ' s genial w a r m t h . The meadow itself i s " s u n - s h a p e d , " a "temple in the h e a t , " and the sun * R o b e r t F r o s t , "Rose Pogonias, " Complete P o e m s of R o b e r t F r o s t {New York, 1962), p. 19. Subsequent r e f e r e n c e s to F r o s t ' s p o e t r y a r e taken f r o m this edition u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e indicated.

12 c a s t s it® r a y s d i r e c t l y on the b a c k s of the f l o w e r p i c k e r s . h e a t does not s e a r and h u r t .

But the s u n ' s

R a t h e r it i s like the h e a v i n e s s f e l t when

one w a l k s f r o m the shade of t r e e s into bright sunlight.

The f r a g r a n c e

of the f l o w e r s in the spring sunlight is a heady p e r f u m e to the people stepping into the scene. of the s m a l l meadow.

T h e i r s e n s e s a r e o v e r w h e l m e d with the bloom They f e e l the sun, inhale the "stifling s w e e t n e s s , "

and s e e the l o v e l i n e s s of a s u n - d r e n c h e d meadow f i l l e d with f l o w e r s . The s m a l l patch i s a "temple, " a p r o t e c t e d place w h e r e nothing d i s t u r b s the p e a c e f u l n e s s , the quiet of beautyj.j F r o s t heightens t h e a t m o s p h e r e of p e a c e , h o l i n e s s , and s e r e n i t y through the use of such i m a g e s a s a "temple of t h e h e a t , " w h e r e the h u m a n s "bowed" a s if in " w o r s h i p " of the sun and " r a i s e d a s i m p l e p r a y e r . " The object of t h e i r p r a y e r i s the " g r a c e of h o u r s " that the l o v e l i n e s s might be m i s s e d by the blades of the m o w e r s .

The subjective i m a g e r y of the s u n - l i t meadow in t e r m s

of t e m p l e , p r a y e r , w o r s h i p and g r a c e r e e m p h a s i z e e the f a c t that F r o s t d e s c r i b e s n a t u r e through the eyes and s e n s e s of h i s c h a r a c t e r s .

The

s p e a k e r recollecting the e x p e r i e n c e and d e s c r i b i n g the scene h a s a r e l i g i o u s f a i t h so deeply i n g r a i n e d that he f e e l s a s p i r i t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p with n a t u r e , b e c a u s e , in h i s m i n d , it i s a s s o c i a t e d with God and i s e x p r e s s i v e of his w o r s h i p . \ Ab a r e s u l t of t h i s inner r e s p o n s e , the n a t u r a l w o r l d is to him a place of p e a c e .

But a s a m a n f a m i l i a r with

the f a c t s of f a r m l i f e , he r e a l i z e s that the m o w e r s m u s t soon c o m e to this spot and d e s t r o y the p r e s e n t sc e ne .

The h u m a n r e s p o n s e to the

13 l o v e l i n e s s of t h e f l o w e r - f i l l e d m e a d o w i s t h e d e s i r e t h a t it be s p a r e d by the m o w e r s until the b l o o m s f a d e .

It h a s b e e n a s o u r c e of p e a c e and

a s y m b o l of t h e b e n e v o l e n c e of i t s c r e a t o r , a n d t h e s p e a k e r i s r e l u c t a n t to s e e it d e s t r o y e d . A s i n " R o s e P o g o n i a s " h e e v o k e s a s e n s e of the p e a c e f u l n e s s of the t e m p l e in the w o o d s , in " M o w i n g " F r o s t r e c r e a t e s t h e m o o d of a m a n content with his work.

T h r o u g h a h a r m o n y of the s e n s e s , e m o t i o n s ,

a n d i n t e l l e c t in the a c t of m o w i n g h a y , the f a r m e r a c h i e v e s a c o m m u n i o n with nature.

Yet he i s a w a r e of the l a t e n t e v i l u n d e r l y i n g i t s b e a u t y .

T h e r e w a s n e v e r a sound b e s i d e the w o o d but o n e . And t h a t w a s m y long s c y t h e w h i s p e r i n g to t h e g r o u n d . What w a s it it w h i s p e r e d ? I knew not w e l l m y s e l f ; P e r h a p s i t w a s s o m e t h i n g a b o u t the h e a t of t h e s u n , S o m e t h i n g , p e r h a p s , about t h e l a c k of s o u n d - And t h a t w a s why i t w h i s p e r e d and did not s p e a k . It w a s no d r e a m of the g i f t of i d l e h o u r s , O r e a s y gold a t t h e h a n d of f a y o r elf: Anything m o r e t h a n the t r u t h w o u l d h a v e s e e m e d too w e a k To t h e e a r n e s t l o v e t h a t l a i d t h e s w a l e in r o w s , Not w i t h o u t f e e b l e - p o i n t e d s p i k e s of f l o w e r s ( P a l e o r c h i s e s ) , and s c a r e d a b r i g h t g r e e n s n a k e . The fact i s the sweetest d r e a m that labor knows. My long s c y t h e w h i s p e r e d a n d l e f t t h e h a y to m a k e . E v e r y a c t i o n , thought, a n d s e n s e of t h e f a r m e r c o m b i n e into t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n d e r i v e d f r o m h i s I m m e d i a t e e x p e r i e n c e , t h r o u g h w h i c h he i s a w a r e of a f e e l i n g of k i n s h i p w i t h h i s s u r r o u n d i n g s .

Everything

c o n c e r n i n g h i s a c t i o n s , the g r a s s h e i s c u t t i n g , t h e t r e e s i n t h e n e a r b y w o o d s , t h e w h i s p e r of t h e s c y t h e , t h e s u n l i g h t upon h i s b a c k , t h e s n a k e

^ F r o s t , "Mowing, " p. 25.

14 and the f l o w e r s at M s f e e t — a l l c o m b i n e to c o n t r i b u t e to M s p l e a s u r e . The f a r m e r ' s delight does not have to depend on p o s s i b l e r e w a r d s f o r M s l a b o r ; it c o m e s f r o m h i s i m m e d i a t e e x p e r i e n c e :

"The f a c t i s the

s w e e t e s t d r e a m t h a t l a b o r knows. " He e n j o y s the c o m m u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e that i s the r e s u l t of the blending of h i s s e n s e s , e m o t i o n s , and i n t e l l e c t i n h i s w o r k . I Yet t h e r e i s a s u g g e s t i o n still of the a m b i v a l e n c e , the duality of n a t u r e , in the m e n t i o n of the f l o w e r and t h e s n a k e , t h e f i r s t symbolizing the good in n a t u r e and the s e c o n d t h e evil.

The m a n ,

t h r o u g h the h a r m o n y of h i s h e a d and h e a r t in an e x p e r i e n c e of the s e n s e s , e f f e c t s a s e n s e of c o m m u n i o n w i t h n a t u r e , of a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n of i t s dual a s p e c t s , and of an o v e r - a l l f e e l i n g of i t s benignity. An a p p r o p r i a t e p o e m to follow a d i s c u s s i o n of "Mowing" i s one t h a t could b e c o n s i d e r e d i t s c o m p a n i o n , "The Tuft of F l o w e r s , " although F r o s t did not p l a c e t h e m side by side in A B o y ' s "Will, in w h i c h both appear.

The f i r s t i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h the m o w e r who e n j o y s both h i s

w o r k and h i s s u r r o u n d i n g s , he i s the m a n m a k i n g hay.

" T h e Tuft of

./

F l o w e r s " s p e a k s of the p e r s o n who follows t h e m o w e r a f t e r s e v e r a l h o u r s to t u r n t h e cut g r a s s so t h a t it m a y d r y m o r e thoroughly.

He finds

the meadow d e s e r t e d , although he looks and l i s t e n s f o r h i s p r e d e c e s s o r . He would like to h a v e h u m a n c o m p a n i o n s h i p , but he m u s t f o r e g o It and, instead, work physically alone.

He a c c e p t s the f a c t t h a t a m a n m u s t

depend upon h i m s e l f w h e t h e r he i s alone o r w i t h o t h e r s . does not l e a v e h i m to M s solitude.

But n a t u r e

A b u t t e r f l y in s e a r c h of a f l o w e r

15 d i r e c t s h i s eye to a tuft of f l o w e r s the e a r l y m o r n i n g scythe had s p a r e d , and F r o s t explain® in the closing lines; The m o w e r in the dew had loved t h e m t h u s , By leaving them to f l o u r i s h , not f o r u s , Nor yet to draw one thought of our® to h i m , But f r o m s h e e r m o r n i n g g l a d n e s s at the b r i m . The b u t t e r f l y and I had lit upon, N e v e r t h e l e s s , a m e s s a g e f r o m the dawn, That m a d e m e h e a r the wakening b i r d s around, And h e a r h i s long scythe w h i s p e r i n g to the ground, And f e e l a s p i r i t k i n d r e d to m y own; So that h e n c e f o r t h I w o r k e d no m o r e alone; But glad with h i m , I w o r k e d as with h i s aid, And w e a r y , sought at noon with him the shade; And d r e a m i n g , a® it w e r e , held b r o t h e r l y speech With one whose thought I had not hoped to r e a c h . "Men w o r k t o g e t h e r , " I told him f r o m the h e a r t , "Whether they w o r k together o r a p a r t . " The r a k e r r e c o g n i z e s in h i s fellow but a b s e n t w o r k e r a k i n d r e d s p i r i t , one who a l s o f i n d s p l e a s u r e in the n a t u r a l s u r r o u n d i n g s .

He

does not p r e s u m e that the f l o w e r s w e r e l e f t f o r h i m , but he u n d e r s t a n d s the gladness that p r o m p t e d the act.

He i d e n t i f i e s himself m o r e closely

with n a t u r e by commenting that both he and the b u t t e r f l y "had lit upon . . .

a m e s s a g e f r o m the dawn. " Through such c l o s e n e s s he m a k e s

contact both with the companion w o r k e r and with n a t u r e . 3

F r o s t , "The Tuft of F l o w e r s , " p. 32.

The k i n d r e d

16 feeling r e m o v e s h i m f r o m his isolation and i s the s o u r c e of his u n d e r standing that " m e n w o r k together . . . w h e t h e r they w o r k together o r a p a r t . " His c o m p r e h e n s i o n , however, hinges on his r e a c t i o n s to his surroundings.

He i s the m a n who, although lonely and seeking companion-

ship, when he finds none, can a c c e p t M s e n f o r c e d isolation philosophically. And I m u s t be, a s he had been, - - a l o n e , "As all m u s t b e , " I said within m y h e a r t , "Whether they w o r k together o r a p a r t , Because of his inner s t r e n g t h and s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y he can a c c e p t n a t u r e on i t s own t e r m s a s i n h e r e n t l y f r i e n d l y .

Because of h i s p e r c e p t i v e n e s s ,

h i s attention i s a t t r a c t e d to the b u t t e r f l y , which in t u r n l e a d s him to the tuft of flowers, to a r e a l i z a t i o n , and to an i n n e r communion with h i s fellow m a n and with n a t u r e .

He h a s l e a r n e d that distance does not

n e c e s s a r i l y s e p a r a t e companions. "Men w o r k t o g e t h e r , " I told h i m f r o m the h e a r t , "Whether they w o r k together o r a p a r t . " As h a s been noted, in "The Tuft of F l o w e r s " the broadening of the f a r m e r ' s understanding i s initiated by the chance m o v e m e n t of the b u t t e r f l y , drawing h i s attention to the f l o w e r s j ^ F r o s t ' s effective use of the device in this p o e m - - m a n ' s understanding hinging upon a chance event within n a t u r e - - s u g g e s t s a s i m i l a r device in "Dust of Snow": 4 l b i d . , p. 31. 5

Ibid. , p. 32.

17 The way a crow Shook down on me The dust of snow From a hemlock tree Has given my heart A change of mood And saved some part Of a day I had rued. Frost ascribes a kindly, benevolent influence to a seemingly ordinary event within a snow-covered countryside.

By accident the

crow i s the cause of snow falling upon the speaker's head.

There i s

no logical reason why snow sifting onto his head should effect a change of heart.

He has been depressed, perhaps because of disappointments

with other people, but there i s no explanation given for his low spirits. What i s important is that he i s touched by his environment and by that contact his spirits are uplifted^ A seemingly benevolent event occurs, and the man views it as an intended kindness.

There i s no purposed

good will in the deed, for the movement i s in the nature of an accident. The crow happens to light upon one of the branches of the hemlock, a Christmas-type tree, or, already there, restively alters his position; the lightly heaped snow on the tree scatters to the ground except for the handful that settles on the poet's head as he happens to pass at that moment.

Even such a brief contact with nature, its smallest movement

in his direction, cheers him.

His spirits are uplifted.

^Frost, "Dust of Snow, " p. 270.

The poet's

18 subjective r e s p o n s e to the c r o w ' s accidental m o v e m e n t i s evidently the s o u r c e of any benevolence that he a s c r i b e s to n a t u r e . \ Along with the p o e m s that p o r t r a y a s e n s e of f r i e n d l i n e s s on n a t u r e ' s p a r t , R o b e r t F r o s t a l s o p r e s e n t s the n a t u r a l w o r l d a s h a r s h , h o s t i l e , and often violent.

He f i n d s the m o s t obvious e x a m p l e s of this

a s p e c t in the s e v e r e New England w i n t e r , when the wind b e a t s a g a i n s t anything in i t s way, shrieking an a l m o s t a n i m a l - l i k e w a i l , and the snow b u r i e s all that cannot dig out f r o m under it.

F r o s t notes its fearful

beauty, and he t a k e s advantage of the beauty, p o w e r , and t r e a c h e r y of the w i n t e r to provide a background f o r h i s c h a r a c t e r s and t h e i r r e s p o n s e s . In two such p o e m s h e p o r t r a y s the f i e r c e n e s s of n a t u r e and the r e a c t i o n s to it of two d i f f e r e n t m e n .

In the f i r s t , "Willful Homing, " the

p r o t a g o n i s t s e e m s a strong, s e l f - c o n f i d e n t m a n : He p e e r s out shrewdly into the thick and swift. Since he m e a n s to c o m e to a door he w i l l c o m e to a door . . . . He d e s c r i b e s in the second, " S t o r m F e a r , " a m a n who i s not so s u r e of himself. And m y h e a r t owns a doubt Whether ' t i s in u s to a r i s e with day And save o u r s e l v e s unaided. ®

^ F r o s t , "Willful Homing, " p. 456. 8

F r o s t , "Storm F e a r , " p. 13.

19 To t h e s e two individuals, the cold of a winter night m e a n s d i f f e r e n t things.

Again, it is the h u m a n r e a c t i o n to a c t s of n a t u r e that conveys to

the r e a d e r the p o e t ' s i m p r e s s i o n of n a t u r e . flScTm&tttv what a s p e c t of its N (

s e v e r a l f a c e e Frost" chooses to p r e s e n t / t h e element of h u m a n r e s p o n s e

s

1

/ /

i s the d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r f o r identifying tfefc pai'ticutar counteiiaiice; \ | Despite the v i c i o u s n e s s of w i n t e r ' s f o r c e depicted In "Willful Homing, , } the m a n s u r v i v e s .

His obstinacy, s t r e n g t h , and e n d u r a n c e

determine his success. It i s getting dark and t i m e he drew to a h o u s e , But the b l i z z a r d blinds him to any house ahead. The s t o r m g e t s down h i s neck in an icy souse That s u c k s his b r e a t h like a wicked cat in bed. The snow blows on him and off h i m , exerting f o r c e Downward to m a k e h i m sit a s t r i d e a d r i f t . Imprint a saddle and c a l m l y c o n s i d e r a c o u r s e . He p e e r s out shrewdly into the thick and swift,, Since he m e a n s to come to a door he will come to a d o o r , Although so c o m p r o m i s e d of aim and r a t e He m a y f u m b l e wide of the knob a y a r d o r m o r e , And to t h o s e c o n c e r n e d he m a y s e e m a little late. ^ T h e r e i s a suggestion of active a n t a g o n i s m , that the s t o r m intends to d e s t r o y the lone h u m a n being who d a r e s the icy expanse.

The b l i z z a r d

has an a n i m a l - l i k e quality; it i s "like a wicked cat. " But the p r o t a g o n i s t i s not one to be o v e r c o m e , and the f a c t that he can " s i t a s t r i d e a d r i f t , / I m p r i n t a saddle and c a l m l y c o n s i d e r a c o u r s e , " s o f t e n s the s e n s e of f i e r c e n e s s that could be e x p r e s s e d in a d e s c r i p t i o n of such a s t o r m . 9

F r o s t , "Willful Homing, " p. 456.

20

B©£ms«-Jiejls not intimidated by the b l i z a a r d j ^ h e does not find^its violence overpowering. Although the w e a t h e r in "Willful Homing" i s d e s c r i b e d a s b e s t i a l and violent, it does not p r o d u c e such a feeling of h o r r o r as does the m o r e stealthy, h o s t i l e cold of the w i n t e r s t o r m in "Storm F e a r " : When the wind w o r k s a g a i n s t u s in the d a r k . And p e l t s with snow The lower c h a m b e r window on the e a s t , And w h i s p e r s with a s o r t of s t i f l e d b a r k . The b e a s t , "Come out! Come o u t ! " - It c o s t s no inw a r d s t r u g g l e not to go. Ah, no! I count o u r s t r e n g t h , Two and a child, Those of us not a s l e e p subdued to m a r k How the cold c r e e p s a s the f i r e dies at length, - How d r i f t s a r e p ile d, D o o r y a r d and r o a d ungraded, Till even the c o m f o r t i n g b a r n g r o w s f a r away, And m y h e a r t owns a doubt Whether ' t i s in u s to a r i s e with day And save o u r s e l v e s unaided. H e r e , a s in the p r e v i o u s p o e m . F r o s t notes the b l i z z a r d ' s b e a s t - l i k e qualities a s it a t t e m p t s to subdue the i s o l a t e d f a r m family.

The a n i m a l

a s p e c t s of the e l e m e n t s , h o w e v e r , a r e m o r e heavily e m p h a s i z e d : the wind " w h i s p e r s with a s o r t of stifled b a r k , / The b e a s t , " and the cold " c r e e p s a s the f i r e dies at length. " In both v e r s e s the wind and snow f i e r c e l y pelt the h u m a n s , but t h i s t i m e they a r e p r o t e c t e d by the s h e l t e r of t h e i r home.

In t h e s e l i n e s the t h r e a t t a k e s on a m o r e malevolent tone

*®Frost, "Storm F e a r , " p. 13.

21 b e c a u s e t h e r e i s a suggestion that the f a m i l y m i g h t not be able to s u r v i v e without outside help.

The s t o r m i s o l a t e s the h o u s e , cuts it off f r o m

even the c o m f o r t of the w a r m , d o m e s t i c a n i m a l s in the b a r n a s h o r t distance away.

The two adults h a v e not the s t r e n g t h to m a r shall t h e i r

courage^ Instead of looking within t h e m s e l v e s f o r sustenance as the lone ' J /ffian does in "Willful Homing, " they depend upon contact with civilization. Their w e a k n e s s lends f o r c e to the storm, and the o b s e r v e r s e n s e s the danger in i t s m a l e v o l e n c e . ^ Both p o e m s , "Storm F e a r " and "Willful Homing, " p o r t r a y n a t u r e as a b e s t i a l , violent e l e m e n t , but one contains a s e n s e of t e r r o r b e c a u s e of the w e a k n e s s in the h u m a n s ' r e a c t i o n s to the n a t u r a l w o r l d , w h e r e a s the other i m p a r t s the s e n s e of c a l m r e s i s t a n c e to a s t o r m that i s i n t e n s e but not o v e r l y w o r r i s o m e to the m a n , s o l i t a r y but strong within h i m s e l f , who m u s t facte it, does, and s u r v i v e s .

F r o s t thus i n t i m a t e s that n a t u r e

itself i s n e i t h e r good, bad, t e r r i f y i n g , nor f i e r c e but that it i s the individual's r e a c t i o n to it that m a k e s it a p p e a r so. R o b e r t F r o s t p o r t r a y s the seeming m a l e v o l e n c e of m a n ' s s u r r o u n d i n g s in p o e m s with backgrounds o t h e r than a violent b l i z z a r d . He i m p a r t s an illusion of malignancy within a b a s i c a l l y c a l m autumn scene in " B e r e f t . 11 W h e r e had I h e a r d t h i s wind b e f o r e Change like this to a deeper r o a r ? What would it take m y standing t h e r e f o r , Holding open a r e s t i v e door,

22 Looking down Mil to a f r o t h y s h o r e ? S u m m e r w a s p a s t and day w a s p a s t . Somber clouds in the w e s t w e r e m a s s e d . Out in the p o r c h ' s sagging f l o o r , L e a v e s got up in a coil and h i s s e d , Blindly s t r u c k a t m y k n e e and m i s s e d . Something s i n i s t e r in the tone Told m e m y s e c r e t m u s t be known: Word I w a s in the house alone Somehow m u s t have gotten a b r o a d . Word I w a s in m y l i f e alone, Word I had no one left but God. ** The gusting wind t a k e s on a s i n i s t e r tone and the darkening sky i s ominous to the m a n who i s alone possibly f o r the f i r s t t i m e in such a c o m p l e t e way.

T h e r e i s an i m p r e s s i o n given that he h a s r e c e n t l y l o s t

a loved one, probably h i s w i f e , and he cannot a d j u s t to h i s a l o n e n e s s . His i s olation w e a k e n s h i m emotionally, and he f e a r s even the o r d i n a r y m o v e m e n t s of n a t u r e .

The h o u s e , a s h o r e dwelling, i s probably the

family summer home.

Now the lonely s u r v i v o r h a s r e t u r n e d to the scene

of e a r l i e r h a p p i n e s s , but in h i s a l o n e n e s s and w e a k n e s s , he r e a d s s i n i s t e r o v e r t o n e s into n a t u r e ' s o r d i n a r y autumnal m o v e m e n t s .

He

s e e s it a s an a g g r e s s i v e , evil f o r c e , the "deepening r o a r " of the wind a s s u m i n g a b e s t i a l tone to his e a r .

The l e a v e s s t i r r e d by the gusty wind

a s s u m e s e r p e n t - l i k e f o r m , h i s s and s t r i k e a t h i m but m i s s . himself s u r r o u n d e d by the evil and violence in n a t u r e .

He s e e s

But, although

d e p r e s s e d and lonely, the m a n does not d e s p a i r ; he i s inwardly strong. According to John Lynen in The P a s t o r a l A r t of Robert F r o s t , the f a c t * * F r o s t , " B e r e f t , " p. 317.

23 that the speaker can m i r r o r in the landscape the full extent of his 12 loneliness attests to his capacity for courage.

Once the raw wounds

of his l o s s have healed over, he will be able to face life and nature without the fear fulness of which he i s now the victim.

The hint of this

hope i s in the last line, "Word I had no one left but God. " God does not s e e m to give much comfort at this point, but the fact that the lonely, sorrowing man even remember® Him indicates that the help w i l l eventually reach him.

Once the initial shock of Ms solitariness w e a r s

away, the lone man will no longer s e e nature in its present threatening light. r

^Many of Frost's poems thus show that the ambivalence of nature

VJLies in the subjective views of human o b s e r v e r s .

Some f e e l a s e n s e of

friendliness with their surroundings and are able to m e e t with courage

f and fortitude the occasional harshness and violence found therein.

Most

others, however, find that nature i s neutral and indifferent toward them. The extent of F r o s t ' s consuming interest in the interrelationship of man and nature i s reflected in the fact that the majority of his poem® portray people, some strong and some weak, in an immediate relationship with the surroundings upon which their existence depends. Frost had often witnessed the dynamic f o r c e s of nature at work in his New England where, as f a m i l i e s moved away, the w i l d - f l o w e r s , 12 J o h n JLynen, The Pastoral Art of Robert F r o s t {New Haven, I960), p. 153.

24 woods, and vines r e p o s s e s s e d the f i e l d s and y a r d s . House" i s such an abandoned f a r m .

P e r h a p s "Ghost

The p o e t ' s m e m o r i e s still dwell

in the house he knows well, although nothing but the c e l l a r w a l l s r e m a i n . In the f i r s t f o u r v e r s e s he shows that n a t u r e cannot completely r e c l a i m the dwelling a s long a s it e x i s t s in a m a n ' s m e m o r y , but it h a s p h y s i c a l l y c o v e r e d over the t r a c e s of human e xiste nc e .

He s u g g e s t s the oncoming

e n c r o a c h m e n t of n a t u r e in his d e s c r i p t i o n , in the f o u r t h v e r s e , of the f o r e w a r n i n g the whippoorwill gives of his a r r i v a l . I dwell in a lonely house I know That vanished m a n y a s u m m e r ago, And l e f t no t r a c e but the c e l l a r wall®, And a c e l l a r in which the daylight f a l l s , And the p u r p l e - s t e m m e d wild r a s p b e r r i e s grow. O ' e r ruined f e n c e s the g r a p e v i n e s shield The woods come back to the mowing field; The o r c h a r d t r e e has grown one copse Of new wood and old w h e r e the woodpecker chops; The footpath down to the well i s healed. I dwell with a s t r a n g e l y aching h e a r t In that v a n i s h e d abode t h e r e f a r a p a r t On that d i s u s e d and f o r g o t t e n r o a d That h a s no d u s t - b a t h now f o r the toad. Night comes; the black b a t s tumble and dart; The whippoorwill i s coming to shout And hush and cluck and f l u t t e r about: I h e a r him begin f a r enough away Full m a n y a t i m e to say his say B e f o r e he a r r i v e s to say it out. ^ F r o s t , "Ghost House, " p. 6.

\

25 The poet e x p e r i e n c e s a feeling of s o r r o w that the couple who w o r k e d out t h e i r l i v e s on this f a r m have had the evidences of t h e i r l a b o r c o v e r e d so quickly.

In the closing lines of the p o e m , he m o u r n s

that t h e r e i s so l i t t l e l e f t to t e l l of the close life the f a r m couple had, t h e i r companionship continuing even into the g r a v e .

Nature is

i n s e n s i t i v e to the love, joy, and s o r r o w that went into the making of this h o m e , and, once the f a m i l y i s b u r i e d and unable to halt i t s daily i n r o a d s , n a t u r e quickly r e t a k e s i t s own.

The r a v a g e s of t i m e topple

the h o u s e , leaving but an open c e l l a r which the wild v i n e s soon c o v e r . The r o a d , no longer u s e d , i s o v e r g r o w n by the g r a s s , f l o w e r s , and trees.

The i r r e s i s t i b l e f o r c e s of n a t u r e r e a b s o r b what m a n had c l e a r e d

and heal over all his t r a c e s .

Everything the couple toiled so long and h a r d

to p r o d u c e i s f a l l e n into decay, r e a b s o r b e d , and t r a n s m u t e d . In a v a r i a t i o n of the t h e m e , F r o s t shows the c r e a t u r e s of the wild to be as i n d i f f e r e n t to human f a i l u r e s and grief a s a r e the i n a n i m a t e surroundings.

As the u n d e r b r u s h and the e l e m e n t s i n d i f f e r e n t l y o v e r -

r u n and o b l i t e r a t e the d e s e r t e d f a r m h o u s e in "Ghost House, " so a l s o the b i r d s and vegetation in "The Need of Being V e r s e d in Country Things" take o v e r the abandoned b a r n with no c o n c e r n f o r the l o s s and t r a g e d y of the people who had c o n s t r u c t e d it. only the chimney standing.

F i r e had d e s t r o y e d the h o u s e , leaving

A wind shift had saved the b a r n f r o m the

s a m e f a t e , and it w a s l e f t to decay.

26 The b i r d s that c a m e to it through the a i r At b r o k e n window s flew out and in, Their m u r m u r m o r e like the sigh we sigh F r o m too m u c h dwelling on what h a s been. Yet f o r And the And the And the

t h e m the lilac r e n e w e d i t s l e a f , aged e l m , though touched with f i r e ; d r y pump flung up an awkward a r m ; f e n c e post c a r r i e d a s t r a n d of w i r e .

F o r them t h e r e w a s r e a l l y nothing sad. But though they r e j o i c e d in the n e s t they kept, One had to be v e r s e d in country things Not to believe the phoebes wept. The poet s e e s the f a r m abandoned a f t e r a f i r e , d e s e r t e d by a f a m i l y not strong enough to r e o p e n the battle with t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s .

Ail that

r e m a i n e d of t h e i r toil and hopes, they had l e f t to inevitable decay.

The

e l m t r e e , however, "though touched with f i r e , " g r o w s again each spring as the lilac blooms.

The b i r d s accept the empty b a r n f o r t h e i r own.

The

i n e x o r a b l e cycle of the w i l d e r n e s s continues, ignoring the v e s t i g e s of human, thinking l i f e .

The l i l a c and the e l m , drawn into the d o m e s t i c

c i r c l e through the f a m i l y ' s enjoyment of t h e i r beauty, continue to quicken each spring with no thought f o r the a b s e n t people.

The poet e x p r e s s e s

w r y l y what he knows f r o m e x p e r i e n c e - - t h a t n a t u r e does not weep f o r m a n ' s failures.

Only people who have lived in the country can u n d e r s t a n d .

In p o r t r a y i n g the i n d i f f e r e n c e and lack of r e s p o n s e of the n a t u r a l w o r l d t o w a r d mankind, F r o s t m a y u s e e i t h e r a n a r r o w f a r m l a n d scene or the e x p a n s e s of the u n i v e r s e .

The u n i v e r s e i s incapable of c o n c e r n ,

^ F r o s t , "The Need of Being V e r s e d i n Country Things, " p. 300.

27 u n d e r s t a n d i n g , or sympathy f o r humanity.

The brief p o e m , " S t a r s , "

thus d e s c r i b e s the s t a r s c l u s t e r i n g f a r above the e a r t h a s though they have an i n t e r e s t in m a n ' s w e l f a r e ; but well does F r o s t r e a l i z e that the s t a r s a r e blind to the f a t e of humanity. How c o u n t l e s s l y they congregate O ' e r our tumultuous snow, Which flows in shapes a s t a l l a s t r e e s When w i n t r y winds do blow! «* As if with k e e n n e s s f o r our f a t e , Our f a l t e r i n g few s t e p s on To white r e s t , and a place of r e s t Invisible a t dawn, - And yet with n e i t h e r love nor h a t e , Those s t a r s like s o m e snow-white M i n e r v a ' s snow-white m a r b l e eyes Without the gift of sight. F r o s t d e s c r i b e s the s t a r s hovering o v e r the e a r t h a s though, i n t e r e s t e d in human f a t e , like M i n e r v a , p r o t e c t r e s s of civilized l i f e , they want to provide guidance in the s t r u g g l e against the violence of a "tumultuous" snow s t o r m that t h r e a t e n s engulfment. Seemingly they w a t c h over the few s t e p s the individual t a k e s a c r o s s the s n o w - c o v e r e d ground t o w a r d his home and nightly r e s t .

But, on a higher plane, they

a l s o s e e m to o b s e r v e the " f a l t e r i n g " s t e p s of humanity a s it t r e a d s it® way f r o m b i r t h to death, the white r e s t .

The s p e a k e r , however, knows

the t r u t h and a c c e p t s it; the s t a r s a r e like a snow-white stone Minerva whose s i g h t l e s s m a r b l e eyes look on with "neither love nor hate. " *®Frost, " S t a r s , " p. 12.

28 They a r e n e u t r a l in that the outcome of the s t r u g g l e h a s no meaning to them.

No plight of m a n can evoke t h e i r sympathy. In "Come In, " another poem with a woodland background. F r o s t

again p o r t r a y s n a t u r e ' s d i s i n t e r e s t in m a n .

He d e s c r i b e s the t h r u s h ' s

song and the seeming invitation it c a r r i e s upon the still a i r . F a r in the p i l l a r e d dark Thrush music went-Almost like a call to come in To the d a r k and l a m e n t . But no, I was out f o r s t a r s : I would not c o m e in. I m e a n t not even if a s k e d . And I h a d n ' t been. * ° As in " S t a r s , " the poet i n d i c a t e s that n a t u r e ' s attitude, at f i r s t , s e e m s a l m o s t to be one of i n t e r e s t in human e x p e r i e n c e .

But in both

p o e m s h e consciously stops himself s h o r t of the romantic view of n a t u r e . In "Come In" he d e s c r i b e s the call of the b i r d a s emitting f r o m a "pillared dark, M a place for lament.

The g l o o m i n e s s of the woods

m a k e s it e a s i e r f o r h i m to o v e r c o m e the temptation to e n t e r the f o r e s t ; he does not intend to change h i s r o u t e which l e a d s to enjoyment of light and s p a c e , but no invitation h a s been given.

He a c c e p t s what t h e r e i s

to a c c e p t and does not p r e t e n d to s e e what i s not t h e r e . In an extension of this view, not only does n a t u r e s e e m not to r e a c h out to h u m a n s , but it definitely i g n o r e s one who a t t e m p t s to m a k e it take * ^ F r o s t , "Come In, " p. 446.

29 notice of Mm.

This a s p e c t of i t s " a c t i v e " i n d i f f e r e n c e F r o s t e x p r e s s e s

w e l l in "On Going Unnoticed": As vain to r a i s e a voice as a sigh In the tumult of f r e e l e a v e s on high. What a r e you in the shadow of t r e e s Engaged up t h e r e with the light and b r e e z e ? L e s s than the c o r a l - r o o t you know That i s content with the daylight low, And h a s no l e a v e s at a l l of i t s own; Whose spotted f l o w e r s hang m e a n l y down. You g r a s p the b a r k by a rugged p l e a t . And look up s m a l l f r o m the f o r e s t ' s f e e t . The only leaf it d r o p s goes wide, Your n a m e not w r i t t e n on e i t h e r side. You l i n g e r your little hour and a r e gone, And still the woods sweep l e a f i l y on, Not even m i s s i n g the c o r a l - r o o t f l o w e r You took a s a trophy of the hour. Of j u s t what c o n c e r n , he a s k s , does a m a n think that he, a lowly e a r t h bound c r e a t u r e , i s to a t a l l , kingly t r e e w h o s e l e a v e s a r e so high above the e a r t h ?

He i s of no m o r e value than the m e a n c o r a l - r o o t f l o w e r , and

he i s no m o r e m i s s e d when he l e a v e s than i s the s m a l l f l o w e r he ta kes with h i m .

The woods do not need him; they a r e s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t , and in

t h e i r stately independence they ignore the insignificant h u m a n who pulls at t h e i r t r u n k s .

Each g e n e r a t i o n of m a n l i n g e r s i t s "little h o u r " and

p a s s e s f r o m this l i f e .

The woods r e m a i n , u n c o n c e r n e d .

^ F r o s t , "On Going Unnoticed, " p. 309.

30 Though m a n m a y be f o r e v e r unnoticed by n a t u r e , he continues to c r a v e a r e s p o n s e w h e t h e r f r o m n a t u r e o r other h u m a n s .

If without

h u m a n companionship, he a t t e m p t s to evoke the r e s p o n s e f r o m h i s e n v i r o n m e n t , but the s u r r o u n d i n g s have no i n t e r e s t in m a n ' s need, a s F r o s t d e m o n s t r a t e s in "The Most of It": He thought he kept the u n i v e r s e alone; F o r all the voice in a n s w e r he could wake Was but the mocking echo of his own F r o m s o m e t r e e - h i d d e n cliff a c r o s s the lake. Some m o r n i n g f r o m the b o u l d e r - b r o k e n b e a c h He would c r y out on l i f e , that what it w a n t s Is not i t s own love back in copy speech, But c o u n t e r - l o v e , o r i g i n a l r e s p o n s e . And nothing e v e r c a m e of what he c r i e d Unless it w a s the embodiment that c r a s h e d In the c l i f f ' s t a l u s on the other side, And then in the f a r distant w a t e r splashed. But a f t e r a t i m e allowed f o r it to swim, Instead of proving h u m a n when it n e a r e d And someone e l s e additional to h i m , As a g r e a t buck it powerfully a p p e a r e d , Pushing the c r u m p l e d w a t e r up ahead, And landed pouring like a w a t e r f a l l , And stumbled through the r o c k s with horny t r e a d , And f o r c e d the u n d e r b r u s h - - a n d that w a s all. The lone m a n ' s c r y b r i n g s f o r t h no d i r e c t r e p l y f r o m n a t u r e . does not c o m p r e h e n d h i s need, f o r it cannot. its part.

It

T h e r e i s no r e a c t i o n on

Only h i s own voice c a r r i e s a c r o s s the lake and r e v e r b e r a t e s

f r o m the cliff. At the sound of the s p l a s h in the w a t e r in the d i s t a n c e , he w a i t s expectantly, only to have h i s hopes dashed when a g r e a t buck steps a s h o r e r a t h e r than the human he had hoped f o r . *®Frost, "The Most of It, " p. 451.

The s o l i t a r y m a n

31 h a s not even the c o m f o r t of a r e a l i s t i c echo of h i s own voice, but he f i n d s it n e c e s s a r y to struggle f o r an o r i g i n a l r e s p o n s e f r o m s o m e w h e r e , b e c a u s e a s an e m o t i o n a l - r a t i o n a l being he needs an acknowledgement of h i s e x i s t e n c e . N a t u r e ' s i n d i f f e r e n c e i s experienced not only by h u m a n b e i n g s , according to F r o s t , but by the c r e a t u r e s of the wild as w e l l .

Struggles

between v a r i o u s c r e a t i o n s no m o r e evoke a r e s p o n s e f r o m those not d i r e c t l y involved than do s t r u g g l e s between h u m a n s , and r e s u l t s which on a human scale would be t r a g i c

a r e ignored on the n a t u r a l s c a l e .

He

p r e s e n t s a r a t h e r s t a r k p i c t u r e in " R a n g e - F i n d i n g " : The battle r e n t a cofeweb diamond- strung And cut a f l o w e r beside a ground b i r d ' s n e s t Before it stained a single human b r e a s t . The s t r i c k e n f l o w e r bent double and so hung. And still the b i r d r e v i s i t e d h e r young. A b u t t e r f l y i t s f a l l had d i s p o s s e s s e d A m o m e n t sought in a i r h i s flower of r e s t , Then lightly stooped to it and f l u t t e r i n g clung. On the b a r e upland p a s t u r e t h e r e had s p r e a d O ' e r n i g h t 'twixt m u l l e i n stalks a w h e e l of t h r e a d And straining cables wet with s i l v e r dew. A sudden passing bullet shook it dry. The indwelling spider r a n to g r e e t the f l v , But finding nothing, sullenly withdrew. Subtly s a t i r i c a l of h u m a n civilization in c o m p a r i s o n with the n a t u r a l s t a t e , F r o s t combines in this poem the ambivalent e l e m e n t s of n a t u r e - - b e a u t y , violence, and i n d i f f e r e n c e .

T h e r e i s , of c o u r s e , the

m a n - m a d e violence, the bullet that t o r e the cobweb and i n j u r e d the flower; * ^ F r o s t , "Range-Finding, " p. 159.

32 but offsetting the violence t h e r e a r e e x p r e s s e d the beauty of the flower, the poise and balance of the butterfly, and the c a r e of the mother bird for her young. On the other hand, t h e r e i s the potential violence of the spider running to "greet the fly. " Encompassing the attributes of violence and beauty, however, i s the overriding sense of organic indifference.

The torn cobweb, the result of the s p i d e r ' s toil, and the

broken flower, both tragic in their implications if viewed with a sympathetic human h e a r t , a r e not mourned for within nature.

The bird,

so instinctively careful for her little ones, i s indifferent to the ills of h e r fellow creations.

The butterfly, who was in such close contact with

the flower at the time it was stricken, does not flutter back to it to offer comfort; it stoops to it to r e s u m e its place of r e s t . the hurt done to the bloom.

It i s insensitive to

The rage of the battle a r o u s e s the spider,

who e m e r g e s to take its enemy but, finding nothing of i n t e r e s t to him, "sullenly" withdraws.

The main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of these elements of

nature a r e an instinctive response to what concerns their own individual existence and a complete indifference toward all that goes on around them, yet does not pertain to them.

This indifference on such a small

scale can take on gigantic proportions when turned toward man who, for the m o s t p a r t , f e e l s the need of a response of some sort. Because n a t u r e ' s c r e a t u r e s a r e governed by instinct, they do not struggle to r e a r r a n g e their environment nor w o r r y about the f u t u r e as human® do.

F r o s t understands this instinctive acceptance of whatever

33 c o m e s t h e i r way as an e l e m e n t of that g e n e r a l i n d i f f e r e n c e m a n r e c o g n i z e s in t h e m .

B e c a u s e of this d i s i n t e r e s t e d a c c e p t a n c e , the b i r d , s p i d e r , and

b u t t e r f l y of " R a n g e - F i n d i n g " continue to live without any emotional r e a c t i o n to the t r a g e d i e s that o c c u r around t h e m .

They a c c e p t the

inevitable a s do the b i r d s F r o s t d e s c r i b e s in "Acceptance": When the spent sun t h r o w s up i t s r a y s on cloud And goes down burning into the gulf below, No voice in n a t u r e i s h e a r d to c r y aloud At what h a s happened. B i r d s , a t l e a s t , m u s t know It i s the change to d a r k n e s s in the sky. M u r m u r i n g something quiet i n h e r b r e a s t , One b i r d begins to c l o s e a faded eye; Or o v e r t a k e n too f a r f r o m his n e s t , Hurrying lew above the g r o v e , some waif Swoops j u s t in t i m e to h i s r e m e m b e r e d t r e e . At m o s t he thinks or t w i t t e r s softly, "Safe! Now l e t the night be d a r k f o r all of m e . Let the night be too d a r k f o r m e to see ^ Into the f u t u r e .

Let what w i l l be, be. "

R o b e r t F r o s t ' s c l o s e n e s s to n a t u r e and h i s love and understanding of it f o r m the underlying e l e m e n t s of h i s d e s c r i p t i o n s of s e t t i n g s . Whether he p o r t r a y s the sympathetic benignity, the antipathetic violence, or the p a s s i v e i n d i f f e r e n c e of the n a t u r e he knows, his w o r d s give proof of the genuine r e s p e c t he b e a r s f o r it.

He f e e l s keenly that m e n m a y

know a s u r e , steady contentment through a c t i v i t i e s which p l a c e t h e m in i m m e d i a t e contact with t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t , if they a r e strong enough to a c c e p t a l s o the h a r s h n e s s that i s an i n h e r e n t p a r t of it.

The seeming

m a l e v o l e n c e , o r violence, found in the n a t u r e of e v e r y r e g i o n , F r o s t a l s o 20 F r o s t , " A c c e p t a n c e , " ? . 313.

34

respects.

But h e r e , too, the p e r s o n ' s attitude, M s r e a c t i o n , d e t e r m i n e s

h i s r e w a r d in the e x p e r i e n c e .

F r o s t ' s view i s tha t, f o r the m o s t p a r t , it

i s up to m a n to m a k e the r e l a t i o n s h i p a s s u m e the d i r e c t i o n he p r e f e r s . F o r the strong t h e r e i s benevolence in the a s s o c i a t i o n , and the violence of n a t u r e does not o v e r w h e l m .

F o r the weak, however, t h e r e i s no

sympathy o r understanding, and the n a t u r a l f o r c e s become d e s t r u c t i v e . Man i s the d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r in the relationship. p r i m a r y e l e m e n t in Robert F r o s t ' s p o e t r y .

He i s the c e n t r a l and

CHAPTER HI

FROST'S CHARACTERS—TWO TYPES

The s e v e r a l f a c e s of n a t u r e that f o r m the background f o r R o b e r t F r o s t ' s r u r a l p o e t r y play a definite p a r t in the l i v e s of the people he i s c o n c e r n e d with.

The h a r s h violence, the n e u t r a l i n d i f f e r e n c e , and the

seeming benignancy a r e intertwined with the r e s p o n s e s of the c h a r a c t e r s which f o r m the f o c a l point of h i s v e r s e s .

The people he p l a c e s in h i s

rugged country settings a r e stubborn o r they would not r e m a i n to s t r u g g l e f o r s u r v i v a l on this land, and they a r e r e s e r v e d a s a r e s u l t of enduring p e r i o d s of e n f o r c e d isolation b e c a u s e of c l i m a t i c conditions.

Most of all,

they a r e individuals who act as t h e i r c o n s c i e n c e s dictate and who hold t h e i r own opinions.

They a r e a h a r d y people who a r e not a f r a i d of w o r k .

h i r e d f o r a job, they do it r i g h t and quickly.

When

In some a tendency t o w a r d

insanity i s brought to the s u r f a c e by the prolonged p e r i o d s of isolation and the h a r d s h i p s of New England h i l l - c o u n t r y life.

All of t h e s e t r a i t s

e n t e r somewhat into the m a k e - u p of R o b e r t F r o s t ' s c h a r a c t e r s .

He u n d e r -

stood t h e m b e c a u s e he had lived among t h e m and w a s one of t h e m .

His

p e r s o n a l knowledge, combined with his poetic skill, produced p i c t u r e s of such people within t h e i r n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t that a r e unequaled in sharp* n e s s and c l a r i t y .

His c h a r a c t e r s a r e r e a l to the r e a d e r b e c a u s e they w e r e

t r u e to the e x p e r i e n c e of R o b e r t F r o s t . 35

36 In m o s t of M s p o e m s , F r o s t p o r t r a y s e i t h e r of two polar t y p e s , the strong and the w e a k , although t h e r e a r e varying s h a d e s within each category.

Among the strong a r e those who a r e s e c u r e b e c a u s e of t h e i r

close r e l a t i o n s h i p s with t h e i r fellow beings. fellowship t h e r e i s s e c u r i t y and strength.

Within t h e i r c i r c l e of

But F r o s t r e c o g n i z e s even

m o r e the m e t t l e of those who do not need the support of h u m a n f r i e n d ships to f a c e life s u c c e s s f u l l y . Such a r e sufficient unto t h e m s e l v e s . F e w e r than the f i r s t , the second g r o u p of people F r o s t p o r t r a y s a r e the weak.

They have n e i t h e r the c o u r a g e nor the s t r e n g t h to f a c e l i f e {i. e.

n a t u r e ) alone, but, f o r m a n y r e a s o n s , they a r e unable to r e a c h out to t h e i r fellows f o r the understanding and help that they so d e s p e r a t e l y need.

C o m p a s s i o n and aid through human r e l a t i o n s h i p s could possibly

save them, but t h e i r inability to communicate with and r e s p o n d to o t h e r s binds them to t h e i r f a t e . T h e s e a r e the two m a j o r types of people R o b e r t F r o s t p l a c e s in v a r i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s with the ambivalent a s p e c t s of n a t u r e .

The strong

f a c e the i n d i f f e r e n c e of t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s and endure; they confront the a p p a r e n t l y h o s t i l e violence, and it lose® some of its m a l e v o l e n c e when met straightforwardly.

When the weak encounter the cold i n d i f f e r e n c e ,

they b r e a k ; some quickly, some in an agonizingly slow p r o c e s s , but inevitably they b r e a k .

The seemingly d e l i b e r a t e antagonism of t h e i r

s u r r o u n d i n g s i s the s o u r c e of untold t e r r o r s ; but it is the n e v e r - e n d i n g i n d i f f e r e n c e that b r i n g s about t h e i r defeat.

It i s p e r t i n e n t to note,

37 h o w e v e r , that F r o s t speaks f a r m o r e often of the strong than he does of the weak.

He once c o m m e n t e d that m a n ha® only a slight advantage

over n a t u r e - - o d d s of f i f t y and one tenth to f o r t y - n i n e and nine t e n t h s . 1 But in his p o e m s he speaks of m a n ' s t r i u m p h over or t r u c e with h i s surrounding® m a n y m o r e t i m e s than of m a n ' s f a i l u r e , which s u g g e s t s his belief that m a n ' s i n t e l l e c t , courage', e n d u r a n c e , and inner s t r e n g t h m a k e the d i f f e r e n c e . Close human r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e an e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t in the m a k e up of m a n y of F r o s t ' s c h a r a c t e r s who a r e at p e a c e within t h e m s e l v e s . He p o r t r a y s this c l o s e n e s s between u n m a r r i e d couple® a s w e l l a s married.

And, in some c a s e s , the bond i s between people who do not

even know each other o r s e e e a c h o t h e r but who s e n s e the p r e s e n c e of another and d e r i v e s e c u r i t y f r o m that n e a r n e s s .

It i s p o s s i b l e to draw

upon e x a m p l e s of such r e l a t i o n s h i p s f r o m the e n t i r e r a n g e of his p o e m s , beginning with h i s f i r s t collection, A Boy's Will.

Many of hi® p o e m s

that c o n c e r n the companionship of a m a n and a woman give the i m p r e s s i o n that h e r e is an e x p e r i e n c e that Robert F r o s t knows f i r s t hand.

One a w a r e of the devotion between the poet and h i s wife i s even

m o r e inclined to s e e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e and love r e f l e c t e d in the lines as w e l l a s the u n i v e r s a l t h e m e i l l u s t r a t e d .

"Flower-Gathering" is

such a poem:

* Reginald L. Cook, The Dimensions of R o b e r t F r o s t (New York, 1958), p. 144.

38 I l e f t you in the m o r n i n g , And in the morning glow, You w a l k e d a way b e s i d e m e To m a k e m e s a d to go. l>o you know m e in the gloaming, Gaunt and dusty g r a y with r o a m i n g ? A r e you dumb b e c a u s e you know m e not, O r dumb b e c a u s e you know ? All f o r m e ? And not a question F o r the f a d e d f l o w e r s gay That could take m e f r o m b e s i d e you F o r the ages of a day? They a r e y o u r s , and be the m e a s u r e Of t h e i r w o r t h f o r you to t r e a s u r e , The m e a s u r e of the little while That I've been long away. F r o s t i s c o n c e r n e d h e r e , on the s u r f a c e , with a brief s e p a r a t i o n of l o v e r s f o r the young m a n to spend the day walking and gathering flowers.

But in the e y e s of the l o v e r s , the c o m p a r a t i v e l y brief s e p a r a t i o n

c o n s t i t u t e s a long b r e a k .

That the m a n i s "gaunt and dusty g r a y with

r o a m i n g " indicates a f a r longer walk, in the n a r r a t o r ' s m i n d , than the span of a day would allow, f o r the s e p a r a t i o n w e a k e n s the m a n and m a k e s w h a t e v e r he i s doing s e e m h a r d e r and l o n g e r .

He c o m m e n t s upon the

d a y ' s t i m e a s "the a g e s of a day, " and "the little w h i l e / T h a t I've been long a w a y , " so that the actual t i m e of a b s e n c e i s m a g n i f i e d by love and loneliness.

Though the t i m e the couple spends together f l i e s , the p e r i o d s

of s e p a r a t i o n s e e m e n d l e s s , f o r neither i® whole while the o t h e r i s away. But, b e c a u s e of t h e i r c l o s e n e s s , they e n d u r e s e p a r a t i o n and n a t u r e s e e m s

^Robert F r o s t , " F l o w e r - G a t h e r i n g , " Complete P o e m s of Robert F r o s t {New York, 1962), p. 18. Subsequent r e f e r e n c e s to F r o s t ' s p o e t r y a r e taken f r o m t h i s edition u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e indicated.

39 kindly still.

The l o v e l i n e s s the m a n enjoys during h i s walk i s brought

back in the f l o w e r s he g i v e s upon his r e t u r n to hi® loved one a s a symbol of the love which bound t h e m together even while a p a r t .

And in t h e i r

common bond they can enjoy the "faded f l o w e r s gay, " which, though w i l t e d, still hold t h e i r l o v e l i n e s s f o r the couple who s h a r e t h e m . The s e p a r a t i o n of l o v e r s tends to a f f e c t t h e i r outlook on life.

And,

a® a r e s u l t , in t h e i r e y e s , t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s a r e not always beautiful and yielding of m a n y f l o w e r s .

At t i m e s the s e p a r a t i o n a d d s gloom to an

a l r e a d y d a r k c o u n t r y s i d e , a s does the lonely walk in the autumn f o r the young m a n in "A Late Walk": When I go up through the mowing f i e l d , The h e a d l e s s a f t e r m a t h , Smooth-laid like thatch with the heavy dew, Half c l o s e s the g a r d e n path. And when I c o m e to the g a r d e n ground, The w h i r of s o b e r b i r d s Up f r o m the tangle of w i t h e r e d w e e d s Is s a d d e r than any w o r d s . A t r e e beside the w a l l stands b a r e , But a leaf that l i n g e r e d brown, D i s t u r b e d , I doubt not, by m y thought, Comes softly rattling down. I end not f a r f r o m m y going f o r t h By picking the faded blue Of the l a s t r e m a i n i n g a s t e r f l o w e r To c a r r y again to you. ^ ^ F r o s t , "A L a t e Walk, " p. 11.

40 T h r o u g h o u t t h e s e l i n e s F r o s t e m p l o y s the i m a g e r y ol d e a t h , destruction, dry barrenness.

He s p e a k s of the " h e a d l e s s a f t e r m a t h "

i n t h e m o w i n g f i e l d , the s a d n e s s of the " t a n g l e of w i t h e r e d w e e d s , " the b a r e n e s s of the t r e e that l o s e s i t s l a s t d r i e d b r o w n leaf t h a t r a t t l e s a s it falls.

The m a n i s a l o n e , a n d the n a t u r a l s a d n e s s of a n a u t u m n s c e n e

i s i n t e n s i f i e d by h i s s o l i t u d e .

H i s e m o t i o n s c o n t r o l the view h e h a s of

the a u t u m n f i e l d s a r o u n d h i m .

He cannot f a c e t h e b a r r e n n e s s a l o n e ;

h i s thought r e t u r n s to h i s l o v e d o n e , a n d a t t h i s thought he i s e n c o u r a g e d and p i c k s t h e l a s t s u m m e r f l o w e r , a l r e a d y s o m e w h a t f a d e d , to c a r r y a g a i n , a s h e p r o b a b l y c a r r i e d the a b u n d a n t b l o o m s of the w a r m w e a t h e r , to h e r .

It i s the t o u c h of s u m m e r t h a t t h e two t o g e t h e r w i l l c a r r y t h r o u g h

the c o m i n g w i n t e r .

And t o g e t h e r t h e y w i l l u l t i m a t e l y g r e e t t h e s p r i n g .

A u t u m n in "Going f o r W a t e r " i s a s d r y a n d b a r r e n a s it i s i n "A L a t e Walk, " b u t although it i s d e s c r i b e d s o , t h e r e i s n o t s o g r e a t a s e n s e of d e s o l a t i o n a n d d e s t r u c t i o n in t h e s e l i n e s b e c a u s e t h e s c e n e i s v i e w e d t h r o u g h t h e e y e s of c o m p a n i o n s .

And t h i s j o y i n being t o g e t h e r e r a s e s

any g l o o m i n e s s o r f e a r of t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l m i g h t otherwise have.

T h e y a r e so c a u g h t u p i n e a c h o t h e r t h a t t h e y have

n e i t h e r t h e t i m e n o r the i n c l i n a t i o n to f i n d d a n g e r o r i n d i f f e r e n c e w i t h i n their environment.

T h e i r love c o l o r s t h e i r view of n a t u r e .

The two

p e o p l e m u s t c r o s s t h e f i e l d s n e a r t h e i r h o m e to r e a c h the b r o o k w h i c h w i l l supply w a t e r now t h a t t h e i r w e l l i s d r y .

41 Not loth, to have excuse to go, Because the autumn eve w a s f a i r (Though chill), b e c a u s e the f i e l d s w e r e o u r s , And by the b r o o k our woods w e r e t h e r e . We r a n a s if to m e e t the moon That slowly dawned behind the t r e e s , The b a r r e n boughs without the l e a v e s , Without the b i r d s , without the breeze."* The i s olation of the a r e a does not have a d e p r e s s i n g e f f e c t upon the two; r a t h e r , t h e i r mood i s a l m o s t e x h i l a r a t o r y . woods.

This i s t h e i r land, t h e i r

They a r e alive in t h e i r union and can r u s h out to m e e t the w o r l d .

Their isolation in a place with t r e e s "without the l e a v e s , without the b i r d s , without the b r e e z e , " h a s an opposite effect on t h e m f r o m the one that the s a m e situation h a s upon the lonely m a n in the p r e v i o u s poem; they a r e t o g e t h e r , w h e r e a s he i s alone, all .the beginning of the l i n e s . And this couple a l m o s t sing in the p l e a s u r e of solitude t h e i r t o g e t h e r n e s s brings. But once within the wood, we p a u s e d Like g n o m e s that hid u s f r o m the m o o n , Ready to r u n to hiding new With laughter when she found us soon. E a c h laid on other a staying hand To l i s t e n e r e we d a r e d to look, And in the hush we joined to m a k e ^ We h e a r d , we knew we h e a r d the brook. Going a c r o s s s e v e r a l f i e l d s in o r d e r to f i n d w a t e r i s not in itself an exciting t a s k ; however this couple, in the joy of being t o g e t h e r , do 4

F r o s t , "Going F o r W a t e r , " p. 26.

5

lbid.

42

not find t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s intimidating, but r a t h e r a s o u r c e of p l e a s u r e . Instead of allowing n a t u r e ' s i n d i f f e r e n c e to t h e i r n e e d s to d i s c o u r a g e t h e m , i. e . , the drying up of the w e l l , they a c c e p t what they m u s t and s e a r c h out another s o u r c e of w a t e r .

And it is this joy in t h e i r c l o s e n e s s and the

c o u r a g e e a c h d e r i v e s f r o m the other that enable t h e m to h e a r the b r o o k ' s o r d i n a r y sound as A note a s f r o m a single p l a c e , A s l e n d e r tinkling f a l l that m a d e Now d r o p s that f l o a t e d on the pool Like p e a r l s , and now a s i l v e r blade. Much l a t e r in his c a r e e r , R o b e r t F r o s t again chose a brook a s the unifying e l e m e n t of a poem, "West-Running Brook, " In t h i s , the couple c o n c e r n e d a r e not-long m a r r i e d , and they a r e still d i s c o v e r i n g the things that m a k e up a m a r r i a g e , although they have a b a s i c understanding of each o t h e r .

H e r e they l e a r n that c o n t r a r i e s a r e a p a r t of m a r r i a g e as

they a r e a p a r t of n a t u r e . "The brook r u n s w e s t . " "West-running Brook then call it. " (West-running Brook m e n call it to this d a y . ) "What does it think i t ' s doing running w e s t When all the other country brooks flow e a s t To r e a c h the o c e a n ? It m u s t be the brook Can t r u s t itself to go by c o n t r a r i e s The way I can with y o u - - a n d you with m e Because w e ' r e - - w e ' r e - - I don't know what we a r e . What a r e we ? " 6

Ibid.

43 "Young or new ? " 7 "We m u s t be something. The husband explains the "wave" in the s t r e a m f r o m the p r a c t i c a l m a l e view, while the young wife f a n c i e s , in the feminine way which p e r s o n a l i z e s e v e r y event, that the brook i s waving to h e r . "That w a v e ' s been standing off this jut of s h o r e E v e r since r i v e r s , I w a s going to s a y , W e r e m a d e in heaven. It w a s n ' t waved to us. " "It w a s n ' t , yet it w a s . If not to you It w a s to m e - - i n an annunciation. The couple, as individuals, s e e the r e s u l t of a q u i r k within usually m e t h o d i c a l n a t u r e f r o m two d i f f e r e n t views.

The husband has a r e a l i s t i c

explanation of the unusual b r o o k , while the w i f e ' s r e a s o n i n g is m o r e p e r s o n a l and r o m a n t i c i z e d . c o n t r a r i t i e s of n a t u r e .

Their differing opinions point up the

But t h e i r companionship m a k e s it a l s o s e e m

p l e a s a n t and amusing to t h e m , f u r t h e r emphasizing the point that the o b s e r v e r ' s r e s p o n s e i s the d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r in the p a r t i c u l a r view of nature presented.

John Lynen o b s e r v e s that the f r a m e w o r k of the poem

i s the symbol of the c e n t r a l i d e a - - t h e c o n t r a r y brook and the c o n t r a r y opinions of the husband and w i f e .

The dispute i s a way of l o v e - m a k i n g ,

and it is f u n d a m e n t a l to t h e i r love.

7

Q

The understanding is there

^ F r o s t , "West-Running Brook, " p. 327.

^Ibid. , p. 328.

^John I»ynen, The P a s t o r a l A r t of R o b e r t F r o s t (New Haven, I960), p. 123.

44 binding the two t o g e t h e r , and it e n a b l e s t h e m to look f o r m e a n i n g in an unusual occurrence. "Today w i l l be the day You s a i d so. " "No, today w i l l b e the day You s a i d the b r o o k w a s c a l l e d W e s t - r u n n i n g B r o o k . " " T o d a y will be the day of w h a t w e both said. The r e a d e r s e n s e s in t h e s e concluding s t a t e m e n t s the love t h a t e n a b l e s e a c h to d e f e r to the o t h e r ' s opinion, a love w h i c h i s the b a s i s f o r the s t r e n g t h of union that the two w i l l develop a s the y e a r s p a s s . The d e f e r r i n g of one to a n o t h e r loved o n e ' s opinion, a s do the young couple in "West-Running B r o o k , " i s developed even m o r e f u l l y in "In the H o m e s t r e t c h . " F r o s t p o r t r a y s an e l d e r l y couple who have m o v e d to a f a r m f o r t h e i r r e t i r e m e n t and a r e in the p r o c e s s of settling t h e c l u t t e r t h a t c o m e s w i t h moving.

T o g e t h e r they c a m e b e c a u s e one

h a d w a n t e d to m o v e and the o t h e r l o v e d enough to u n d e r s t a n d t h e d e s i r e . T h i s love of the w i f e and t h e h u s b a n d ' s c o n c e r n f o r h e r a r e t h e c o r e of a s t r o n g union w h i c h h a s e n d u r e d f o r m a n y y e a r s and which F r o s t i n d i c a t e s w i l l continue.

The f i r s t t h r e e l i n e s r e f l e c t the w i f e ' s f e e l i n g about the

m o v e , a s she i s f i r s t observed without h e r h u s b a n d . 10 F r o s t , " W e s t - R u n n i n g B r o o k , " p. 329.

45 She stood a g a i n s t the kitchen sink, and looked Over the sink out through a dusty window At w e e d s the w a t e r f r o m the sink m a d e tall. ** The choice of a home f o r t h e i r l a s t y e a r s w a s the h u s b a n d ' s . she loves h i m and can be happy a s long a s he i s . s e n s e of h u m o r and shows c o n c e r n f o r o t h e r s .

But

She has an i n h e r e n t

When the m o v e r a s k s

w h e r e he should put yet another i t e m : "Put it on top of something t h a t ' s on top Of something e l s e , " she laughed# "Oh, put it w h e r e You can tonight, and go. It's a l m o s t dark; You m u s t be getting s t a r t e d back to town. The husband w a n t s v e r y much f o r h e r to like t h e i r new h o m e , and he i n q u i r e s again "And yet you think you like i t , dear ? " " T h a t ' s what y o u ' r e so c o n c e r n e d to know! You hope I like it. Bang goes something big away Off t h e r e u p s t a i r s . The v e r y t r e a d of m e n As g r e a t a s t h o s e i s s h a t t e r i n g to the f r a m e Of such a little house. Once l e f t alone, You and I, d e a r , will go with s o f t e r steps Up and down s t a i r s and through the r o o m s , • • " She gently t e a s e s him f o r his questions and deftly p a r r i e s t h e m .

She i s

glad b e c a u s e he i s happy, and together they will have contented y e a r s . T h e r e i s understanding between the two.

He s e n s e s that she i s not a s

completely s u r e of the move as he thinks he i s , and, b e c a u s e he l o v e s ** F r o s t , "In the H o m e s t r e t c h , " p. 139. 12

Ibid.

13

Ibid. , p. 140.

46 h e r and w a n t s h e r to be happy, he c a l l s h e r away f r o m the window that looks out on "country d a r k n e s s . " "Come f r o m that window w h e r e you see too m u c h , And take a l i v e l i e r view of things f r o m h e r e . ^ And she r e s p o n d s to his love, m o v e s , and n o t i c e s the d a r k n e s s a s the m o v e r lights his pipe. "See how it m a k e s hia n o s e - s i d e b r i g h t , a proof How d a r k i t ' s getting. Can you tell what t i m e It i s by t h a t ? Or by the m o o n ? The new moon! What shoulder did I see h e r over ? Neither. A w i r e she i s of s i l v e r , as new a s we To everything. Her light won't l a s t us long. I t ' s something, though, to know w e ' r e going to have h e r Night a f t e r night and s t r o n g e r e v e r y night To s e e u s through our f i r s t two w e e k s . . . . The wife c o n s i d e r s the new moon f e m i n i n e and c o m m e n t s that she will be getting s t r o n g e r e v e r y night, a s w i l l the wife. thus h a v e the help of a new f r i e n d - - t h e moon.

The wife will

By the t i m e the f i r s t two

w e e k s a r e p a s t , the wife will have conquered the u n e a s i n e s s of h e r tentative f e a r of n a t u r e and the d a r k through m u t u a l love and t o g e t h e r n e s s . Once she has h e r cupboards s t r a i g h t , h e r c u r t a i n s hung, and h e r f u r n i t u r e a r r a n g e d , she will be able to stand up s t r a i g h t beside h e r husband to f a c e t h e i r new l i v e s .

F o r the t i m e that it t a k e s h e r to r e a c h this point, she

m u s t have f e m i n i n e help, and the new m o o n w i l l provide that. 14

15

I b i d . , p. 141. Ibid.

47 The m o v e r s , not liking the idea of f a r m i n g f o r t h e m s e l v e s and thinking that s u r e l y the couple have moved to the country only b e c a u s e they had to and not b e c a u s e they wanted to, o f f e r condolences; " I t ' s not so bad in the country, s e t t l e d down, When p e o p l e ' r e getting on in l i f e . But t h e i r r e a c t i o n shakes the husband.

You'll like it. " F o r an i n s t a n t he i s no longer

so s u r e of the wisdom of the m o v e , and h e w o r r i e s that his wife might r e g r e t it.

But she, knowing his need, r e a s s u r e s him.

He s a y s :

"Did they m a k e something l o n e s o m e go through you? It would take m o r e than them to sicken y o u - Us of our b a r g a i n . But they l e f t us so As to our f a t e , like fools p a s t reasoning with. They a l m o s t shook m e . " " I t ' s a l l so m u c h What we have always wanted, I c o n f e s s I t ' s seeming bad f o r a m o m e n t m a k e s it s e e m Even w o r s e still, and so on down, down, down. I t ' s nothing; i t ' s t h e i r leaving us at dusk.'"* 7 The t a s k of finding the i t e m s n e c e s s a r y f o r supper c h e e r s h i m , and he r e t u r n s to m u s i n g about the adventure and h a p p i n e s s ahead f o r them.

But he still t r i e s to r e a s s u r e himself that the move w a s what

she wanted too. "It's all so m u c h what I h a v e always wanted, I can't believe i t ' s what you wanted, too. " "Shouldn't you like to know ? " 16

I b i d . , p. 142.

17

I b i d . , p. 143.

43 "I'd like to know If it ia what you wanted, then how m u c h You wanted it f o r m e . " "A t r o u b l e d c o n s c i e n c e ! You don't want m e to tell if I_ don't know. Again she p a r r i e s h i s q u e s t i o n s .

The r e a d e r i s touched by the situation

between the two, but not with pity, f o r t h e i r love and understanding will b e a r t h e m through the coming y e a r s .

B e c a u s e they a r e together they

w i l l find peace within t h e i r r u r a l s u r r o u n d i n g s , f o r each d e r i v e s f r o m the other the c o u r a g e n e c e s s a r y to f a c e l i f e . In "The Investment" F r o s t again p o r t r a y s a couple who a r e not wealthy in m a t e r i a l things; t h e i r land i s poor and p r o d u c e s little.

But

within t h e i r c l o s e relationship they draw s t r e n g t h , each f r o m the o t h e r , and f a c e life defiantly. Over back w h e r e they speak of life as staying ("HiTou couldn't call it living, f o r it a i n ' t " ) . T h e r e w a s an old, old house renewed with paint. And in it a piano loudly playing. Out in the plowed ground i n the cold a digger, Among u n e a r t h e d potatoes standing still, Was counting w i n t e r d i n n e r s , one a hill, With half an e a r to the p i a n o ' s vigor. All that piano and new paint back t h e r e . Was it s o m e money suddenly come into? O r some e x t r a v a g a n c e young love had been t o ? O r old love on an i m p u l s e not to c a r e - 18

I b i d . , p. 145.

49 Not to sink under being m a n and w i f e , But get some color and m u s i c out of life ? * ^ The poet e m p h a s i z e s the d r a b life i n this p a r t i c u l a r a r e a of New England and s p e a k s of the new paint and piano in c o n t r a s t to the background.

For

those whose lives a r e m e r e l y "staying" on t h e i r land, whose w o r k p r o d u c e s m e a g e r d i n n e r s , a piano and f r e s h new paint a p p e a r incongruous. The poet m a k e s t h r e e suggestions as to the r e a s o n f o r the " l i f e " of the piano and the paint, but the t h i r d is the a n s w e r to h i s r i d d l e , f o r this i s the one he e m p h a s i z e s .

They a r e the symbols of the m u t u a l s u p p o r t of

the husband and wife against d r a b l i v e s and d r e a r y s u r r o u n d i n g s .

This

m a n and w o m a n a r e not content to m e r e l y exist; they have the c o u r a g e and the s t r e n g t h to fight against t h e i r bleak, i n s e n s i t i v e environment. They do not bewail t h e i r plight; they a l t e r t h e i r l i v e s , t o g e t h e r . F r o s t indicates that a s e n s e of companionship does not n e c e s s a r i l y demand that two p e r s o n s be in actual communication.

The b r i e f e s t hint

of h u m a n life can m a k e a s o l i t a r y p e r s o n f e e l l e s s alone.

"Were I In

T r o u b l e " i s an example of a feeling of companionship and the r e s u l t a n t flow of c o u r a g e between an i s o l a t e d p e r s o n and a s t r a n g e r who i s not even a w a r e of the e x i s t e n c e of h i s o b s e r v e r . W h e r e I could think of no t h o r o u g h f a r e , Away on the mountain up f a r too high, A blinding headlight s h i f t e d g l a r e And began to bounce down a g r a n i t e s t a i r Like a s t a r f r e s h f a l l e n out of the sky. ^ F r o s t , "The Investment, " p, 337.

50 And I away in m y opposite wood Am touched by that unintimate light And m a d e f e e l l e s s alone than I rightly should, F o r t r a v e l e r t h e r e could do m e no good W e r e I in trouble with night tonight. The o b s e r v e r r e a l i z e s that his fellow human, so f a r away, could be of no r e a l help should he need it at t h i s t i m e , but his v e r y e x i s t e n c e i s consoling, b e c a u s e f o r a while the s o l i t a r y m a n f e e l s l e s s alone.

The

"unintimate light" f r o m the t r a v e l e r ' s c a r i s a sign of o t h e r h u m a n l i f e , and m e r e l y the sign i s enough to give additional courage.

The poet

s a y s , " W e r e I in trouble with night tonight, " but t h e r e i s no p r o s p e c t of trouble f o r t h i s m a n , f o r he i s one who can see an o r d i n a r y c a r light as "Like a s t a r f r e s h f a l l e n out of the sky. " In his s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y he s e e s beauty within his e n v i r o n m e n t and a s s o c i a t e s it with n o n - n a t u r a l objects.

He will not have r e a l t r o u b l e , but he m a y grow somewhat lonely.

And the evidence of fellow h u m a n l i f e , which i s fellowship enough to m a k e h i m f e e l l e s s alone, w i l l s t r e n g t h e n him and enhance his f u r t h e r a p p r e c i a t i o n of his s u r r o u n d i n g s . In another poem F r o s t w r o t e of a type of m a n s i m i l a r to the one in "Were I In Trouble. " He i s the w o o d s m a n , in "The Vantage Point, " who i s content in h i s i s o l a t e d n a t u r a l s u r r o u n d i n g s : If t i r e d of t r e e s I seek again mankind, Well I know w h e r e to hie m e - - i n the dawn, To a slope w h e r e the cattle k e e p the lawn, 20

F r o s t , "Were I In Trouble, " p. 530.

51 T h e r e amid lolling j u n i p e r r e c l i n e d , Myself u n s e e n , I see in white defined F a r off the h o m e s of m e n , and f a r t h e r s t i l l , The g r a v e s of m e n on an opposing hill, Living o r dead, w h i c h e v e r a r e to m i n d . And if by noon I have too m u c h of t h e s e , I have but to t u r n on m y a r m , and lo, The s u n - b u r n e d hillside s e t s m y f a c e aglow, My breathing shakes the bluet like a b r e e z e , I s m e l l the e a r t h , 1 s m e l l the b r u i s e d pla nt, I look into the c r a t e r of the ant, ^ In the f i r s t s t a n z a , the i s o l a t e d m a n c o n s i d e r s mankind, which he i s o l a t e s f r o m n a t u r e , and in the second, n a t u r e without h u m a n s .

In h i s

d e s c r i p t i o n s of the two a r e a s , F r o s t indic a te s a g r e a t e r a t t r a c t i o n f o r the l a t t e r with h i s b r i g h t e r , l i v e l i e r i m a g e s .

But although he s e p a r a t e s

the two—man and n a t u r e - - h e does not indicate that the m a n h a s to choose between the two.

He s u g g e s t s that the m a n ' s n a t u r a l s u r r o u n d i n g s alone

a r e not enough to completely s a t i s f y h i s n e e d s .

The m a n does t u r n his

f a c e to p l a c e s of h u m a n habitation, but he does not need m u c h f r o m h i s fellows b e c a u s e he i s a l r e a d y content within his environment.

He i s an

example of F r o s t ' s c h a r a c t e r s who a r e s e c u r e enough within t h e m s e l v e s to f a c e l i f e , f o r the m o s t p a r t alone, with only the s l i g h t e s t contact with t h e i r fellow beings,

fie f i n d s that the a l t e r n a t i o n , of a s o r t , between

distant a s s o c i a t i o n with humanity and close a s s o c i a t i o n with n a t u r e i s r e f r e s h i n g in the change each b r i n g s .

The s o u r c e of his s t r e n g t h is

both n a t u r e and humanity. 21

F r o s t , "The Vantage P o i n t , " p. 24.

52 In "The F i g u r e in the Doorway, " F r o s t p o r t r a y s another m a n living alone in the f o r e s t who does not find it n e c e s s a r y to be in contact with o t h e r people.

The poet had caught a fleeting g l i m p s e of the f i g u r e

in the doorway of the mountain cabin a s h i s t r a i n g a t h e r e d speed a f t e r climbing a g r a d e , but the g l i m p s e i s sufficient to r e v e a l the m a n ' s whole e x i s t e n c e . The g r a d e s u r m o u n t e d , we w e r e riding high Through level mountains nothing to the eye But s c r u b oak, s c r u b oak and the lack of e a r t h That kept the oaks f r o m getting any g i r t h . But a s through the monotony we r a n , We c a m e to w h e r e t h e r e w a s a living m a n . His g r e a t gaunt f i g u r e f i l l e d h i s cabin door, And had he f a l l e n inwa r d on the f l o o r , He m u s t have m e a s u r e d to the f u r t h e r wall. But we who p a s s e d w e r e not to see h i m f a l l . The m i l e s and m i l e s he lived f r o m anywhere W e r e evidently something he could b e a r . He stood unshaked, and if g r i m and gaunt. It w a s not n e c e s s a r i l y f r o m want. He had the oaks f o r heating and f o r light. He had a h e n , he had a pig in sight. He had a w e l l , he had the r a i n to catch. He had a t e n - b y - t w e n t y g a r d e n patch. Nor did he lack f o r common e n t e r t a i n m e n t . That I a s s u m e w a s what our p a s s i n g t r a i n m e a n t He could look a t us in our diner eating, And if so moved u n c u r l a hand in greeting. ^ The r e a d e r i® i m m e d i a t e l y m a d e a w a r e of the i s o l a t i o n of the cabin. The t r a i n i s the only s o u r c e of e n t e r t a i n m e n t and contact with people f o r the c a b i n ' s s o l i t a r y inhabitant.

But F r o s t i n d i c a t e s the m a n ' s contentment

by describing him as a "living m a n , " not j u s t a m a n living in a cabin. ^ F r o s t , "The F i g u r e in the Doorway, " p. 378.

53

He h a s everything he n e e d s f o r h i s e x i s t e n c e - - f o o d , w a t e r , light, heat. And, l o r his e n t e r t a i n m e n t , he h a s the r e g u l a r l y p a s s i n g t r a i n .

The

p i c t u r e Robert F r o s t d r a w s i s one of a " g r e a t gaunt f i g u r e , " who i s at home within the w i l d e r n e s s and does not f e e l the need f o r close union with h i s fellow beings.

He is w h e r e he i s and what he i s b e c a u s e he w a n t s

to be, and he i s strong enough to m e e t h i s fellow beings with a wave of g r e e t i n g if he find® a need f o r any contact with humanity, o r he can stand as he does, s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t and poised. In a m o r e h u m o r o u s vein in " B r o w n ' s Descent, " F r o s t p o r t r a y s s t r e n g t h in a m a n who does not s t r u g g l e u s e l e s s l y a g a i n s t n a t u r e but who w a i t s until the opportunity i s h i s and then picks himself up and goes on his way.

Brown i s an independent soul whose f a r m i s on a lofty hill

so f a r n o r t h that in w i n t e r he m u s t w o r k by l a n t e r n light a f t e r h a l f - p a s t three.

One night he l o s t h i s footing on the icy ground and the s u d d e n n e s s

of the gusty wind "blew him out on the icy c r u s t / T h a t c a s e d the w o r l d , and he w a s gone! " T h e r e w a s nothing to stop h i s slide, f o r everything w a s b u r i e d by the snow and i c e , and h i s e f f o r t s to "stove a hole s o m e w h e r e with h i s h e e l " f a i l e d . He r e e l e d , he l u r c h e d , he bobbed, he checked; He f e l l and m a d e the l a n t e r n r a t t l e (But saved the light f r o m going o u t . ) So halfway down he fought the b a t t l e , Incredulous of his own bad luck. And then becoming r e c o n c i l e d To everything, he gave it up And c a m e down like a coasting child.

54 " W e l l - - I - - b e - - " that was all he said, As s t a n d i n g i n t h e r i v e r r o a d , He l o o k e d b a c k up the s l i p p e r y s l o p e (Two m i l e s it w a s ) to h i s a b o d e . Bat F r o s t a d d s , B r o w n n e v e r g a v e u p hope of g e t t i n g h o m e j u s t b e c a u s e h e w a s f a c e d w i t h t h e s t e e p , s l i p p e r y slope.

Instead,

He b o w e d w i t h g r a c e to n a t u r a l l a w , And t h e n w e n t r o u n d i t on h i s f e e t , A f t e r the m a n n e r of o u r stock;

But now h e s n a p p e d h i s e y e s t h r e e t i m e s ; Then shook M s l a n t e r n , s a y i n g , " H e ' s ' B o u t out! " a n d took the long w a y h o m e By r o a d , a m a t t e r of s e v e r a l m i l e s . ^ F a r m e r B r o w n i s a d a p t a b l e t o any s i t u a t i o n .

He k n o w s h i s

c a p a b i l i t i e s , a n d the s u d d e n n e s s of n a t u r e ' s m o v e m e n t s cannot c o m p l e t e l y overwhelm him.

If he f i n d s , a f t e r m a k i n g a n a t t e m p t , that h e c a n n o t w i n

in a s t r u g g l e with h i s s u r r o u n d i n g s , h e c e a s e s to s t r u g g l e and r i d e s w i t h the f o r c e .

When n a t u r e c o m p l e t e s i t s t h r u s t , h e p i c k s h i m s e l f u p a n d

g o e s on about h i s b u s i n e s s .

He d o e s not r e a d h o s t i l i t y o r a n t a g o n i s m

into t h e w i l d n e s s of the wind; he a c c e p t s it f o r w h a t i t i s - - a n a t u r a l f o r c e . T h u s h i s w i l d e n c o u n t e r does not d i s c o u r a g e h i m .

He i s too p r u d e n t to

f i g h t w h e n i t w i l l not h e l p the s i t u a t i o n ; a n d in h i s p r u d e n c e he d i s p l a y s his strength.

^ F r o s t , " B r o w n ' s D e s c e n t , " p. 173. 24

I b i d . , p. 175.

55 T h r o u g h s u c h i n d i v i d u a l s a s F a r m e r B r o w n who a r e not o v e r p o w e r e d by t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t , R o b e r t F r o s t s p e a k s i n u n i v e r s a l term® of t h e c o u r a g e and a b i l i t i e s of o r d i n a r y m e n , t h u s e x p r e s s i n g h i s c o n f i d e n c e i n h u m a n i t y i n i t s r e l a t i o n s with the n a t u r a l w o r l d .

Human

b e i n g s do not h a v e to be o v e r c o m e by t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s - - a belief he e x p r e s s e s in "Riders"; The s u r e s t thing t h e r e i s i s w e a r e r i d e r s , And though n o n e too s u c c e s s f u l a t i t , g u i d e r s , Through everything p r e s e n t e d , land and tide And now the v e r y a i r , of w h a t w e r i d e . What i s t h i s t a l k e d - o f m y s t e r y of b i r t h But being m o u n t e d b a r e b a c k on t h e e a r t h ? We c a n j u s t s e e t h e i n f a n t u p a s t r i d e , His s m a l l f i s t b u r i e d i n t h e b u s h y h i d e . T h e r e i s our wildest m o u n t - - a h e a d l e s s h o r s e . But though it r u n s u n b r i d l e d off i t s c o u r s e . And all o u r b l a n d i s h m e n t s w o u l d s e e m d e f i e d , We h a v e i d e a s y e t t h a t w e h a v e n ' t t r i e d . ^ L i k e r i d e r s , p e o p l e go t h r o u g h l i f e a t t e m p t i n g t o g u i d e t h e i r m o u n t s t h r o u g h t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s , a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e , a s F r o s t s a y s , none too s u c c e s s f u l at it.

The w i l d e s t m o u n t i s n a t u r e , w h i c h m a n t r i e s to h a r n e s s

to follow h i s d e s i r e s , b u t it w i l l not a c c e p t t h e b r i d l e a n d g o e s along i t s own w a y .

H o w e v e r , t h e p o e t d o e s not s e e d e f e a t f o r i n d i v i d u a l s ,

b e c a u s e m a n s t i l l h a s i n t e l l e c t w h i c h p r o d u c e s the " i d e a s y e t t h a t w e h a v e n ' t t r i e d , " to u s e i n h i s s t r u g g l e w i t h h i s e n v i r o n m e n t .

A s long a s

m a n m a k e s u s e of h i s a d v a n t a g e , h e w i l l f i n d l i f e a n a d v e n t u r e ; h e w i l l not f i n d h i s opponent i n d o m i t a b l e . 25

F r o s t , " R i d e r s , " p. 345.

56 R o b e r t F r o s t o f t e n a s s e r t s M s view t h a t m a n does not have to be subdued by n a t u r e a s long a s he i s s t r o n g enough to know h i s own m i n d and to follow the d i c t a t e s of h i s i n t e l l e c t , and in "Sand D u n e s " he a g a i n e m p h a s i z e s h i s f a i t h in the h u m a n ability to live within a n a l i e n environment: Sea w a v e s a r e g r e e n and w e t , But up f r o m w h e r e they die, R i s e o t h e r s v a s t e r yet, And t h o s e a r e b r o w n and d r y . They a r e To c o m e And b u r y The m e n

the s e a m a d e l a n d at the f i s h e r town, in solid s a n d she could not drown.

She m a y know cove and c a p e , But she does not know m a n k i n d If by any change of s h a p e , She h o p e s to cut off m i n d . Men l e f t h e r a ship to sink: They can l e a v e h e r a hut a s well; And be but m o r e f r e e to think F o r t h e one m o r e c a s t - o f f s h e l l . ° F r o s t d r a w s a c l e a r p i c t u r e of the i n c e s s a n c y of n a t u r e ' s e n c r o a c h m e n t upon m a n in a s e e m i n g a t t e m p t to r i d itself of h i m .

The s e a o v e r c o m e s

t h o s e it c a n , a n d the sa n d t r i e s to b u r y t h o s e who e s c a p e t h e w a t e r .

But

m a n w i l l not allow h i m s e l f to be o v e r w h e l m e d so e a s i l y ; h i s m i n d i s h i s point of s u r v i v a l .

His ability to r e a s o n i s h i s f r a c t i o n of a n a d v a n t a g e

over his adversary.

N a t u r e cannot i n t i m i d a t e the m i n d of s t r o n g m e n , f o r

they r e a l i z e the advantage they p o s s e s s in t h e i r i n t e l l e c t . 26 F r o s t , "Sand Dunes, " p. 330.

57 Although R o b e r t F r o s t has confidence in m a n ' s ability to r e a c h an a r m e d t r u c e with his e n v i r o n m e n t and p o r t r a y s m o s t of h i s c h a r a c t e r s with this s t r e n g t h , he i s well a w a r e that not all individuals have the inner courage n e c e s s a r y to p r e s e r v e a s e c u r e e x i s t e n c e within nature.

The m o s t vivid of h i s e x a m p l e s of h u m a n w e a k n e s s a r e h i s

p i c t u r e s of those w o m e n who cannot endure the all-enveloping l o n e l i n e s s of an i s o l a t e d b a c k - c o u n t r y f a r m ,

T h e s e w o m e n do not r e c e i v e the u n d e r -

standing they so d e s p e r a t e l y need, and they lack the ability to c o m m u n i c a t e t h e i r plight to t h e i r h u s b a n d s , who a r e the only o n e s who could possibly help t h e m .

As a r e s u l t , s m a l l e v e r y - d a y f e a r s grow

until they p e r v a d e the l i v e s of the w o m e n whose e v e r y thought i s t e r r o r . They a r e h e l p l e s s to help t h e m s e l v e s . Of such i s the wife who h a s been broken by the d r u d g e r y of cooking m e a l s and keeping house f o r h e r husband and h i s h i r e d h a n d s in "A Servant to Servants, " Her t a s k s a r e those that n e v e r stay done and always need redoing.

She s e e s that the toil will get them n o w h e r e , but

h e r a m b i t i o u s husband continues to b r e a k h e r and himself by working u n m e r c i f u l l y f o r a s u c c e s s that, if and when it c o m e s , will be too l a t e for her.

F r o s t t e l l s of h e r plight through h e r own w o r d s a s she speaks

to the s t r a n g e r who h a s been camping on t h e i r land.

She i s happy to

have even this s u p e r f i c i a l companionship, f o r although she i s s u r r o u n d e d by h e r husband and h i s h i r e d m e n , she is isolated in h e r l o n e l i n e s s . Her e n f o r c e d Isolation i s b r e a king h e r , and she i s losing contact

58 with r e a l i t y .

The s t r a n g e r i s a s h o r t r e s p i t e f r o m the monotony of h e r

w o r k - f i l l e d days, and she t a l k s to h i m , e x p r e s s i n g f e a r s and f e e l i n g s that she cannot convey to h e r husband.

Through h e r w o r d s the r e a d e r

i s m a d e a w a r e of the condition of h e r mind. I didn't m a k e you know how glad I w a s To have you come and camp h e r e on our land. I p r o m i s e d myself to get down some day And s e e the way you lived, but I don't know! With a h o u s e f u l of hungry m e n to f e e d I g u e s s you'd find. . . . It s e e m s to m e I c a n ' t e x p r e s s m y f e e l i n g s any m o r e Than I can r a i s e m y voice or want to l i f t My hand {oh, I can l i f t it when I have to). Did you e v e r f e e l s o ? I hope you n e v e r . I t ' s got so I don't even know f o r s u r e Whether I a m glad, s o r r y , or anything. T h e r e ' s nothing but a v o i c e - l i k e l e f t inside That s e e m s to t e l l m e how I ought to f e e l , And would f e e l if I w a s n ' t all gone w r o n g . The wife r e a l i z e s that she i s on the v e r g e of i n s a n i t y , and she knows what the p r o b l e m i s , but h e r husband, in h i s ambition, does not f a c e the f a c t s .

She explains the situation: We've a good piece of s h o r e That ought to be w o r t h something, and m a y yet. But I don't count on it a s m u c h a s Len. He looks on the b r i g h t side of everything, Including m e . He thinks I'll be all r i g h t With doctoring. But i t ' s not m e d i c i n e - Lowe i s the only d o c t o r ' s d a r e d to say s o - I t ' s r e s t I w a n t - - t h e r e , I have said it o u t - F r o m cooking m e a l s f o r hungry h i r e d m e n And washing d i s h e s a f t e r t h e m - - f r o m doing Things over and over that j u s t won't stay done.

F r o s t , "A Servant to S e r v a n t s , " p. 82.

59 By good r i g h t s I ought not to have so m u c h Put on m e , but t h e r e s e e m s no o t h e r w a ^ Len s a y s one steady pull m o r e ought to do it. Her husband w o r k s h a r d not only at his job on the land but a l s o on m a n y p r o j e c t s in town.

Without intending to h u r t his w i f e , he b e c o m e s

m o r e and m o r e a b s o r b e d in his w o r k and a c t i v i t i e s , l e a v e s h e r m o r e alone, and p l a c e s additional w o r k on h e r s h o u l d e r s .

The p r e s s u r e s of

h e r d u t i e s , the s u r l y i n d i f f e r e n c e of the h i r e d h a n d s , who ignore h e r p r e s e n c e while they talk, and h e r h u s b a n d ' s absorption in w o r k w e a r down h e r courage and e n d u r a n c e .

But she explains that h e r defence against

t h e i r i n d i f f e r e n c e i s her oddness.

She r e f e r s to the t i m e she spent in

the State Asylum and c o m p a r e s the t r e a t m e n t t h e r e with the h o m e t r e a t m e n t in a wooden cage h e r uncle had r e c e i v e d a f t e r he l a p s e d into madness.

The b a r r e d r o o m , the place of his i m p r i s o n m e n t , r e m a i n e d

long a f t e r he w a s gone.

It and i t s implications r e m a i n to haunt h e r .

He w a s b e f o r e m y t i m e - ~ I n e v e r saw him; But the pen stayed exactly a s it w a s T h e r e in the u p p e r c h a m b e r in the ell, A s o r t of c a t c h - a l l f u l l of attic c l u t t e r . I often think of the smooth hickory b a r s . It got so I would s a y - - y o u know, half f o o l i n g - " I t ' s t i m e I took m y t u r n u p s t a i r s in j a i l " - J u s t a s you will till it b e c o m e s a habit. No wonder I w a s glad to get away. 7 H i e move f r o m the house of n i g h t m a r e s had brought hope f o r the wife; she had thought p e r h a p s the change of s c e n e r y would help h e r , but 28

I b i d . , p. 83.

29

I b i d . , p. 86.

60 it did not help f o r long.

The toil has o v e r p o w e r e d h e r .

Now she

r e a l i z e s that she i s p a s t help, that she w i l l inevitably lose her m i n d , and she a c c e p t s h e r f a t e r e s i g n e d l y .

She m u s t , b e c a u s e she cannot

o v e r c o m e the i n e r t i a that c o n t r o l s h e r without the s h a r e d love, mutual s u p p o r t , and sympathetic understanding of h e r husband.

She i s too

t i r e d in m i n d and s p i r i t to be revived by the beauty of h e r s u r r o u n d i n g s , the lake and i t s possibility f o r f u t u r e economic gain.

But t h e m o s t t r a g i c

a s p e c t of this w o m a n ' s defeat is that no one a r ound h e r r e c o g n i z e s what i s happening to h e r ; she s e e s it, and, through h e r e y e s , the r e a d e r s e e s i t , but t h o s e who might possibly at one t i m e have helped h e r do not u n d e r stand.

B e c a u s e she i s i n h e r e n t l y w e a k , she cannot r e a c h out f o r human

help; she cannot c o m m u n i c a t e h e r d e s p e r a t e need and thus r e c e i v e u n d e r standing.

The combination of l o n e l i n e s s and l a b o r in t h e i r s t r u g g l e with

the land has o v e r c o m e h e r .

To h e r husband, h o w e v e r , it b r i n g s

additional s t r e n g t h . In the tale of another lonely w o m a n in, "The Hill Wife, " F r o s t again p o r t r a y s the s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t the i n d i f f e r e n c e of h e r s u r r o u n d i n g s .

He

c o n s t r u c t s his i l l u s t r a t i o n in a sequence of f i v e p o e m s , each of which c o n t r i b u t e s to a p o r t r a i t of love, f e a r , and l o n e l i n e s s . e s t a b l i s h e s the f a c t that the young wife i s lonely.

In the f i r s t he

She s e n s e s that s o m e -

thing i s wrong or m i s s i n g in h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p with h e r husband b e c a u s e she b e c o m e s overly sad when the b i r d s leave f o r the w i n t e r .

61

One ought not to have to c a r e So m u c h as you and I C a r e when the b i r d s c o m e round the house To s e e m to say good-by; 3 ® In the second s c e n e , F r o s t shows how the feeling of l o n e l i n e s s h a s grown into a f e a r , and when the couple r e t u r n h o m e at night, they r a t t l e the key and the lock to w a r n off any danger f o r t h e m inside.

In

the f i r s t p a r t , the s e n s e of i n c o m p l e t e n e s s w a s the w i f e ' s alone, but h e r e both s h a r e the initial qualm.

In the t h i r d short p o e m , F r o s t

p o r t r a y s the growth of a p p r e h e n s i o n and indic a te s that the wife looks f o r danger in even the m o s t s i m p l e of events.

She gives b r e a d to a

b e g g a r , then finds lurking evil in h i s s m i l e of t h a n k s , and she w o r r i e s through the evening that he i s watching f r o m the woods waiting his chance to r o b them.

But she e x p r e s s e s even a m o r e u n r e a s o n a b l e f e a r

in the f o u r t h s c e n e .

She develops a s e n s e l e s s t e r r o r of n a t u r e in the

f o r m of the pine t r e e that stands outside the b e d r o o m window, and she i m a g i n e s that it i s trying to r e a c h inside to do h a r m to the two in bed. The husband s l e e p s p e a c e f u l l y with no suspicion of h e r a n x i e t i e s . Throughout t h e s e f i r s t four s c e n e s o r short p o e m s , Robert F r o s t builds the heightening t o r m e n t of f e a r within the weak young woman.

She h a s

the company of h e r husband with h e r on the i s o l a t e d f a s t n , but t h e r e i s no communication between the two.

She needs his help d e s p e r a t e l y , but

he does not r e a l i z e h e r need, f o r in his c o m p l e t e a d j u s t m e n t to h i s 30 F r o s t , "The Hill Wife, M p. 160.

62 s u r r o u n d i n g s , he cannot see h e r w e a k n e s s .

T h e r e is an i m p l i c i t appeal

f o r help in h e r comment on l o n e l i n e s s with the b i r d s away, in h e r spoken f e a r of the passing t r a m p , and in h e r " o f t - r e p e a t e d d r e a m / O f what the t r e e m i g h t do. " But the husband does not h e a r h e r p l e a , o r if he h e a r s , does not c o m p r e h e n d h e r meaning.

The tension within the f r i g h t e n e d

w o m a n builds to the climax and denouement of the f i f t h s h o r t poem. It w a s too lonely f o r h e r t h e r e , And too wild, And since t h e r e w e r e but two of t h e m , And no child, And w o r k w a s little in the h o u s e , She w a s f r e e , And followed w h e r e he f u r r o w e d field, Or felled tree. She r e s t e d on a log and t o s s e d The f r e s h chips, With a song only to h e r s e l f On h e r lips. And once she w e n t to b r e a k a bough Of black a l d e r . She s t r a y e d so f a r she s c a r c e l y h e a r d When he called h e r - And didn't a n s w e r - - d i d n ' t s p e a k - Or r e t u r n . She stood, and then she r a n and hid In the f e r n . He n e v e r found h e r , though he looked Everywhere, And he a s k e d at h e r m o t h e r ' s house Was she t h e r e . Sudden and swift and light a s that The t i e s gave,

63 And he l e a r n e d of f i n a l i t i e s 31 B e s i d e s the g r a v e . W h e r e a s the f a r m wife i n "A Servant to S e r v a n t s " w a s o v e r c o m e by a combination of loneliness and o v e r w o r k , along with h e r i n h e r e n t w e a k n e s s of s p i r i t , this young w o m a n ' s defeat i s the r e s u l t of e motio n a l w e a k n e s s combined with l o n e l i n e s s and not enough to do to occupy h e r mind.

She found h e r home too wild and too lonely.

F r o s t i m p l i e s that

the husband i s w e l l a d j u s t e d to h i s w o r k and e n v i r o n m e n t , and, in h i s contentment, he cannot r e a l i z e that h i s wife i s not a s s e c u r e a s he is; t h e r e f o r e , he cannot a n s w e r h e r p l e a , and she i s l o s t .

The poet hints

of h e r approaching b r e a k when he c o m m e n t s that in the f i e l d with h e r husband she s i t s "With a song only to h e r s e l f / O n h e r l i p s , " And f i n a l l y she r u n s f r o m the isolation and lack of understanding.

Lawrance

Thompson f e e l s that "the psychological a n a l y s i s is developed e n t i r e l y through implication, and hinges on the growing f a i l u r e of the m a n to sympathize with the w o m a n ' s a c c u m u l a t e d p s y c h o s i s .

The husband

m a k e s no a t t e m p t to u n d e r s t a n d , f o r h e a p p a r e n t l y does not need the close r e l a t i o n s h i p h i s wife c r a v e s .

He can stand alone, but she cannot.

Alienation, lack of communication, and h e r i n h e r e n t w e a k n e s s a r e t h e c a u s e s of defeat in h e r conflict with the l o n e l i n e s s of h e r e n v i r o n m e n t . 31

Ibid. , p. 162.

Law r a n e e Thompson, F i r e and Ice; The A r t and Thought of Robert F r o s t (New York, 1942), p. 119.

64 F r o s t p o r t r a y s in "Home B u r i a l " the r e s u l t a n t defeat of another lonely w o m a n who cannot a c c e p t the inevitabilities of n a t u r e .

He r e l a t e s

the grief of a young f a r m wife at the l o s s of h e r f i r s t - b o r n child and h e r resulting conflict with h e r husband who she f e e l s does not u n d e r s t a n d her loss.

He has been able to a c c e p t the c h i l d ' s death and has picked up

the t h r e a d s of e v e r y d a y l i f e , b e c a u s e he r e a l i z e s that the w o r l d cannot halt f o r the l o s s of one life.

But the wife cannot f a c e r e a l i t y , and she

hugs h e r grief to h e r s e l f and r e f u s e s to a c c e p t h e r h u s b a n d ' s love b e c a u s e of h i s seeming in sensitivity.

F r o s t d e s c r i b e s her "^Lucking back o v e r

h e r shoulder at s o m e f e a r , " when she p a s s e s the window that f r a m e s h e r view of the little g r a v e y a r d w h e r e h e r child is b u r i e d .

B e c a u s e she

r e f u s e s to a c c e p t h e r loss, the sight i s a s o u r c e of f e a r to h e r , f o r at the s a m e t i m e she t r e a s u r e s the m e m o r y of the child that w a s , she i s a l s o a w a r e of the n a t u r a l e f f e c t s of the g r a v e .

N a t u r e has robbed h e r of h e r

child, and she cannot f a c e what she knows m u s t be.

She cannot confide

h e r f e a r s to h e r husband b e c a u s e she f e e l s he will not u n d e r s t a n d , but she r e a l l y does not give him the opportunity.

Instead of turning to h i m ,

she g o e s to c o m p a r a t i v e s t r a n g e r s , h e r n e i g h b o r s , who console h e r in her grief.

Without help she i s unable to f a c e r e a l i t y a s h e r husband i s

doing, so she t u r n s f r o m him and t e l l s h e r s e l f she i s doing so b e c a u s e he cannot u n d e r s t a n d .

In h e r blindness she i s undermining the only s o u r c e

of help she has left to h e r - - h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p with h e r husband.

She i s not

emotionally strong enough to accept the l o s s of h e r child, and yet she

65 c l o s e s off f r o m h e r s e l f the s t r e n g t h of h e r husband that could help h e r a c c e p t what she m u s t If she i s to retain, h e r sanity.

He pleads with h e r

to t u r n to h i m with h e r s o r r o w : " D o n ' t - - d o n ' t go. Don't c a r r y it to someone e l s e this t i m e . Tell m e about It if i t ' s something human. Let m e into your g r i e f . I ' m not so much Unlike other folks a s your standing t h e r e A p a r t would m a k e m e out. Give m e m y chance. I do think, though, you o v e r d o it a little. What w a s it brought you up to think it the thing To take your m o t h e r - l o s s of a f i r s t child So inconsolably- - in the f a c e of love. You'd think his m e m o r y might be s a t i s f i e d - - " " T h e r e you go sneering now ! " "I'm not, I ' m not! You m a k e m e angry. I'll come down to you. God, what a w o m a n ! And i t ' s come to t h i s , A m a n c a n ' t speak of his own child t h a t ' s dead. " "You c a n ' t b e c a u s e you don't know how to speak. If you had any f e e l i n g s , you that dug With your own hand--how could y o u ? - - h i s little g r a v e . . . . 33 The husband a t t e m p t s to r e a s o n with h e r , to m a k e h e r s e e that he knows h e r grief but that it i s not n a t u r a l and that he w a n t s to help h e r if she w i l l only t u r n to him i n s t e a d of to s t r a n g e r s . " T h e r e , you have s a i d it all and you f e e l b e t t e r . You w o n ' t go now. You're c r y i n g . Close the door. The h e a r t ' s gone out of it: why keep it up. Amy! T h e r e ' s someone coming down the r o a d ! " " Y o u - - o h , you think the talk i s all. I m u s t g o - Somewhere out of this house. How can I m a k e y o u - - " ^ F r o s t , "Home B u r i a l , " p. 71.

66 "If--yOu»~do 1" She w a s opening the door w i d e r . "Where do you m e a n to go? F i r s t t e l l m e that. I'll follow and bring you back by f o r c e .

I wtlH--"^

But she will not a c c e p t h i s d e s i r e to help, f o r she cannot c o m p r e h e n d it.

Her e n t i r e instinct i s to run,

However, she m a y not be doomed as i s

"The Hill Wife, " b e c a u s e this husband has the beginning of a f a i n t u n d e r standing of what is happening within his w i f e , and, r e a l i z i n g h e r w e a k n e s s , will m a k e e v e r y e f f o r t to save h e r .

Reginald L. Cook in The d i m e n s i o n s

of R o b e r t F r o s t s u g g e s t s that the h u s b a n d ' s m a s c u l i n e r e a s o n a b l e n e s s will eventually e x o r c i s e h i s w i f e ' s seemingly inconsolable g r i e f .

His h e a r t ,

g e n e r o s i t y , and f e a r l e s s n e s s of the f a c t is combined with c o m m o n s e n s e and s e n s i t i v i t y , and the l a t t e r enables him to have some s l i g h t e s t u n d e r standing of h i s w i f e ' s r e a c t i o n s .

Cook goes f u r t h e r to a s s e r t that the

h u s b a n d ' s c o m m o n s e n s e will stanch h i s w i f e ' s grief and w i l l r e s t o r e h e r 35 reasonableness,'

But until she finally can a c c e p t the helping hand he

r e a c h e s out to h e r , she w i l l not be whole, b e c a u s e , in h e r w e a k n e s s , she cannot f a c e the r e a l i t y of l i f e and n a t u r e alone.

She m u s t have h e r

h u s b a n d ' s help to r e t a i n her sanity. O c c u r r i n g throughout F r o s t ' s p o e t r y a r e e x a m p l e s of the two m a i n types of Ms c h a r a c t e r s - - t h e strong and the w e a k * - i n a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p with t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t - - b e n e v o l e n t , violent, or i n d i f f e r e n t . 34 I b i d . , pp. 72-73.

He does not

^ R e g i n a l d L. Cook, The Dimensions of Robert F r o s t (New York, 1958), p. 130.

67 say, of c o u r s e , that one particular p e r s o n is strong and another is weak; he shows through their speech and action that his c h a r a c t e r s have personalities which a r e oriented toward either one or the other of the two poles.

In general, however, he s e e m s to indicate that the majority

erf his people have the inner strength of h e a r t that will allow them to reach at least some degree of reconciliation with their surroundings, and that human love and companionship, sympathy and mutual support enable the isolated to r e s i s t , accept, and survive.

He has a faith in the

capacity of the human h e a r t and intellect to endure when confronted by the blank indifference of nature.

And he finds that the people who can

come to t e r m s with their environment find it a source of g r e a t e r strength and of peace and enjoyment.

CHAPTER IV

T H E MAN-NATURE DIALOGUE

The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n F r o s t ' s s t r o n g c h a r a c t e r s and the a m b i v a l e n t v i e w s of a b a s i c a l l y i n d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e b e c o m e s o b v i o u s if /

i

i t i s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i n h i s p o r t r a y a l of h u m a n b e i n g s a g a i n s t a n a t u r a l

i

I i

b a c k g r o u n d , R o b e r t F r o s t i n d i c a t e s in t h e m a j o r i t y of h i s p e o p l e a d e e p i n n e r s t r e n g t h that e n a b l e s t h e m to m e e t l i f e a n d t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t on e v e n t e r m s a n d to d e r i v e f r o m the s t r u g g l e m u c h a d d i t i o n a l s t r e n g t h , ....courage-* a n d p l e a s u r e .

The s t r o n g a r e t h o s e w h o r e a l i z e t h a t n a t u r e

i s not a r e a s o n i n g c r e a t i o n , t h a t it m u s t m o v e along p r e o r d a i n e d r o u t e s , f|

\

a n d t h a t i t i s t h u s not the o v e r w h e l m i n g opponent t h a t the w e a k at h e a r t

!

f i n d it. !

It i s t h e s t r o n g who a r e a w a r e of t h e i r a d v a n t a g e , h u m a n

i n t e l l e c t , i n the s o m e t i m e s v i o l e n t c o n f l i c t and m a k e good u s e of it.

i

\

The f a c t t h a t they c a n f a c e l i f e w i t h o u t f e a r f r e e s t h e i r m i n d s f o r e n j o y -

\

-

m e n t of a s e e m i n g l y b e n e v o l e n t n a t u r e . w e a k do not.

They f i n d l o v e l i n e s s w h e r e the

The p o w e r a t t i m e s d i s p l a y e d does not i n t i m i d a t e t h e m ,

and t h e i n d i f f e r e n c e of t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s does not d i s c o u r a g e t h e m . Alone o r w i t h o t h e r s , idle o r at w o r k , they f i n d t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t v i t a l a n d a l i v e , f o r t h e i r r e s p o n s e to it i s v i v i f y i n g .

68

69 F o r many of F r o s t ' s c h a r a c t e r s , the p l e a s u r e derived f r o m life i s linked to the enjoyment of work within their surroundings.

They a r e

strong physically and s u r e of themselves emotionally, and their labor is a source of sensual and intellectual fulfillment. For them it is the link between themselves and nature, as it is for the field-worker of "Mowing" who derives contentment f r o m his "scythe whispering to the ground, " the "heat of the sun" upon his back, the "feeble-pointed spikes of f l o w e r s " falling beneath his blade, and the "bright green snake" frightened by his movements.

The quiet peace he feels is spoken of by the "whispering

scythe, " the "lack of sound. " He works with "the e a r n e s t love that laid the swale in rows. " His work is his satisfaction and in that is his pleasure and contentment; "The f a c t is the sweetest dream that labor knows. In the poem "The P a s t u r e , " used as an introduction to s e v e r a l of his collections of poetry, F r o s t offers to all Ms r e a d e r s , through a f a r m e r ' s words to a young woman, perhaps, an invitation to join him in the enjoyment of the beauty of the pasture and spring. I'm going out to clean the pasture spring; I'll only stop to rake the leaves away {And wait to watch the water c l e a r , I may) I sha'n't be gone long. - -You come too. 1 Robert F r o s t , "Mowing, " Complete Poems of Robert F r o s t (New York, 1962), p. 19. Subsequent r e f e r e n c e s to F r o s t ' s poetry a r e taken f r o m this edition unless otherwise indicated.

70

I'm going out to f e t c h the little calf T h a t ' s standing by the m o t h e r . I t ' s so young It t o t t e r s when she l i c k s it with h e r tongue, I s h a ' n ' t be gone long. - -You come too. The f a r m e r is sensitive enough to s e e the c l e a r beauty of h i s w o r k and the p l e a s u r e that can come of it.

He i s content in h i s l a b o r , and through

his enjoyment he c o m e s to see h i s s u r r o u n d i n g s through understanding eyes.

He i s a w a r e of the l o v e l i n e s s of the spr ing, and h i s insight opens

the way to a sharing of the f a i r c h a r m of the country sc e ne .

He i s the

one who t a k e s heed of t h e c l a r i t y of the spring w a t e r f r e e d of autumn and w i n t e r l e a v e s and the appealing h e l p l e s s n e s s of the n e w - b o r n calf s h e l t e r e d by i t s m o t h e r .

In the p l e a s u r e h i s l a b o r b r i n g s , h i s o r d i n a r y c h o r e s take

on special m e a n i n g .

His t a s k s a r e p e r f o r m e d with confidence b e c a u s e

he knows what m u s t be done f o r the good of h i s f a r m a s a whole, and he i s not a f r a i d to act a s n e c e s s a r y .

He i s an active, happy p a r t n e r in

his r e l a t i o n s h i p with n a t u r e . The husband in "Putting in the Seed" i s another p e r s o n who f i n d s w o r k within his e n v i r o n m e n t a s o u r c e of p l e a s u r e : You come to f e t c h m e f r o m m y w o r k tonight When s u p p e r ' s on the table, and w e ' l l s e e If I can leave off burying the white Soft p e t a l s f a l l e n f r o m the apple t r e e (Soft p e t a l s , y e s , but not so b a r r e n quite, Mingled with t h e s e , smooth bean and w r i n k l e d pea;) And go along with you e r e you l o s e sight Of what you c a m e f o r and become like m e , ^ F r o s t , W T h e P a s t u r e , " p. 1.

71 Slave to a s p r i n g t i m e p a s s i o n f o r the e a r t h . How Love b u r n s through the Putting in the Seed On through the watching l o r that e a r l y b i r t h When, j u s t a s the soil t a r n i s h e d with weed, The s t u r d y seedling with a r c h e d body c o m e s Shouldering i t s way and shedding the e a r t h c r u m b s . Within t h i s poem F r o s t e x p r e s s e s the union of husband and wife and the love of the two f o r the w o n d e r s of n a t u r e .

The love of the h u m a n s f o r

each o t h e r i s r e f l e c t e d in t h e i r m u t u a l r e s p o n s e to n a t u r e and to the planting of s e e d s and t h e i r subsequent growth.

The m a n knows that he

b e c o m e s so e n g r o s s e d in h i s t a s k that supper can be f o r g o t t e n , but he a l s o knows that h i s wife s h a r e s his " s p r i n g t i m e p a s s i o n f o r the e a r t h , " and that u n l e s s he r e s p o n d s quickly to h e r call f o r s u p p e r , she too will ' l o s e sight/Of what Zshe7 c a m e f o r . . . . " The husband i s m a t t e r - o f f a c t about h i s love of planting and growing things, and through h i s w o r d s , F r o s t s u g g e s t s that the communion achieved with n a t u r e and the e n c o u r a g e m e n t derived f r o m that union are a r e f l e c t i o n of the love that flows between the husband and h i s w i f e , that t h e i r r e s p o n s e to t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s i s enhanced by t h e i r love.

In this poem as in "The

P a s t u r e , " the m a n i s in c o m m a n d of the c i r c u m s t a n c e s , but only up to a point in this i n s t a n c e .

He i s the p l a n t e r , burying the s e e d s a s he d e s i r e s ,

but f r o m that point the r e s t is up to n a t u r e , f o r the production of this m a n ' s garden is a partnership.

Man plants; n a t u r e g i v e s growth.

Together they produce a c r o p .

Through this r e l a t i o n s h i p between the m a n

^ F r o s t , "Putting in the Seed, " p. 155.

72 and h i s surrounding e l e m e n t s and between him and h i s wile he f i n d s contentment, p l e a s u r e , and love. A second r e l a t i o n s h i p between the c h a r a c t e r s in F r o s t ' s p o e m s and t h e i r environment i s the love o r close companionship of two people which b r i g h t e n s t h e i r outlook on l i f e and allows them to see and m e e t nature as a friend. such an empathy.

The companions in "Going f o r W a t e r " exemplify They do not f e a r the b a r r e n woods of autumn nor the

i n d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e that d r i e d t h e i r well.

R a t h e r , they a c c e p t t h e d r y

w e l l a s an e x c u s e to f r o l i c a c r o s s the f i e l d s to seek w a t e r f r o m a n e a r b y brook.

Together they see a f a i r autumn evening, and f r o m t h e i r m u t u a l

h a p p i n e s s t h e r e i s an a l m o s t singing quality in t h e i r r e s p o n s e to "The b a r r e n boughs without l e a v e s , /Without the b i r d s , without the b r e e z e . " And, upon entering the woods, they play g a m e s with the m o o n , enjoying t h e i r c l o s e n e s s and f u n . But once within the wood, we p a u s e d Like g n o m e s that hid us f r o m the moon, Ready to r u n to hiding new With laughter when she found us soon. ^ T o g e t h e r , two people in love a r e strong and s e c u r e ; and t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s do not f r i g h t e n t h e m .

The two young people in "Going

f o r W a t e r " enjoy such a union, and i t s intensity c o l o r s everything they see and do.

Because of t h e i r love f o r each other and t h e i r joy in being

t o g e t h e r , t h e i r r e s p o n s e to the w o r l d a r ound them is on the s a m e level. ^ F r o s t , "Going f o r W a t e r , " p. 26.

73 And in t h e i r eyes the n a t u r a l w o r l d i s a good place to be.

The s a m e

can be said of the n e w l y - m a r r i e d couple in "West-Running Brook. " They too a r e s e c u r e in t h e i r union, and t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t holds no f e a r for them.

Even the odd quirk of the " w e s t - r u n n i n g b r o o k " i s looked on

with awe and affection r a t h e r than with s u p e r s t i t i o u s f e a r .

Their mutual

love and contentment r e f l e c t f r o m and e n c o m p a s s t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s . We've said we two. L e t ' s change that to we t h r e e . As you and I a r e m a r r i e d to e a c h o t h e r , We'll both be m a r r i e d to the brook. W e ' l l build Our bridge a c r o s s i t , and the bridge shall be Our a r m thrown o v e r it a s l e e p beside it. ^ They a r e at peace in t h e i r c l o s e n e s s and in t h e i r m u t u a l s e c u r i t y can s e e f r i e n d l i n e s s in the e l e m e n t s a r ound them.

In expanding t h e i r

union to m a k e a p a r t n e r of the c o n t r a r y brook that is a p a r t of t h e i r land, they e x p r e s s a c c e p t a n c e and love on t h e i r p a r t f o r everything that i s connected in any way with t h e i r m a r r i a g e . and they d e r i v e p l e a s u r e f r o m n a t u r e .

T h e i r joy mark® t h e i r attitude,

T h e i r w h o l e n e s s i s a p a r t of

t h e i r feeling f o r t h e i r environment. Although t h e r e is no dialogue between the two, human understanding and love again f o r m the bond between a couple and t h e i r brook in "Hyla Brook. " By June our b r o o k ' s r u n out of song and spe e d Sought f o r m u c h a f t e r that, it w i l l be found E i t h e r to have gone groping u n d e r g r o u n d s

F r o s t , "West-Running Brook, 1 1 p. 327.

74 (And taken with it all the Hyla breed That shouted in the m i s t a m o n t h ago, Like ghost of s l e i g h - b e l l s in a ghost of snow)-O r f l o u r i s h e d and c o m e up in jew e l - w e e d , Weak foliage that i s blown upon and bent Even a g a i n s t the way its w a t e r s went. Its bed i s l e f t a f a d e d p a p e r sheet Of dead l e a v e s stuck together by the heat— A brook to none but who r e m e m b e r long. This as it will be seen i s other f a r Than with brooks taken o t h e r w h e r e in song. We love the things w e love f o r what they a r e . ^ In a soliloquy the n a r r a t o r i m p l i e s the bond between him and h i s w i f e . He i s so attuned to the union between the two that h e instinctively speaks of "we" i n s t e a d of "I. " He thinks in t e r m s of "two" as "one, " f o r he h a s the deep understanding that goes with love through the y e a r s - - t h e knowledge that "We love the things we love f o r what they a r e , " both human and o t h e r w i s e .

And within that love i s a c l e a r c o m p r e h e n s i o n

of the n o t - q u i t e - s o - p l e a s a n t along with the good.

Thus the couple, in

the union of "we, " can r e m e m b e r the l o v e l i n e s s of the brook that shouted of the w i n t e r snow when t h e r e is no longer beauty in the d r i e d - u p c r e e k bed f i l l e d with

!I

weak f o l i a g e " and the "faded p a p e r sheet/Of dead l e a v e s

stuck together by the h e a t - - . " No, Hyla Brook in s u m m e r i s not the kind that songs a r e sung of. looked.

To the c a s u a l o b s e r v e r it i s one to be o v e r -

But to the couple who r e m e m b e r the e a r l y l o v e l i n e s s and the

place it has in t h e i r bond, it i s worth the affection they have f o r it. They love it f o r what it w a s and will be a s they love each o t h e r f o r what ^Frost, "Hyla Brook, " p. 149.

75 each i s .

Their feeling f o r the c r e e k i s a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e i r own human

love. The young m a n in "Waiting, " who r e s t s among the haycocks in the late evening to compose lines f o r his absent loved one, i s enfolded by a s e n s e of companionship a s is the couple in "Hyla B r o o k " although he is physically alone. I d r e a m upon the opposing lights of the h o u r , P r e v e n t i n g shadow until the m o o n p r e v a i l ; I d r e a m upon the nighthawks peopling heaven, E a c h circling e a c h with vague unearthly c r y , Or plunging headlong with f i e r c e twang a f a r ; And on the b a t ' s mute a n t i c s , who would s e e m Dimly to have m a d e out m y s e c r e t p l a c e , Only to l o s e it when he p i r o u e t t e s , And s e e k s it e n d l e s s l y with purblind h a s t e ; On the l a s t swallow's sweep; and on the r a s p In the a b y s s of odor and r u s t l e at m y back, That, silenced by m y advent, f i n d s once m o r e . A f t e r an i n t e r v a l , h i s i n s t r u m e n t , And t r i e s o n c e - - t w i c e - - a n d t h r i c e if I be t h e r e ; And on the w o r n book of old-golden song I brought not h e r e to r e a d , it s e e m s , but hold And f r e s h e n in this a i r of withering sweetness; But on the m e m o r y of one absent m o s t , F o r whom t h e s e lines when they shall g r e e t h e r eye. ^ In the glow of human love, the r e s t i n g lover o b s e r v e s his situation, and although the stubble and mown g r a s s a r e w i t h e r i n g , the hawks u t t e r an "unearthly c r y , " plunging "headlong with f i e r c e twang a f a r , " and the usually r e p e l l e n t bats f l y about, the m a n does not find gloom about h i m . R a t h e r , the a i r i s of "withering s w e e t n e s s , " and he " d r e a m s upon the 7

F r o s t , 'Waiting, " p. 20.

76 nighthawks peopling heaven" and observes the "pirouettes" of the bats. He has a sense of relationship with the c r e a t u r e s around him, f o r he supposes that the bat seeks out his hidden seat and that "the r a s p / I n the abyss of odor and rustle at /his/ back, " t r i e s "his instrument" to see if the man i s there.

The natural light at that time of day--the glow of

the setting sun--does not allow shadows to settle before the brightness of the moon prevails.

The scene is set with glowing colors, and the

man, solitary yet w a r m e d by love, enjoys the elements of nature.

The

open air Is uplifting for him; it even f r e s h e n s the "old-golden songs" within his book.

United in m e m o r y with his beloved, he is at peace,

and the love he f e e l s , like the setting sun's light, tints the overall view he has of his surroundings. In poem a f t e r poem, F r o s t speaks of this feeling between humans that so encompasses them that it affects their response to the world around them.

He e x p r e s s e s the epitome of such relationship within

nature in "Two Look at Two, " in which he d e s c r i b e s the chance meeting of a human couple with an animal pair on a wooded mountainside.

The

young people, in their love f o r each other and their mutual enjoyment of the o u t - o f - d o o r s , a r e reluctant to quit their evening walk a s darkness nears.

But realizing the danger of the mountain at night, they halt at a

"tumbled wall/With b a r b e d - w i r e binding. " And so they stand before this

77 b a r r i e r looking upward to "the w a y they m u s t not go, " i n one a t t e m p t to s t e a l the l a s t bit of p l e a s u r e f r o m t h e i r e x c u r s i o n . "This i s a l l , " they sighed, "Good-night to wood®. " But not so; t h e r e w a s m o r e . A doe f r o m round a s p r u c e stood looking a t t h e m A c r o s s the w a l l , a s n e a r the wall a s they. She saw t h e m in t h e i r field, they h e r in h e r s . The difficulty of seeing what stood still, Like s o m e up-ended boulder split in two. Was in h e r clouded eyes: they saw no f e a r t h e r e . She s e e m e d to think that two thus they w e r e s a f e . Then, a s if they w e r e something tha t, though s t r a n g e . She could not t r o u b l e h e r m i n d with too long, She sighed and p a s s e d u n s c a r e d along the wall. " T h i s , then, i s all. What m o r e i s t h e r e to a s k ? " But no, not yet. A s n o r t to bid them wait. A buck f r o m round the s p r u c e stood looking at t h e m A c r o s s the w a l l a s n e a r the wall a s they. This w a s an a n t l e r e d buck of l u s t y n o s t r i l , Not the s a m e doe c o m e back into h e r p l a c e . He viewed them quizzically with j e r k s of head, As if to ask, (l Why don't you m a k e some m o t i o n ? O r give some sign of l i f e ? B e c a u s e you c a n ' t , I doubt if y o u ' r e a s living a s you look. " Thus t i l l he had them a l m o s t feeling d a r e d To s t r e t c h a p r o f f e r i n g hand— and a s p e l l - b r e a k i n g . Then he too p a s s e d u n s c a r e d along the wall. Two had seen two, w h i c h e v e r side you spoke f r o m . "This m u s t be all. " It w a s all. . . . ® In t h e i r walk the couple have found the beauty they had anticipated; the a p p e a r a n c e of the doe i s an unexpected s p e c i a l "gift" f r o m the w i l d e r n e s s , and they accept the p r e s e n c e of the a n i m a l with a thankful awe, thinking that they have s e e n all that the woods could o f f e r t h e m . But " t h i s " i s not all.

The " a n t l e r e d buck of l u s t y n o s t r i l " steps f o r w a r d ,

®Frost, "Two Look at Two, " pp. 282-283.

78 and, a s they stand speechless, the buck moves f e a r l e s s l y away; the couple breathes "This m u s t be a l l , ! ! and it i s . and the strength that a r e both a p a r t of nature.

They have seen the softness The love between the

two is such that they a r e secure in each other and a r e at peace with their environment.

In the momentary breaking down of the invisible b a r r i e r

that stands between human and animal life, the couple s h a r e a sense of r e a l kinship with the animal element of the primitive setting they have experienced such a deep feeling f o r : A g r e a t wave f r o m it going over them, As if the e a r t h in one unlooked-for favor Had made them certain e a r t h returned their love. ^ Along with the poems that portray nature as a source of p l e a s u r e and contentment f o r the one who labors and for him who s h a r e s a close relationship, Robert F r o s t includes among his v e r s e s several which show that individual experience may also be a point of meeting between man and nature.

The n a r r a t o r of "Rose Pogonias, " although viewing the

lovely scene with a companion, s e e m s to derive his p l e a s u r e through his own personality, and his personal experience is uppermost

in his

mind although he is enough aware of his f r i e n d to mention his p r e s e n c e . The speaker is overcome with a sense of the holiness of the scene he and his companion come upon: the sun-drenched meadow covered with f r a g r a n t flowers. 9

They pause to "pick where none could m i s s t h e m /

Ibid. , p. 283.

79 A. thousand o r c h i s e s " ; and f r o m the p e a c e f u l p l e a s u r e he d e r i v e s , h i s thoughts a r e t u r n e d to the d e s t r u c t i o n which could be w r e a k e d if the m o w e r s should r e a c h the spot b e f o r e the blooms f a d e .

His p r a y e r i s

f o r "such g r a c e of h o u r s , / T h a t none should mow the g r a s s t h e r e / W h i l e so confused with f l o w e r s .

To h i m , the l o v e l i n e s s of the s m a l l flower*

f i l l e d spot i s a s o u r c e of p e a c e , contentment, and p l e a s u r e , f o r he p o s s e s s e s the inner s t r e n g t h that f r e e s him of n e e d l e s s f e a r s and opens h i s eyes and emotions to the beauty and g r a c e of h i s s u r r o u n d i n g s . The youth who s e a r c h e s long f o r the s p e c i a l s u m m e r f l o w e r s in "The Quest of the P u r p l e * F r i n g e d " a l s o b e c o m e s a w a r e of the s a t i s f a c t i o n that can be d e r i v e d f r o m n a t u r e .

He knows that each s u m m e r a c e r t a i n

s p e c i e s of flower blooms in o u t - o f - t h e - w a y p l a c e s .

So he s e t s out e a r l y

in the "chill of the meadow, " singing " s n a t c h e s of v e r s e and s o n g s " of the country s c e n e s .

His s e a r c h ta ke s h i m m i l e s through the a l d e r s a s

he h a s t e n s in h i s quest b e f o r e the m o w e r s p a s s .

F i n a l l y he f i n d s the

fear's path: Then at l a s t and following him I f o u n d - In the v e r y hour When the color f l u s h e d to the p e t a l s it m u s t have b e e n - Th© f a r - s o u g h t f l o w e r . T h e r e stood the p u r p l e s p i r e s with no b r e a t h of a i r Nor headlong bee To d i s t u r b t h e i r p e r f e c t poise the livelong day 'Neath the a l d e r t r e e . ^ F r o s t , "Rose P o g o n i a s , " p. 19.

80 I only knelt and putting the boughs a s i d e Looked, o r at m o s t Counted them all to the buds in the c o p s e ' s depth That w e r e pale as a ghost. Then I a r o s e and silently w a n d e r e d h o m e , And 1 l o r one Said that the f a l l might come and whirl of l e a v e . . F o r s u m m e r w a s done. The young m a n ' s p l e a s u r e is not in p o s s e s s i n g the f l o w e r s he s e a r c h e d so long l o r .

His j o y i s in seeing them in t h e i r p e r f e c t beauty at the peak

of t h e i r bloom.

Once he h a s found t h e m , s e e n t h e m , a d m i r e d t h e m , he

i s content. This human joy in the o b s e r v a t i o n of n a t u r a l l o v e l i n e s s is s e e n again in "A Young B i r c h , i n which F r o s t p o r t r a y s an o b j e c t of n a t u r e as a s o u r c e of p l e a s u r e to i t s o b s e r v e r s and explains that the sole p u r p o s e of its e x i s t e n c e is to be ''a thing of beauty": The b i r c h begins to c r a c k i t s outer sheath Of baby g r e e n and show the white beneath, As w h o s o e v e r l i k e s the young and slight May well have noticed. Soon entirely white To double day and cut in half the d a r k It w i l l stand forth, e n t i r e l y white in b a r k , And nothing but the top a l e a f y green— The only native t r e e that d a r e s to l e a n , Relying on its beauty, to the a i r . (Less b r a v e p e r h a p s than trusting a r e the f a i r . ) And someone r e m i n i s c e n t will r e c a l l How once in cutting b r u s h along the wall He s p a r e d it f r o m the n u m b e r of the slain, At f i r s t to be no bigger than a cane, And then no bigger than a fishing pole, * * F r o s t , "Quest of the P u r p l e - F r i n g e d , " pp. 458-459.

81

r

But now at last ao obvious a bole The m o s t efficient help you ever hired Would know that it w a s t h e r e to be admired, And zeal would not be thanked that cut it down When you w e r e reading books or out of town. It was a thing of beauty and w a s sent To live its life out as an ornament. ^ The man, with an instinctive emotion like that displayed by the mower in "The Tuft of F l o w e r s " elects to s p a r e a sapling and leaves it to grow by the wall.

At the time of its sparing, it is little m o r e than "fishing

pole" size, but, by virtue of its position near the cleared wall, it has the opportunity to grow into a lovely young t r e e , one that anyone could tell is meant to be enjoyed instead of to be cut away.

Thus the sensitive

person who spared the t r e e sees that his instinct was wise, for the implications of the possible symbolism a r e appropriately applicable to him.

In its beauty the t r e e symbolizes the m a n ' s hope in the bark "of

baby g r e e n " that opens into the white of understanding which will "double day and cut in half the dark. " In its t r u s t as the "only native t r e e that dares to lean, / . . .

to the a i r " it typifies the faith that leads him to

actions such a s that which p r e s e r v e d the t r e e .

And f r o m its loveliness

he derives a pleasure and satisfaction which grows as he has allowed the t r e e to grow. At times F r o s t suggests a m a n - n a t u r e relationship that involves certain pixie-like qualities, one in which the individual deliberately plays 12 F r o s t , "A Young B i r c h , " p. 517.

82 games with the natural elements of his surroundings.

"The Freedom of

the Moon" i s such a poem. I ' v e t r i e d the new moon tilted in the a i r Above a hazy t r e e - a n d - f a r m h o u s e cluster As you might t r y a jewel in your h a i r . I've t r i e d it fine with little breadth of l u s t e r , Alone, or in one ornament combining With one f i r s t - w a t e r s t a r almost as shining. I put it shining anywhere I please. By walking slowly on some evening l a t e r , I've pulled it f r o m a c r a t e of crooked t r e e s , And brought it over glossy w a t e r , g r e a t e r , And dropped it in, and seen the image wallow, The color run, all s o r t s of wonder follow. ^ The n a r r a t o r is s e l f - p o s s e s s e d enough even to use the moon above him as a playfellow in his games.

He has admired it singly above the land-

scape and in a group with neighboring s t a r s ; he has lifted it in his sight f r o m the dark t r e e s , and enjoyed its reflection in w a t e r , especially the running of the colors when the water is disturbed.

He i s filled with a

friendly respect f o r his environment and can derive full enjoyment in his association with it.

He has no f e a r of the natural elements that make up

his world, and they do not hold him in undue awe of their v a s t n e s s .

The

moon and the woods a r e not sources of f e a r f u l superstition; r a t h e r they a r e a source of p l e a s u r e f r o m which his creative mind enables him to derive enjoyment. ^ P r o s t , "The F r e e d o m of the Moon, " p. 304.

83 A feeling of confidence in one's relation to nature, similar to that seen in "The Freedom of the Moon, " i s apparent in "To the Thawing Wind. " The n a r r a t o r speaks as though the natural element, in this case the southwest wind, is a long-time friend and y e t a superior. Come with rain, O loud Southwester! Bring the singer, bring the nester; Give the buried flower a dream; Make the settled snowbank steam; Find the brown beneath the white; But whate'e* you do tonight. Bathe my window, make it flow, Melt it as the ice will go; Melt the glass and leave the stick® Like a h e r m i t ' s crucifix; Burst into my narrow stall; Swing the picture on the wall; Run the rattling pages o ' e r ; Scatter poems on the floor; Turn the poet out of door. ^ Weary of w i n t e r ' s confinement, he is ready f o r the beginning of the spring, and he calls upon his f r i e n d to m e l t the snow and bring the b i r d s .

His

h e r m i t - l i k e solitude has been a n e c e s s a r y p a r t of his writing, but now he is eager to leave Ms "narrow stall" and go Into the woods and countryside. In the wind the poems may scatter to the floor, but no sense of l o s s i s felt; r a t h e r , perhaps, new poems will evolve as a r e s u l t of the poet's being turned "out of door, " f o r apparently his relationship with his environment is a n e c e s s a r y p a r t of his creativity.

His response to his surroundings

brings them into a sort of partnership in the making of v e r s e . 14

F r o s t , "To the Thawing Wind, " p. 16.

84 Within several of his poems Robert F r o s t p o r t r a y s , in t e r m s of peaceful loveliness, an individual experience that i s not the result of an intentional s e a r c h .

In each case the p e r s o n s e e m s only to look up f r o m

his o r d i n a r y pursuits to experience an uplifting moment of union with hie environment.

And the moment i s exalting beeause the p e r s o n is then

m o s t sensitive to the beauty about him.

Two such poems a r e "Moon

C o m p a s s e s " and "Evening in a Sugar Orchard. " Within his solitary experience, the young man in "Moon C o m p a s s e s " finds loveliness and a symbol of love within his picture of moonlight and a mountain. I stole forth dimly in the dripping pause Between two downpours to see what t h e r e was. And a masked moon had spread down compass r a y s To a cone mountain in the midnight haze, As if the final estimate w e r e h e r s , And a s it m e a s u r e d in her c a l i p e r s , The mountain stood exalted in its place. So love will take between the hands a face. . . . The "dripping pause" between two rain showers, the moon masked by clouds, and a solitary mountain placed solidly within the scene could be the basis f o r a gloomy, sad poem.

But, instead, the atmosphere is

of peacefulness, for in the a f t e r m a t h of a shower, the n a r r a t o r steps out to observe the land and mountain that he loves.

In Ms appreciation of

his surroundings, he knows peace of h e a r t , f o r he s e e s the "masked moon" encompassing the mountain with its r a y s , and to him the almost cares® of the moonlight upon the mountain r e f l e c t s human love which *''Frost, "Moon Compasses, " p. 393.

85 gently " t a k e / s j b e t w e e n the h a n d s a f a c e . " The scene would not r e f l e c t h u m a n i t y if the s p e a k e r did not know that love and the c o n t e n t m e n t it brings. The q u i e t l o v e l i n e s s of the m o u n t a i n s u r r o u n d e d by m o o n l i g h t in "Moon C o m p a s s e s ' 4 i s found i n the s p a r k s t h a t " f i g u r e in the t r e e s / A s L e o , Orion, and the P l e i a d e s , " in "Evening in a Sugar O r c h a r d , " and the s p e a k e r h e r e f i n d s a s i m i l a r f e e l i n g of p e a c e w i t h i n h i s s u r r o u n d i n g s . F r o m w h e r e I l i n g e r e d in a l u l l in M a r c h O u t s i d e the s u g a r - h o u s e one night f o r c h o i c e , I c a l l e d the f i r e m a n w i t h a c a r e f u l v o i c e And bade h i m l e a v e the p a n and stoke the a r c h ! "O f i r e m a n , give the f i r e a n o t h e r s t o k e , And send m o r e s p a r k s up c h i m n e y w i t h t h e s m o k e . " I thought a few m i g h t t a n g l e , a s they did. Among b a r e m a p l e boughs, and in t h e r a r e Hill a t m o s p h e r e not c e a s e to glow, And so be a d d e d to the m o o n up t h e r e . The m o o n , though slight, w a s m o o n enough to show On e v e r y t r e e a b u c k e t w i t h a l i d , And on black g r o u n d a b e a r - s k i n rug of snow. The s p a r k s m a d e no a t t e m p t to be t h e m o o n . They w e r e content to f i g u r e in t h e t r e e s As L e o , O r i o n , and the P l e i a d e s . And t h a t w a s what the boughs w e r e f u l l of soon. 1 0 The s e n s i t i v i t y of the s p e a k e r is r e f l e c t e d in M s a p p r e c i a t i o n of the surroundings.

He r e m a r k s t h a t h e h a s l i n g e r e d " f o r c h o i c e , " and he

does not invite the f i r e m a n out to e n j o y t h e l o v e l i n e s s of a l a t e evening in the s u g a r o r c h a r d .

He does not d e s i r e h u m a n c o m p a n i o n s h i p a t t h i s

point, f o r i t would b r e a k the s p e l l of c l o s e n e s s h e f e e l s w i t h the n a t u r a l

^ F r o s t , "Evening in t h e Sugar O r c h a r d , " p. 289.

86 e l e m e n t s around h i m - - t h e slight moon, the " b a r e m a p l e boughs, " the " r a r e / H i l l a t m o s p h e r e , " and the " b e a r - s k i n rug of snow" on the "black ground. " Instead, h e c a l l s to the f i r e m a n to "stoke the a r c h , " f o r h e w i s h e s to s e e the s p a r k s i n t e r m i n g l e with the b a r e boughs, with the hope that the thin hill a i r might encourage them to glow like the moon.

But

i n s t e a d of making m a n y m o o n s , he f i n d s that the s p a r k s among the t r e e s a r e m o r e like the s t a r s that f i l l the night sky. f u l l of the m a n - c r e a t e d s t a r s .

And soon the boughs a r e

This m a n , who finds quiet contentment

in the s o l i t a r y p l e a s u r e s of an evening in an o r c h a r d a f t e r a day of h a r d w o r k , i s content with the s p a r k s that glow like s t a r s i n s t e a d of m o o n s . He h a s the imagination to place the o r d i n a r y things of m a n within the v a s t n e s s of the u n i v e r s e , but he does not a s k f o r m o r e than i s given and t a k e s p l e a s u r e in what i s . The g r e a t m a j o r i t y of Robert F r o s t ' s p o e m s p o r t r a y a s t r o n g human being, c o u r a g e o u s and s e l f - a s s u r e d , alone o r in union with a n o t h e r , but always in a f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s h i p with h i s environment, in spite of the potential d a n g e r s .

F r o s t s e e m s of the opinion that a n individual who

m a k e s u s e of his intellect and does not allow himself to be o v e r c o m e by f e a r can find beauty, contentment, and p l e a s u r e in Ms s u r r o u n d i n g s . s e e s no defeat f o r e i t h e r m a n o r n a t u r e .

He

In the l a s t p o e m , untitled, of

h i s final collection of v e r s e , In the C l e a r i n g , F r o s t e x p r e s s e s succinctly h i s feeling about the r e l a t i o n s h i p between m a n and n a t u r e , m a n i f e s t e d

87 often throughout his volumes, - - a friendly antagonism based on mutual r e spect. In winter in the woods alone Against the t r e e s I go. I m a r k a maple for my own And lay the maple low. At four o'clock I shoulder axe And in the afterglow I link a line of shadowy t r a c k s A c r o s s the tinted snow. I see f o r nature no defeat In one t r e e ' s overthrow Or f o r myself in my r e t r e a t F o r yet another blow. ^ ^ R o b e r t F r o s t , In the Clearing (New York, 1962), p. 101.

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION Robert F r o s t m a y not be one of the g r e a t e s t poets of all t i m e s , but he has the ability to state certain things so well that it i s difficult to imagine anyone else restating them m o r e effectively. Such a talent i s especially noticeable in his dialogue poems that p o r t r a y husband and wife, and it is also apparent in his descriptions of certain r u r a l or woodland scenes. England

It is likely that Ms personal experiences in the New

countryside

combined with his perceptive m i n d - h e a r t explain

the l a t t e r descriptions, and it is even m o r e probable that all r e f e r e n c e s to peaceful, happy m a r r i e d life a r e bas^d upon his own m a r r i a g e , which f r o m all indications was one of deep contentment in spite of the fact that it was m a r r e d by several personal tragedies.

If the r e a d e r can accept

the p r e m i s e that F r o s t wrote mostly about what he knew f r o m f i r s t - h a n d experience, it is easy to understand why so much of his poetry is meaningful to the many who enjoy it. American culture is being based m o r e upon urban living as the y e a r s p a s s and l e s s upon the r u r a l a r e a s that w e r e once predominant. In spite of this fact, Robert F r o s t , having written mostly of country

38

89 s c e n e s and r u r a l , b a c k - c o u n t r y people of the New England a r e a , h a s r e a c h e d a high point in popularity among m o s t p o e t r y - r e a d i n g people. It m a y s e e m s t r a n g e that his localized subject m a t t e r r e c e i v e d i t s f i r s t p r a i s e in England, but this f a c t i n d i c a t e s c l e a r l y that t h e r e i s a u n i v e r s a l i t y about t h e s e p o e m s that r e a c h e s f a r beyond the New England barriers.

Although h e p l a c e s his c h a r a c t e r s in the hill country of a

p a r t i c u l a r region, F r o s t i s speaking u l t i m a t e l y of u n i v e r s a l n a t u r e and of u n i v e r s a l m a n .

No m a t t e r in w h a t p a r t of the w o r l d , the n a t u r a l e l e m e n t s

p r e s e n t the s a m e f a c e s toward m a n .

No m a t t e r what nationality is

o b s e r v e d , human beings m a y be c l a s s i f i e d into the two g e n e r a l t y p e s , the s t r o n g , s e l f - d i r e c t e d , a n d the weak, controlled by f e a r s of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s . It i s of t h e s e u n i v e r s a l e l e m e n t s that R o b e r t F r o s t s p e a k s when he p o r t r a y s the f a r m - p e o p l e of New England. He r e c o g n i z e s , of c o u r s e , that n a t u r e i s a n o n - r e a s o n i n g , i n s e n s i t i v e c r e a t i o n that does not and cannot have any i n t e r e s t in mankind, but when o b s e r v e d subjectively by v a r i o u s people under differing c i r c u m s t a n c e s , it can take on ambivalent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

Some s e e t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s a s

a place of p e a c e and p l e a s u r e , while o t h e r s p e r c e i v e a w o r l d of a c t i v e antagonism.

But the view that any one p e r s o n h a s depends e s s e n t i a l l y

upon his own subjective r e s p o n s e to his environment. Although F r o s t h a s s t a t e d that m a n h a s only a slight advantage over his e n v i r o n m e n t , he p o r t r a y s the s u c c e s s of his c h a r a c t e r s m u c h m o r e

90 often than he does t h e i r f a i l u r e s .

P e r h a p s t h i s is-.trae b e c a u s e the poet

ha© such confidence in the intellect that c o m p r i s e s the " s l i g h t " advantage. He s e e s m a n making good u s e of h i s sensitivity, h i s reasoning ability, in that he d e v i s e s ways of converting h i s surrounding® into the " h o m e " he d e s i r e s .

F r o s t does not go so f a r a s to s e n t i m e n t a l i s e the r e l a t i o n s h i p

between strong individuals and t h e i r environment, but he does display an honest belief in m a n ' s ability to f a c e with courage w h a t e v e r life m i g h t bring and g e n e r a l l y to d e r i v e p l e a s u r e f r o m the n a t u r a l w o r l d through l a b o r , through h u m a n love and companionship, and through individual experience. This t h e s i s has c o n s i d e r e d in detail the b a s i c i m p o r t a n c e of the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between F r o s t ' s c h a r a c t e r s and t h e i r environment.

It

i s the u n i v e r s a l i t y of this r e l a t i o n s h i p in h i s p o e m s that likely will be the f a c t o r which will keep them b e f o r e the public in the f u t u r e .

And the study

m a d e h e r e has added to the understanding of F r o s t ' s o b s e r v a t i o n of the complex interdependence of m a n ' s view of n a t u r e and i t s e f f e c t s on h i m . Although s e v e r a l c r i t i c s point out that Robert F r o s t ' s c r a f t s m a n s h i p i m p r o v e s in his l a t e r p o e m s , it i s not probable that his v e r s e s on things other than the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between m a n and n a t u r e will e v e r r e t a i n the popularity enjoyed by "Home B u r i a l " and "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening, " among many such w o r k s , f o r when he l e a v e s the r e a l m of the countryside and woods, as he does m o r e often in his l a t e r v o l u m e s

91 than in h i s e a r l y and middle o n e s , he l o s e s a quality that i s difficult to define, a p e r f e c t i o n in w o r d choice and i m a g e r y .

The r e a d e r ' s s e n s e s

a r e not a f f e c t e d by the p o e m s concerning politics o r g o v e r n m e n t , no m a t t e r how he m a y disguise the topic.

But when he p o r t r a y s a m a n ' s

emotions o r the n a t u r a l background f o r human living, his d e s c r i p t i o n s , although not detailed in the s e n s e that a photograph would b e , m a k e the r e a d e r s h a r p l y a w a r e of the a t m o s p h e r e and the h u m a n emotions and responses.

They provide a c l e a r m e n t a l p i c t u r e of the physical setting.

And i t will be such p o e m s that keep the w o r k s of Robert F r o s t b e f o r e the public.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Anderson, Margaret Bartlett, Robert F r o s t and John Bartlett: The Record of a Friendship, New York, Holt, Rlnehart and Winston, 1963. Brower, Reuben A . , The Poetry o£ Robert F r o s t ; Constellations of Intention, New York, Oxford University P r e s s , 1963. Coffin, Robert P. T r i s t r a m , New Poetry of New England: F r o s t and Robinson, Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins P r e s s , 1938. Cook, Reginald L . , The Dimensions of Robert F r o s t , New York, Rinehart and C o . , Inc., 1958. Cox, J a m e s M . , Robert F r o s t ; A Collection of Critical E s s a y s , Englewood Cliffs, New J e r s e y , Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962. Cox, Sidney, Robert F r o s t : Original Ordinary Man, New York, Henry Holt and Co. , 1929. * A Swinger of Birches, Washington Square-New York, New York University P r e s s , 1957. Doyle, John Robert, J r . , The Poetry of Robert Frosts An Analysis, New York, Hafner Publishing C o . , 1962. Ford, Carolyn, The L e s s Traveled Road: A Study of Robert F r o s t , Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University P r e s s , 1935. F r o s t , Robert, Complete Poems of Robert F r o s t , 1949, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1962. , In the Clearing, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1962.

92

93 , The L e t t e r s of Robert F r o s t to Louis U n t e r m e y e r , edited by Louis U n t e r m e y e r , New York, Holt, R i n e h a r t and Winston, 1963. , Selected- L e t t e r s of Robert F r o s t , edited by L a w r a n c e Thompson, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964. R o b e r t F r o s t : An Introduction, edited by Robert A. G r e e n b e r g and J a m e s G. Hepburn, New York, Holt, R i n e h a r t and Winston, Inc. , 1961. Gould, J e a n , Robert F r o s t ; The Aim Was Song, New York, Dodd, Mead and C o . , 1964. I s a a c s , Elizabeth, An Introduction to Robert F r o s t , Denver, Alan Swallow,

1962. J a r r e l l , Randall, P o e t r y and the Age, New York, Vintage Books, 1955. K r e y m b o r g , A l f r e d , Our Singing Strength: An Outline of A m e r i c a n P o e t r y , New York, Coward-McCann, I n c . , 1929. Lynen, John F . , The P a s t o r a l A r t of R o b e r t F r o s t , New Haven, Yale University P r e s s , I960. M e r t i n s , Louis and E s t h e r , The I n t e r v a l s of Robert F r o s t : A C r i t i c a l Bibliography, B e r k e l e y , University of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1947. Monroe, H a r r i e t , P o e t s and T h e i r Art, New York, The Macmillan Company, 1932. Munaon, G o r h a m B. , R o b e r t F r o s t : A Study in Sensibility and Good Sense, New York, G e o r g e H. Doran Company, 1927. Nitchie, George W . , Human Values in the P o e t r y of Robert F r o s t : A Study of a P o e t ' s Convictions, D u r h a m , North C a r o l i n a , Duke University P r e s s , I960. Recognition of Robert F r o s t , edited by R i c h a r d Thornton, New York, Henry Holt and C o . , 1937. Reeve, F r a n k l i n D . , R o b e r t F r o s t in R u s s i a , An Atlantic Monthly P r e s s Book, Boston, Little, Brown and Company, 1963-1964.

94 Sergeant, Elizabeth Shepley, F i r e Under the Andes; A Group of North A m e r i c a n P o r t r a i t s , New York, A l f r e d A. Knopf, 1927. Robert F r o s t ; The T r i a l by E x i s t e n c e , New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, I960. S q u i r e s , Radcliff J . , The M a j o r T h e m e s of Robert F r o s t , Ann A r b o r , The U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan P r e s s , 1963. Thompson, L a w r a n c e , F i r e and Ice; The A r t and Thought of R o b e r t F r o s t , New York, Henry Holt and Co. , 1942. , Robert F r o s t , Minneapolis, University of Minnesota P r e s s , 1959 (University of Minnesota P a m p h l e t s on A m e r i c a n W r i t e r s , no. 2). U n t e r m e y e r , Louis, The Road Not Taken; An Introduction to R o b e r t F r o s t {A Selection of Robert F r o s t ' s p o e m s with a b i o g r a p h i c a l p r e f a c e and a running c o m m e n t a r y ) , New York, Henry Holt and C o . , 1951. W e i r i c k , B r u c e , F r o m Whitman to Sandburg in A m e r i c a n P o e t r y ; A C r i t i c a l Survey, New York, The Macmillan C o . , 1924. Wilkinson, M a r g u e r i t e , New Voices; An Introduction to C o n t e m p o r a r y P o e t r y , New York, The Macmillan C o , , 1924.

Articles A n d e r s o n , C h a r l e s R. , "Robert F r o s t ; 1 8 7 4 - 1 9 6 3 , " The Saturday Review, XLVI ( F e b r u a r y 23, 1963), 17-20. Aykroyd, George O. , "The C l a s s i c a l in Robert F r o s t , " Poet L o r e , XL (Winter, 1929), 610-614. Beach, J o s e p h W a r r e n , "Robert F r o s t , " The Yale Review, XLIII (Winter, 1954), 204-217. B e n j a m i n , Paul L . , "Robert F r o s t - - P o e t of N e i g h b o r l i n e s s , " The Survey, XLV (November 27, 1920), 318-319. B e r k e l m a n , R o b e r t G . , "Robert F r o s t and the Middle W a y , ' ' College English, III ( J a n u a r y , 1942), 347-353.

95 Boynton, P e r c y H. , "Robert F r o s t , " The English J o u r n a l , XI (October, 1922), 455*462. B r e i t , H a r v e y , "Talk With R o b e r t F r o s t , " New York T i m e s Book Review (November 27, 1949), p. 20. C a r r o l l , Gladys Hasty, "New England Sees It Through, " The Saturday Review of L i t e r a t u r e , XIII (November 9, 1935), 3 - 4 , 14-17. C i a r d i , John, " R o b e r t F r o s t ; A m e r i c a n B a r d , " The Saturday Review, XLV (March 24, 1962), 15-17, 52-54. Cook, Reginald L. , " F r o s t a s a P a r a b l i s t , " Accent, X (Autumn, 1949), 33-41. , "Robert F r o s t ' s A s i d e s on His P o e t r y , " A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e , XIX ( J a n u a r y , 1948), 351-359. Cowley, Malcolm, " F r o s t : A Dissenting Opinion, " The New Republic, III (September 11, 1944), 312-313. , "The C a s e Against M r . F r o s t : II, " The New Republic, III (September 18, 1944), 345-347. Cox, J a m e s M . , "Robert F r o s t and the Edge of the C l e a r i n g , " The Virginia Q u a r t e r l y Review, XXXV (Winter, 1959), 73-88. Cox, Sidney Hayes, "New England and Robert F r o s t , " The New Mexico Q u a r t e r l y , IV (May, 1934), 89-94. 'Robert F r o s t and Poetic F a s h i o n , " The A m e r i c a n Scholar, XVIII (Winter, 1948-49), 78-86. , "The Sincerity of Robert F r o s t , " The New Republic, XII (August 25, 1917), 109-111. Dabbs, J . M c B r i d e , "Robert F r o s t and the Dark Woods, " The Yale Review, X X m (March, 1934), 514-520. DeVoto, B e r n a r d , "The C r i t i c s and Robert F r o s t , " The Saturday Review of L i t e r a t u r e , XVII ( J a n u a r y 1, 1938), 3 - 4 , 14-15. Dickey, John S . , "Robert F r o s t : T e a c h e r at L a r g e , " The Saturday Review, XLVI ( F e b r u a r y 23, 1963), 21-22.

96 Donoghue, Dennis, "The S a c r e d Rage, " The L i s t e n e r , LXIX ( T h u r s d a y , June 6, 1963), 965-967. F a u l k n e r , Virginia, " M o r e F r o s t i n g on the Woods, " College E n g l i s h , XXIV (April, 1963), 560-561. F i s h e r , Dorothy Canfield, "Robert F r o s t ' s H i l l t o p , " The Bookman, LXIV ( D e c e m b e r , 1926), 403-405. F r a n c i s , Robert, C h a r l e s W. Cole, and Reginald L. Cook, "On R o b e r t F r o s t , " The M a s s a c h u s e t t s Review, IV (Winter, 1963), 237-249. F r o s t , R o b e r t , "On E m e r s o n , " Daedalus, LXXXVIII (Fall, 1959), 712-718. , " P o e t r y and School, " The Atlantic, CLXXXVIII (June, 1951), 30-31. G i e r a s c h , W a l t e r , " F r o s t ' s 'The L a s t Mowing, ( F e b r u a r y , 1952), i t e m 25.

The E x p l i c a t e r , X

H a r r i s , M a r k , "The P r i d e and Wisdom of Two G r e a t Old P o e t s , " L i f e , LI (December 1, 1961), 101-122. Hopkins, Vivian C. , "Robert F r o s t : Out F a r and In Deep, " W e s t e r n Humanities Review, XIV ( S u m m e r , I960), 247-263. Howe, Irving, "Robert F r o s t : A M o m e n t a r y Stay, " The New Republic, CXLVIII (March 23, 1963), 23-28. Irwin, W. R. , "Robert F r o s t and the Comic Spirit, " A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e , XXXV (November, 1963), 299-310. J e r e m y , S i s t e r M a r y , O. P . , " C o n t r a r i e t i e s in Robert F r o s t , " The Catholic World, XCII ( D e c e m b e r , I960), 164-170. Juhnke, Anna K . , "Religion in Robert F r o s t ' s P o e t r y : The Play f o r SelfP o s s e s s i o n , " A m e r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e , XXXVI (May, 1964), 153-164. L e w i s , C. Day, " R o b e r t F r o s t : 1874-1963, An Appreciation, " The L i s t e n e r , LXIX ( F e b r u a r y 7, 1963), 253. Monroe, H a r r i e t , "A F r u g a l M a s t e r , " P o e t r y , XXXIII (March, 1929), 333-336.

97 Moore, Virginia, "Robert F r o s t of New H a m p s h i r e , " The Yale Review, XX (March, 1931), 627-629. M o r s e , S t e a r n s , "The Wholeness of R o b e r t F r o s t , " The Virginia Q u a r t e r l y Review, XIX ( S u m m e r , 1943), 412-416. Morton, David, "The Poet of the New H a m p s h i r e Hills, " Outlook, CXXXV (December 19, 1923), 688-689. Moynihan, William T. , " F a l l and Winter in F r o s t , " Modern Language N o t e s , L X X n i (May, 1958), 348-350. ' Munson, Gorham B. , "Robert F r o s t and the Humanistic T e m p e r , " The Bookman, LXXI (July, 1930), 419-422. ~ N a p i e r , John T . , "A M o m e n t a r y Stay Against Confusion, " The Virginia Q u a r t e r l y Review, XXXIII ( S u m m e r , 1957), 378-394. N i m s , John F r e d e r i c k , "The C l a s s i c i s m of R o b e r t F r o s t , " The Saturday Review, XLVI ( F e b r u a r y 23, 1963), 22-23, 62. O'Donnell, W. G . , "Robert F r o s t and New England: A Revaluation, " The Yale Review, XXXVII ( S u m m e r , 1948), 698-712. Ogilvie, John T . , " F r o m Woods to S t a r s : A P a t t e r n of I m a g e r y in R o b e r t F r o s t ' s P o e t r y , " The South Atlantic Q u a r t e r l y , LVIII (Winter, 1959), 64-76. P e a r c e , Roy Harvey, " F r o s t ' s M o m e n t a r y Stay, " The Kenyon Review, XXIII (Spring, 1961), 258-273. P r i t e h a r d , William H . , "Diminished N a t u r e , " The M a s s a c h u s e t t s Review, I (May, 1960), 475-592. R o b e r t F r o s t I s s u e , The New H a m p s h i r e Troubadour, edited by T h o r s t e n V. K a l y a r v i , XVI (November, 1946). Van Dor en, C a r l , "The Soil of the P u r i t a n s , Robert F r o s t : Quintessence and S u b s o i l , " The Century Magazine, CV ( F e b r u a r y , 1923), 629-636. Van Doren, M a r k , " R o b e r t F r o s t ' s A m e r i c a , " The Atlantic, CLXXXVII (June, 1951), 32-34.