The Little Book of Writing Guides

2

Table of Contents Student Guide to Avoiding Plagiarism...................................................................................... 5

Guide to Punctuation and Effective Sentences........................................................................... 7 Punctuating Ideas in Sentences .............................................................................................. 7 Punctuation of minor ideas within a sentence ........................................................................ 8 Visual Summary of Punctuating Two Ideas in One Sentence.............................................. 11 Guide to Writing Grammatically Correct Sentences................................................................ 12 Revising Sentence Fragments .............................................................................................. 12 Revising Comma Splices and Fused Sentences ................................................................... 13 Revising Dangling Modifiers ............................................................................................... 13 Using Adverbs Correctly ...................................................................................................... 14 Revising Awkward or Confusing Sentences ........................................................................ 14 Making Parallel Parts of a Series--Parallelism ..................................................................... 15 Guide to Spelling ...................................................................................................................... 16 Writing Numbers .................................................................................................................. 16 Using Apostrophes ............................................................................................................... 18 A Little Help with Capitals .................................................................................................. 21 Using “who”, “whom”, “which”, and “that” ........................................................................ 23 Spelling Rules ...................................................................................................................... 24 Differences between British and American spelling ............................................................ 26 Common English Homophones ........................................................................................... 27 Guide to Diction ....................................................................................................................... 29 Transitions and Linking words ............................................................................................. 29 Translations of Common Terms in Education ..................................................................... 31 Writing Tips from Joseph Williams ..................................................................................... 34 Examples of Revisions by Joseph Williams ........................................................................ 35

3

Invention Methods for Writing Tasks ...................................................................................... 36 Free Invention Methods ................................................................................................... 36 Structured Invention Methods .......................................................................................... 37 Analytic Invention Methods ............................................................................................. 37 Guides to the Writing Process .................................................................................................. 38 Writing Process for Shorter Pieces ....................................................................................... 38 Advice on Timed Essay Exams ............................................................................................ 39 Quick Revision Methods ...................................................................................................... 40 APA Guide ............................................................................................................................... 41 Three Rules for Using Quotes .............................................................................................. 41 APA Basics: In-Text Citations ............................................................................................. 42 APA Basics: Reference List ................................................................................................ 44 Basic Rules ....................................................................................................................... 44 Examples of Items on a Reference List. ........................................................................... 45 APA Exercises...................................................................................................................... 49 Tips for Using APA.............................................................................................................. 50 Guide to Grading Scales and Symbols ..................................................................................... 51 General Impression Mark Scheme ....................................................................................... 52 Correction Symbols .............................................................................................................. 53

4

Student Guide to Avoiding Plagiarism

WHAT IS PLAGIARISM? Plagiarism is presenting someone else's words or ideas as your own. The following are all examples of plagiarism: •

• • • • •

Quoting or paraphrasing material without citing the source of that material. Sources can include Web sites, magazines, newspapers, textbooks, journals, TV and radio programs, movies and videos, photographs and drawings, charts and graphs; any information or ideas that are not your own. Quoting a source without using quotation marks -- even if you do cite it. Buying a paper online or downloading a paper from a free site. Copying or using work done by another student. Citing sources you didn't use. Turning in the same paper for more than one class without the permission of both teachers.

NOTE TAKING The best way to avoid plagiarism is to take careful notes. When taking notes, always do the following: • •

• • • •

First, read the entire text and summarize it in your own words. Then paraphrase important points and copy usable quotes. Enclose quotes in quotation marks. Carefully distinguish between material that is quoted, material that is paraphrased, material that is summarized, and your own words and ideas. Consider using different colored ink for each type of source. Include in your notes all the information you will need to cite your sources. Copy all source information into your working bibliography using the format your teacher has provided. Print any Web pages you use. Write the URL and the date on the Web page if it isn't included on the printout. Save all your notes and printouts until you receive your final grade.

5

CITING SOURCES You must cite the source of every quote, every paraphrased passage, and every summarized idea you use in a research paper. Commonly known facts, such as dates or definitions, do not need to be cited unless you take those facts directly from a specific reference source, such as an encyclopedia. If you're not sure whether a source should be cited, include it just in case. Sources must be cited both in the body of the paper and in the bibliography. In the body of the paper, you must do the following: •





Copy quoted material exactly, enclose it in quotations marks, and name the author immediately before or after the quote. Use the same procedure for summarized or paraphrased material, but omit the quotation marks. Cite the source information (title, publisher, date, and so on) for the quote or paraphrased or summarized information either in parentheses within the text or in a footnote. List on a reference page at the end of your paper the information for all the sources you have cited. (This is not the same as the bibliography.)

The bibliography is a list of all the sources you used -- both those you cited and those you used for research, but did not cite directly. The bibliography should follow the format your teacher has provided.

WRITING THE PAPER The following tips on the writing process also will help you avoid plagiarism. • • •

• •

Read your notes carefully and make sure you understand the material before you begin to write. Write a preliminary draft without looking at your notes. Leave spaces where you think you'll want to include quotes or supporting material. Use your own words as much as possible. No one expects you to write like an expert or a professional writer. You should, however, write like a serious, intelligent student. Cite all sources as you write your rough draft. Read through your final draft and make sure all uncited ideas are your own.

© 2002 by Education World®. Education World grants educators permission to reproduce this page for classroom use.

6

Guide to Punctuation and Effective Sentences

Punctuating Ideas in Sentences Punctuation is intended to organise ideas in sentences clearly and effectively. A complete sentence always has two parts: 1. a subject, which is a noun and can be called the actor, and 2. a predicate, which is a verb and can be called the action. A sentence ends with a full stop (British term), which is also called a period (American term), because it is common to take a breath at the end of a sentence. Sentences can be said to express a single idea of how an actor does an action. This idea is also called a independent clause because it does not need other clauses or phrases to explain what it means. If more than one idea appears in a sentence, punctuation is usually necessary but note the many exceptions below. Basic Rules to know by heart 1. Do not use a comma before “because”. However, if “perhaps”, “possibly”, or a similar word precedes “because”, place a comma before it as in “He ran, possibly because he saw a snake.” Conditional, tentative, and speculative statements are not seen as essential to the idea, so they are placed outside it. The Roman soldiers did not like the Dutch climate because they were not used to so much rain. The ruling coalition did not want to accept the calls for a new election this year, perhaps because they felt they could not win. 2. Use a semi-colon between two ideas without a linking word between them. “Injustice is relatively easy to bear; what stings is justice”, according to H. L. Mencken. Poetry is not only for day-dreamers; it captures the attention of everyone longing for a revitalised language. Exceptions: Shorter ideas can be joined with a comma. Example: He said this, she said that. There was no end in sight for their feuding. 3. Use a comma between two ideas joined by one of the seven short ones: and, or, for, nor, but, yet, and so. The seven short ones are also called coordinating conjunctions. Memorise them! Everyone knew he had a major problem, yet no one dared to approach him about it. The rain did not ruin the newly painted bench, nor did it stop the painters from working under the pavilion.

7

Exception: If the ideas are short and simple, then the comma may be dropped. Example: The bus always comes too late but late passengers cannot complain if it comes on time. 4. If any other linking words, besides the seven short ones, appear between two ideas in one sentence, use a semi-colon before the word and a comma after it. Without a doubt audiences participate in the life of theatre by reacting to the players; as a matter of fact, members of the audience once sat on the stage. Home remedies for procrastination are abundant; however, cures are lacking.

Punctuation of minor ideas within a sentence A sentence can contain a main idea that includes a minor idea: a detail, an additional definition, or a related action. Minor ideas are often called subordinated clauses because they do not make sense without the main or independent clause. In other words, they cannot be complete sentences or ideas if they stand alone. Punctuating minor ideas requires judgment. Here are the general rules for guidance. 1. If a minor idea conveys restrictive, essential, or cumulative information, it does not require punctuation as long as the meaning of the sentence is still clear. If a minor idea conveys inessential, non-cumulative, or non-restrictive information, use a comma to separate it from the main idea. Information is essential and restrictive if it must be known to define, find, or know what a noun is. By contrast, inessential and non-restrictive information does not help delimit a noun. When to use “that” and “which.” Use “that” only with restrictive clauses. Many writers prefer to use “which” only with non-restrictive clauses, but usage varies. For camp the children needed clothes that were washable. [Since you have to know “washable” to be able to pick out the kind of clothes, use “that” but a comma is not required.] For the London trip, the students needed sturdy shoes, which are usually expensive. [Since the type of shoes is not determined by its price, use “which” and a comma before the minor idea.] Adjectives are said to be cumulative if they cannot be placed in a different order or if “and” cannot be placed between them. Example: One million hyperventilating Elvis fans cannot be wrong. [Since “and” cannot be placed between the adjectives, they are cumulative and do not require commas.] Extended example: Blake’s poem “Tiger” was first published on eight hand-painted prints made using a metal plate, which took its design from corrosion-causing acids. [Since Blake wrote more than one poem, the title is essential. “Eight hand-painted prints” cannot be “hand-painted and eight prints” or “eight and handpainted prints,” so the cumulative adjectives do not require commas.

8

Since prints can be made using many methods, prints “made using a metal plate” is essential information and does not require punctuation. The process of the making the plates with acids is not essential because it is not related to the main idea of where poem was published and it does not help identify the type of print. It is a minor idea and needs to be set off with commas] 2. As a general rule, subordinate minor ideas in order to emphasize the main idea when combining sentences. Monarch butterflies are easily recognised by their boldly coloured, orange and black wings. They travel thousands of miles each year. [The second sentence is the main idea.] Monarch butterflies, easily recognised by their boldly coloured, orange and black wings, travel thousands of miles each year. Samuel Johnson, who could sometimes be witless, choleric, and obtuse in conversation, is one of the most entertaining chroniclers of his time. [Although the information after “who” explains why the main idea is interesting, it is set off with commas to make the sentence easy to read.] 3. Use a comma after an introductory word group and between all items in a series. On the night of the party, we ate, drank, and danced until sunrise. A man of great reserve, Samuel Johnson surprised his contemporaries by producing poignant, insightful, captivating prose about all aspects of life.

4. Use a comma to set off the following elements. Parenthetical expressions provide supplemental information and appear as afterthoughts. Evolution, so far as we know, causes changes visible only over the course of hundreds, if not thousands, of years. Absolute phrases, which modify the whole sentence, usually consist of a noun followed by a participle or a noun phrase. His tennis game at last perfected, he won the competition. A man of little wit but great insight, Samuel Johnson was a tiring dinner guest. Contrasted elements begin with words like not and unlike. The Belgians, unlike the Dutch, never had a single language upon which to build a national identity. He fixed his watch with a pair of scissors, not a screwdriver. Nouns of direct address. Henry, it is here. The words yes and no. No, the future would look different for the Romans. Interrogative tags are questions added onto sentences, aren’t they? Mild interjections. Well, cases like these are difficult to decide. Dates, addresses, titles, and numbers. On December 23, 2004, we delivered 23,000 boats to A.B., Prince of Wales, at Hellingstraat 17, 2341 BB Nijmegen. To prevent confusion. Ready to eat a dog walked into the kitchen. A comma needs to be after “eat”.

9

5. Use a semicolon between items in a complex series to maintain clarity. We spent the summer in a youth hostel in Amsterdam, the Netherlands; on a boat that travelled around the Baltic and stopped for two days in St. Petersburg, Russia; and, last but not the least enjoyable, in a tent on the Isle of Skye in the Hebrides. 6. Use a dash to emphasise or clarify a minor idea or to prepare for a list, restatement, amplication, or dramatic shift. Causes of many historical events—the crusades and World War II among them— cannot be explained in a few pages. “Andijvie Stamppot”—a Dutch dish containing at least endive, potatoes, and gravy and often made with bananas, carrots, raisins, grilled onions, garlic, blocks of rich cheese, bacon bits with all the grease, and chunks of rich butter—has not made its way to other countries, although it can be tasty and quite filling. They prepared to go camping for weeks, packed up to leave the night before so that they could leave early the next day—but locked the keys in the car at the last moment. Consider these shocking facts—huge icebergs have fallen into the sea, the ozone layer is thinner than ever, and mountain glaciers have disappeared or melted significantly. 7. Use a parenthesis to enclose supplemental materials, minor digressions, afterthoughts, and letters or numbers labelling items in a series. When her cousins left, the child waved (not with her hand but her whole body) until they were out of sight. The rough estimate for the project (not to be confused with the total billed expenses to date) is still under budget. The results will be presented at the end of this report (See appendix B). We need (1) to regroup, (2) to talk, and (3) to forget the original plan. 8. Use a colon before or after a list, quotation, or any other part of a sentence that is defined or explained in another part of the sentence. A colon often works like an equal sign (=) and shows that two parts of a sentence express the same thing or that the second of two ideas is a restatement or elaboration of the first. Battleships, sailboats, and luxurious yachts: the vessels in the harbour offer hours of viewing pleasure for the boat enthusiast. The market fell into a recession for two main reasons: deflation and high unemployment. Johnson was one of the first critics whose admiration of Shakespeare resulted in a major defence of the plays: it is called simply the “Preface to the Plays of William Shakespeare”. “To be or not to be: that is the question”: Hamlet’s words still resonate with urgency. The statement clarified absolutely nothing: it left out the place and date of the main events.

10

Visual Summary of Punctuating Two Ideas in One Sentence Idea A The Romans maintained their vast empire mainly with the use of force, relying on a large and mobile army to stomp out areas of resistance and maintaining a sense of community through public executions and other horrid measures

because , mainly because For the 7 DWARFS, , and , or , for , nor , but , yet , so For ANYTHING ELSE, use a semi-colon (;) and comma to set off the words ; however, ; as a matter of fact, ; in the meantime, , as seen in the photo; Without a transition or for clarity, use a semi-colon ; For restatements or elaborations, use a colon :

11

Idea B their methods of farming never allowed them to build a sustainable economy based solely on food production and trade, which of course lead to the need to build the empire in the first place.

Guide to Writing Grammatically Correct Sentences Overview A sentence, also called an independent clause, must have at least two parts: a subject and a predicate. A minor idea, also called a subordinated idea or dependent clause, may also be present. If a period follows a minor idea, then the sentence fragment needs to be revised and/or correctly punctuated. A minor idea must be close to what it refers to; if not, it is called a dangling or misplaced modifier. If a clause contains more than one thing joined by a coordinating conjunction (the seven short ones: and, or, for, nor, yet, but, and so), the parts in the series need to be placed in the same form, which is said to make the items parallel. In addition, a sentence needs to use a consistent number, tense, person, voice, mood, and construction as well as logical predication. This section offers tips on how to spot and revise a grammatically incorrect sentence.

Revising Sentence Fragments A sentence fragment lacks a subject and/or a verb. Oftentimes a minor idea or dependent clause is presented as if it is an independent clause, a complete sentence. Test for fragments by removing a sentence from its position in a paragraph and seeing if it makes sense by itself. In most cases a fragment simply needs to be combined with a nearby sentence. Examples 1. My generation was defined by three key events. The Gulf War, the Oklahoma City bombing, and the Rodney King verdict. Revision: Add a colon to introduce the list. My generation was defined by three key event: the Gulf War…. 2. Most computer users do not realise how easily a wireless modem transmits passwords and messages. And how cheap receivers can pick up credit card numbers from up to fifty meters away. Revision: Combine with a comma used to clarity that the first series is over. 3. Dutch city mayors shocked the world press lately. By proposing that soft drugs be legalised. Revisons: 1) Combine with the previous sentence or 2) suggest the chronological link between the two ideas by using before, after, when, or another linking word or by placing the first event first. 1) Dutch city mayors shocked the world press lately by proposing that soft drugs be legalised. 2) Proposing the legalisation of soft drugs, Dutch city mayors shocked the world press. 4. Einstein proposed that a spacecraft flying in a straight line would gradually return to the same spot in space. Because he wanted to demonstrate that space and gravity are things created by matter. Revision: Combine the two sentences without using a comma because the statement after because is an essential explanation of the first statement.

12

Revising Comma Splices and Fused Sentences Comma splices and fused sentences are ideas that have not been joined clearly or correctly. Moving either one to another place within a paragraph usually makes them unintelligible. Fused sentences confuse readers because they run together; not surprisingly, fused sentences are also called run-on sentences. Example: He made a big mistake the deadline was past. Revision: He made a big mistake: the deadline was past. OR He made a big mistake. The deadline was past. A comma splice occurs when two sentences are joined by a comma without one of seven short ones: and, or, nor, for, but, yet, and so. Example: This may be to judge my neighbours harshly, however, I believe that many of them are not aware of it. Revision: This may be to judge my neighbours harshly; however, I believe that many of them are not aware of it. Acceptable Comma Splices When dialogue contains a question that asks the listener to confirm or deny a previous statement, joining the two with a comma is an option. Exceptions: The play is rather dull, but the idea behind it is fascinating, isn’t it? The prime minister isn’t going to resign today, is he? In addition, two short ideas that share the same subject or that sharply compare or contrast each other can be joined by a comma. Exceptions: Politicians do not get power, they take it. A method does not “teach” students anything, but it shapes their experience, it creates a mindset, it affirms habits.

Revising Dangling Modifiers A dangling modifier occurs when a subordinated clause cannot be completed in the main idea. To catch dangling modifiers, try to match subordinated clauses what they refer to in the body of the sentence. A question can usually be formulated using the clause to help test its completeness. Example: Giving a good reason, the argument ended. Question based on the clause: Who is giving a reason? Is the argument giving a reason? No. Who then? He Revision: Giving a good reason, he ended the argument. Revising Misplaced Modifiers A misplaced modifier clearly refers to something in the body of the sentence but is placed so far from it that it causes confusion. Use the same method to catch misplaced modifiers as you do for testing dangling modifiers.

13

Example: The Romans found the Netherlands a cold, wet place suitable only for the natives, being accustomed as they were to warmer weather and less rain. Question based on the clause: Are the natives the ones who fit the description of “being accustomed as they were to warmer weather and less rain”? No, the Romans are, so place the clause by the Romans. Revision: Being accustomed as they were to warmer weather and less rain, the Romans found the Netherlands a cold, wet place suitable only for the natives.

Using Adverbs Correctly Use adverbs, not adjectives, to modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Most adverbs are formed by adding –ly to an adjective as in “formally”, “highly”, and “nicely”. However, some adverbs, such as “always”, “just”, and “seldom” do not end in –ly, and some adjectives such as “lovely” and “friendly” do. Adverbs like just, almost, only, even, hardly, merely, nearly, exactly, and simply can cause problems because they can be placed in many parts of the sentence. Place adverbs within a sentence so that they clearly express what you mean. Example: Watch how placing just in different positions completely changes the meaning of the following sentences. After they just had left Britain and settled in the Netherlands, the Pilgrims decided to move to an unoccupied territory across the sea. After they had left Britain and settled just in the Netherlands, the Pilgrims decided to move to an unoccupied territory across the sea. After they had left Britain and settled in the Netherlands, just the Pilgrims decided to move to an unoccupied territory across the sea. After they had left Britain and settled in the Netherlands, the Pilgrims just decided to move to an unoccupied territory across the sea. After they had left Britain and settled in the Netherlands, the Pilgrims decided to move just to an unoccupied territory across the sea. After they had left Britain and settled in the Netherlands, the Pilgrims decided to move to an unoccupied territory just across the sea.

Revising Awkward or Confusing Sentences Since a natural tone of voice is one of the goals of clear writing, here are a few tips to help locate and revise awkward or confusing sentences. To be most effective, sentences maintain a consistent tense, voice, mood, person, number, and type of discourse. This section will explain why consistency makes writing more clear. Consistent Verb Tenses Verb tenses relate action to time. The most important point is that the actions and times need to be accuracy reflected in the verb tenses. One sentence does not need one tense, but all the actions named in the sentence need to placed in an accurate relationship to time.

14

Example: Hamlet is a play that has enchanted audiences since it was made. The shift from present to present perfect to past is acceptable in this sentence. In other cases the verb tense is not consistent to the time of the action. Example: On the Road is a novel about friends who drove across the United States in the 1950s. (The shift from present to past violates the convention of using the present to discuss literary action. Even though the characters are based upon real persons, use the present tense when discussing the novel.) Revision: On the Road is a novel about friends who drive across the United States in the 1950s.

Making Parallel Parts of a Series--Parallelism Two or more items in a series are parallel if they appear in a similar place in a sentence. Parallel items need to be placed in similar grammatical structures whenever possible. A series is most easy to read if it is made up of mostly single words, longer phrases, or complete sentences. A mix can sometimes be unavoidable; splitting the series is usually possible, but doing so often leads to awkward repetition. If a series occurs within a series, place it at the end unless the series relies upon chronological order. You can also use a semi-colon to indicate that the longer item is still part of the series. Examples The new shop opened on Friday, suffered a terrible fire on Saturday, and closed on Monday. The managers were aware of the facts that the venture was risky, the local population hostile, and the weather not cooperative. [When the same verb occurs in all the sentences in a series, you may omit it.] Luckily, exporting minerals, importing finished products, and paying property taxes did not lead to bankruptcy. The students faced many problems: lack of housing, culture shock, and poor food and sanitary conditions.

15

Guide to Spelling Writing Numbers Although usage varies, most people spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words and use figures for other numbers: Words over two pounds six million dollars after thirty-one years eighty-three people Figures after 126 days only $31.50 6,381 bushels 4.78 liters Here are some examples of specific situations. Days and Years December 12, 1965 or 12 December 1965 A.D. 1066 in 1900 in 1971-72 or in 1971-1972 the eighties, the twentieth century the 1980's or the 1980s Time of Day 8:00 A.M. (or) a.m. (or) eight o'clock in the morning 4:30 P.M. (or) p.m. (or) half-past four in the afternoon Addresses 16 Tenth Street 350 West 114 Street Identification Numbers Room 8 Channel 18 Interstate 65 16

Henry VIII Page and Division of Books and Plays page 30 chapter 6 in act 3, scene 2 (or) in Act III, Scene ii Decimals and Percentages a 2.7 average 13 1/4 percent .037 metric ton Large Round Numbers four billion dollars (or) $4 billion 16,500,000 (or) 16.5 million

Notes on Usage Numbers in series and statistics should be consistent. two apples, six oranges, and three bananas NOT: two apples, 6 oranges, and 3 bananas 115 feet by 90 feet (or) 115' x 90' scores of 25-6 (or) scores of 25 to 6 The vote was 9 in favor and 5 opposed Write out numbers beginning sentences. Six percent of the group failed. NOT: 6% of the group failed. Use a combination of figures and words for numbers when such a combination will keep your writing clear. Unclear: The club celebrated the birthdays of 6 90-year-olds who were born in the city. (may cause the reader to read '690' as one number.) Clearer: The club celebrated the birthdays of six 90-year-olds who were born in the city http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/

17

Using Apostrophes The apostrophe has three uses: 1. to form possessives of nouns 2. to show the omission of letters 3. to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters

Forming Possessive Nouns To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the..." phrase. For example: the boy's hat = the hat of the boy three days' journey = journey of three days If the noun after "of" is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is needed! room of the hotel = hotel room door of the car = car door leg of the table = table leg Once you've determined whether you need to make a possessive, follow these rules to create one. •

add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s): the owner's car James's hat (James' hat is also acceptable. For plural, proper nouns that are possessive, use an apostrophe after the 's': "The Eggles' presentation was good." The Eggles are a husband and wife consultant team.)



add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s: the children's game the geese's honking



add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s: two cats' toys three friends' letters



add 's to the end of compound words: my brother-in-law's money



add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:

18

Todd and Anne's apartment

Showing Omission of Letters Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a contraction, place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are some examples: don't = do not I'm = I am he'll = he will who's = who is shouldn't = should not didn't = did not could've= could have (NOT "could of"!) '60 = 1960

Formal Plurals of Lowercase Letters Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase; here the rule appears to be more typographical than grammatical, e.g. "three ps" versus "three p's." To form the plural of a lowercase letter, place 's after the letter. There is no need for apostrophes indicating a plural on capitalized letters, numbers, and symbols (though keep in mind that some editors, teachers, and professors still prefer them). Here are some examples: p's and q's = a phrase taken from the early days of the printing press when letters were set in presses backwards so they would appear on the printed page correctly. The expression was used commonly to mean, "Be careful, don't make a mistake." Today, the term also indicates maintaining politeness, possibly from "mind your pleases and thank-yous." Nita's mother constantly stressed minding one's p's and q's. three Macintosh G4s = three of the Macintosh model G4 There are two G4s currently used in the writing classroom. many & s = many ampersands That printed page has too many & s on it. the 1960s = the years in decade from 1960 to 1969 The 1960s were a time of great social unrest. Note: Use 1960’s if it is used as an adjective as in the subtle, yet evocative 1960’s folk singer Joan Baez.

19

Don’t use apostrophes for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals Apostrophes should not be used with possessive pronouns because possessive pronouns already show possession — they don't need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are all possessive pronouns. Here are some examples: wrong: his' book correct: his book wrong: The group made it's decision. correct: The group made its decision. (Note: Its and it's are not the same thing. It's is a contraction for "it is" and its is a possessive pronoun meaning "belonging to it." It's raining out= it is raining out. A simple way to remember this rule is the fact that you don't use an apostrophe for the possessive his or hers, so don't do it with its!) wrong: a friend of yours' correct: a friend of yours wrong: She waited for three hours' to get her ticket. correct: She waited for three hours to get her ticket.

Proofreading for Apostrophes A good time to proofread is when you have finished writing the paper. Try the following strategies to proofread for apostrophes: • •

If you tend to leave out apostrophes, check every word that ends in -s or -es to see if it needs an apostrophe. If you put in too many apostrophes, check every apostrophe to see if you can justify it with a rule for using apostrophes.

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/621/01/

20

A Little Help with Capitals This handout lists some guidelines for capitalization. If you have a question about whether a specific word should be capitalized that doesn't fit under one of these rules, try checking a dictionary to see if the word is capitalized there. Use capital letters in the following ways: Proper nouns (the names of specific people, places, organizations, and sometimes things) Worrill Fabrication Company Golden Gate Bridge Supreme Court Livingston, Missouri Atlantic Ocean Mothers Against Drunk Driving Family relationships (when used as proper names) I sent a thank-you note to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts. Here is a present I bought for Mother. Did you buy a present for your mother? The names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books God the Father, the Virgin Mary the Bible, the Koran, the Torah Christian, Muslim, Jew the Greek gods Moses Shiva, Buddha, Zeus Exception: Do not capitalize the non-specific use of the word "god." The word "polytheistic" means the worship of more than one god. Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names She worked as the assistant to Mayor Hanolovi. I was able to interview Miriam Moss, mayor of Littonville. Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions) The Patels have moved to the Southwest. Jim's house is two miles north of Otterbein.

21

The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays (but not the seasons used generally) Halloween, October, Friday winter, spring, fall Exception: Seasons are capitalized when used in a title. The Fall 1999 semester The names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages Costa Rica, Spanish, French, English The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote Emerson once said, "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds." The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs (but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or "an," if they are not the first word of the title) One of Jerry's favorite books is The Catcher in the Rye. Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups Green Bay Packers, African-Americans, Anti-Semitic Democrats, Friends of the Wilderness, Chinese Periods and events (but not century numbers) Victorian Era, Great Depression, Constitutional Convention sixteenth century, twenty-first century Trademarks Pepsi, Honda, IBM, Microsoft Word Words and abbreviations of specific names (but not names of things that came from specific things but are now general types) Freudian, NBC, UN pasteurize, french fries, italics http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/

22

Using “who”, “whom”, “which”, and “that” These four words allow you to refer to noun with a short description within a sentence. 1. Who and whom. Use “who” or “whom” if the noun is a person or group of person. Use “who” is the description refers to the person who is named in the noun. Example 1: The good guys who wear black are in a movie. Use “whom” if you identify the person by telling about his or her relationship to someone else. Example 2: The boy who cried wolf was gradually ignored by the villagers whom he had once annoyed. If a description ends with a preposition, you can usually place it in front of the first word. Since the ending of a sentence is so important in English, pulling the preposition into the sentence creates a better emphasis. That is why most writing textbooks encourage you NOT to end a sentence on a preposition. Example 3 The teacher will tell more about the school which you will interact with. The teacher will tell more about the school with which you will interact. Example 4 The magician asked us to guess the person whom she was thinking of. The magician asked us to guess the person of whom she was thinking. 2. That and which. All other phrases after a noun use “which” or “that”. As a general rule, use “that” if the information is essential to identify or describe the noun. Otherwise, use “which”. Example 5 The house that is located near the cliff was destroyed in a mud slide. The house, which was over forty years old, was destroyed in a mud slide. The first phrase in the first sentence is essential because it provides information for understanding how the house could be destroyed. In the second sentence the age of the house is not needed to understand the significance of the mud slide, so it is not essential.

23

Spelling Rules 1. Use i before e except after c or when pronounced ay as in neighbour and weigh. I before E E before I EI pronounced as AY Exceptions

relieve, believe, sieve, niece, fierce, frieze receive, deceive weigh, neighbour, sleigh, eight, freight, weight seize, either, neither, weird, height, foreign, leisure

If the ie combination is not pronounced as a unit, the rule does not apply. 2. Dropping the silent e. Generally, drop a final silent e when adding a suffix that begins with a vowel. Keep the final e if the suffix begins with a consonant. combine, combination desire, desiring prude, prudish remove, removable

achieve, achievement care, careful entire, entirety gentle, gentleness

Words such as changeable noticeable, courageous, judgment, argument, abridgment, ninth and truly are exceptions. 3. Words that end in –y. When adding –s or –ed to words ending in y, ordinarily change y to i when the y is preceded by a consonant but not when it is preceded by a vowel. comedy, comedies dry, dried

monkey, monkeys play, played

With proper names ending in y, however, do not change the y to i even if it is preceded by a consonant: the Dougherty family, the Doughertys. Keep the y when adding –ing. Tallying, playing, trying, drying Keep the y when adding –ness only in one-syllable words: dryness, gayness. 4. Doubling endings. If a final consonant is preceded by a single vowel and the consonant ends a one-syllable word or a stressed syllable, double the consonant when adding a suffix beginning with a vowel. bet, betting commit, committed

occur, occurrence temper, temperance (unstressed)

5. Making plurals. Add –s to form the plural of most nouns; add –es to singular nouns ending in –s, -ss, -sh, -ch, –x and -z. Menotpic clue: use –es if a word ends with one of the letters in the words “six chess shoe zoo”. table, tables baby, babies church, churches

paper, papers day, days (see rule 3 for word ending with -y) mass, masses 24

rash, rashes Jones, Joneses

buzz, buzzes fax, faxes

Words ending in –f or –fe sometimes add –ves when forming the plural. life, lives self, selves Mostly they do not, especially if a –ves suggests a verb. belief, beliefs safe, safes tariff, tariffs Ordinarily add –s to nouns ending in –o when the o is preceded by a vowel. Add –es when it is preceded by a consonant. radio, radios video, videos

hero, heroes tomato, tomatoes

To form the plural of a hyphenated compound word, add the –s to the chief word even if it does not appear at the end. mother-in-law, mothers-in-law Notes: English words derived from other languages such as Latin or French sometimes form the plural as they would in their original language. medium, media criterion, criteria stimulus, stimuli basis, bases

chateau, chateaux syllabus, syllabi datum, data

6. Endings with the sound seed are nearly always spelled cede, as in precede, intercede, and concede. Exceptions: supersede, exceed, proceed, succeed. 7. Using –able and –ible. If the root of a word makes sense by itself, the suffix –able is most commonly used. If the root of a word is not a word by itself, the suffix –ible is most often used. comfort agree dry compat? incred? plaus?

comfortable agreeable dryable compatible incredible plausible

25

Differences between British and American spelling Although many English-speaking countries spell differently than the British standard, the American spelling offers a good starting point to follow the differences. Canadian and Indian English can be quite different as well. Following is a list of some common words spelled differently in American and British English. Consult a dictionary for others. British cancelled, travelled colour, humour, honour judgement cheque realise, apologise defence anaemia, anaesthetic theatre, centre foetus mould, smoulder civilisation connexion, inflexion liquorice

American canceled, traveled color, humor, honor judgment check realize, apologize defense anemia, anesthetic theater, center fetus mold, smolder civilization connection, inflection licorice Grey Areas

Unless a word becomes widely used, stay with the standard spelling when using either British or American English. In some cases, American spellings can be found in British writing, although most users generally agree on a British spelling. “Grey” is the standard British spelling for the colour, but “gray” and “grey” often appear in American spelling. More examples appear below. British spelling grey enquire / enquiry (inquire / inquiry are also common) emphasise, emphasising (emphasize, emphasizing are also common)

American spelling gray, grey inquire / inquiry emphasizing, emphasizing

26

Common English Homophones Homophones are words that sound exactly like but have different spellings and meanings, such as night and knight. A spell checker will NOT identify a misused homophone because it is spelled correctly. Most Common Ones hear here

to perceive by ear in this place

its it’s

possessive of it. contraction of it is.

quiet quite

silent very, completely

than then

as compared with at that time; next

their there they’re

possessive of they in that place “they are”

to too two

toward also; “too fast” the number

one of a group female sorcerer

your you’re

possessive of you “you are”

accept except

to receive other than

ad add

advertisement to perform addition

advice advise

words of counsel to recommend

are our

plural form of “to be” possessive of “we”

to have an influence on result; to cause

all ready already

prepared before this or that time

allude elude

to refer to indirectly to avoid

allusion illusion

indirect reference false perception

anyway any way

in any case. in any form.

bare bear

uncovered to carry; an animal

board-get on plane; wooden plank bored uninterested

were past tense of “to be” where at, to, or in what place which witch

affect effect

27

buy by

purchase next to; near

capital capitol Capitol

seat of government; monetary assets government buildings US legislative building

coarse course

rough path; part of a meal

complement compliment

to complete or add to to praise; a word of praise

council counsel desert dessert

governing body advice ; to give advice to abandon; Sahara sweet course

device devise

an implement; a plan to invent

die dye

to lose life to change the colour

patience patients

calm endurance those in a hospital

elicit illicit

to draw out, evoke unlawful; forbidden

peace piece

without war, stillness a portion of something

eminent immanent imminent

prominent inherent about to happen

persecute prosecute

to harass or worry to take to court

every day everyday

happening each day. common, quotidian.

personal personnel

private, one’s own employees

plain plane

unadorned, regular an aircraft

precede proceed

to come before to continue

principal principle

head of a school a basic truth

raise raze

to build up, to increase to tear down

forth fourth

forward referring to the number

gorilla guerrilla

the animal soldier or warfare

hart heart

a male deer bodily organ

heard herd

past tense of hear group of animals

janitor genitor

professional cleaner biological father

right rite write

correct ritual to put words on paper

later latter

after a time the last in a series

road rode

street, highway past tense of ride

lead led

a metal past tense of “lead”

scene seen

place of action viewed

lessen lesson

to reduce something learned

stationary stationery

standing still writing paper

loose lose

not tight; unbound to misplace

through-finished; into and out of threw past tense of throw thorough complete

no know now

a lack of, “no sun” to be certain presently

waist waste

the middle of the body rubbish; to squande

passed past

past tense of “pass” a previous time

who’s whose

contraction of who is possessive of who

28

Guide to Diction

Transitions and Linking words

cause and effect neutral & frequent so / so that then because of this make something happen bring on cause affect produce more formal as a result (of this) as a consequence consequently accordingly for this reason therefore thereby

add reasons & info also then too besides too again once again add to this what's more as well on top (of this/that) in my opinion furthermore moreover in addition additionally bear in mind take into account As we mentioned before according to While speaking: I’d like to comment on that . Sorry, but . . . Can / May I add something? Can / May I ask a question? Excuse me for interrupting,

but. . Can I add here that . . . I’d like to say something if I may.

the same thing even more more formal in a similar manner similarly

Returning to topic

Purpose

anyway, . . . as I was saying, . . . in any case, . . . to get back to what I was saying, . . . Where was I?

neutral & frequent in order to in order for in order that so that

showing certainty conjunctions neutral & frequent and neither or yet but for so nor

summarizing neutral & frequent all in all that is in other words to sum it up less frequent in short by and large

neutral & frequent at least even so surely certainly no doubt conceivably perhaps probably more formal at the same time after all apparently possibly undoubtedly conclusively doubtless evidently presumably the truth be told

explaining reasons

comparing neutral & frequent also in the same way by comparison by far likewise so too as

29

neutral & frequent certainly actually really for example in fact as a matter of fact for that matter

that is of course because since basically speaking more formal for instance indeed admittedly

logical argument neutral & frequent not only ... but also the more ... the more whether ... or either ... or for instance this ... that neither ... nor for example here ... there in particular since ... then if ... then these ... those more formal to illustrate

conditions neutral & frequent if although even if in spite of otherwise though even though unless depending on at the same time in this case more formal under such circumstances provided that as long as this (that) being so in this event nevertheless in these circumstances nonetheless despite

say by the way

chronological order neutral & frequent later in the meantime finally when / while / was then after something after that then earlier meanwhile before that at last afterwards first, second, ... now shortly already by that / the time until / till more formal previously subsequently at length simultaneously concurrently formerly first and foremost last, but not least beforehand

contrast instead anyhow rather than but on the other hand still however in spite of that otherwise more formal conversely despite on the contrary yet

concession introducing a topic as for with regard to with respect to concerning as regards concerning

neutral & frequent all the same obviously of course at any rate in any case anyway

30

however still it goes without saying that more formal to be sure granted admittedly it is true that after all nevertheless in spite of

Frequency and time from time to time every now and then more often than not

Other both

Translations of Common Terms in Education Dutch – English athenaeum - 'atheneum'. There is no equivalent in English. Explain that this is a form of preuniversity education similar to 'gymnasium', but without Latin or Greek. eerstegraads bevoegdheid - teaching qualification, first level. Qualification for teaching all classes of HAVO and VWO. This teacher training generally takes place at a university after completion of an MA. Because a literal translation of the term eerstegraads (first level) offers little information for readers who are not familiar with the Dutch teaching qualifications framework, it is extremely helpful to offer readers explanatory information, such as "The holder of this diploma has qualified teacher status in the Netherlands for teaching the named subjects in all years and all types of secondary education.". Engelstalig onderwijs - education conducted in English hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs - senior general secondary education (HAVO). A HAVO diploma is awarded upon successful completion of a five-year course of general secondary education. hoger beroepsonderwijs (hbo) - higher professional education; professionally oriented higher education; higher education with an applied emphasis; HBO. One of two types of higher education in the Netherlands, the other being wetenschappelijk onderwijs (WO), or researchoriented higher education. HBO is oriented more towards professions in specific areas than WO, and has traditionally been offered at hogescholen. Internships, which give students practical experience in real work situations, are a central feature of HBO. Note: Americans will understand if you say it is similar to a four-year liberal arts college that can offer a Masters. hbo-masteropleiding - graduate (or postgraduate) degree programme; graduate (or postgraduate) degree programme of higher professional education; graduate (or postgraduate) degree programme with an applied emphasis; master's degree programme; professional master's degree programme; master's degree programme of higher professional eduation; master's degree programme with an applied emphasis; HBO master's degree programme;Training that prepares students for professions in specific areas. There are two types of HBO master's programmes: the first builds on the specific competencies acquired during the bachelor's phase, and the second adds breadth to a student's education. This takes the form of additional theory and an appreciation of multidisciplinarity. In both cases, students become more skilled at acquiring knowledge on their own, at conducting or directing applied research, and at making carefully considered judgements. Professionally oriented master's degree programmes last one or two years (or longer in exceptional cases). leerlijn- learning track, learning pathway

31

middelbaar onderwijs - secondary education profiel – subject cluster. A cohesive secondary-school curriculum that prepares pupils for related programmes of study at the tertiary level. Pupils in VWO and HAVO choose one of four subject clusters: 1) Nature and Technology, 2) Nature and Health, 3) Economics and Society, or 4) Culture and Society. In any one cluster, approximately 50% of the subjects are common to all clusters, 30% are specific to the cluster, and 20% are elective subjects. stage - internship; work placement [BE]; traineeship; period of practical training. An internship, or work placement, is a mandatory element in all programmes of higher professional education. It enables students to get a preview of the working environment or profession they have chosen, and to gain practical experience. Often an internship forms the basis of a thesis or final project. For purposes of credential evaluation it is important to point out that an internship is an integral part of a degree programme, and not just something extra. The term 'internship' used to refer mainly to medical training. This is no longer the case and you see the term used in more and more contexts. stagebegeleider - internship supervisor, work placement supervisor [BE]; traineeship supervisor stageplaats - internship place; work placement; internship post; trainee post stagiaire - student intern; student trainee tweede Fase - second phase, upper secondary phase. In secondary education, the last two years of HAVO and the last three years of VWO are referred to as the ‘second phase’, or ‘upper secondary education’. tweedegraads onderwijsbevoegdheid - teaching qualification for secondary education, second level voorbereidend beroepsonderwijs (vbo) - preparatory vocational education voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs (vmbo) - preparatory secondary vocational education voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs (vwo) - university preparatory education; preuniversity educatio VWO prepares pupils for university, and as such offers the highest level of general secondary education available in the Netherlands. VWO has a course length of six years. There are three subtypes of VWO: gymnasium, atheneum and ongedeeld VWO. Gymnasium and atheneum were once further subdivided into an A-stream and a B-stream. These subdivisions referred to the emphasis that was placed on either the humanities or the sciences, respectively. This has changed. Now the 'second phase' of VWO has four streams known as the profielen, or 'subject clusters'.

32

Unless otherwise noted, all translations and notes are taken verbatim from the Nuffic Glossary published on June 12, 2008 on the website of NUFFIC (Nederlandse Organisatie voor Internationale Samenwerking in het Hoger Onderwijs): http://nufficglossary.nuffic.nl/ If a Dutch term used in education is not listed here or in your regular dictionary, try the NUFFIC glossary and then ask your teacher for advice.

33

Writing Tips from Joseph Williams Two Complementary Principles of Order and Emphasis

Put at the beginning of a sentence ideas that you have already stated, referred to, or implied. These are ideas that you can safely assume your reader is familiar with and will readily recognize.

Put at the end of your sentence the newest, the most surprising, the most significant information or information you want to stress. In the very least, the end is a good place for information that you will expand on in the following sentence.

Characters and Actions In the subjects of your sentences, name your cast of characters. In the verbs of your sentences, name the crucial actions in which you involve those characters. First Locate the cast of characters and the actions that those characters are performing (or are the objects of). Then If your fine that those characters do not appear in the subjects of their sentences, and that the actions those characters perform appear not in verbs but in abstract nouns, revise. Make the subjects name characters, and make your verbs name their actions.

34

Examples of Revisions by Joseph Williams An affirmative decision has been reached in regard to termination of the program. affirmative - Latinate adjective decision - nominalization termination - nominalization Congress decided to terminate the program.

There will be an evaluation of the program by us in order to achieve greater efficiency in the servicing of clients. evaluation - nominalization achieve servicing - gerund We will evaluate the program so that we can serve clients better.

There has been effective staff information dissemination control on the part of the secretary. The secretary has exercised effective staff information dissemination control. The secretary has effectively controlled staff information dissemination. The secretary has effectively controlled how the staff disseminates information.

In the last sentence of the Gettysburg Address there is a rallying cry for the continuation of the struggle. In the last sentence of the Gettysburg Address, Lincoln rallies his audience to continue the struggle against the South. Determination of policy occurs at the presidential level. The President determines policy.

35

Invention Methods for Writing Tasks Since the writing process is a cycle, invention methods can be applied at any time. Outlines can be used to restructure a sloppy draft and a list can help develop a paragraph or section that lacks details and specific examples. Use the methods that make you most productive. If the writing is not going well, search for a different approach, a new attitude toward your subject or writing, or support and advice from others. Invention methods can be divided into three groups: free, structured, and analytic. Free methods generate lots of materials, some of which will not be used as a matter of course. Structured methods provide more guidance and focus on chronological order. Analytic methods rely more on applying critical thinking skills to visualise an audience. Here is an overview of the methods.

Free Invention Methods: Free Writing, Idea Trees, List of Essentials, Circles Structured Invention Methods: Story Boards, Columns, Rough Outlines, Formal Outlines Analytic Invention Methods: Questions and Answers, Shapes, Boxes, the BARR Method, Rhetorical Analysis, Audience Analysis

Free Invention Methods 1. Free Writing. Begin with a topic and write down whatever comes into your head for a short period of time, usually for about 5 to 10 minutes. Only the systematic use of free writing, in the form of a journal or daily log, yields the best results. If you use free writing, it needs to become a daily practice for 5 to 10 minutes at the most. 2. Circles. In the middle of a page, place your main idea or topic inside a circle and add new circles in all directions to see all aspects of the topic. If you simply cannot think of where to begin, try using the query words: who, what, where, when, how, and why. Journalists often use the query words for writing and collecting information. 3. Idea Trees. Make an idea tree with the main idea or subject for the trunk and related ideas or comments branching out to help fill out or develop the idea.

36

4. List of Essentials. Make a list of the main ideas or passages that must go into a piece.

Structured Invention Methods 5. Rough Outlines. List ideas, words, or phrases that develop your main idea or help you fulfil the purposes of the new piece of writing. Afterwards, use numbers or letters to begin placing ideas together and perhaps even make a list of the main points. Sometimes I revise and extend the list on a new sheet of paper. 6. Story Boards. The idea behind story boards comes from writing groups working on scripts for films and TV shows, who often draft ideas together on smaller pieces of paper arranged on a table or corkboard. Using stick-ums, old envelopes or slips of paper, make a story board for your piece of writing. Old envelopes have many advantages: they can be easily torn when an idea simply needs to be later in a piece, and they offer more space to outline complex ideas and to work out short sentences. Revise and move and discard parts as you work. When you are ready to write, simply stack the slips on top of each other in chronological order and start writing. 7. Columns. Make four columns on a piece of paper. In the first column list all your initial ideas. In the next three columns labelled “beginning”, “middle”, and “end”, place all these initial ideas in the place where you feel they belong, adding and outlining new ideas as you go. If you run out of space in a column, add a new sheet of paper underneath. 8. Formal Outlines. Use a formal outline with Roman numerals to structure a piece before or after writing a draft. Making a formal outline too early may stifle the creativity of many students, but writers who are planners (see the section on writing styles) often use outlines with terrific results. Adapt formal outlines to special purposes by, for instance, adding page numbers and book names where quotes will be used. Making a formal outline of a draft can help you see how to improve its structure.

Analytic Invention Methods 9. Questions and Answers: Analytic Outlines. Write the reader’s question that you want to answer on a piece of writing on one side of a sheet of paper and outline the answers on the other side. Or, use questions for the major headings in a traditional outline format and use the rest of the outline to plan effective answers to the questions. (Dutch writers often call this a “bouwplan”.) 10. Shapes. Sketch the shape of a piece of writing. It may be a triangle of three interrelated ideas, stair steps for a series of steps, or a sideways cone leading to one point. 11. Boxes. Use boxes as a way of visualizing the impact that a finished product should have on readers.

37

Guides to the Writing Process Writing Process for Shorter Pieces Start with a Question, Interest, Concern, or Assigned Task for Writing Step 1: Collect Information, Ideas, and Materials. If possible, read similar piece of writing for ideas. If required, research for specific, accurate details Step 2: Plan Use invention methods until the content or the form of the piece begins to take shape in your mind and on paper. Use rough or formal outlines and/or a working draft. Write a rough draft in the simplest prose very quickly on paper or a computer. Step 3: Develop Critically read the drafts picking up what has promise. Make a list of the parts to revise and write the drafts of the new parts quickly. Revision Stages 1. Content. Read quickly to see if everything belongs in the piece and if something important is missing. Return to step 1 as often as needed. 2. Sentence Order. See if a different sentence order works better. Return to step 2 as often as needed. 3. Diction. Test the wording of key concepts and ideas. Is there a simpler way to explain an idea? Do you mean exactly what the words say? Have you been too concise, wordy, or vague? Editing Stages – Save for a late draft 1. Sentence Clarity. Have I eased the shifts of emphasis in my paper? Can I improve the clarity by combining or separating sentences, using passive voice, naming the actors in the subject of the sentence, or applying another editing method? 2. Syntax. Do I make any common errors in syntax such as an error in subject and verb agreement (They… do), fragments, misplaced modifiers, etc? 3. Grammar. Have I checked for the most common problems in grammar? Do I use a spellchecker? Did I first check the language (British or American English as needed) of my spellchecker?

38

Advice on Timed Essay Exams During timed essay exams, you should plan your time well so that you can write and edit a first draft that looks like a second or even third draft. Outline your essay and draft your thesis and topic sentences so that you can prevent the single greatest waste of time: recopying whole passages. The best preparation for timed tests is extensive practice in organising and revising similar writing situations at exactly the same time of day as the test: night owls need to practice in the morning for early tests. Schedule your time beforehand, as in the following example. Time 2 hours in total 30 minutes 2 minutes

28 minutes

70 minutes

Task Preparation Analyze the question. Underline or circle the key words. Number any sequences or parts.

Outline your essay to help you write and revise your thesis. Write and revise your thesis to help you improve your outline. Use arrows and numbers to revise the outline without recopying. Invent material using lists or mind maps. Write the essay. Leave space on the first page to add or revise an introduction. Use double space to allow for neat additions later. Consider using pencil for the thesis and any difficult parts. Write the thesis first.

20 minutes

Edit the essay. Compare the thesis to the topic sentences. Scan the independent clauses and subordination as a quick way to check punctuation and grammar. Work on the transitions between paragraphs. Look for common patterns of problems.

Only use dictionaries and spell and style checkers at the end because research suggests that using them directs attention away from the flow of ideas to word-level concerns. First make the organization and logic solid, then improve the diction and spelling.

39

Quick Revision Methods Three Methods to Revise a Thesis 1. List Actions to look for

Verbs Gerunds for subjects

2. List Actors to seek

Subjects Direct objects Indirect objects Essential information to subordinate

3. Review the topics sentences and consider condensing the information via Linked independent phrases One independent phrase with subordinated clauses

Two Methods to Focus a Topic Sentence 1. State the purpose of the paragraph to unearth its main idea: the topic sentence 2. Review the subjects (or the topics) and predicates of all sentences. Check to see if the topic sentences suggests or alludes to all the sentences.

Checking Paragraph Development 1. Inclusion. Test sentence placement within the paragraph. Check to see that all sentences in the paragraph “belong to” the topic sentence. 2. Elaboration. Ask if the sentence makes claims that need more elaboration or more evidence. In other words, see if you need more level 3 sentences. 3. Order. Test your sequencing. Try to move sentences up or down within the paragraph. Consider merging sentences with similar ideas. 4. Coherence. Check the topics (or the subject) in the sentences. Consider using moving elements within a sentence for better emphasis. Consider adding conjunctions to suggest the logical connections between the parts.

40

APA Guide Three Rules for Using Quotes To effectively use quotes, follow these three rules: use only what you need, introduce it well, and clearly give the write credit. In short, use pertinent, well-integrated quotes with clear citations. 1. Pertinent. Use a quote only when necessary. Too many quotes create a patchwork effect. Cut out any irrelevant words or phrases that your reader does not need—while not taking the words out of context to fix your meaning, naturally. 2. Well-integrated. Introduce the quote well so that readers can see how it supports your argument or adds importance material to your work. Never let a quote speak for itself. IF you cannot integrate it into the text, omit it because it is not pertinent. 3. Clear citation. The writer and the year of publication must be mentioned, and quotation marks need to be around directly quoted text. Readers should know that the words are not your own at a glance. See the guides on APA basics for all the rules on using in-text citations..

41

APA Basics: In-Text Citations Note: APA style requires authors to use the past tense or present perfect tense when using signal phrases to describe earlier research. E.g., Jones (1998) found or Jones (1998) has found...

APA Citation Basics When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, E.g., (Jones, 1998), and a complete reference should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper. If you are referring to an idea from another work but NOT directly quoting the material, or making reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference.

In-Text Citation Capitalization, Quotes, and Italics/Underlining • •

Always capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials: D. Jones. If you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are four letters long or greater within the title of a source: Permanence and Change. Exceptions apply to short words that are verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs: Writing New Media, There Is Nothing Left to Lose. (Note: in your References list, only the first word of a title will be capitalized: Writing new media.)

• • •



When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound word: NaturalBorn Cyborgs. Capitalize the first word after a dash or colon: "Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of Hitchcock's Vertigo." Italicize or underline the titles of longer works such as books, edited collections, movies, television series, documentaries, or albums: The Closing of the American Mind; The Wizard of Oz; Friends. Put quotation marks around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles, articles from edited collections, television series episodes, and song titles: "Multimedia Narration: Constructing Possible Worlds"; "The One Where Chandler Can't Cry."

Short Quotations If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication, and the page number for the reference (preceded by "p."). Introduce the quotation with a signal

42

phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses. Here are two examples: According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time" (p. 199). OR Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what implications does this have for teachers? If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the year of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation. Here is an example: She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style," (Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she did not offer an explanation as to why.

Long Quotations Place direct quotations longer than 40 words in a free-standing block of typewritten lines, and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented five spaces from the left margin. Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation five spaces from the new margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout. The parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation mark. Here is an example: Jones's (1998) study pointed to some obstacles in documenting sources: Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time citing sources. This difficulty could be attributed to the fact that many students failed to purchase a style manual or to ask their teacher for help. (p. 199)

Summary or Paraphrase If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference, but APA guidelines encourage you to also provide the page number (although it is not required.). Here is an example: According to Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners. APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners (Jones, 1998, p. 199).

43

APA Basics: Reference List Your reference list should appear at the end of your paper. It provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body of the paper. Each source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text. Your references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the essay; label this page References (with no quotation marks, underlining, etc.), centered at the top of the page. It should be double-spaced just like the rest of your essay.

Basic Rules • •

• •



• • •

All lines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should be indented one-half inch from the left margin. This is called hanging indentation. Authors' names are inverted (last name first); give the last name and initials for all authors of a particular work unless the work has more than six authors. If the work has more than six authors, list the first six authors and then use et al. after the sixth author's name to indicate the rest of the authors. Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work. If you have more than one article by the same author, single-author references or multiple-author references with the exact same authors in the exact same order are listed in order by the year of publication, starting with the earliest. When referring to any work that is NOT a journal, such as a book, article, or Web page, capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the first letter of the second word in a hyphenated compound word. Capitalize all major words in journal titles. Italicize titles of longer works such as books and journals. Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles or essays in edited collections.

44

Examples of Items on a Reference List. (See http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ or ask your teacher for help if you have any questions or difficulties.) Basic Form APA style dictates that authors are named last name followed by initials; publication year goes between parentheses, followed by a period. The title of the article is in sentence-case, meaning only the first word and proper nouns in the title are capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case, and is followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also italicized or underlined. Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number(issue number), pages.

Single Author Last name first, followed by author initials. Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 7-10.

Two Authors List by their last names and initials. Use the ampersand instead of "and." Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood management across affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 66, 1034-1048.

Organization as Author American Psychological Association. (2003).

Unknown Author Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. NOTE: When your essay includes parenthetical citations of sources with no author named, use a shortened version of the source's title instead of an author's name. Use quotation marks and italics as appropriate. For example, parenthetical citations of the two sources above would appear as follows: (Merriam-Webster's, 1993) and ("New Drug," 1993).

Article in a Magazine Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31. 45

Article in a Newspaper Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA style. Single pages take p., e.g., p. B2; multiple pages take pp., e.g., pp. B2, B4 or pp. C1, C3-C4. Schultz, S. (2005, December 28). Calls made to strengthen state energy policies. The Country Today, pp. 1A, 2A.

Basic Format for Books Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Location: Publisher.

Edited Book, No Author Duncan, G. J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.). (1997). Consequences of growing up poor. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Edited Book with an Author or Authors Plath, S. (2000). The unabridged journals (K.V. Kukil, Ed.). New York: Anchor.

Article or Chapter in an Edited Book Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pages of chapter). Location: Publisher. Note: When you list the pages of the chapter or essay in parentheses after the book title, use "pp." before the numbers: (pp. 1-21). This abbreviation, however, does not appear before the page numbers in periodical references, except for newspapers. O'Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and women's gender role journeys: Metaphor for healing, transition, and transformation. In B. R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across the life cycle (pp. 107-123). New York: Springer.

An Entry in An Encyclopedia Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.

Report From a Private Organization American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with eating disorders (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Author.

46

Article From an Online Periodical Note: In 2007, the APA released several additions/modifications for documentation of electronic sources in the APA Style Guide to Electronic References. These changes are reflected in the entries below. Please note that there are no spaces used with brackets in APA. Online articles follow the same guidelines for printed articles. Include all information the online host makes available, including an issue number in parentheses. Provide a retrieval date only if the information is likely to be updated or changed at a later date (as in the case of blogs and wikis). Since many online periodicals appear in their "final" form, a retrieval date is not necessary. Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Online Periodical, volume number(issue number if available). Retrieved month day, year, (if necessary) from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/ Bernstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on writing the living Web. A List Apart: For People Who Make Websites, 149. Retrieved May 2, 2006, from http://www.alistapart.com/articles/writeliving

Newspaper Article Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Title of Newspaper. Retrieved http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/ Parker-Pope, T. (2008, May 6). Psychiatry handbook linked to drug industry. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com

Electronic Books Electronic books may include books found on personal websites, databases, or even in audio form. Use the following format if the book you are using is only provided in a digital format or is difficult to find in print. If the work is not directly available online or must be purchased, use "Available from," rather than "Retrieved from," and point readers to where they can find it. De Huff, E.W. Taytay’s tales: Traditional Pueblo Indian tales. Retrieved from http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/dehuff/taytay/ taytay.html

Online Book Reviews Cite the information as you normally would for the work you are quoting. (The first example below is from a newspaper article; the second is from a scholarly journal.) In brackets, write "Review of the book" and give the title of the reviewed work. Provide the web address after the words "Retrieved from," if the review is freely available to anyone. If the review comes from a subscription service or database, write "Available from" and provide the information where the review can be purchased. 47

Zacharek, S. (2008, April 27). Natural women [Review of the book Girls like us ]. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/27/books/review/Zachareck -t.html?pagewanted=2 Castle, G. (2007). New millennial Joyce [Review of the books Twenty-first Joyce, Joyce's critics: Transitions in reading and culture, and Joyce's messianism: Dante, negative existence, and the messianic self]. Modern Fiction Studies, 50(1), 163-173. Available from Project MUSE Web site: http://muse.jhu.edu/journals

Online Encyclopedias and Dictionaries Often encyclopedias and dictionaries do not provide bylines (authors' names). When no byline is present, move the entry name to the front of the citation. Provide publication dates if present or specify (n.d.) if no date is present in the entry. Because updates and modifications are not normally specified, provide the retrieval date in the citation. When listing the URL, give only the home or index root as opposed to the URL for the entry. Feminism. (n.d.) In Encyclopædia Britannica online. Retrieved March 16, 2008, from http:// www.britannica.com

Blog (Weblog) and Video Blog Post Include the title of the message and the URL. Please note that titles for items in online communities (e.g. blogs, newsgroups, forums) are not italicized. If the author’s name is not available, provide the screen name. Dean, J. (2008, May 7). When the self emerges: Is that me in the mirror? Message posted to http://www.spring.org.uk/ the1sttransport. (2004, September 26). Psychology Video Blog #3 [Video File]. Video posted to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lqM90eQi5-M

Audio Podcast For all podcasts, provide as much information as possible; not all of the following information will be available. Possible addition identifiers may include Producer, Director, etc. Bell, T. & Phillips, T. 2008, May 6). A solar flare. Science @ NASA Podcast. Podcast retrieved from http://science.nasa.gov/podcast.htm This guide has been taken from the Online Writing Lab (OWL) of Purdue University available at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/12/. It is used following the conditions of fair use.

48

APA Exercises Use the information presented here to make accurate citations for a bibliography – remember to put them all in a reference list when you have finished. 1. Book Beyond the republic: meeting the global challenges to constitutionalism / editors Charles Sampford, Tom Round. Leichhardt, N.S.W. : Federation Press, 2001 xvii, 344 p. ; 25 cm.Includes index.

2. Web page Looked at on 12th February 2005 http://www.who.int/en/5 World Health Organisation Home Page No author but date = 2003

3. Web page Amnesty International Report 2002 Kuwait. Viewed September 15th 2004 at http://web.amnesty.org/web/ar2002.nsf/mde/kuwait!Open6

4. Online article from a database From Science Direct database the full text of: Global and local threats to coral reef functioning and existence: review and predictions Marine and Freshwater Research7 Volume: 50, Issue: 8, 1999, pp. 867 – 878 Wilkinson, Clive R.

5. Book Wednesday's children : a study of child neglect and abuse / by Leontine Young Westport, Conn. : Greenwood Press,

49

Tips for Using APA 1.

Washington University has an excellent handout and online citation game that could be useful to help acquaint students with APA. It's a fairly simple drag and drop game. The idea is that you hand-out the overview they have online before taking students through the game. Note: only the first 4 questions of the game are on APA, the last 4 are on MLA, which we will not be using. Both the game and the hand-out can be found here: http://depts.washington.edu/etriouw/gameindex.htm

2.

“Son of Citation” is a website you may want to refer students to and tell them to use it at their own risk. It’s a website that helps you generate a works cited list in accordance to the style sheet of your choice. As far as I know (I've used it primarily for MLA), it's accurate. Perhaps you may want to have a look. It may prove useful if you want to make a quick accuracy check and are not in hands of an APA handbook: http://citationmachine.net/

3.

Microsoft Word 2007 has a built-in tool that allows you to keep track of your sources as you write your essay, helps you with referencing and in the end generates a reference list for you in whichever style you choose (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.). It might be useful to point this out to students as many of them carry around their laptop and indeed make use of Windows Vista and Word 2007.

Handout developed by Syreetha Domen.

50

Guide to Grading Scales and Symbols

51

General Impression Mark Scheme Good

It is not necessarily a flawless performance, but the thesis, topic sentences, and even the transitions are clear and mostly effective. The prose contains minimal errors, and the resourceful, controlled and natural use of language, shows a good range of vocabulary and structure. The task has been fully completed with a good use of cohesive devices and consistently appropriate register. It would have a very positive effect on the target reader.

High Adequate

Although the thesis or a few topic sentences can still be slightly improved, they are usually highly effective. The essay is sufficiently natural in its formal diction, and errors only occur when more complex language has been attempted. It shows some evidence of a wide range of vocabulary and knowledge of structure. It would have a positive effect on the target reader.

Adequate

A few topic sentences do the job, and the thesis—while bulky and a little awkward—is undeniably effective. There may be minor omissions, but the content is clearly organised. The essay show a skilful handing by its formal diction, accurate grammar and sentence structure, and diverse range of vocabulary. If the essay is an ambitious attempt at the task, it may have a few more non-impeding complex grammatical errors than expected, but a good range of vocabulary and structure and the mastery of the deductive form has been demonstrated. It would achieve the required effect on target reader.

Inadequate The thesis and topic sentences are often hard to find or are not effective or nonexistent. Some attempt has been made at the task but the essay lacks elaboration and contains irrelevances and perhaps informal diction. Errors can sometimes obscure communication and/or language or grammar is too elementary for this level. The content is not clearly organised. Perhaps the simple prose is evidence of the writer playing it too safe. It would have a negative effect on target reader. Error Ridden

Serious lack of control and/or frequent basic errors. Fewer than the required words, or totally disorganised materials without a thesis, topic sentences, or paragraphs or total irrelevance. It would completely or partially confuse the reader.

Original scale written for CAE level: http://www.cambridgeesol.org

52

Correction Symbols Starting in the first year Symbol Meaning SP A spelling error WO A mistake in word order G A grammar mistake VT Wrong verb tense VF Wrong form of the verb. # Concord mistake (eg subject/verb agreement) Something has been left out. WW Wrong word { } Something is not necessary. M? The meaning is unclear. REF Reference is unclear.

Example Error The answer is obvius. I like very much it. I am going to buy some furnitures. I have seen him yesterday. I have see that movie before. People is angry. He told that he was sorry. I am interested on jazz music. He was not {too} strong enough. That is a very excited photograph. Amelia and Allison went to the film. She didn’t like it.

P

A punctuation mistake

Do you like London.

F

Sentence fragment

As I was saying. You look really nice today.

CS

Comma splice (run-on)

caps / F/I REP AWK

Capitalize Make lowercase Too formal or too informal Repetitive Awkward. Consider rephrasing or consider using another word. Insert a new paragraph. Why not combine 2 sentences? Vague. Please elaborate on what you mean. Good use of grammatical structure!

¶ C? VAG G!

Starting in the third year MM Misplaced modifier DM Dangling modifier Parallelism. Use the same ╨ form for equal parts.

He was a cat, he liked to eat fish. he was a nice guy. I thought He liked me. Hi Mr. Franklin, Thank you for. . . I like him a lot and I really like him. Unlike her mother, and also because she was very kind, she helped the old man.

I like her a lot. She gives me cookies. She’s nice. (This isn’t an error. Use this symbol when you want to compliment your students.

I believe in peace, as a pacifist. Being a pacifist, war is a major concern. It is important to take a trip and resting up for the next one.

53