THE IMPLEMENTATION OF AN AFFIRMATIVE ACTION STRATEGY I N A LARGE SOUTH AFRICAN ORGANISATION

A.M.M MONATE

B.A., H.E.D., B.A. HONS.

Dissertation submitted for the degree Magister Artium in the School of Behavioural Sciences at the Vaal Triangle Campus of the Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education

Study leader: Prof. C de W van Wyk

Vanderbijlpark November 2000

PREFACE

With the fulfillment of this study I would like to give all the Glory and the Honour to God my Creator and Father for the strength He laid upon me through hardship in completion of this study and, not forgetting the skills as well as the knowledge bestowed upon me. Further I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to the following people whom with their support and assistance made it possible for me to complete this study: Prof C . de W. van Wyk, my study leader, for his understanding, patience and guidance through out this study. The company, who wishes to remain anonymous, who gave the opportunity to do this research within their organisation. Managers and employees participated in good spirit in the research and gave willingly their time and interest for the benefit of my studies. The financial assistance o f the Centre for Science Development (HSRC, South Africa) towards this research is hereby acknowledged. The personnel of Ferdinand Postma Library (Vaal Triangle campus - P U For CHE) for their help in providing me with the relevant information where necessary. Mrs Aldine Oosthuyzen, for her advice and assistance with the statistical analysis. My parents, Isaac and Phyllis, who built the confidence in me and provided their unconditional love and support throughout the years. My cousin, Lucky Mogashana for the spiritual inspiration laid upon me as well as the neat and diligence typing of my last chapter, not forgetting Charles, my other cousin for re-typing other chapters after the evaluation by examiners. My colleaques, Sheldon Klein, in translation of the summary, questionnaire and respondents' letter into Afrikaans until the late hours of the night. My other colleague, John Coetzee, for double-checking the Afrikaans translation and for the language editing of this research. I also thank two other colleques namely, Gift Moima and Samson Nolo for re-doing some of the graphs after evaluation. My ex-study mates, Lehasa and Bassie, for 'rubber-stamping' on the interpretation of the research results. My sister, Queenie, for her concerns and enduring all my emotions. My four brothers, for always believing in me as well as loving me.

Vanderbijlpark November 2000

I dedicate this to my parents, Isaac and Phyllis Monate. To my four brothers, Norman, James, Jeremia and Marcus as well as my sister, Queenie. To the extended Monate's family.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM SETTING

Introduction Setting of the problem The nature and extent of the problem The goal of the study Demarcation of study fields Method of research Literature study Empirical study Key reference words Affirmative action Equal employment opportunit Managing diversity Quotas Reverse discrimination Development of concepts

CHAPTER 2 THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Introduction A few theories of social change Evolutionary theories Herbert Spencer Auguste Comte Emile Durkheim Cyclic or Rise-and- fall theory Pitirim Sonkin Oswald Spengler Talcott Parson's Equilibrium theory Theories of conflicts Karl Marx Ralf Dahrenorf

2.3 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.5

Application of the social change theories The concept of 'affirmative action' The origin of affirmative action Affirmative action in Southern Africa - A Historical perspective Conclusion

CHAPTER 3 THEORETICAL BASE WHEN DISCUSSING AFFIRMITIVE ACTION

Introduction The nature of affirmative action Managing diversity Defining affirmative action Targeting imbalances of the past Legislating affirmative action Implementing an affirmative action programme Establishing an affirmative action policy and strategy Involvement of all employees Conclusion

CHAPTER 4 EFFECTS OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION ON ORGANISATIONS

Introduction Reasons for implementing affirmative action Affirmative action objectives Results of affirmative action Advantages Disadvantages Affirmative action and change The need for change The dynamics of change The management of change Change agent Resistance to change Managing resistance to change Empathy and support

25 26 27 28 30

Communication Participation and involvement Current affirmative action models The assimilationhtegration/'osmosis' model Displacement model Job insertion or 'wedge' model The vertical differentiation or separate development model The organic growth model The role of affirmative action in Industrial Relations and Human Resources Management The role of the employer Demographics underpinning affirmative action The role of the trade unions The role of the state A stakeholder approach to affirmative action Managing Director and member of the group management team Chief Executive Officer The monitoring committee Line management Human Resources Training and development department Trade unions and staff associations Problems with affirmative action Causes of affirmative action programmes failure Success measurement of affirmative action A local development model Conclusion

CHAPTER 5 RDP AND EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY

5.1 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 5.2.6

Introduction Six basic principles of the RDP An integrated and sustainable programme A people driven process Peace and security for all Nation building Link Reconstruction and Development Democratisation of South Africa

The key programmmes of the RDP Meeting basic needs Developing Human Resources Building the economy Democratising the state and society Implementing the RDP RDP and affirmative action Affirmative action targets The experience of affirmative action in other countries Suggestions for affirmative action in South Africa Employment Equity Bill and Affirmative Action The Bill has two main objectives Productive affirmative action Development Advancement Integration A combination of all three dimensions Affirming Equal Opportunity for White males The upliftment of Black employees employees Preferential treatment Gender and affirmative action Stance on Black and White women Disability and affirmative action Objective and inherent requirements of the job Duty to make reasonable accommodation A South African perspective Conclusion

CHAPTER 6 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Introduction Choice of company for research Sampling designs Sample population Measuring instrument Means of date interpretation Results and research findings Section A: Biographical data

Gender of the sample population The age of the sample population School qualification of respondents Qualifications of respondents Ethnic group of the respondents Knowledge of the respondents regarding affirmative action Section B: Change and affirmative action Section C: Effects of affirmative action Conclusion

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.3.1 7.3.1.1 7.4

Introduction Findings of the study Conclusion and Recommendations made during the study Proposed affirmative action strategy Human Resources Practices Future research perspectives

APPENDIX A:

The questionnaire

APPENDIX B:

Die Vraelys

ABSTRACT OPSOMMING BIBLIOGRAPHY

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3

Proposals for the steps of affirmative action should concentrate on 33 Affirmative action policy statement-examination of content 45 areas Affirmative action policy statement-example of actual document 46

Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 1 1 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23 Figure 24 Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 30

Affirmative action support person or specialist roles and responsibilities The affirmative action strategy formulation and implementation process Developing action and people development strategy Performance dimensions Line management Affirmative action means and goals Activities contributing to Effective Change Management Managing resistance Percentage of blacks in Eskom The various forms of unfair discrimination in employment Dimensions of affirmative action (two-dimensional) Dimensions of affirmative action (three dimensional) Gender of the sample population Comparison between age and gender Age of the sample population Highest standard passed Qualifications of the sample population Ethnic group of the respondents Knowledge of affirmative action Factors contributing to resistance t o change Meaning of affirmative action Application of affirmative action Inclusion of stakeholders in affirmative action implementation Mechanisms to change people's attitudes Communication preference Availability of information regarding afirmative action Information concerning future success of affirmative action

47 51 52 57 64 67 74 79 106 115 120 121 136 152 137 137 138 139 139 144 145 146 147 148 150 151 152

LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5

The following summarizes the Approach of affirmative Action Workforce composition Black and white fears Company Y demographic Composition Category of white and black

50 83 91 95 95

Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Table 9 Table 10 Table 11 Table Table Table Table

12 13 14 15

Table 16 Table 17 Table 18 Table 19 Table 20

Levels of affirmative action regarding blacks in South Africa A-F Band distribution of Women per race 1994 - 1996 Knowledge of affirmative action Comparison between age and gender Experience if change within organisations Affirmative action strategies, as a means of change implemented by force The necessity to manage change Resistance to change need to be managed Indicating that, managers are trained to manage diversity Explaining affirmative action as part of business and as HR strategy Explaining the development programs equally available to all staff Depicting how people or employees values training efforts within the Enterprise Indicating affirmative action as advantageous to the organisations Depicting reasons of affirmative action programme New affirmative action strategy

122 127 140 151 141 142 142 143 144 147 148 149 149 150 165

vii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT

1.1

INTRODUCTION

South Africa is in the process of change and transition. Many organisations within South Africa are facing continuous change. MacDonald (1996:vii) states that South Africa is a diverse nation with a cosmopolitan society. There are many different cultures, each with its own ways and beliefs. South Africa is a new nation, focusing specifically on a nonracial, non-sexist democracy with equal representation on all levels. Affirmative action, as in the new legislation, has a very important role to play within this new dispensation. Rather than resist the reform process, one must concentrate on managing it. In past decades the rate of change for organisations was relatively slow. As the concept of affirmative action has become a reality, many South African organisations are faced with a challenge of implementing affirmative action programmes. These imminent changes generate a great deal of resistance to the implementation of affirmative action that is needed to provide a competitive advantage (Nel, 1994:15). This view is also supported by Brews and Martins (1997:22) who are of the opinion that there is a harsh resistance by whites, as they continue to feel threatened by the mere reference to affirmative action and where code words like "quotas" and "reverse discrimination abound. Several reasons why people resist affirmative action are the following: Lack of self-confidence. When people must learn new skills, accept more responsibilities, or take on challenges that stretch their abilities, they are apt to feel inadequate for the task. Lack of trust. Management may feel that employees should not be involved in the planning stages for a transition about how and when it should take place. Employees may not believe what management tells them. This lack of trust may mean that if affirmative action, as a change, is forced on employees, it may leave in its wake reduced productivity, resentment and even greater distrust of management. The ability to adapt to change has become a prerequisite n the dynamic business world. In an interview with Matela, a Labour Relations Manager (1998) of Vereeniging Refractories, he said that most organisations find that their particular implementation strategies of affirmative action have shortcomings but within the organisation that the research is to be conducted, the following shortcomings might be identified: 1

Lack of strategic planning for Black management development in organisations There is often a lack of mutual understanding of stresses and problems related to a specific cultural group, resulting in inadequate support systems (Matela, 1998). The inequalities between individuals and groups mentioned in the demarcation of the study field (see section 1.5 of this chapter) may bring about these shortcomings Some of these shortcomings will be identified in section 1.2 of this chapter. Adams (1993:82) identified the following shortcomings: Affirmative action programmes often fail because they concentrate on filling quotas in recruitment rather than in terms of the recruitment and development of the individual within the organisational context. Affirmative action cannot be seen simply in terms of pumping education and training into formerly under-represented groups and then expecting them t o hnction in an organisational context in which issues such as attitudes and expectations have been addressed. Unless we also address prejudice, racism, sexism as well as the people management skills and responsibilities of current managers, then education and training will have limited pay off, Therefore, the researcher believes that to overcome the above shortcomings, affirmative action strategies and policies that support this process of change are necessary. The reason being that the researcher is of the same opinion with Wingrove (1993: 18- 19) that affirmative action is one of the means t o implement change. The more affirmative action programmes are introduced in organisations, the more there is going to be a need to put mechanisms in place to accommodate such changes. Thus, for organisations to succeed, they should implement the correct affirmative action process. The correct and enthusiastic implementation of affirmative action process will not only create an acceptable culture in an organisation, but will give everyone a competitive edge. By a correct affirmative action process the researcher refers to the following: Affirmative action process should address the imbalance of the past and projection into the needs of the future. Employers must set up non-discriminatory procedure for hiring, promotion, remuneration, selection for training and retrenchment. They must also establish clear, justifiable criteria for decisions made and implemented. 2

Communicate the affirmative action process to individuals and groups within an organisation. Develop relevant policies and procedures to ensure that creation of opportunities for disadvantaged people is in the fairest possible manner. 1.2

SETTING OF THE PROBLEM

From the above introduction the researcher can identify both the key problem as well as three sub-problems: It can be deduced that the key problem with affirmative action is buy-in or support from management. These are the people who supposed to implement affirmative action in the organisation, they view affirmative action as a reverse discrimination against them and will turn to resist it because they fear job loss. The researcher therefore believes this poses a threat to the successfid implementation of affirmative action. The researcher believes that affirmative action could have both a negative and a positive impact on employees and management alike, giving rise to satisfaction to the beneficiaries and also dissatisfaction to the non-beneficiaries. An example regarding this statement provided by Fischer (1996:30) is that the beneficiaries feel that affirmative action requires exclusive rights and opportunities, involving unequal input to ultimately achieve equal output and that the non-beneficiaries see it as a reversed discrimination. It . contributes to discrimination in group status, and as a result the non-beneficiaries might believe that to award jobs and benefits according t o group statistics rather than on individual merit is unjust and lowers standards and organisational effectiveness. Consequently the latter will be satisfied whereas the former will be dissatisfied, especially in the case where the latter is not performing to the desired level. The authors of the Labour Relations Act No. 66 of 1995, section 3(a) have already identified the problem around the issue of equal employment opportunities (to be discussed in chapter 5) and have acknowledged that for the economy to survive, the industry needs to adapt rapidly to certain challenges. This means that the strategies chosen by the Government to achieve the desired results, is the introduction of the new institution - affirmative action - with clear objectives in order to facilitate achievement of the objectives of: Equal employment opportunities.

Promotion of the disadvantaged Training and development. Eradicating discriminatory practices and addressing the legislative aspects. Wingrove (1993 : 165) pointed out that the success of the affirmative action process redressing the past discriminatory practices in the workplace could be achieved by: a

a

a

Ensuring that everyone is aware of the fact that there is a long-term objective and that it is unlikely to yield wonderful short-term results; Considering the process to be holistic and including everything that is relevant when planning the process; and Being sensitive to and handling all potential problems arising from the implementation of the process.

It will be required of employers, employees as well as labour movements to work towards creating a new culture in organisations - a culture that will accommodate imminent changes in the labour arena. In his inaugural speech, the former President Nelson Mandela said: "We enter into the covenant that we shall build the society in which all South Africans, both Black and White, will be able to walk tall without any fear in their inalienable right to human dignity a rainbow nation at peace with itself and the world" (Mbigi, 1995:ll). The challenge facing South Africa is echoed in the President's statement. South African companies are faced with the reality of having to reflect the demographics of the society in the workplace. A critical shortage of skills and a demand by the Government of National Unity (GNU) to have a demographically representative number of the disadvantaged groups in decision-making positions in corporations, have also exerted a tremendous pressure on industry to address this situation as a matter of urgency. It is estimated that skills shortage by the year 2000 will be 212 000 for Black managers, maximum 42 000 for Whites, 20 000 for technical and skills training 23 000 artisans trained in 1989 need about 1 000 000 to be trained (Nel, 1994:17). This means that the re is a lot to be done in South African organisations. On the other hand, more time is needed for afirmative action strategies to produce the best results in organisations. The reason being that the majority of the disadvantaged groups, according to the researcher's opinion, would still lack being with the necessary skills.

From the above-mentioned statement, the researcher concurs with the view that affirmative action should definitely include training to avoid disappointment or promotions of people to positions beyond capabilities. However, a challenge facing industry is that such skills are not readily available. It is thus imperative for the business in South Afiica to invest in training of the targeted groups to ensure that such people, when aff~rmed,will be able to carry out their responsibilities with diligence and competence. This will go a long way in ensuring that tokenism or "window dressing" is avoided at all costs. To support this, the definition of the concept "training" is provided: "Training is the transfer or gaining of technical knowledge, related skills, values and attitudes in order to develop a person's natural aptitude and other abilities to improve capacity as a worker or entrepreneur (Coetzee, 1992: 297). From the above, the researcher asks the following questions: What is affirmative action and why is it implemented in organisations? How do the different stakeholders feel about affirmative action? How do the stakeholders adapt to the change brought about by affirmative action? Who stands to benefit from affirmative action programmes? What are the most effective and ineffective implementation methods of affirmative action? How will affirmative action be a failure or success in organisations? The key problem discussed can be summarised by saying that it is important when implementing an affirmative action process, that cognisance be taken of the composition of employees in the organsition as well as the type of leadership involved as changes have implications concerning the culture, structure, strategies, procedures and systems. The reaction of employees to the changing environment should also be given priority as this could seriously endanger the success of the process. Identified secondary problems that are related to this are as follows: The pressure on organisations to restructure their workforce to ensure that it reflects the composition of affirmative action as a means of change. This change creates a lot of resistance to the implementation.

Most of the affirmative action beneficiaries still lack experience and skills but, at the same time are appointed and promoted on a preferential basis (refer to chapter 6, section 6.7). Cultural differences within organisations hinder the success of affirmative action Looking at the first bullet it is clear that due to the external factors such as politics, economy, culture, diversity, etc, every South African organisation will be compelled to implement affirmative action strategies with the aim of prohibiting unfair discrimination and enforcing employment equity. Some organisations find themselves in a state of being obliged to change, going through change process even though not prepared. As the application of affirmative action is required by Law organisations have no choice but to implement affirmative action. The second bullet proves that due to pressure from government organisations just push numbers to meet quotas instead of doing it the right way (refer to chapter 6, section 6.7), and this may create affirmative action failure. In most sources being used it is found that in the process of affirmative action many blacks are pushed into positions they are not suitable candidates for positions being appointed for. But at the same time they lack experience and skills, as a result thy fail to operate in the positions being appointed for. Thus, white people turn to view affirmative action as a reverse discrimination, tokenism and nepotism. The researcher is of the opinion that it is about time organisations start poaching black employees who had the necessary skills. Lastly, the South African population is of a diverse nature. The researcher believes that through the correct affirmative action strategy members of the different cultures are being thrown together in the workplace and the management of diversity is therefore seen as an effective way of coping with this diverse workforce. Hugo and van Vuuren (1996: 13) explain this: "Differences among people, and particularly culture and racial differences have played an integral part in the development of South Africa as a nation." These differences have in the past been the basis for discrimination, and this has led t o a lack of understanding and little appreciation for the value of diversity. The researcher is of the view that for this reason the management of diversity and the challenges and problems it poses is at the present one of the most important issues facing South African managers.

THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF THE PROBLEM

1.3

he

above identified problems will be studied and analised within the South Afiican context. As comparison has been done with outside companies as well as the experience of affirmative action in overseas countries (see chapter 5, section 5.5) some of their strategies need to be adapted to suit the South Afiican working environment because we are dealing with a culturally unique and diverse workforce regarding the problems that exist therein. Therefore it is very important that the creative recommendations regarding affirmative action strategy provided at the end of the study be applicable to South African organisations. These recommendations should be seen as means which need to be implemented and adapted to suit some differences that are present within each organisation. For this reason the empirical research done is directed at one organisation only (see chapter 6, section 6.2 and 6.3 for details on method of the empirical study).

1.4

THE GOAL OF THE RESEARCH

The key goal of the research is to study the concept of "affirmative action" and to explore a strategy that could be used to implement the concept so that it benefits both the employer and the employee. Consequently, a conclusion can be reached on whether affirmative action is the solution for tomorrow's business needs or not. If successfiA in achieving its objectives, will result in numerous positive results for management, employees and the economy. From the above, the specific sub-goals are identified: 0

0

If the organisation has agreed to implement an affirmative action strategy it should conform with this requirement. Whether the appointment or promotion of employees is based on merit or tokenism, reaching desired targets or developing them in order to improve their skills. To find out whether management will demonstrate some resistance to change to feelings of insecurity and animosity.

0

To democratise the workforce by enabling members of previously disadvantaged groups to progress higher up the ranks of the corporate world.

1.5

DEMARCATION OF STUDY FIELD

The two main types of research will be used, namely that of literature and empirical studies. The literature study will be theoretically based, concentrating mainly on affirmative action in the context of transition from a hierarchical to an egalitarian society. The advancement of equality in the modern world is complex of bridging obvious inequalities between individuals and groups, which is dependent on a number of simultaneously implemented measures to transform society. On the other hand the empirical study will be conducted in the Johannesburg area in one of South Africa's largest organisations. Reasons for this as well as the choice of the organisation are provided in section 1.6.2 All of the above will be done using the following methods of research mentioned in section 1.6

1.6

METHOD OF RESEARCH

The two methods of research to be used are literature and empirical studies which differ in their own special ways. However among the two the researcher will put more focus on the empirical study. The literature study is more theoretically based whereby both international and local information was gathered and used.

1.6.1 LITERATURE STUDY The researcher will obtain all the necessary theoretical information from different sources such as books, articles, journals, publications, business periodical index, library catalogues of the PU for CI-IE, the collective catalogues for thesis and dissertations.

1.6.2 EMPIRICAL STUDY

To prove and support certain statements and opinions, an empirical research investigation is conducted with the aim of supporting these theoretical statements. Empirical research will be done by distributing questionnaires to the population sample. The questionnaires will apply within any organisation country wide, even though different answers are expected from the respondents. The data obtained will be analysed and compared with the theory. This comparison will provide an answer to which a conclusion can be made as to whether the concept ''affirmative action" is the solution for future organisations,

particularly in terms of increased productivity, job satisfaction, political acceptability and advancement through education. The research is being undertaken with one of the largest companies in the Johannesburg area which is referred to as Company X. The name of the company cannot be revealed t o the readers mainly because of two reasons: 1.

The company does not want to be exposed and as such, the researcher respects this wish; and

2.

As affirmative action is still a burning issue in this country, the company is not yet ready to publcise its identity, but will disclose any information whatsoever regarding affirmative action.

1.7

KEY REFERENCE WORDS

A number of concepts will be used in the study. Therefore they need to be explained to give the reader more understanding, and they are the following:

1.7.1

AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

Affirmative action can be defined as processes applied by organisations to enhance equity, correct past discrimination, and develop and empower members of disadvantaged groups to create a diverse yet effective workforce which will strive to achieve organisational goals (Employment Equity Act, 1999:14).

1.7.2 EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY

Equal employment opportunity apparently provides equal access to all people to participate in the empowerment process and advances on the bases of merit, ability and potential. It also prohibits all forms of discrimination based on race, gender, handicap, weight, sexual preference, etc. (Luhabe, 1993:26).

1.7.3 MANAGING DIVERSITY The concept is based on the premises that every individual has a uniqueness, bringing his own special talents and attributes to the workplace which can be utilised for the benefit of the greater whole. It seeks to explore individual values and gain respect and value for

differences. It rejects assimilation, seeks to expand the corporate culture to accommodate the diversity of its employees and encourages individuality (Luhabe, 1993:26).

1.7.4

QUOTAS

Systems aimed at preferential treatment whereby members of the so-called disadvantaged groups are appointed or promoted, irrespective of qualifications and other requirements needed for an effective and efficient work performance and regardless of the number of qualified candidates available for the jobs in question (Els, 1994:35).

1.7.5

REVERSE DISCRIMINATION

Reverse discrimination means discrimination against whites and in favour of members of protected or previously disadvantaged groups, which is just as unacceptable as is discrimination by whites against members of protected groups, such as blacks (Cascio, 1998:66).

1.8

DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTS

The key concern of this dissertation is the implementation of affirmative action in most of South African organisations even though the major focus will be on one large organisation and, the effect it has on the thinking of many employees. From the study itself, the researcher is of the view that some employees accept affirmative action whereas others resist it. As a result this might lead to the failures if resisted or success if accepted This dissertation has the aim of (a) providing the meaning of affirmative action in broad (see chapter 3, section 3.3) and (b) providing a strategy for the implementation of affirmative action in one of the South African organisations being referred to as Company X, and (c) to find a means to help people to understand, adapt and accept affirmative action as one of the means to change. But before change can be managed it is normal at the initial stage, for people t o go through the stages of change which starts with shock, denial, fear, anger and frustration. Hence they continuously unaccept change and show some negative behaviour such as not supporting the whole process, leave the organisation, under-performing, lack of commitment etc. Ultimately people will accept change if it is well managed whereby management as the driving force behind change must make people aware of the reasons to undergo paradigm shift. The researcher's

advise is that change as a concept has to be adapted to even though it is not easy. But the question is: 'Is it also important that people be made aware of the positive side of change and the success therein before implementing it?' The development of the study is as follows: Chapter two gives a brief overview of different theories of social change, its effect on individuals as well as groups within the environment. This chapter fbrther discusses the origin and history of affirmative action. Chapter three deals with theoretical base when discussing affirmative action. Here affirmative action as well as change are discussed in broad. Chapter four focuses on the effects affirmative action has on organisations. Issues such as its reasons to be implemented, advantages and disadvantages, its role in Industrial Relations and Human Resources, stakeholder approach, etc are discussed. Furthermore various affirmative action strategies are brought into the reader's attention which at the end will help the researcher to recommend a strategy that Company X may resort to the successfbl implementation of affirmative action. Chapter five deals with Equal Employment Opportunity with regard to the Act, preferential treatment, gender and affirmative action as well as disability. Chapter six gives a broad picture of empirical findings which will be used to test the researcher's assumptions. Chapter seven discusses research conclusion and recommendations as well as a newly proposed affirmative action strategy developed by the researcher that Company X can make use of.

CHAPTER 2 THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE

2.1

INTRODUCTION

Mirmative action is a highly debated and controversial concept, having different interpretations to different people. It furthermore inescapably involves basic values, norms and interests. Mirmative action raises fears in people's minds of lowering standards, of token appointments, of the end of merit as the basis for promotion and advancement, and of South Africa's rapid economical decline. In chapter 1, it was mentioned that affirmative action is one of the means to implement change in organisations. Also, it was indicated that change can be resisted by some individuals and groups within organisations. Therefore the researcher believes it is necessary to study and understand the different theorists' concepts and perspectives, some being applicable to our countries context of change and the manner of adapting to it. However, the main principle of the research is affirmative action. This chapter goes further by providing a short overview of the affirmative action concept whereby both managers and employees alike undergo a state of paradigm shift in order to adapt to the changing environment. The origin of affirmative action is also discussed as well as its history whereby outside countries are looked upon. Aftirmative action began in the USA during President Kennedy's time in the early sixties.

2.2

A FEW THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Several theorists have researched social change for many years, and from this research various theories have evolved. Appelbaum (1970:9) distinguishes between four broad categories of theories with regard to social change, namely: The evolutionary theories, which are primarily characterised by assumptions of steady, often linear, cumulative change, and always in the direction of increasing complexity and adaptability. The equilibrium theories, which are characterised by the concept of homeostasis (a

tendency to uniformity). They focus on conditions which therefore incline towards stability. The conflict theories, which are characterised by the assumption that change---- is endemic to all social organisms. They focus on conditions which, as a result of this, incline towards instability. The rise and fall theories, which are characterised by the assumption that communities, cultures or civilisations are deteriorating as well as progressing (growing). However, not all communities are moving in the same direction. The researcher agrees with Moolman (1996:35) that all four of these broad categories will be discussed by studying a few of the most prominent theorists' concepts and perspectives. However, the researcher is of the opinion that the evolutionary theories are the most applicable in the South African context of continual change and adaptation. At present South Africa is experiencing a period of unprecedented change, which is taking place at a tremendous rate. Many people in the country are not yet aware of the relevance of these changes and their impact on their lives.

2.2.1

EVOLUTIONARY THEORY

According to the HAT, l988:2 1 1 (In Moolman, l996:35) evolution means "gradual development", as well as "the development of plant and animal species out of older forms". Many authors and theorists regard Charles Darwin as one of the most influential evolutionists, and more specifically biological evolutionists. Appelbaum (1970: 15) says that theorists who were strongly influenced by Darwin's work in biological evolution were often in search of a new sociological form corresponding with the living organism. According to Harris (1989: 19), Darwin's theory is based on the premise that the greatest diversity of life on earth is attributable to a process Darwin described as natural selection. Through a process of specialised development species are able t o adapt to prevalent climatic conditions. Darwin regarded all species as being involved in a continuous struggle for survival. The process of natural selection contributes to this, so that only the fittest will survive. Concerning development, and more specifically intellectual development, it can thus be said that man's intellectual development and increase in intelligence are a direct result of the process of natural selection and the survival of the

fittest. Appelbaum (1970: 16) believes that the Darwinian evolution can be reduced to four core statements, namely: There is a pronounced variability between species. The population of any given species is inclined to increase to such an extent that it is way beyond its existence capacity. The result of the above is a struggle for survival between and among different species. In this struggle for survival the strongest or fittest, in other words the species that is best adapted, will survive in the long run. This arises from the immutable law of natural selection. Thus, for Darwin there is substantial diversity between different species. The species that adapt best will survive, whereas the weaker species will disappear. The concept of evolution as described by Darwin has been used as a premise by many sociologists in the protection of the evolutionistic theories. The theoretical views of Spencer, Comte and Durkheim will be discussed below.

2.2.1.1 HERBERT SPENCER

According to Hough (1988:36) Spencer based his theory of social change on a continuous increase in the complexity of societies as well as an increase in interrelationships. Coser (197 1 :89-90) states that Spencer's first and foremost interest is the evolutionary changes in social structures and social institutions rather than the accompanying mental conditions. Spencer's concept of social change assumes a universal process of evolution; he has noticed the correspondence between the progress in human thinking and the biological organism, and conceived evolution with respect to growth, differentiation and reintegration. Like the evolution of the organism, the evolution of society is expressed as an increase in magnitude, and as in the case of the organism, this results in a growing differentiationor distinctiveness of the parts (Etzioni-Halevy, 1981: 10-11). Hough (1988:37) puts the above as follows: "Spencer has the same viewpoint as Darwin with regard to the development of organisms when he points out the analogy between

society and living organisms. Both grow throughout their life cycles, increase in mass or size and, at the same time, grow in structure from a few similar parts to multiple interrelated different parts." Spencer is of the opinion that the evolution process progresses through selection and adaptation skills. He sees man, who gains the victory in this battle, as superior, and those that lag behind have to go under. Those that lag behind must leave the battlefield without any descendants, if possible (Martindale, 1967:165). As society develops and becomes more complex, the parts of that society become more dependent on one another in order to survive for a long time. If a city like Johannesburg, for example, were isolated from its surrounding suburbs and rural areas, that city would have a fierce struggle for survival and might not survive. Spencer claims that simple societies develop into complex societies, and military-orientated ones grow into industrial societies. It is characteristic of military societies that people are forced to cooperate. However, the opposite is true of industrial societies, that is people cooperate voluntarily. Nor does this evolution process run its course without disruptions, as both internal and external factors interfere with the evolution process, resulting in different development levels in societies (Timasheff, 1967:40).

2.2.1.2 AUGUSTE COMTE

According to Coser (197 1 :3), Comte's purpose was to develop a natural science of society which explains the past development of man and makes a prediction of the hture development of mankind. Comte was of the opinion that human society had to be studied in the same scientific way as nature, as mankind, like the rest of the cosmos, is subject to the basic laws. In this regard Olson (1970: 18) states that Comte was of the opinion that social development follows the same civilisation course as other organisms and that the same laws therefore also apply to social development. According to Edari (1976:9), Comte's opinion is based on the premise that man's instinct motivates him towards progress and perfection, and that it stands to reason that the preferences of man play an important part in and set the pace for progress in civilisation. Comte's evolutionary theory suggests that the world has moved through three stages in its history, namely: Firstly, the theological stage typifies the world prior to 1300. This stage was

characterised by supernatural forces and religious figures that were at the core of everything. During that stage God was seen as the producer of the social and physical world. The second stage is the metaphysical stage, which lasted from approximately 1300 until 1800. This period was characterised by the belief that abstract forces such as nature, rather than personified gods, explained almost everything. The last stage, namely the positive stage, started in 1800 and was characterised by the development of science and the belief in science. People now moved away from the quest for absolute causes (God or nature), and concentrated on observation of the social and physical world (Ritzer, 1992:15). Seen from an evolutionary perspective, Comte focused on the deeper logic of evolution, according to which any culture group has a need to improve itself and consequently strives for perfection. Apart from the progressive change in culture groups due to their contact with other cultures, change or development therefore occurs inside man himself (Hough, 1988:39).

2.2.1.3 EMILE DURKHEIM According to Hough (1988:35), Durkheim is known as the father of modern functionalism, as he occupied himself with social solidarity as the essential possession of a society. From this Durkheim developed a methodology of causative resolution. She furthermore states that Durkheim's strategy firstly implies the identification of social facts, and secondly the establishment of their causes in order to determine the functions they have performed. Durkheim was more concerned with the characteristics of groups and structures than with individual contributions. He focused on problems such as the cohesion, or lack of cohesion, of specific religious groups, and not on the individual characteristics of religious believers (Coser, 1971:130). Durkheim points out that society determines even the most basic categories of our thoughts. We are living in a world of time and space, but how we conceive of this time and space is determined by society (Collins and Makowsky, 1993:113).

Hough (1988:35) says that according to Durkheim, the logical result of growth in society is a decrease, or even disappearance, of the feeling of solidarity because the values, norms and customs start to differ. Moreover, Hough states that Durkheim went hrther by looking for other sources of solidarity in society. Coser (1971:131) points out Durkheim's distinction between mechanical and organic solidarity. The difference is explained as follows: Mechanical solidarity boils down to the fact that the number of ideas and tendencies that are common to all members of a society is greater than the number of ideas and tendencies that apply to each member of a society individually. Organic solidarity, as opposed to mechanical solidarity, evolves from differences rather than agreement between different individuals. It is seen as a result or product of the division of labour (Coser, 1971 : 13 1). According to Durkheim solidarity is formed by shared emotional feelings. People in a society have a collective awareness and therefore a feeling of belonging to a specific community together with other people, and from this follows the feeling of moral obligation in such people to live in accordance with the demands of the community (Collins and Makowsky, 1993: 104-105). The said authors hrthermore point out that collective awareness does not imply that a group idea is hanging over our heads, but rather that people experience a feeling of belonging to a group.

2.2.2 CYCLIC OR RISE-AND-FALL THEORY According to Hough (1988:48) the cyclic theory means ". . . that social change is effected by golden ages and periods of decline which have specific impacts on the circumstances of that time". Strasser and Randall (1981:59) put it as follows: "Social theorists who view social processes as following a cyclical pattern locate the sources of change in the culture, ie, as inherent in the total way of life of a society." The cyclic model of society is based on the idea that a cultural theme is adopted, developed and worked through until it is exhausted, and opportunities for structurally effective successes and fbrther growth are limited. The result of this is a general

dissatisfaction with the current society, accompanied by a growing disorder, until the old culture is destroyed and the society moves to the following phase in the cycle (Strasser and Randall, 198 1:60). There are many theorists that describe certain aspects of the cyclic theory, but in the study in question only two of these theorists' approaches are synoptically dealt with, namely those of Pitirim Sorokin and Oswald Spengler.

2.2.2.1 PITIRIM SOROKIN

According to Sorokin there are three types of value systems that characterise cultures, societies and personalities, namely: the sensation system, which is dominated by reason, realism, materialism, the ethic of success, as well as empirical orientation; the ideation system, which is characterised by mysticism (the mystical), strong beliefs and symbolism; and the idealistic system, which represents a combination of sensation and imaginary elements (Strasser and Randall, I98 1 :60-6 1). Appelbaum (1970:lOl) states that from these three value systems three supersystems evolve, namely the empirical (science), the supernatural (religion) and the rational (logic). Regardless of which system comes under discussion, eg science, religion, or even the economy or an organisation, these systems have the capacity for internal change. A system therefore determines its own character and direction of movement, and therefore all changes, whether they are taking place or not, can be ascribed to the inherent potential of the system concerned (Hough, 1988:49). According to Moolman (1996:42) the latter implies the ability of an organisation to plan, formulate and implement, in an autonomic way, its own strategy with regard to change and its adjustment to such change. It is ultimately the organisation itself that is aware of the needs of the community in which it operates, and as such the organisation has to deal with, and manage, changes in such a way that they will also benefit the community. Appelbaum (1970: 102) is of the opinion that social change can be understood in terms of immanent causes and limitations. Immanent causes of change refer to those causes which are inherent in the system; whether the system is scientific or religious, aesthetical or

philosophical, a business firm, a professional union or a state, its contains the internal seeds of continuous change. 2.2.2.2 OSWALD SPENGLER

Like Sorokin, Spengler is of the view that each culture progresses through age phases like those of the individual. Like those of a human being, each phase has its childhood, youth, adulthood and old age (in Appelbaum, 1970:99). Spengler also identifies fixed periods for cultures similar to the life cycle of the human being. Unlike other theorists, Spengler draws analogies only with the biological life phases of the human being. Spengler (1964:21) states that the parallel between the life cycle of a culture and that of the human organism is expanded to determine the fixed duration of generations as well On this basis the political, intellectual and artistic birth takes fifty years, the adulthood of the culture three hundred years, and the total life cycle of the culture extends over one thousand years. Spengler hrthermore specifies that all cultures are characterised by homological or morphological (morphology) equivalence in the sense that, in all cultures, all major creative works and forms of religion, art, politics, social life, economy and science evolve simultaneously, hlfil themselves and die simultaneously. The inner structures of the one culture correspond on a very narrow basis with the structures of all the other cultures (Appelbaum, 1970:100).

2.2.3 TALCOTT PARSONS'S EQUILIBRIUM THEORY

Appelbaum (1970:65) states that equilibrium, or homeostasis, is a concept which was originally taken from mechanics and means a uniform condition. Parsons sees the concept of stability as a defining characteristic of structure and equivalent to the more specific concept of stable equilibrium, which may otherwise be static or moving. Parsons distinguishes between those processes that are productive of structural change, and those that are productive of structural stability. This distinction between two pairs of concepts is regarded as a system reference by Parsons. The structure of the system and its environment have to be distinguished from the process within the system itself and the process of interaction between the system and its environment (Schaefer and Lamm, 1992:617).

Regarding change in social systems, Appelbaum (1970:69) says that Parsons's approach admits, at least in theory, that structures change, and that a condition of homeostasis is valid for only a limited set of system processes and system variations within the environment. A society consists of specialised systems and their subsystems, each involved in a series of limited exchanges with one another and other environments external to the social system itself, for example the cultural system or the personality system. The said author hrthermore states that all these limited exchanges may cause problems for the social system. The latter thus forces the system t o specialise in one or another of the four fimctional prerequisites for survival, namely adjustment, objective achievement, integration and latent pattern maintenance. Parsons is particularly interested in the integration within the social system itself and between the social systems and cultural patterns on the one hand, and between the social system and the personality system on the other hand. For such integration to take place, at least two functional requirements have to be met, namely:

1.

A social system has to motivate an adequate section of its component of actors effectively to act in accordance with the requirements of its role system.

2.

Social systems have to avoid obligation towards culture patterns that fail to maintain a minimum of order, or that make impossible demands on people, thereby generating deviations and conflict (Turner, 1982:45).

In his analysis of the social system Parsons was mainly interested in the structural components of the social system, among others in the status role and large-scale components of the social system, such as collectivities, norms and values (Ritzer, 1992:105). Parsons was not only a structuralist, but also a functionalist. H e depicted a number of functional prerequisites of a social system as follows: Social systems have to be structured so that they can work together with other systems in a compatible way. T o be able to survive, the social system must have the support of other systems. The system has to satisfy a significant portion of its actors' needs

The system has to attract sufficient participation from its members. The system must have at least a minimum amount of control over potentially disruptive behaviour. If conflict becomes disruptive, it has to be controlled A social system needs a language to be able to survive (Ritzer, 1992:105) From the above hnctional prerequisites of social systems it is evident that Parsons focuses on large-scale systems and their relations to each other. Even when Parsons makes mention of actors, he does so fiom the system's point of view. Following from the aforementioned, it is also evident that Parsons considers maintaining order within the social system as important. Ponsioen (1969:67) is of the opinion that the only thing that can be said against the equilibrium theory as a general theory is the fact that revolution does occur. The existing equilibrium may disappoint a large number of people, and if the balance is maintained over an extended period, it can happen that social forces lose their dynamism. Particularly the younger generation may regard the situation of equilibrium as boring and feel that it is necessary to turn the situation around to make society more dynamic.

2.2.4

THEORIES OF CONFLICT

The evolutionary theories and equilibrium theories see stability in everything, unlike the conflict theory, which places structural change first (Appelbaum, 1970:8 1). The conflict theory implies that conflict as such is the only modifier and that nothing can change or occur unless there is conflict (Hough, l988:43). According to Etzioni-Halevy (198 1 :40), structural fimctionalism lost its excellence from the end of the 1950's on and became only one of various alternative perspectives, while other premises have come to the fore. Not all these perspectives were concerned about modernisation and modern life, but one school - the power and conflict school - regarded it as very important. The conflict school focused more on Western societies and made a considerable impact on the sociological scene. This school rejected structural fimctionalism's emphasis on values,

consensus and integration. The conflict school regarded society as divided into classes and saw conflict between classes as central to society (Etzioni-Halevy, 1981 :4 1).

2.2.4.1 KARL MARX

According to Marx, society includes " . . . a moving balance of antithetical forces that generate social change by their tension and struggle" (Coser, 1971:43). Marx's vision is based on an evolutionary premise. To him struggle, rather than peacehl growth, is the engine of progress, while discord is the father of all things and social conflict is the core of the course of history (Coser, 1971:43). Marx established various hypotheses with respect to the development of class structures, namely: In a capitalistic society classes tend to polarise to an increasing degree, and consequently the community breaks up into two hostile classes, namely the bourgeoisie (owner or proprietor) on the one hand, and the proletariat (worker or labourer) on the other hand. As these classes polarise, their situations become more extreme, sections of the proletariat become even more impoverished and the society's wealth becomes more concentrated in the midst of the relative minority (bourgeoisie). As these classes polarise, they become more homogeneous internally, with other groupings internally absorbed in these two classes. When these processes have reached their limits, revolution terminates the existing arrangement and a new society in which the previously oppressed class now has the power evolves. Conflict and change therefore reflect the distribution of power in society. It consequently appears as though Marx regards conflicting classes as a prerequisite for all communities. Within the capitalistic community a distinction is made between the capitalists as the oppressors, and the oppressed (Jordaan, 1989:42). It is the struggle between the aforementioned two groups (classes) which forms and determines the character of the community. Furthermore, conflict is generated by the product of the irreconcilable differences in the interests of classes on the one hand, and the fact that a class's common interests are so strong that the members of the group are

encouraged to group together for common interests on the other hand (Timasheff and Theodorson, 1976:59-61). According to Marx, the core of social order and change consists of the forces and relationships of economic production, their common antagonism regarding the capitalistic society, as well as the manifestation of this antagonism in the consciousness of the members of the community. Marx hrther says that the community consists of various variable elements such as technology, politics, materialism, religion and philosophy (Olson, 1970:15). Marx (see Moolman, 1996:47) divides the total history into three periods which are in a dialectic relationship to each other, namely: At the beginning of history man is free, but his freedom is incomplete, as he is a slave of nature. This period is known as the thesis. The second period is known as the antithesis, and extends over the total history up to date During this period man developed technology and gained control over nature. However, due to the latter man has become alienated, as the distribution of labour is the essential mechanism for control over nature. The third period is known as the synthesis, because it combines the dull freedom of the original society with the different human potentialities for alienation. This as such is alienated, but is retained at a higher level. It is only during this period that man realises that he is free. Mulder (1994:50) says that the distribution of labour, which is an essential mechanism for control over nature, creates relationships of dominance and submission. The said author states that a class conflict arises and private property is removed, as these form the basis of conflict and struggle. Marx regards the last period as a return to the earliest period. The vision of society as an organism always increasing in complexity is replaced by one of undifferentiated unity, free from classes, conflict and authority.

2.2.4.2 RALF DAHRENDORF

Dahrendorf (I 964: 100) is of the opinion that the purpose of a sociological conflict theory is to overcome the predominant arbitrary nature of unexplained historical events by inferring these events from elements of their social structure; in other words, to explain certain processes by means of predicting connections. It is therefore the task of the sociology to deduce conflicts from certain social structures and not to water conflicts down to psychological variables or descriptive historical aspects, or to mere chance. Dahrendorf s work on conflict reveals two important characteristics. Firstly, he emphasises the importance of power, and secondly, he emphasises the inevitability of conflict. He calls it the "theories of society" (Wallace and Wolf, 1980:121). Timasheff and Theodorson (1976:279) point out that Dahrendorf, unlike other conflict theorists, is less inclined to regard social life as consisting exclusively of irreconcilable interests. The said authors further say that Dahrendorf emphasises his opinion that conflict contains productive as well as destructive forces. Appelbaum (1970:94) says that Dahrendorf identifies the underlying assumptions of what he describes as the structural functional theory in fourfold, namely: 1.

2. 3.

4.

Every society is a relatively sustained configuration of elements. Every society is a well-integrated configuration of elements. Every element in a society contributes to the functioning of the society. Every society is based on the consensus of its members.

Conversely, the conflict model adopts a position contrasting to each of the abovementioned assumptions, namely: 1.

2. 3.

4.

Every society is subject to change at every moment. Every society experiences social conflict at every moment. Every element in a society contributes to changing that society. Every society is based on the demands some members are making on other members.

Dahrendorf s opinion is that society has an inherent inclination to conflict. The groups with power will therefore pursue their own interests, and the groups without power will

look after their own interests. However, the two groups will have different interests (Wallace and Wolf, 1980:122). On the basis of Dahrendoff s "theories of society", it can be said that the distribution of power is the single greatest determinant of social structure. Dahrendorf (1959: 166) defines power as: ". . . the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance, regardless of the basis on which this probability rests". From the above definition it can be deduced that the core of power is the control of sanctions, which enables the persons with power to give instructions, and to obtain what they desire from the persons without power. However, man has a natural dislike of submission (Moolman, l996:49). Dahrendorf (1959:138) is of the opinion that there will be an inevitable conflict of interests, as well as a drive by the powerless for conflict with those in authority - the former in their pursuit of power, and the latter in defence. Power can therefore be seen as a permanent source of conflict. Within every organisation there are certain power structures consisting of supervisors and subordinates. Based on Dahrendoffs perspectives, it is therefore logical that any organisation also has a potential for conflict. Dahrendorf argues that a conflict theory enables the socioscientist to keep the social conflicts from structural institutions, thereby being able to prove that these conflicts develop systematically (Appelbaum, 1970:95).

2.3

APPLICATION OF THE SOCIAL CHANGE THEORIES

This researcher is of the opinion that each of the theoretical perspectives regarding social change arose from the experience and research of the various theorists. These perspectives follow from the theorists' endeavours to explain the dynamic nature of, and reasons for, social change. In this regard Mulder (1994:52) states that the various theorists' endeavours to explain social change have to be seen against the background of the political, intellectual, economic and social climate in which they found themselves. This researcher supports Mulder's foregoing opinion, and furthermore takes the point of view that factors such as the theorists' personal preferences and dislikes, own social background and experiences, as well as their views of life, played an important part in the formulation of their theories. Moolman (1996:50) mentions that except for the above, change is also the result of human

behaviour and experience. The theories discussed previously should therefore be regarded as following from the personal experience of social change of various people. As change does not have a time limit but occurs constantly and at an increasing rate, it is essential that h t u r e researchers and theorists of social change be aware of the existing theoretical perspectives. Several of the perspectives and generalisations of the earlier theorists are still applicable to the current situation and it will also be possible to generalise them in future situations. As has already been stated, change is a continuous process, and it is important that experts pay attention to the consequential causes and results of change. By means of continual research regarding the reasons, extent, impact and presupposed results of change the possible negative results change may hold for society can be limited or even prevented. When such changes occur, therefore, there should be sufficient and effective mechanisms to deal with their impact and results and to channel them to the benefit of society. Negative results and implications of change should be kept to a minimum.

2.4

THE CONCEPT OF 'AFFIRMATIVE ACTION'

Affirmative action brings about change in organisations, change, which can be adapted or resisted by the individuals and groups w i t h any organisation (discussed in detail under chapter 3, section 3.5 and chapter 4, section 4.3.4). Companies must now, more than ever before, become responsible and responsive to turbulent and changing environment around them. Affirmative action requires more actions and constructive action and new organisational culture. Over the past centuries paradigm shift has taken place in the management and the development of employees. This paradigm have created the mind set of modern management perspectives and is continuing to influence the environment in which employers and employees interact with each other. In the South African context the need for change embraces also the necessity to redress imbalances within the organisational composition brought about by previous socio-political designs. Thus affirmative action becomes essentially a change initiative. The need for affirmative action arises from historical disadvantages brought about by the apartheid system by male dominance in business and society, the lack of consideration for the disabled and prejudice against individuals who hold convictions, orientations or beliefs contrary t o those of dominant

groupings (Bendix, l996:59 1-592). From the above paragraph the researcher is of the opinion that the interest shown in the concept of affirmative action has grown exponentially over the last few years in South Africa and has placed it on the agenda of a number of political parties. The concept of affirmative action is just a temporary intervention designed to achieve equal employment opportunity (brief discussion in chapter 5) without lowering standards. When attempt is made to define 'standards' it is sometimes found that current job incumbents are not performing to desired level. These incumbents should be given the opportunity to bring their performance up to scratch. A positive outcome of properly implemented affirmative action programmes can be the better management of human resources and raising of standards (Human, 1993:3-4). For the purpose of broadly understanding affirmative action one needs to look at the origin as well as the nature of affirmative action.

2.4.1

THE ORIGIN OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

AfIkmative action is an American term first introduced by President Kennedy in 1961, but only legislated for the first time in the United States by President L.B. Johnson in 1965. Hammer (1 993:5) states that white and blacks in America agree that affirmative action has gone too far. It has gone to the extent where people are hired according to racial quotas. Trendsetting California voted to end race-and-gender based affirmative action by state institutions, as the measure placed a special burden on minorities and women, by denying them the right to receive special treatment available to other classes of people (Barber, 1996: 16). According to Sonn l993:2 (in Barber, 1996:16) affirmative action will not be viewed by South Africans in such a negative light as in America. On the other hand Madi (1993:3) is of the opinion that affirmative action as in America has been part and parcel of modern-day South Africa, having started after the 1992 white miner's strike and the subsequent 'civilised labour po1icy"instituted by the government of the period to appease the rebelling white miners who were, interestingly, inspired by communist ideals This 'civilised labour policy' was soon thereafter formalised through the passing of the 1925 Wage Act, which set up a hierarchy of salaries ostensibly in favour of white miners, and the Mines and Works Act of 1926 which inter alia reserved certain jobs for whites.

Within the context of black advancement, affirmative action can be traced back to the midto-late seventies. The 1976 riots led to companies, particularly the multinationals, enduring pressure fiom their respective countries of origin either to disinvest from South Africa or embark on intensive black advancement programmes. This pressure would subsequently evolve into the Sullivan Code of 1997 (Madi, 1993:3-4). M ~ r m a t i v eaction finds its roots in the Universal declaration of Human Rights formulated in the 1940's by the International Labours Organisation, which states that everyone is entitled to pursue his material well-being and spiritual development in conditions of freedom and dignity without discrimination on the grounds of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political views, national extraction, social origins, property, birth or any other states (Wingrove, 1993:5). It is obvious behind the origin of anything there is always a historical background. Therefore it is important to discuss a brief history of affirmative action in the South African context.

2.4.2

AFFIRMATIVE ACTION IN SOUTHERN AFRICA - A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The liberation struggle is about both political and economic power and control. The many years of apartheid marginalised blacks not only from political power but from economic participation as well. Successive governments used legislation to inhibit the economic advancement of blacks and state budgetary allocations to promote the development of whites through better education, health facilities and housing. Black access to jobs and to economic resources, land, capital and technology- was severely restricted through a plethora of laws and regulations (Adams, 1993:1 1). In addition to the above paragraph was the demeaning of African culture and values and the adoption of white values and patterns of behaviour as the accepted norm (Adams, 1993: 1 1-12). This made it extremely difficult for blacks t o promote the centres of power in the country. It is this history and its legacy that militates against blacks at the workplace and in the corridors of power in government and elsewhere. Legislative exclusion, discriminatory state budgetary allocations and the lack of an inclusive culture places blacks at a considerable disadvantage. It therefore follows that if nothing is done to change social relations and to provide blacks with access to resources and means to overcome the

economic marginalisation of the past, the patterns of economic control, ownership and management that have been produced by the apartheid system will remain unchanged even in a non-racial, non-sexist democratic South Africa. The call for affirmative action is a call to prevent this from happening. It is a call to secure that conditions are created to enable blacks to overcome the disadvantages of the past and to make a positive contribution to the future. T o support the above paragraph Wingrove ( I 993: 13) states that it is a generally accepted fact that due to a long history of discrimination in South Afiica, Blacks have not been able to realise their full potential and have been denied the capacity to compete. This, in turn, has led to their not being able to acquire the maximum amount of merit that accrues to those who live in a society where merit relates in some way to developed potential. A just society would seek to provide for the h l l development of everyone's potential and it would ensure that merit was hlly equated with social roles such as jobs. In current endeavours, therefore, to develop a just society, there is commitment to eliminating discrimination at every level and to finding some way of compensating for those who have been suffered from its effects. This means giving those who have been denied full development potential the roles they rightly would have had if they had not been the victims of discrimination. The process of negotiating equality for blacks in South Afnca gained steadily in, momentum during the past twelve years. Political and socio-economic realities have culminated in this becoming a survival strategy. The historic problems experienced in America, its aggressive nature and many negative, punitive conditions, have caused affirmative action to become a very contentious issue. This, as well as the significant difference between the American and South African organisations use this term for their cross-cultural integration or equalisation processes (Wingrove, 1993:2). With regard to the above paragraph Mills (1994:28) mentions that it would appear that, historically, in both this country and the USA, the development of black people was (and in many instances still is) conceptualised simply in terms of putting knowledge and skills into black people and then expecting them to hnction in a 'white' world which remains hndamentally unchanged. In other words the implicit assumptions of the 'black advancement' model are that blacks currently haven't the wherewithal to succeed in business and what have to be done is to educate and train them and place them in organisations without bndamentally changing the organisations themselves.

Different from the above, Bekker (1993:58) is of the opinion that the general context of affirmativeaction in South Africa will probably be more like that found in Malaysia than in other countries (briefly discussed in chapter 5, section 5.5) In Malaysia the Malay ethnic group hold the preponderance of political power and are also the beneficiaries of affirmative action, whilst in South Afiica it will in all probability be the same with respect to the blacks (holding political power and benefiting by and large from affirmative action). The researcher is of the opinion that in most countries the term affirmative action is concentrating more on employees who have been disadvantaged in the past. When looking at the South African situation it is reckon that it is similar to the Malaysian situation. For instance blacks in South Africa are now having political power especially in government whereas that was not the case in the past. Also, since they have been discriminated in the past the implementation of affirmative action was therefore introduced in order to suit them so that they can be equal with whites. As a result for the sake of acquiring better knowledge and skills it deem necessary to educate and train them.

2.5

CONCLUSION

As affirmative action is one of the means of change firstly, the researcher saw it necessary to discuss some of the theories of social change in this chapter. A study on the most important theorists' concepts as well as perspectives is also discussed. Secondly, this chapter traces the history of affirmative action, from its origins in the United States of America to its subsequent implementation in South Africa. The rationale behind the notion of affirmative action was the conviction that previously disadvantaged groups should be incorporated into all aspects of communal life, and that a strategy be implemented to accomplish this. Thus, the objective of affirmative action within an organisational context, was to democratise the workplace by enabling members of previously disadvantaged groups to progress higher up the ranks of the corporate world.

CHAPTER 3 THEORETICAL BASE WHEN DISCUSSING AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

3.1

INTRODUCTION

The main principle of the research is affirmative action; therefore it is necessary for the reader to know the meaning of the term 'affirmative action'. When defining the term, the researcher started to look at the nature of affirmative action and the manner in which affirmative action and diversity can have an effect on each other as well as how to manage diversity. The definition of the term affirmative action is finally been provided by the researcher. The second part of the chapter is about targeting the imbalance of the past. The following two things will theoretically be discussed, namely, legislating affirmative action and implementing an affirmative action programme. The reasons for this is to give the purpose of the New Labour Relations Act for emphasizing that affirmative action be implemented in organisations and the way it can benefit all groups in those organisations. Consequently, the establishment of an affirmative action policy and strategy is discussed. The involvement of employees is one of the critical factors in this regard, thus it will also be looked at.

3.2

THE NATURE OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

According to Bendix (1996:592) affirmative action has many facets. It entails, firstly, the search for persons with known competencies or potential to fill positions worthy of their ability; secondly, the training and development of previously disadvantaged persons so that they may in future posses greater mobility; and, thirdly a continuous monitoring and adoption of the demographic spread at all levels of the organisation. Most importantly affirmative action constitutes an active intervention. In this aspect it differs from "equal opportunity" (later to be discussed in chapter 5). The latter refers merely to a policy of 'fairness' (the granting of equal access to all persons) whereas in the case of "affirmative action" organisations have to ensure access - or even limited preferential access - to disadvantaged groups for accelerated development.

From the previous passage Human (1993: 15) believes that the development of employees in general should specifically occur in the organization. The importance of this issue rests on the assumption that the creation and maintenance of standards (whether in terms of quality or output) relies in large measures on well - trained staff who are responsible for the development of those reporting to them. On the other hand an advice is provided by Jankowits (1995:4) that affirmative action is not about fads, leveling playing fields or moving of goal posts, but about developing a growth strategy that will result in the business becoming world class and competitive by investing in human potential. However, the researcher agrees with De Bruyn (1996~33)that changes should not be implemented for the sake of change but, changes should be focused on growth and development. Development should not, however, be perceived in racial or gender terms. It should rather be characterised by: the determination of individual development needs; the drawing - up of individual development plans based on the competencies required for effective job performance and on the overall workforce plan; attendance at relevant off individual training needs;

- the - job training and development courses which meet

line managers playing a key role in on - the -job coaching and development of staff The previously mentioned process applies equally to all staff, irrespective of race, gender or level. However, the researcher believes that affirmative action should concentrate mainly on transformation, growth, competency, training and development. This is schematically represented as follows (in figure 1):

Figure 1: Proposals for the steps of aff~rmativeaction should concentrate on:

FROM

armathe action taking action to balance scales of opportunity and to render equal access through transformation, growth, competency, learning, training and development.

I IMPLEMENTATION I

Source: Developed by the researcher

In South African organisations we have people of different cultures, religion, age, sex, etc. and as a result this causes diversity. At the same time the researcher is of the opinion that this kind of diversity needs to be managed in order that there should be peace in the workplace. From the above the researcher is aware that in South Africa people differ in their own special ways, it is therefore important that they learn to accommodate each other no matter the differences that exists. In other words the changes that prevail in organisations should not be perceived as obstacles that have to be resisted but as challenges that have to be faced and dealt with. The truth of the matter is there will be some difficulties involved and even though that is the case eventually people together will overcome and strive towards one goal of seeing each other as equals as well as giving each other a chance in life.

3.3

MANAGING DIVERSITY

Because of different groups (formal and informal) found in South African organisations, diversity becomes part and parcel of modern-day South Africa. Thus there is a possibility that diversity can cause those groups to resist changes brought about by affirmative action, as they view affirmative action differently. Therefore it is if of importance that such a diversity be managed. However, the researcher suggests that the issue concerning the management of diversity as a consequence of affirmative action needs to be looked at to make it easier to define affirmative action. The concept managing diversity has already been defined (refer to chapter 1, section 1.7.3). Ethnic differences in the diverse workforce are inevitable, given the dramatic changes in the political and economic conditions in South Africa today. Therefore there is a need for a structural approach to managing and motivating diversity, hence a need to employ organisational policies that support diversity, such as flexible work arrangements and benefits, parental leave, etc. is important. According to Tlhopane (1991:98) h t u r e workforce diversity cannot merely be tolerated, it must be valued. Valuing diversity will mean: Being able to work with a diverse group of people in a manner that enables them to reach their h l l potential in pursuit o f organisational objectives without, anyone being advantaged or disadvantaged by irrelevant considerations. That organisations make whatever changes are necessary in their systems, structures, management practice to eliminate any subtle barriers that might hold people and other resources from reaching their full potential. The situation in South Africa is currently such that there appears to be almost as much conhsion about the concept of managing diversity as there is about the concept of affirmative action. This codksion is caused partly by the attempt of some companies to use the concept of managing diversity synonymously with that of affirmative action- a term some organisations feel uncomfortable with. Managing diversity is part and parcel of managing people, a process which, in turn, is vital to the success of affirmative action drives. However, the concept of managing diversity itself contains a number of complex questions that require greater clarity. It will also appear that it is not enough simply to make people aware o f issues relating to diversity, many managers lack the skills to

implement such awareness in practice. With regard to the above, Human (1993:81) defines managing diversity as: ". . .teaching skills which assist people with the process of communicating and managing is a non-racist and non-sexist way; this involves an understanding of the way in which they are currently communicating (and the attitudes which may accompany this) and the provision of skills to change from what is often a counterproductive behavioural form". The researcher is of the opinion that individuals should sit down and discuss their differences based on cultural values and norms, religious, values, background etc. In this way they will understand each other and where they all come from. By doing this diversity will therefore be managed. Various debates are currently taking place, both in South Africa and overseas, about how the challenge of diversity should be tackled and how organisations should respond to the demands for equal employment opportunity and the eradication of racism and sexism These debates are not only taking place in countries implementing or considering the implementation of affirmative action or racelsex discrimination legislation, but also in countries such as those of EEC where the building of an economic community is creating tensions and synergy's of its own. These debates, have led to the following broad conclusions: The issues of culture and diversity are complex and attempts to come t o grips with them, if handled badly, can do more harm than good. The extent to which we can change values and attitudes is questionable. Attempts to change values (and hence attitudes and behaviours) seem t o produce good results where they succeed, but probably result in disastrous consequences where they fail (Human, 1993:79). When considering the above two conclusions, for diversity to succeed, it must firstly form part of an organisation's strategic management process. Secondly, it must have the support of the highest-ranking official in an organisation and be managed by a highly qualified and respected person who holds a senior position. Managing the diversity created by affirmative action, by whatever means, will be one of the biggest challenges facing organisations in the hture. Accepting the challenge of diversity implies, among other things: changing organisational culture; reconceptualising approprite leadership style; restructuring organisations; and; developing management and staff to work and advance in

organisations that are very different from what they use to be (Laubscher, 1996:36). Organisations that invite change and successhlly manage diversity are more likely to detect and solve complex business problems that don't fit into the orthodox business models of yesterday. The solution to these problems will call for unique, multiple perspectives that only diversity can generate. From the above, it is believed that affirmative action involves more than recruitment of greater number of blacks and women to positions dominated by white men. It also involves the development and management of racism and sexism. A great deal of effort has to be put into the creation of an organisational culture that provides equal opportunity and support. For this to be achieved, managers often require skills in managing diversity as well as an incentive to utilise these skills on a regular basis.

Mills (1 994:77) when supporting the above paragraph says that diversity comes in where there is an acceptance of the principles of unity and equality, integrity, and trust, and when a genuine effort is being made to both provide development opportunities in order that individual can compete on merit and to inculcate a belief in ability which is not linked to racial and gender stereotypes. The researcher therefore agrees with Laubscher (1996:36) when he says that organisations that successfblly manage diversity are more likely to solve complex business problems. Once more, Cornelissen (1994:9) sees management of diversity as a solution, because it is seen as a corporate holistic approach which creates a corporate environment that provides opportunities for all groups in an organisation t o achieve their h l l potential in terms of the set corporate objectives. In other words, all groups, regardless of race, gender or religion will benefit. The role played by the diversity in the workplace has been identified, as well as the importance of managing diversity. The researcher agrees with Moolman (1996:335) when he says that effective management of diversity brings about the following positive impact on healthy labour relations within an organisation: maintenance of labour peace; decrease in the absenteeism rate of employees; decrease in labour turnover; decrease in disciplinary actions; decrease in grievance by employees; decrease in industrial actions; positive involvement of employees; work security of employees; increase in productivity; and positive relationship between management and unions. It is therefore true that for the business to run smoothly as well as for excellent performance by all within an organisation there should be a good employer-employee relationship.

From the above the researcher is of the view that South Afiica's demographic formation should be reflected in the management structures of organisations. It is also stated in the Employment Equity Act (1999: 13) that affirmative action strategy can thus be used to ensure that the country's diverse population is represented in the in the workforce, especially management structure. Organisations should therefore attempt to create a management structure that reasonably reflects the diversity of its society. The researcher agrees with these statements in a sense that the management structure should really reflect the proper demographic formation as they are the drivers of affirmative action. Therefore it is important that they be the good examples to the organisation as a whole. There are internal sub-systems such as the goals and value system, the structural sub-system and the managerial sub-system influencing organisational functioning of which the implementation of an affirmative action strategy will impact on all of these sub-systems. This links to the moral imperative to correct the imbalances of the past. By managing diversity the company is more likely to achieve synergy in a problem-solving situation if the company has "more than one heads". In other words a group of members from diverse backgrounds and orientations is more effective than a homogeneous one. With more development of people, especially those who were marginalised by past practices, will come increased opportunities for all.

3.4

DEFINING AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

Mirmative action is the one area that is perhaps sensitive and misunderstood. Because usually, as Creamer (1995:14) mentions it is implemented as a form of tokenism where unprepared people are placed in high profile positions for appearance sake. Or worse still, where skilled people are employed as tokens and their skills are not harnessed because they are merely meant to be on show. This is what President Mandela says of affirmative action: "

T o millions, Mirmative Action is a beacon of positive expectation. T o others it is an alarming spectre which is viewed as a threat to their personal security and a menace to the integrity of public life" (Charlton & van Niekerk, 1994:10).

From the above, the researcher can now establish a new and simple definition as t o the meaning of affirmative action which is as follows: affirmative action is a corrective action eliminating discrimination so that both the advantaged as well as the disadvantaged groups of the past can achieve equal employment opportunities. It is about the empowerment of

all people and, through people the empowerment of the organisation. As affirmative action is trying to correct past occurrences caused by discrimination it is important to take a brief look at how the imbalances of the past can be eliminated, as they truly did exist.

3.5

TARGETING IMBALANCES OF THE PAST

It is afirmative action people expect to redress the imbalances in their deeply divided society. It is the researcher's hope that all South African's people should commence the road to building non-racial, just and fair South African at peace with itself a South Africa which will be keen to redress its shamehl history without setting out to harm others. To achieve this, the laws, programmes and activities are designed to redress past imbalances and to improve the conditions of individuals and groups who have been disadvantaged on the grounds of race, colour, gender or disability. Verster (1994: 19) views affirmative action as a more specific tactic to address the inequality of the South African past. In conclusion he says the term affirmative action in itself implies a short-term approach to redressing imbalances of the former stage. In addition to the above statement Makhobo's (1993:7) viewpoint is that there is clear reluctance to admit that apartheid was wrong and discriminating and that as the practice of apartheid favoured the process of affirmative action clearly and openly as long as the recipients were white, we now have to equalise the playing field by redressing the injustice of the past through boldly implementing corrective affirmative action programmes and policies (for a detailed discussion see chapter 3, section 3.5.2 and 3.5.2.1)in favour of the historically disadvantaged people of South Africa. The researcher therefore agrees with Makhobo but, on the other hand the researcher believes that the correct affirmative action programmes and policies should, for peace sake and for the good of every organisation, favour both the previously advantaged as well as the disadvantaged people of this country. The former Minister of labour Tito Mboweni observed that the mere mention of the term affirmative action, makes some insecure - "there go our jobs, the lowering of standards, racism in reverse". Clearly aware of the need to soothe privileged minority fears explained that affirmative action rectifies deep imbalances in society created by deliberate policies of the past. He believes that if this is not done, then "the democracy we are building will be fragile indeed" and the government would lose the legitimacy. To illustrate his point, Mboweni says it would not make sense if his department, or most of all the apartheid State institutions, continue to be dominated by white males while sewing a predominantly black

constituency. This did not mean the department's white staff would lose their jobs as more black personnel and women are hired; nor that blacks and women only could be hired in h t u r e (Kellerman, 1994:49). The above paragraph is supported when Mboweni explains that practically it will mean two things: A deliberate search to find suitable qualified blacks, bearing in mind that qualification does not simply mean academic degrees, but takes into account " the wealth of

appropriate experience that many without degrees may have attained over the years"; and Training people who have historically been discriminated against, t o empower them to assume certain posts and move them up the career path, "while guarding against tokenism". The researcher realises that change plays a major role and as such this change requires people to change their attitudes towards affirmative action. Unless we change our past attitudes and see affirmative action not as a lowering of standards, nor as an attempt to replace skilled white personnel, but as positive and desirable, we will not be comfortable with the changes that have to be implemented. The researcher therefore agrees with President Nelson Mandela when he says that the primary aim of affirmative action must therefore be to redress the imbalances created, by mechanics within the constitutional framework. He argued that if a true South African nation is to evolve, we have to break out of the circle of over-privilege and under-privilege.

3.5.1

LEGISLATING AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

According t o the Equal Opportunities Bill, companies that fail to abide by the statute's provisions will be committing a criminal offence and will be liable for a fine of up to RlOOO 000 and / or two years in prison. Employers will be given three months fiom the passage of the statute to submit an initial public report to the agency giving statistical information concerning affirmative action appointments and an outline of their processes. These will be supplemented by conftdential reports giving detailed analyses, if necessary. Employers will be expected to give a commitment to "employ, develop and promote qualified members of disadvantaged groups into positions previously not open to them".

Wage inequalities and informal conditions will have to be revised to ensure uniform conditions pertain to all workers, and employers will need to "create a work environment and culture that will be open to persons of diverse backgrounds" (Jankowits, 1994:1). In other words, it is unlikely that employers would be expected to employ 'qualified' persons. From the above paragraph Human (1993:6-7) mentions some tentative suggestions as to what might be expected of employers concerning a form of an affirmative action legislation, and they are put forward below: The purpose of an 'affirmative action' in employment statute might be to require employers in the formal sector, national, regional and local governments, universities and para-statals, to take affirmative action to ameliorate the continuing effects of apartheid policies and gender discrimination on employment. It is unlikely that an 'affirmative action in employment' statute would require the discharge of competent white males; it is also unlikely that affirmative action would be implemented without a time limit and without a stated concern that the concept of 'qualification' be retained. It may also be that an 'Equal Opportunities Commission' would be set up to enforce requirements, and requirements might also be enforced by private litigation in some circumstances. It is likely that the statute would make provision for the involvement of trade unions in the formulation, implementation and monitoring of affirmative action programmes, and may even make provision for trade unions and employers to negotiate their own programmes so long as they are consistent with the principles of the Act The statute would probably require employers to improve the position of blacks and women in a variety of ways, including the adoption of the principle of promotion from within, in order that blacks and women might move into positions formerly occupied by white men. In anticipation of a change of government and legislation governing affirmative action, one of the most disconcerting responses by the productive sector has been the rather superficial application of quota systems. The quota system means that all staff appointments must reflect the racial or gender composition of those in the job market. For example, if 25 per cent of all graduate engineers are black and 10 per cent are female, then

this ratios must be reflected in recruitment patterns in industry (Charlton & van Niekerk, 1994:53). In addition to the above statement Sachs (1994:20) is of the opinion that the quota systems have been introduced primarily through the recruitment of blacks into nonexecutive directorships or staff positions with limited accountability for budgets and even less signing powers for expenditure. The researcher agrees with Sachs that where the advancement o f blacks has taken place, it has often given rise to marginalised individuals. The pervasiveness and tenacity of racially determined systems have simply not been designed to readily incorporate black and female managers. To make matters easy it is therefore mentioned in the Bill that companies will be expected to provide educational and development assistance to incumbent employees so that they qualifjr for better jobs, and revise qualifications and selection criteria which discriminate against blacks and women. The Bill states that employers will submit fonvard estimates of the number of affirmative action positions they will fill within specified time frames and will have to confer responsibility for the development, implementation and continuous review of the programme on a person with "sufficient authority and status". From the previous paragraph it is realised that legislation will make a quota system obligatory for business and industry. To achieve a diversified workforce, many organisations have adopted Affirmative Action Programmes which will now be briefly discussed.

3.5.2

IMPLEMENTING AN AFFIRMATIVE ACTION PROGRAMME

-rmative Action programmes are becoming increasingly common in the workplace. Diversifjring the workplace is an important organisational goal as government continues to mandate equity in the workplace. To achieve a diversified workforce, many organisations have adopted affirmative action programmes. Leck (1996:79) says that the purpose of an affirmative action programme is to create an internal labour market that reflects the organisation's external labour market to increase opportunities for disadvantaged Group Members and to accommodate diversity in the workplace. By disadvantaged Group Members it means Blacks, Coloureds, Asians, Women and the Disabled.

The chief executive officer of the company must have accountability for the implementation of an affirmative action programme, policy and strategy of action. The importance of this approach ensures that affirmative action is not seen to be a domain of the human resource department, but an issue on which the company must have a formal policy. Nedcor's chief executive, Laubscher (1996:37) believes that the chief executive's role is central to providing the programme with drive and credibility. His sustained, visual hands - on approach to affirmative action will ensure the buy - in into the process by other key stakeholders such as line and senior management. (Verster, 1994:24) says that affirmative action needs to be an integral part of the strategic business plan of an organisation. Every executive director heading a division, such as finance, operations marketing and manufacturing, must also be held accountable for the implementation of affirmative action. The introduction and implementation of an affirmative action programme undoubtedly constitutes a labour practice. It follows that such a labour practice may well, on the face of it, fall foul of the unfair labour practice jurisdiction of the Industrial Court because it may, in certain circumstances, be regarded as discriminatory. This would be so, were it not for the considerations examined below. In view of the current definition of the unfair labour practice in the Labour Relations Act, No.66 of 1995 it may be argued that a failure to implement an affirmative action programme is unfair because, on the basis of past discrimination, the employer is perpetuating an unfairness on the employee but not taking reasonable steps to do away with the discrimination inherent in the system. Typical issues covered by an affirmative action programme include the appointment, promotion and training of employees. Similar to non-discriminatory policies they work to ensure that race, sex or other characteristics do not play a role in decisions such as appointments, promotions training and others. The theory of non-discrimination is that all individuals should be treated equally. In the interest of labour peace and sound industrial relations, an employer would be wise to at least consult a representative trade union on the proposed affirmative action programme. In terms of the present legislative framework, an employer who has introduced an affirmative action programme without proper consultation may be accused of reverse discrimination. Whether such accusation will hold muster requires consideration of the fundamental prioresses on which affirmative action programme is based. What criteria will a programme have to satisfy in order not to fall of a finding of discrimination? (Verster, 1994:25-27).

Aftirmative action programmes should be concerned with development; the development of formally disadvantaged groups to compete on an equal basis with white men. To concentrate simply on preferential or quota hiring, is to perpetuate the racism and sexism which have existed for so long. What is fair or affirmative about recruiting disadvantaged individuals for failure? Recruitment in the absence of development will tend to perpetuate the status quo and represents a continuation of racism and sexism of the past (Human, 1992:54). First of all, an objective need for corrective action should be evident. Most if not all, employers in South Africa should be able to show that past employment practices have at least unintentionally limited the ability of disadvantaged groups to obtain employment and/or advancement within the organisation. Once the need for an affirmative action programme has been established, the question arises: what about the right of employees who are not specifically targeted by the programme? An affirmative action programme which creates an absolute obstacle to the employment or advancement of employees who are not specifically targeted by the programme may be held to be unfair. But, on the other hand an affirmative action programme which only benefits groups that have not suffered discrimination will probably be found to be unfair. Jobs to be covered by an affirmative action programme The fairness or otherwise of an affirmative action programme involving employment preferences in favour of disadvantaged groups will have t o be evaluated on the facts of each particular case. An employer will, for example, not be required to promote every targeted employee who participates in an affirmative action training programme. If this were not so, an employer's right to manage his business would be unfairly trammelled. The unfair labour practice jurisdiction of the Industrial Court has to be exercised with due regard to fairness to both employer and employee. An employer should also take care that, where reference is made to race and/or sex in its programme, such criteria are mere example of a number of factors to be taken into consideration in applying its affirmative action programme (Verster, 1994:28). Vettor (1998:20) believes that any reasonable labour practice which supports the spirit and purpose of equality should withstand an argument of unfair discrimination. Therefore the judgement confirms widely held assumptions that discrimination against relatively privileged groups resulting from affirmative action measures does not necessarily amount to unfair discrimination. The researcher therefore is of the view that negative

discrimination is discrimination against groups which are presently disadvantaged and have suffered disadvantage in the past. The following discussion will concentrate of the basis of this study and will therefore now be discussed in details.

3.5.2.1

ESTABLISHING AN AFFIRMATIVE ACTION POLICY AND STRATEGY

No one affirmative action strategy is common to all organisations. Certainly, some general principle exist, but the activities require to support these general principles will vary from organisation to organisation depending on the current state of Human resources policies, procedures and practices. According to Charlton and van Niekerk (1993 : 153) an affirmative action policy statement provides an overview of what will happen in terms of the process as well as highlighting top management's commitment to the process. The policy should be completely transparent and definite concerning what is trying to achieve and why this is important to both the organisation and the individual. If it isn't, and a vague, watered-down, statement is issued, escalating anxiety can be the only result. Finally, policy is only as effective as the extent to which it is communicated throughout the organisation. An example of the context areas of an affirmative action policy statement is illustrated in figure 2. It can be seen that this policy statement provides an overview of what will happen in relation to affirmative action as well as highlighting top management's commitment to the process. From the example of an adud affirmative action policy statement (see figure 3), it can been seen that the policy is quite open about what is trying to achieve and why. The affirmative action policy statement may include reference to an affirmative action support person or specialist and affirmative action advisory committee. This support person could be a HR person or line manager, and is a link to the advisory committee and CEO. Specrfic roles could include advice regarding the process and implementation level as well as offering specific and regular feedback (both formal and informal) to the CEO and advisory committee. On the other hand, the initial task of the affirmative action advisory committee would be to ratify the affirmative action plan (Charlton van Niekerk, 1993:154-155).

Figure 4 refers to the example of an affirmative action support person or specialist as well as an affirmative action advisory committee. FIGURE 2:

AFFIRMATIVE ACTION POLICY STATEMENT-EXAMPLE OF CONTENT AREAS

The chief executive officer adopts and implements an affirmative action policy statemenl including, inter alia: Commitment to affirmative action is fully supported by: board chief executive officer senior management Trade union has been consulted about the formulation of the affirmative action programme. Chief executive officer will assume personal responsibility for the implementation of the programme, together with monitoring and evaluation. The chief executive officer expects all employees to co-operate hlly with these policies and abide by the (affirmative action) code of conduct. The employer will recruit, employ, develop, and promote qualified blacks and women into positions from which they have been formally excluded; ensure equal pay and conditions for work of equal value, and revise informal conditions to assure a move towards meaninghl equality. The employer will review policies and procedures to remove non-essential barriers to equal employment opportunity and to facilitate the inclusion of blacks and women in positions where they are currently underrepresented. The employer will review the current culture of the company and make reasonable . . efforts to create a non-racist and non-sexist working environment. Source: Human (1993:98)

The researcher agrees that the success of affirmative action requires commitment from CEO, management board and senior managers. One of the ways in which the CEO supports affirmative action is its recognition and encouragement of a network of an organisation's caucus groups. The groups meet on their own time and set their own time, rules and agendas, serving their members in these ways 1) as a communication link between the members and senior management; and as a forum for networking and support

within the caucus groups. This will be effective whereby the CEO consults trade unions about he formulation of affirmative action strategy, as a result the union members will support the strategy. The CEO has a significant role to play in assigning people to monitor and evaluate the process of affirmative action. He should also obtain everyone's co-operation on condition that he sensitised all about the need to implement affirmative action. Further the CEO must ensure the adoption of non-discriminatory selection procedures, the actual employment and promotion of members of previously disadvantaged groups as a means of removing discrimination. FIGURE 3:

AFFIRMATIVE ACTION POLICY STATEMENT-EXAMPLE OF ACTUAL DOCUMENT

INTRODUCTION In view of the changing socio-political environment in South Afhca, as well as to prepare ourselves for operation in a different economic, political, and legislative framework, it has been decided to adopt an affirmative action strategy as a means of creating employment equity. AfSirmative action means taking positive action to redress historic inequality and injustice. In a practical sense, affirmative action is a proactive development tool which requires a reevaluation of our current policies, practices and procedures in the following areas:

Promotions selection and recruitment development and training performance appraisal the responsibilities of line managers and human resources personnel job evaluation and reward systems

Source: Human (1993:99)

As far as this figure is concerned it is broadly discussed under section 3.5.2.2 whereby affirmative action documentation includes promotional procedures. For example, when blacks are appointed for higher positions the company must ensure that they have the required skills that will make it easier for them to reach decisions. The researcher believes that if a person does not have skills for a position appointed for he must first be trained to acquire necessary skills and thereafter be appointed to that position. The recruitment and selection processes are the first areas to be influenced as no section of

population may not be discriminated against. Hence organisations may need to alter their recruitment methods and advertising policies accordingly. The training and development needs of individual affirmative action candidates must also be addressed as they reflect actual job requirements. In other words, "what you learn in training today, you will use on the job tomorrow. In terms of performance appraisal employees are to be judged in terms of how well they do those parts of their jobs that really matter. Human resource is part of the strategic (business) plan. Therefore human resource personnel as well as line managers should form part of policy development and line extension planning. Little is done in the company that does not involve human resources personnel and line managers in the planning, policy or finalisation stages of affirmative action strategy to be implemented. Regarding job observation the researcher believes that before jobs can be ranked, it is important to understand what the jobs require. Job descriptions provide such understanding to those who must make job evaluation and compensation decisions. FIGURE 4:

AFFIRMATIVE ACTION SUPPORT PERSON OR SPECIALIST-ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES The purpose of an affirmative action support person (for example, a human resources specialist or line manager) is not to take the responsibility for the implementation of an affirmative action away from the chief executive officer and line managers but rather to support them in these activities. Nor should the affirmative action advisory committee be responsible for overseeing the formulation, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of the affirmative action plan. The purpose of the support person would be to perform the following kinds of functions:

(/

I /

(1

advise the employer on compliance with, and on policy changes or additions to, an affirmative action statute (if there is one); draft and secure approval by the chief executive officer and the affirmative action advisory committee of the detailed affirmative action plans for employment; assist with the monitoring of the affirmative action plans; receive, review, investigate, and evaluate concerns and complaints from both the beneficiaries of affirmative action and white males. This should be undertaken in confidence and attempts should be made to resolve disputes informally. The chief executive officer should be informed in writing of any disputes not resolved informally. The chief executive officer may decide to refer the matter to the affirmative action advisory committee for resolution; compile records and reports as and when required by the chief executive officer, the advisory committee, or any statutory body. Source: Human (1993:99)

II II 1I I!

II 1 1

/ 1

The support person will support the employer or CEO by advising him of policy changes to an affirmative action strategy. The researcher believes this person will generate key business strategies for the coming year and in doing so, to identify major factors that my have an impact on the future of the business. He acts like the driving force in the implementation of affirmative action strategy. Also, he must monitor the affirmative action strategy that it is presented accordingly and will not lead to its failure. The researcher recommends that this person must also be a researcher in his own capacity. He will have to compile a report on how employees regardless of sex, race, culture, colour, etc view affirmative action. Thereafter compile a document and hand it over to the CEO for his information as well as for filing, in case there is a dispute which will be resolved through the affirmative action policy. The Labour Relations Act determines that affirmative action should be subject to joint decision making by the management and the workplace forum. The not withstanding an affirmativeaction strategy is a change strategy and, as such, should be developed like any other change policy-that is, in collaboration with all other stakeholders in the organisation. A representative group which includes the union and the other employee representatives should be brought together to establish affirmativeaction objectives (to be discussed in chapter 4, section 4.2.1) and policies and to plan the necessary strategies. This may prove to be a slow process, since different groupings will strive to protect their own interest, which may be in conflict with affirmative action objectives. Thus, extensive information and a sharing of values and perception are necessary at stage. Understanding needs to be displayed for the fears of many existing stakeholders and, where possible, the necessary assurances should be given. Most importantly, no group should see themselves permanently excluded from opportunities and development. Furthermore, all participants should be provided with information regarding the prospects of the organisational manpower planning and the existing demographics (Bendix, 1996: 594-595). During this stage the group should come to an agreement regarding the following: Their understanding of affirmative action, Their understanding of the term 'representative', The affirmative action objectives to be adopted by the organisation, and an overall strategy for achieving such objectives,

The matter in which candidates for positions are to be canvassed and selected,

(

The possibility of developing persons within the organisation, etc The contents of an affirmative action strategy, according to Human (in Charlton and va Niekerk, 1994: 153) are likely to include the following: a continuing strategic commitment to affirmative action as a creating employment equity and sustaining competitive advantage; a continuing and active commitment by top management to the implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the affirmative action strategy; the measurement and appraisal of line management in relation to affirmative action objectives; a critical analysis of the Human resource function and the development of a mission and strategy to support line managers in all aspects of the management of the human resources; and their related affirmative action components, etc. The following table shows the important steps which would need to be followed to develop an affirmative action strategy. The formation and implementation of such a strategy are discussed in the paragraphs that follow. The formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the affirmative action strategy can continue in the way presented in figure 5. From figure 5 it can be seen that, after the formulation of the affirmative action strategy, there exists a need to communicate the strategy to employees as well as to make employees aware of their roles and responsibilities in this regard. Management may also need to be trained in people management skills and re-evaluation of an affirmative action strategy is crucial to its continued success (Human, 1993.17- 18).

T a b l e I:

T h e following s u m m a r i z e s t h e approach o f Affirmative Action

Identifying competencies underpinning success 0 Gap between supply of and demand for human competence 0

Affirmative action awareness creation O Leadinglmarketing upwards concerning the need for people development/affirmative action as a strategic issue Obtaining top management commitment

a

Affirmative action audit Where we are now in relation to affirmative action and current R workforce composition 0 attitudes and perception 0 review HR policies/practices, 0 recruitment, selection, and training

un

Where we want to be Strategy formulation O Formulation targets/objectives O Specific roles and responsibilities of CEO, line managers, employees, HR function, etc.

Policy statement Affirmative action support person

O Affirmative action advisory committee

0 Selection, appraisal, development, reward and culture change strategies

0 Communication strategy (leadership

a

competence)

IMPLEMENTATION

Sensitising workshops

S o u r c e : C h a r l t o n & van N i e k e r k (1994:160)

Trainingldevelopment

FIGURE 5:

THE AFFIRMATIVE ACTION STRATEGY FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS

Sensitising workshop Affirmative action audit I Re-evaluation of current affirmative action strategy

I

1

Formulation of affirmative action policy statement; formulation of organisation specific affirmative action strategy

I

I

workshop; to communicate affirmative action strategy

-

I I

Training of managers in roles and responsibility Training of managers in people management skills I

Training of managers in managing diversity

Monitoring and re-evaluation

-

I

Source: Human (1993:88) The need to communicate the affirmative action strategy to employees syndicates that all the policy and strategy will be shared with them in an organisation. Therefore the next issue will be to discuss the involvement of all employees.

3.5.2.2 INVOLVEMENT OF ALL EMPLOYEES Bendix (1996:595) is of the opinion that once a policy and a strategy have been agreed upon, these should be shared with every employee in the organisation - possibly via the different stakeholders on the committee. In this instance important stakeholders such as employees at various levels and trade unions are consulted about the formulation of an affirmative action strategy. The manner in which such consultation takes place varies from organisation to organisation. In some organisations, trade union members and other constituencies provide input to the audit and are subsequently consulted about the results (see figure 6). In other organisations the process is less participative. However, legislation overseas has tended to prescribe that companies consult trade unions about their affirmative action programmes; similarly, the ANC has stressed the role of trade unions in this regard (Human, 1993: 19). FIGURE 6:

DEVELOPING ACTION AND PEOPLE DEVELOPMENT

STRATEGY

1 . Assessment of stock and flow data 2. Assessment of human resources, policies and procedures 3. Audit based on critical success factors 4. Formulation of strategy, incorporating suggestions of important stakeholders 5. Feedback of results of 1-3 to important stakeholders 6. Communicate strategy 7. Train in strategy

8. Assign responsibility and accountability 9. Adjust reward systems 10. Develop monitoring and evaluation systems Source: Human (1993:89)

The researcher therefore believes that the involvement of employees in the design and the implementation of the affirmative action strategy will offer their understanding of how equity for different groups can be achieved and, in turn, educating them about models of fairness and equity. Both whites and blacks should constitute part of the decision - makers, not only blacks. Failure to make affirmative action an inclusive policy is not acceptable. White males specifically also need affirmative action in the form of the provision of equal opportunity.

In addition to this affirmative action initiatives which are implemented without proper consultation cause distrust and fear, leading either to disregard of the initiative or, at worst, to constant sabotage. This, too, is not an easy process and has to be approached with great sensitivity. Existing employees need to be given all relevant information, to understand the objectives and their business logic, and to receive the necessary assurances regarding their own job security. Numerous workshops, sensitisation sessions and interactions may be necessary at this stage. If this is not done, employees will deliberately withhold information and assistance from new incumbents, or isolate them within the organisation. Only after it has the assurance of general acceptance should management go ahead with its affirmative action strategy (Bendix, 1996:595-596). The following are affirmative action strategies which need to be implemented in South African organisations:

- Selection and Appointment of New Incumbents - Integrating Appointees into the Organisation - Monitoring and Performance Appraisal - Career Planning and Career Development - Support to Education and Training Initiatives

Selection and Appointment of New Incumbents According to Cascio (1 998: 172) once new employees are selected, orientated and placed, they can be trained to achieve a competent level of job performance. One of the issues confronting internal recruitment is the reluctance of managers to grant permission for their subordinates to be interviewed for potential transfer or promotion. It is therefore important that promotion from within policies be receive strong top management support, coupled with a company philosophy that permits employees to consider available opportunities within the organisation. Employers need to establish contacts in the groups targeted for recruitment based on credibility between the contact and the targeted groups. Allow plenty of lead time for the contacts in the targeted groups to notify prospective applicants and for the applicants to apply for available positions. Bendix (1996:596) mentions that in the light both of the fact that certain groups were disadvantaged as regards education and of the fact that educational qualifications are not necessarily indicative of competence, these should not constitutes the primary criteria as was the case in the past. Selectors have to identify the competency requirements of the job

and to establish methods whereby such competencies can be tested or assessed. Once criteria have been established and assessment techniques developed, it is necessary to attach a weighting to each criterion. This is where affirmative action candidates can be given an edge, by adding membership of a previously disadvantaged group as a criterion and applying special, proportionate weighting to this. Should the demographics have proved that particular groups are less represented in the organisation or job category, the weighting given (for example) to black females could be heavier than that assigned to white females. In canvassing candidates for the position it is necessary that advertisements list the competencies and experience level required, and that such advertisements reach as wide an audience as possible. It is preferable for selectors to approach persons who may not yet be filling a potion at a particular level but who display the potential to grow into the job. According to Venter (1997: 15) interview - related techniques and assessment methods that simulate or use practical situations to identifir competence should also be utilised. The total 'scores' obtained by candidates in tests, assessments and interviews serve as guidelines to identi@ the best candidates. Once this has been done, the selection panel discusses the merits and demerits of each case, being in mind the 'fit' into the organisation and affirmative action objectives. (to be discussed in chapter 4 section 4.2.1). An affirmative action candidate who may score slightly less than another candidate, but who also has displayed the potential to develop into the position, would then in all probability be appointed over the other candidate who may, at this stage, be slightly better, but not that much better. The researcher agrees with this statement by saying "A person should not be pushed in a position for the mere fact that helshe has been disadvantaged in the past. This would cause some harm to both the organisation and the appointee who will not be able to prove himselflherself worthy of the position. A person should deserve a position by delivering the best so that those above him cannot doubt hislher potential. And this could be achieved if one is competent enough, and by not avoiding a challenge of any sort coming hislher way. The researcher is of the opinion that selection criteria which have the effect of directly or indirectly discriminating against particular categories of people and which are not essential for the performance of the work concerned, should be avoided. If possible developmental programmes should be instituted for as wide a group of employees as possible, together with new appointees, and it should be made clear that eventual promotion will be dependent on competencies achieved. If these programmes are not established various problems may arise: for example, persons identified may eventually

prove unsuitable, or other employees may be unhappy at not been granted the same opportunity (Bendix, l996:597). After new incumbents have been selected and appointed the next step will be to integrate them into the organisation and this will now be discussed. Integrating Appointees into the organisation

Bendix (1996:597) states that all new incumbents (and not only affirmative action appointees) should be properly integrated by way of an effective induction programme. If affirmative action candidates have been properly selected, they will more than likely accomplish their own integration, but it may happen that others in the organisation put obstacles in their way. The researcher believes that consequently, quiet counselling and training in self assertion may be necessary, especially where younger candidates are involved, and this will help the company to manage performance better, as will be discussed next Monitoring and Performance Appraisal

All new employees, whether appointed in terms of an affirmative action policy or not, may be placed on probation and their performance monitored on an ongoing basis. A procedure for this is outlined in the Labour Relations Act (Act no. 66. of 1995). A crucial part of productive affirmative action is to ensure that individual and organisational performance is maintained and improved. Also, the performance of individuals will be under continuos scrutiny from many sides, so for their own protection the performance expected of them should be spelled out clearly and evaluated objectively. All such employees need to be given regular feedback as regards their performance. If they do not meet expectations, they should be given the necessary assistance and training. The same would apply to employees who are no longer on probation, although here the monitoring takes the form of regular, interactive performance appraisals. Any employee who, having been given all the assistance and training required, still does not perform satisfactorily may eventually be dismissed. Performance appraisal provides feedback to employees regarding their past and present job performance proficiency, as well as a basis for improving performance in the future. The first time a new employee's performance is appraised, it is like pushing the button that starts a continuos loop comprising the employee's performance, the manager's appraisal

of it, and the communication between the two about performance and appraisal. Remember that when you evaluate the performance of new hires, you are doing so within the context of a system, a network of human resource activities, and you are really appraising recruitment, selection and training among the I-IRM activities (Cascio, 1998:172). In the research been done by Venter (1997: 19) some of the companies which they studied felt so strongly about the need to evaluate the performance of the individuals. Thus, they saw a proper performance management system as a prerequisite for successfid affirmative action. An effective performance management system will fit in with other support systems such as coaching, mentoring and career management. Coaching is simply an extension of the development responsibility of all managers/supervisors. These people have to be taught how to hlfil this role adequately if necessary. Mentoring is related to coaching but it tends to be a specific support relationship formed with somebody out of the line of authority directly above the protege (the person being developed under the guidance of the mentor). Usually the protege has some choice in who Mfils this role. Career management is related to mentoring but provides proteges with a structure for career development in their organisations. When individuals are constantly measuring themselves against indicators of success in the agreed critical performance areas, it helps them to: understand their own performance form a realistic picture of their capabilities and therefore keep their expectations realistic provide a basis for discussion in mentoring and coaching sessions. From the above the researcher believes that a healthy competition can play an important role in raising individual performance. On the other hand Laubscher (1996:38) is of the opinion that appraisals are vital in identifjring the restrictions affecting performance and the gap between the existing competencies and extra competencies required to do the job. Performance appraisals therefore form a critical aspect in the training and development of individuals. However, appraisals cannot be undertaken without the prior setting of clear and measurable targets and goals for employees through performance agreements. The researcher has therefore decided to formulate the so-called performance dimensions,

namely, ability, motivation and opportunity which a person should consider in appraising performance. This is schematically represented in figure 7. According to the researcher it is important it is important for individuals to know their strong points, in other words, where their ability or potential lies as far performance is concerned. If not performing accordingly or either lacking some ability in the position appointed for, they must the initiative by being self-motivated. They must not rely on other people and wait for them to give them ideas on what t o do. It ids an obvious fact that some skilled people are unhappy about the implementation of affirmative action in organisatins, so in no way they will motivate affirmative action candidates in improving their skills and on the way to follow in enhancing their abilities. The researcher believes that it is therefore an individual's responsibility to go around (i.e have motivation) and get some information on opportunities lying ahead of them in improving their performance. Through training and development sessions, having employer-employee discussions on performance feedback, the researcher is more than convinced that the individual's ability to perform accordingly will improve.

Figure 7:

Performance Dimensions

ABILITY

PERFORMANCE

Source: Designed by the researcher

Career Planning and Career Development

In all organisations, one facet of manpower planning is succession planning and career development. If this is properly done, it offers an ideal route for developing previously disadvantaged persons from both inside and outside the organisation to fill more important positions in the h t u r e (Bendix, 1996:598). In addition to the above, the Employment Equity Act (1999:56) mentions that the above subheading highlights the necessity to proactively provide career paths for members of disadvantaged groups. In terms of this strategy, the development of beneficiaries becomes an essential part of the organisation's career management process. Employees are put through accelerated development programmes which provide them with the necessary skills t o cope with the demands of the management process. In addition to the above paragraph Laubscher (1996:39) states that each employee, together with hislher supervisorlmanager, should develop a career path based on the employee's potential, career interests and goals. The existence of a career path plan assists with the development of succession planning in each division and the organisation. The development of participants in affirmative action programmes should go hand in hand with the correct identification of potential. The pace and level of development programmes must be matched to the potential of participants. Furthermore, development must fit the organisational circumstances and should take place through an appropriate mix of training, job responsibilities and support systems (such as mentorship schemes) t o ensure that the latent potential of participants is unfolded as far as possible. The researcher agrees that to select one or two people and groom them for a future position may prove unsatisfactory. The training provided should be both general and specific, so that candidates who are not eventually selected for the targeted positions may apply for other positions. One other affirmative action strategy to be discussed is education and training. Support to Education and Training

Education and training is the only guarantee of the success of the affirmative action initiatives and in fact, of increased economic prosperity. Laubscher (1996:40) states that effective equality of opportunity targeted groups have to be given accelerated training to enable them t o acquire a higher level of skills. Training ensures that people selected to fill

identified roles are properly qualified and empowered to perform their jobs. A good example for this is provided by the researcher by saying that a fresh graduate fiom the university or technicon needs to be trained for the new job in an organisation, as this would be a first work experience. This would allow a graduate to put a theoretical knowledge into practice. South Africa cannot hnction without effective human resources, and it cannot continue to draw such resources from a limited pool of educated and trained employees. A "Human Resource Development Model" will therefore be needed as it will offer retail-specific training as well as lifeskills programmes. An important principle which permeates the nature of this development model is the expectation we have that each individual accepts responsibility for his or her personal development. The researcher is of the opinion that training and development must not become overexclusive and be targeted only at disadvantaged groups such as blacks. Organisations should consider the fact that affirmative action is not just a "black" problem in the sense that only black people need to be developed. It is also a "white" problem in the sense that whites must learn how to be developers of human potential. Besides the promotion of training and development, business needs to support adult literacy and education programmes, to become actively involved with training institutions and to provide them with input and support.

3.6

CONCLUSION

First of all, the nature of affirmative action is discussed. Secondly, the definition of the term affirmative action is provided. There are two reasons for the research to provide the meaning of affirmative action to the reader and they are: (i) the term affirmative action is going to be used very often in the entire study, (ii) most organisations in South Africa have already began to implement it. Thirdly, the following two issues are thoroughly explained and they are legislating affirmative action and implementing an affirmative action program. The emphasis on this two issues is important as there it is the government 's intention to see each and away citizen of this country benefiting within the organisation where he/she is employed.

Therefore the implementation of affirmative action in organisation is seen as key which will open the gates for the majority of people in this country through equal employment opportunity' (for more information on this part refer to chapter 5). Lastly, the researcher looks at the way in which employees are being involved in organisations.

CHAPTER 4

EFFECTS OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION ON ORGANISATIONS 4.1

INTRODUCTION

Affirmative action is not about fads, morals, leveling playing fields or moving goal posts, but about developing a growth strategy that will result in the business becoming world class and competitive by investing in human capital. The researcher discussed the following in this chapter: reasons for implementing affirmative action, its objectives as well as the results thereof. Further, affirmative action and change, focusing mainly on groups' management of change and management of resistance are looked at. This goes together with five affirmative action models that are basically in use in South African organisations. De Bruyn (1996:84) is of the opinion that culture differences should be understood and the people should not be forced to change and live in a new culture setting. Affirmative action lies in the ability to understand and accept cultural differences and not to force people to change and live in a new cultural setting. Herein lies, the puts of our assumption, changing mindsets to develop a shared vision to break down the wall between dominant Western culture and marginalised African culture. Every South African should at this time have become aware that 'cross-cultural integration', the managing of diversity of all marginalized groups and all the other very goal terms currently being used for one single requirement, i.e the integration of blacks into the decision-making levels of South African business, can no longer be maintained. However, in the light of the current political and economic situation, the pressure will be placed on organisations to develop, a company policy of equity for all employees - with the emphasis on one that will position the organisation to gain acceptance in a new political dispensation, i.e, demographic representation in decision-making positions in organisations. The researcher is of the opinion that the h t u r e of capitalism depends on the economic empowerment of blacks and the improvement of the standard of living of the masses. To the majority of blacks capitalism spells exploitation and suffering. They have not yet tasted the fruits of capitalism, hence their belief that capitalism bears no fiuits except for the few. It is therefore in their interest to destroy it. African affirmative action with that of outside countries might make it possible for its implementation to succeed as organisations will be able to separate the pros and cons of afirmative action.

4.2

REASONS FOR IMPLEMENTING AFFIRMATIVE ACTION To upgrade South Africa's low profitability levels. There is a pool of people in the country without skills and there are no mechanisms to identify and develop them. For example in South Africa there is high productivity\quality focus, but little effort towards developing human potential. 30% of the workforce is hnctionally illiterate. But the researcher believes that with affirmative action those people can be identified and developed (Mabuza, 1999). To eradicate poverty in the country. The researcher believes that one cannot enjoy all the money's he or she has, whereas people around are poor. This can result in a situation whereby they attack and kill you, leading to an increase of crime rate. People should be given jobs to look after themselves and the only way to do this; is by implementing afirmative action. To attract investors in a country. If there is a high crime rate in South M i c a , it will create instability within organisations. Thus people outside the country will be scared to invest their money in our organisations. But the researcher is of the opinion that; with the implementation of affirmative action people will be provided with jobs and be trained. As such the crime rate will reduce and people will invest their money in the country. To ensure that previously disadvantaged persons are no longer subjected to discrimination and that past imbalances arising fiom discrimination, male dominance and prejudice are eliminated (Bendix, 1996:529). To improve the social well being of people: It is the researcher's concern that organisations must invest more money by helping in the Reconstruction and Development Programme of the community within which they operate. The purpose of this is to improve the social life of their employees. Khoza 1993 argues that affirmative action is necessary because sociopolitical and economic inequalities do not evaporate. A conscious programme is needed to involve and empower the victims of oppression at all levels of our society. To find suitably qualified blacks, bearing in mind that qualifications do not simply mean academic degrees, but take into account the wealth of appropriate experience that many without degrees may have attained over the years

To train people, who have historically been discriminated against, to empower them to assume certain posts and move them up the career path, while guarding against tokenism (de Bruyn, l996:6). Figure 8 illustrates where we are today as far as the racial composition of our management structure is concerned. This figure excludes supervisors and represents a population of 1642 line managers (males and females) of which Black; Coloured and Asian executives members 590 or 36%. To balance the population demographics in South African organisations. From what the researcher sees is that these population demographics do not reflect the number of people in organisations. For example in Company X most individuals occupying top positions are the minority being whites; whereas blacks are the majority (refer to figure 8). So what is needed is to add more value on training and developing black people in the corporate or staff divisions; as well as considering literacy education as it is an essential part of Adult Basic Education (A.B.E). For education and training purposes. This is needed in South African organisation in order to get at previously disadvantaged groups. For example the S.P.A. consultants 1998 (in Dumsani, 1998) found that only 0.5% to 1% of wage bill spent on education and training where as in Europe it is 4% to 6% and Japan is 10%. Barker (1999:219) stated that during 1989, it was estimated that employers in South Africa spend an average only 2% of their total payroll on training, compared to about 5% in other countries. This relatively low level of training expenditure in South Africa was confirmed in a survey conducted by the National Training Board (NTB) in 1996, which found that companies spent an average of 3,3% of their total payroll on training. This compares with 5% by major trading partners (for example the USA). This proves that we are far behind with education and training programmes as compared to other countries. But the researcher believes that with affirmative action the standard of education and training can be improved, so that Blacks; Coloureds; Indians a n d woman can see themselves as the most important part of the organisation. Through affirmative action culture of identity will be brought forward; as such the four groups mentioned above will add more value at the organisation.

Figure 8:

Line Management

ALL GRADES

. WHITES m COLOUREDS . BLACKS

6%

o ASIANS

=

POPULATION

1642

Source: Adams (1993:95) 4.2.1 AFFIRMATIVE ACTION OBJECTIVES It is important to create national awareness regarding the significance of aff1l1Ilative action as an interim process towards achieving South Mica's vision; not as an end in itself. People need to know that affirmative action is the right thing to do and embrace it with both arms. It is important to define clearly what its objectives are and encourage the same understanding with everyone. The following objectives are mentioned:

.

To diminish inequalities and to decrease (or at least avoid increasing) ethnic conflicts. Thus it can be deduced that affirmative action should remedy the consequences of this is the reason for countries implementing such policies (Meiner, 1993:14).

.

To reduce or eradicate social stratification at all levels within a society. In this regard reference is made to education and training as well as shared wealth regardless of race, gender or religion (Cornelissen, 1994:9).

64

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To create a society where everyone has the same chance to get on in life. However, if black men and women are being provided opportunities at the expense of white males, can this be said to be effective, positive affirmative action? Affirmative action needs to be an inclusive policy where all groups, including white males, stand to benefit. Integral to any afflrmative action policy, therefore, is the need to affirm equal opportunity for white men. Anything less is not equal opportunity; nor is it positive affirmative action (Fischer, 1996:30). The researcher agrees with the above objectives as they focus on the positive outcomes of affirmative action. For example, it is true that affirmative action is not in favour of treating people unequal and correcting the imbalances of the past. For the sake of people development within the organisation they need to be educated and trained to acquire necessary skills. It is also important to know that affirmative action does not discriminate and to prove that it supports equal treatment of all, no matter their differences. Verster (1994: 1) mentioned some of the objectives such as to ensure that employees are broadly representative of South Africa's race groups at all levels and in all disciplines and to create better representation of minorities and one that more closely reflected the make up of the state's population. Also to assist the organisation in managing change in its value system to keep abreast of current needs as well as embarking on affirmative action programme to accelerate the intake and development of Blacks into the most suitable areas. Another objective mentioned is to develop selection and development strategies that will ensure the maintenance of standards within the organisation. The other important ones are to create a favourable climate for cross-cultural integration and acceptance of differences and to have a human resources plan that will accommodate a representative number of blacks in supervisory/managerial positions as soon as possible.

In addition to the above-mentioned Wingrove ( 1993:91-92) points out objectives such as to develop creativity in the work place through empowerment; to ensure that all work practices, policies and facilities are equitable; to ensure that the culture in organisations is conductive to afflrmative action and to acquire radical upward mobility for the disadvantaged by promoting skills and abilities. The above objectives serve as the reasons for the success of affirmative action (see chapter 6 section 6.7). If they can be properly implemented affirmative action might not be such a pain or threat but might be supported by every stakeholder within the organisation. On the other hand if these objectives are not met it is possible that they may lead to the failure of affirmative action. Edwards (1995:29-30) identified five broad aims for affirmative action and they are: compensation, equality of opportunity as an end in itself and as a means to other ends,

diversity, and racial equality or justice. It would seem - at least on a first analysis, that we use affirmative action to promote equality of opportunity (to be discussed in chapter 5) in order to increase minority representation and in order to compensate and to promote diversity. Equality of opportunity, it would appear, is as much a means to other ends as an end in itself. It is also used to help promote ethnic minority businesses, which may also be viewed as an end in itself or a means of improving the social and economic status of minorities. The inter-relationship between the various means and goals are diagrammatically represented in figure 9. The mentioned affirmative action goals will be more directly accomplished by means of preferential treatment which will by-pass the equal opportunity stage. The reseacher's view on this is that preferential treatment should be practiced in case of blacks with skills and not just to fill quotas of aff~rmativeaction. This will symbolise that they have gained equality with their white counterparts. But at the same time this should not hamper whites to develop and be put in higher positions. Where equality o f opportunity is seen as a means of compensation for past harm it will normally best be seen as an end in itself, hlfilling a requirement ofjustice. Finally, when affirmative action is used to meet needs, it may be seen as contributing to greater equality of opportunity or, again, as an end in itself by the way of hlfilling the needslprinciples of justice and hence promoting racial equality or distributive justice. Affirmative action could only be perceived as successful if all of the next objectives or goals have been achieved. This is, however, only possible if detailed strategies are formulated for each objective.

4.2.2 RESULTS OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION The outcome of affirmative action can be both positive or negative and they are as follows: 4.2.2.1 ADVANTAGES:

~ n t e r n k i o n a l l ~affirmative , action is accepted as a fair way of addressing discriminatory practices of the past. It is also a means of challenging current human resources strategies and creating an environment in which employees can develop and be promoted on merit, irrespective of race, gender or religion. With affirmative action, social, economic or educational imbalances are redressed. Affirmative action coupled to human resources development is aimed at the attainment of high-quality performance (Cornelissen, 1994:9). Affirmative action hopes on attracting foreign investors to South Africa. In fact the Western Cape WESGRO is in process of putting together a programme t o attract Europeans, Japanese, Americans and Chinese to come and invest in the region. Apart from their entrepreneurial spirit, their technology, their management capabilities, their markets, we badly need their capital! Without this shot in the arm there are serious doubts about whether the desired growth of the South African economy be attained and sustained. Support for affirmative action help blacks to empower themselves as they are becoming important players in the economy. Statistics bandied around suggest that already 50% of the buying power is in the hands of blacks. And of course this percentage will increase as more and more blacks move to the urban areas and enter the mainstream economy. An important advantage being ushered in by the new dispensation is acceptance that South Africa belongs to all South Africans, and all have to contribute to our common destiny. In the past the disadvantaged people were despondent and hopeless. They could not care whether South Africa was a success or a failure. In sport for instance, most blacks would normally cheer foreigners whenever a South African team had occasion to play against other countries. In the workplace they did not have a stake in the business, they could not move up the ladder even if they were good workers, they were paid lower wages, even if they contributed more than their white counterparts (Adams, 1993:52-54). According to the researcher one of the advantages of affirmative action is the fact that people are given the skills on how to open their own small businesses or rather empower themselves for the sake of reducing the high rate of unemployment in the country which usually leads to crime.

4.2.2.2 DISADVANTAGES:

It is virtually impossible to set measurable objectives for affirmative action, and it is therefore difficult to evaluate the success achieved with such programmes and to determine when such programmes are no longer necessary. Affirmative action could also lead to a culture of demand and high expectations among disadvantaged groups. The introduction of affirmative action could lead to a lowering of standards and damage economic efficiency. Affirmative action may increase people's racial consciousness instead of lowering it. Too many groups may demand preferential treatment. Members of disadvantaged groups who do not need such preferential treatment benefit unfairly by affirmative action. Affirmative action can h e 1 racial tension and conflict. Affirmative action can actually have the opposite effect to what it tries t o achieve (Cornelissen, 1994:9).

Now that the advantages and disadvantages of affirmative action have been dealt with, the researcher is of the opinion that they bring clarity on the negativeness as well as positiveness of affirmative action programmes. For instance if one looks at the advantage of attracting foreign investors to South Africa- this improves the country's economic situation. On the other hand when looking at this disadvantage - affirmative action can influence racial tension and conflict. This, when affirmative action is not implemented correctly as in using blacks as tokens for senior positions can bring sadness in white employees who have more skills and experience for that senior position.

4.3

AFFIRMATIVE ACTION AND CHANGE

4.3.1 THE NEED FOR CHANGE

Before one could initiate change, people need to be aware that there is a need for change. Thus South African business has to change and, although this may seem to be paradoxical, it has to change fast if it is t o survive at all. South African managers should place their focus beyond immediate contingencies and circumstances, become proactive rather than reactive, and undergo a radical paradigm shift. If not, all efforts at becoming winning organisations are bound to fail. Change should be taken with employees and management participating on an equal basis - as such, mistrust and misperception will inhibit, if not will destroy any positive effects other measures might have. It is needed that mutual trust and constructive personal relationships are prerequisite for changing present practices and establishing effective and legitimate business practices. Perception of management and employees, both black and white have to be addressed so as to create relationships based on mutual trust and respect.

This can be best done through facilitated and structured workshops addressing perception, fears, prejudices and hopes openly. Furthermore it is important that senior management accepts that change is an essential part of staying in the business and that the company's medium and long term strategy is align with this (Mokoena, 1997:8). The need to change emphasis from promotion oriented goals t o horizontally enriching goals, firm alienation to orientation and from individualistic approach to team work. For example, management should no longer make decisions on their own, they should include unions as well as employees for decision - making. The researcher is of the opinion that it is necessary to know how the impact of change could be measured and this is found in Moolman (l996:322-323):

0

employee loyalty towards the organisation; moral of the employees, before, during and after the implementation of the change; labour turnover in the organisation; absence in the workplace; and increase or decrease of grievances.

The researcher agrees with Moolman as change can bring about a behaviour that is unacceptable in a workplace. For instance some employees might be disloyal in their daily duties because of not being satisfied abut certain changes in the organisation. Some, their worklife might lack morals which they used to have before the implementation of change. The implementation of change can also lead to strikes, go-slow, picketing and some employees may see this as an opportunity to take unapproved leaves. In most cases change brings about an increase of grievances which in the long run affect the company's production

4.3.2 THE DYNAMICS OF CHANGE

I

South Africa is in transition. Changes have taken place on the political, social and Ieconomic fronts at an increasingly rapid pace (especially since the announcement of 2 February 1990 in Parliament of President F.W. de Klerk up to 27 April 1994 when South Africa had its first democratic non-racial election). Past practices and wisdom are being openly challenged and, business is having to confront the most fundamental political change in its modern history adapting to the new realities of a new South Africa. One such adoption that will have to be made is the need to come to terms with affirmative action

Change is a process, not a single event. It has been going on in this country for the best part of twenty years and especially over the last ten years (South African Institute for Race Relations, 1991:10). If you want to see the new South Africa you need only look around and observe the increasing presence of black people in what were designed to be exclusively white reserved jobs, suburbs, universities, technikons, hotels, cities, beaches and other facilities. Organisations have failed to keep pace with the far - reaching changes in international human resource management and are all ill - prepared to meet the challenges of the future. Human resources managers often complain that the majority if their time is spent putting out fires... running from one crisis to another. They are pressured by senior management to eliminate labour hostility, but fail to realise that stability and control are the enemies of change. The most significant change business has experienced over the past 15 to 20 years is the change in the needs and expectation of employees. They are no longer tolerant of such frivolous comments as "our people are our greatest asserts" and other management lies. Fancifbl mission statements that commit to people development are often so far from the real experience of employees that they represent more fantasy than fact. Employees seek proof. Whilst the needs and expectations of employees have changed dramatically management have persisted with "stability and control". In their determination to contain labour unrest, management have tended to focus more on peace than on productivity (Fuhr, 1995:19). From the above statement the researcher is of the opinion that organisational change requires, in the first place, a change of heart by all participants and therewith a change in organisational culture. Following this all stakeholders need to be continually involved in what may prove to be a dynamic and never - ending process. But how can this change be managed? The answer is now to be discussed below.

4.3.3

THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE

The researcher believes that for change to be managed it is first important that individuals change their behaviour. South Africans have been conditioned by apartheid over many decades to see people not as individuals but as members of different racial groups and as a result racism, and racial segregation is ingrained in the minds and hearts of many South Africans We should try to accept one another no matter the differences we have. In addition to this the researcher agrees with both Van Wyk and Pienaar (2000: 1) that it is important for employers and workers, as the two major role players in the labour relationship to join hands in an attempt to change the workplace so that it can improve the economic, social and competitive performance of the company as a producer and employer, in terms of world class performance. Burgher (1979: 13 1) once mentioned that there are many valid ways to develop an organised approach to the management of change. No one approach is appropriate in

every circumstance. It remains for the change agent (refer to chapter 4 section 4.3.3.1 for more information) to evaluate to his own situation and develop the best way to manage it. Managers are constantly having to cope with change in their own jobs, their departments and companies. Some of thus change is revolutionary, some evolutionary, some recognisable, some not. Internal and external forces are causing managers to act and to react in introducing changes in their immediate business environment of change, synthesis is the key. According to Ottaway (1979:3) training is often the core of a change strategy. Change is constant and, to be dealt with effectively, the management must prepare, develop strategies and plan and develop the need for change. This, of course as mentioned earlier, is a never - ending process. To manage change effectively involves the ability to create a new synthesis of management of change demands attention to all these some conflicting issues and challenges. Therefore in period MacDonald (1996:28) says the development of a change management focus is a critical human resource management role and is a process which must be human resource management driven, with support and inputs from line management and all stakeholders Change management challenges which must be addressed are as follows: Appropriate restructuring which will enable flatter structures and facilitate greater participation and involvement in decision - making and improved communication. Facilitating the establishment of a set of core values which translate into an appropriate value system to which all stakeholders subscribe. Encouraging regular culture and climate audits which measure the fit between culture and systems and allow for the identification of critical areas still requiring development. Strategies that will ensure that the business maintains an appropriate balance between operations and service management (i.e. focusing sufficient energies on developing the operational side of the business and customer service levels). The researcher is of the opinion that all individual employees or groups have the right to participate and be involved with management when operation's decision-making is taking place. In this way there will be a continuous improvement in o f performance as all stakeholders will be satisfied. Effective communication within teams and the organisation as a whole, is crucial if excellence in all aspects is to be achieved. For communication to be more effective it should include regular departmental meetings between managers and the team or the group or union leaders, managers adopting an open communication

style and more consultation before decisions are made by senior managers that affect everybody within an organisation. There should be values and norms in organisations which everyone has to adhere to and, these values and norms should be applied to equally. It is important to develop the skills of employees who are put in new positions for the sake of avoiding negative attitudes and failure of affirmative action. There is also an importance to meet the need and expectations of customers to show good customer service. It is important to ensure that the appropriate "drivers" of organisational change are in place and that they are sustainable (Watson, 1996:24). According to Cummings and Huse (1989:108) the diversity o f practical advice for managing change can be organised into five major activities (as shown in figure 10). The activities contribute to effective change management and are listed in roughly the order in which they are typically performed. The first activity involves motivating change and includes creating a readiness for change among organisational members and helping them to overcome resistance to change. The second activity is concerned with creating a vision for a desired future state of the organisation. The vision provides a direction for change and serves as a bench mark for assessing progress. The third activity involves developing political support for change. Organisations are composed of p o w e h l individuals and groups who can either block or promote change, and change agents need to gain their support in order to implement changes. The fourth activity is concerned with managing the transition from the current state to the desired future state. The fifth activity involves sustaining momentum for change so that it will be carried out to completion.

Figure 10:

Activities contributing to Effective Change Management

MOTIVATING CHANGE Creating readmess for change Overcoming resistance to change

1;

I CREATING A VISION

I

Mission Valued outcomes Valued conditions Midpoint goals

\

.

CHANGE

I

' '

EFFECTIVE

DEVELOPING POLITICAL SUPPORT Assessing change agent power Identifying key stakeholders Influencing stakeholders

L

MANAGING THE TRANSITION Activity Planning and Management Structure Commitment Structures

MANAGING MOMENTUM Providing resources for change Building a support system for change agents Developing new competencics and skills Reinforcing new behaviours

iource: Cummings and Huse (1989:108)

/

MANAGEMENT

/

1$he . researcher is of the opinion that there are different approaches in managing change. Smce the early ninety's, companies focused on the management of change as a sort of Lompetitive advantage. According t o Cave (1994:61-63) a useful starting point is the three- stage 'unfreeing7 model widely used in public and private sector alike, and which addresses the importance of the "paradigm", or cultural web. In this model actions are taken and programmes put in place to 'unfreeze' people within the organisation, to put aside long-held beliefs and values and become receptive to a new way of operating and, indeed, of looking at the world. The three step of Lewin (in Robbins, 1998:638-639) corresponds with the Cave-model. Lewin mentioned that successful change in organisations should follow three steps: unfreezing the status quo, movement to a new state, and freezing the new change t o make it permanent. Van Wyk & Pienaar (2000, 3-4) belives that we might readily find this approach to change being used in, a manufacturing concern seeking t o shift the emphasis away from an output- production-centred view of the world and towards one in which product quality is prioritised. In each of the cases mentioned above the change management prescription would be the same: unfreee people from their existing paradigm, teach them new ways of thinking and behaving, and then consolidate the new ways by refreezing into a new paradigm. This model has clear implications for the way in which people are to be managed within the organisation. Thurley (in Van Wyk & Pienaar, 2000:4) was the first person to develop an interesting approach to classifying strategies for change and this was hrther developed by McWhinney. The usefulness of this approach is that it brings into the change management picture a consideration of the power relationships between the actors involved in the change process. He descibed five 'ideal type' basic approaches t o carrying through changes. The five approaches are: directive, bargained, normative, analytical and action-based The directive approach involves the imposition of change, even where this involves the by-passing of established procedures for consulting or involving staff. In switching from a consultative to a directive mode may be a deliberate move in order to send a message about the seriousness of the situation as seen by the organisation's senior management. This approach is often to be found when time is seen as being of the essence in carrying through changes, to the extent that involvement or consultation is seen as a 'luxury' that can no longer be afforded and other approaches to change management are ruled out. The bargaiil approach is also about power but can be seen as more pluralistic in nature where power is perceived as shared between the employer and employees and in which, therefore, the process of change requires negotiation, compromise and agreement between the parties as the basis for moving forward. The normative approach refers to the type of unfreezinglfreezing model described previously and indeed other 'big programme' change activities (Van Wyk & Pienaar, 2000:4). There is a strong unitarist strain running through such approaches, an all embracing attitude to the need to change the attitudes, values and beliefs of the entire workforce. The researcher therefore agrees with van Wyk and Pienaar when they say that this approach is likely to involve the most widespread rewriting of the terms and conditions contained in the formal contracts of employment within the organisation, and the most hndamental reshaping of the informal or psychological contract. Yet most normative accounts of change management say little or nothing about the practical, contractual underpinning necessary in order to freeze the new paradigm and sustain the change once it has been achieved.

k s compared to the above approach the analytical approach to change is a very theoretical account of the change process. It is defined as the process a design is created I that "solves a problem". The pure concept allows no action, no creation of anything, for that would call for free will - and free will is not part of the formula. This approach proceeds sequentially from the analysis and diagnosis of the situation, through the setting of objectives and design and implementation of change programmes and on to the evaluation of the results and the determination of the objectives for the next stage of the change process. It is rational and logical in its sequencing, evaluative and therefore in principal capable of being open-minded towards ideas for change from all parts of the organisation. The last approach ('ideal type'), the action based approach to the management of change, speaks directly to the widely-observed fact that the way in which managers behave in practice bears little relation to the analytical, theoretical model. Since managers are constantly required to function in different timeframes, work with a changing set of priorities, managers tend to make decisions without really thinking them through.

4.3.3.1 CHANGE AGENT

As it is impossible for the person(s) who drive(s) the mrmative Action process to reach every employee and discuss the process with them i n order to win their co-operation, it was found by many organisations that it was merely necessary to identify a few people with strong convictions about the 'process, and encourage them to 'take forth the message' in order to have this influence permeate the whole of the organisation, creating strong positivity and enthusiasm for the implementation of the process. he 'change agent' will normally be a person with proven ability who interfaces comfortably with all races and who has the approval of all races within the workplace. He must have integrated thoroughly the principles, philosophies and objectives of the affirmative action process. He must be a missionary with a goal to convert employees of all races and on all levels of the 'cause'. He must act as the catalyst between the old order of doing things and the new demands. He must actively promote the process and be sensitive to new ideas and developments (Wingrove, 1993: 127-128). The researcher believes that with the help of a change agent, change becomes easier to be managed. But even though there is a necessity to manage change, some people find it hard to change and therefore they turn to resist that change. For more detail on this issue it will be important to discuss resistance to change.

4.3.4 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

Van Wyk & Pienaar (2000:6) mentions that one of the well-documented findings from studies of individual and organisational behaviour is that organiations and their members resist change. In a sense, this is positive. It provides a degree of stability and predictability to behaviour. If there were no some resistance, organisational behaviour would take on characteristics of chaotic randomness. According to Robbins (1998.632) organisational change efforts often run into some form of human resistance. Although experienced managers are generally all too aware of this fact, surprisingly few take time before organisational change to assess systematically who might resist the change initiative and for what reasons. Instead, using past experiences as guidelines, managers all too often apply a simple set of beliefs - such as "engineers will probably resist the change because they are independent and suspicious of top management." This limited approach can create serious problems. Resistance to change can also be a source of fbnctional conflict. For example, resistance to a reorganisational plan or a change in a product line can stimulate a healthy debate over the merits of the idea and result in a better decision. But there is a definite downside to resistance to change. That is it hinders adaptation and progress. There are many reasons that cause people to resist change. Change is not comfortable and can often be painhl. The extent to which the work environment will be changed when a successful aff~rmativeaction process is operational must not be underestimated. It is easy to theorise about change. Change will undoubtedly upset the equilibrium of the company. Because organisations try to keep some form of equilibrium in terms of the ways in which they hnction, there is a tendency to resist change. The nature and tempo of change involved has a definite impact on the measure of resistance that can be expected. The more hndamental the nature of change, and the more intense the tempo of the change involved, the greater the resistance that will be generated (Wingrove, 1993:62). Madi (1993:91) says that many people tend to resist change, any form of change, for example affirmative action. Change unsettles people, it disturbs their zones of comfort.They fear that it may disempower them and leave them vulnerable. A good example is provided by Cummings and Huse ( 1 9 8 9 : l l l ) when they say that organisational changes may be threatening to powerfd stakeholders, such as top executive or staff personnel, and may call to question the past decisions of leaders. The researcher believes that some of the stakeholders fear that their positions would now be given to the employees who. had been disadvantaged in the past. There is a fear of the unknown, (as mentioned under chapter 1 section 1.2) of things that may g o wrong, of never mastering the new regime.

The researcher believes that change can generate deep resistance not only in people but also in organisations, making it difficult if not impossible t o implement organisational improvements. At a personal level, change can arouse considerable anxiety about letting go of the known and moving to an uncertain future. Individuals may be unsure as to whether their existing skills and contributions will be valued in the future. They may have significant questions about whether they can learn to fbnction effectively and to achieve benefits in the new situation. At the organisational level, resistance to change can arise from the habit of following common procedures and the sunk cost of resources invested in the status quo (Cummings and Huse, 1989:1 11). As Sachs (1992:21) once put it, 'affirmative action means the disturbance of inherited rights'. To think, therefore, that there will not be any resistance to change, particularly from the beneficiaries of the status quo, would be unrealistic. Moreover, the organisation's culture may reinforce the status quo, promoting conformity t o existing values, norms, and assumptions about how things should operate. Organisations embarking on affirmative action must put their staff through normal 'change management' education. Also organisations will need t o equip their people with 'change management' skills, and this applies to all their people, not only white managers. There will of course be those who will refuse to change altogether. And this the researcher believes will occur due to lack of self confidence, lack of trust (see chapter 1 section 1.l), lack of communication as well as lack of commitment from top and middle management. [t is therefore important when implementing an affirmative action process, that xganisations introduce various ways for the management of resistance to change and these will be discussed next

1.3.5

MANAGING RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

According to the researcher it is obvious that in many of the South African organisations .here are different groups with various cultural beliefs. Values, norms, ages, gender, -eligion, race, etc. When change is introduced certain groups will accept it whereas others will resist it. But the researcher is of the view that the management of resistance to :hange in this regard is so important. All stakeholders mostly line management and trade lnions should be involved in trying to find ways of managing such resistance. But before ittempting to manage such resistance to change Kotter & Schlesinger (1984:67) nentioned are of the view that to predict what form people resistance, managers need to )e aware of the four most common reasons they resist change. These include: a desire not o lose something of value, a misunderstanding of the change and its implications, a )elief that the change does not make sense for the organisation, and a low tolerance for :hange

1 1

According to Cummings and Huse (1989:112) methods for dealing with resistance t o change (see figure 11) include at least three major strategies and they are the following:

,

4.3.5.1 Empathy and support Understanding how people experience change requires a great deal of empathy and support. It demands a willingness to suspend judgement and to try to see the situation from another perspective, a process called active listening. When people feel that those managing change are genuinely interested in their feelings and perceptions, they are likely t o be less defensive and more willing to share their concerns and fears. According to Haward Business Review (1991 :67) Managers can deal with resistance by being supportive. This process might include providing training in new skills or simply listening and providing emotional support. Empathy and support are most helpful when fear and anxiety lie at the heart of resistance. 4.3.5.2 Communication Effective communication about changes and their likely consequences can reduce the speculation of rumours and gossip and, can allay unfounded fears. It can help members realistically prepare for change. Communication of ideas personnel see the need for and the logic of change. Through communication white fears and any form of resistance that may arise are addressed. 4.3.5.3 Participation and development The involvement of employees in the day-to-day running of the organisation is very important as far as managing resistance is concerned, especially participation in the decision-making and problem solving within the organisation. Participation can lead both t o designing high-quality changes and t o overcoming resistance to implementing them. Involvement in planning the changes increases the likelihood that members' interests and needs will be accounted for in the changes. Figure 11:

Managing resistance to change

PARTICIPATION

COMMUNlCATION

Source: Developed by the researcher

The researcher believes that empathy and support are indeed helphl especially in a situa!tion whereby many employees may resent affirmative action appointees because they believe they do not deserve the positions they occupy. They often fear that people on the basis of their skin colour, rather than on merit, therefore they will be should be supported and assured that those people will be trained to acquire required skills. Also, motivational speakers can play a very important role as a means of empathy and support. According to the researcher communication is one of the best tools to overcome change. But without effective communication pitfalls may be experienced, for example, not enough information, or no inaccurate information which may lead to resistance. Also, teamwork should be the theme carried forward by top/line management team as well as continuity. As far as participation and involvement are concerned the researcher is of the view that employees and management should comment positively on the company's shared values process. With this employees feel very honoured that they can make suggestions and management listens. The sharing of information through communication will integrate well were values like respect for the individual, freedom of expression, genuine listening, transparency, individual responsibility and accountability and commitment to teamwork. Will be stressed. The other important thing is to include the union members in the transformation process of affirmative action. Through this unions will get a sense of job security and tranquillity for their members. In order to achieve this, management have to Focus together with the unions on the implementation of affirmative action strategy.

1.4

CURRENT AFFIRMATIVE ACTION MODELS

rhere are five affirmative action models that are basically in use in South African ~rganisations: 1.4.1

THE ASSIMILATION/INTEGRATION/ 'OSMOSIS' MODEL

I'he mode assumes that the relative position in the organisation is based solely on merit ind competency of job performance, irrespective of race, colour or any other such :onsiderations. The achievement principle is the only criterion. 1.4.2 DISPLACEMENT MODEL This model is based on the assumption that socio-political developments in the country will result in senior positions being increasingly taken up by Blacks. This will result in the displacement of Whites upwards or out of the system. The democratisation of South 80

Africa is seen as an inevitable reality and White fears and resistance are just an unpleasant effect of this. 4.4.3

JOB INSERTION OR 'WEDGE' MODEL

This model is based on the lifting of the BlackIWhite barrier by the creation of additional job categories between the bottom existing White job hierarchy and top, or existing Black job hierarchy, without improving the level of the 'White' jobs. 4.4.4

THE VERTICAL DIFFERENTIATION OR SEPARATE DEVELOPMENT MODEL

The objective of this model is to achieve development in a 'safe', growth-supporting and low-stress environment. The model is based on the creation of hothouse or nurseries in which Blacks can develop away from the mainstream until they ready to be integrated. Organisations which have used this model found it to be expensive, elitist, complex and not credible to employees.

4.4.5

THE ORGANIC GROWTH MODEL

The model entails the gradual development of the total human being, irrespective of race or sex by hislher own consent, in a group or team setting, towards realistic goals that keep pace with the macro- and micro environment. The main principles encompassed in this approach are: Gradualism: or a suitable time scale along which goals are spaced. Holism: or a gestalt or integrated professional support systems. Balance: or preserving the golden mean among the myriad of half-truths that govern the practice of people management. Recognition: of participants through communication in order to gain consensus about, and commitment to, the process (Wingrove, 1993:74-80).

When looking at the assimilation/integration/"osmosis" model the researcher agrees with the above source that this model's aim should really be to encourage an osmosis in both directions across all lines of diversity so that these divisions would become increasingly blurred to ultimately achieve an organisation with assimilated norms and values. The displacement model does not display the true reflection of what is happening in the country due to politics, it is just assuming. The implementation of afirmative action the researcher is of the opinion that is has never left whites jobless. Instead because of

unrealistic fears they are the ones who choose to leave organisations and, those who do not leave they resist changes within an organisation, they expect things to stay as they were twenty years ago. Because of past imbalances between races especially blacks and whites, the job insertion model sees to it that blacks get first preference as compared to whites. Most blacks are upgraded and, consequently, whites are suffering as they are not upgraded to their satisfaction. The researcher believes that the vertical differentiation model could serve to reinforce the "white" "black concept with their resultant negative effects on the South African "psyche". The researcher agrees with Wingrove (1993:79-80) that gradualism is the key to this model. The main proposition of this model is based on the principle that growth cannot be forced but must be facilitated. In conclusion it is found that the current infrastructure of the organisation as well as the organisational culture will have some influence on the decision of the most suitable affirmative action model for each company.

4.5

THE ROLE OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION IN INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS AND HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

The debate on affirmative action concerning its relevance to industrial relations and human resources management can be introduced by the mere fact that affirmative action can be seen as an integral part of the day-to-day industrial relations management, within the tripartite relationship between employers, trade unions and the State. The three main role players have different perceptions regarding the issue of affirmative action, that varies from negativism and a fear of lowering standards on the one end to a perception of false overoptimistic expectations on the other hand. Meaningfid implementations of affirmative action requires a national commitment to a policy of effective equal opportunity and to measures aimed at facilitating and supporting the participation of previously advantaged groups. What is encouraging is the growing realisation that as part of the normalisation process in the country, affirmative action is inevitable. Business leaders and academics are acknowledging openly the need for affirmative action and the subject has become a regular feature at conferences and workshops.

4.5.1

THE ROLE OF THE EMPLOYER

From the outset, it is clear that management is responsible to maintain momentum with regards to the implementation of affirmative action programmes.

4.5.1.1 DEMOGRAPHICS UNDERPINNING AFFIRMATIVE ACTION The question that confronts organisations, is not whether they should develop people, but who should be developed and how this should be done. A cursory glance at the following statistics make interesting reading from an economic perspective: In 1989 Professor Karl Hofmeyer (in Charlton & van Niekerk, 1994: 110) pointed out that roughly 6 percent of black people and 9 percent of women held managerial positions in South African organisations. As few as 5 percent of all South Africans own between them no less than 88 percent of the country's wealth. A massive 95 percent of managerial jobs are held by whites - yet whites will be able to account for only 45 000 of the additional 120 000 higher level managers who will be needed by the year 2000, underlining the Consultative Business Movement's call for the urgent integration of more blacks into the managerial posts. Blacks hold a mere 2 percent of total of 2 550 directorships in the Top 100 companies listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE). A 5,3 percent increase in senior managers and 4,8 percent increase in black middle managers is required to meet affirmative action targets by 1997 (Charlton & van Niekerk, 1994: 110 1993: 110). According to de Bruyn (1994:36), during this year businesses ensure that non-whites comprise of different percentage on each level in the organisation. There is an ongoing need to acquire highly skilled personnel has done much to promote the recruitment of suitable black candidates as compared to the previous years. One of the South African organisations consists of a workforce of 483 employees and its composition is as follows:

Table 2: (

Asians

Workforce composition

I

Africans ( Coloureds

1

Whites

1

Blacks

I

Source: Maroga & de Beer, 2000:6 From the above table it is apparent that a lot of hard work lies ahead if workforce is to be a closer representation of the country's demographic composition. The researcher believes that there have been some improvement as far as blacks holding higher positions is concerned It was therefore proposed that the seats hold by black executives should at least be 50 per cent. It was also stated that large investment in education and training is expected by organisations during this period. The writer believes that the principle of target setting rather than the specifics will guide organisation's affirmative action programmes. Therefore, it is believed that the demographies of an organisation's society, but especially

the nation should guide the targets. These proposed targets need to be evaluated against the number of affirmative action programmes currently in place. In 1995 the number of programmes declined from 94 per cent to 82 per cent in 1996. One of the very strong proponents of affirmative action are black labour, business, and professional organisations. The National African Federated Chamber of Commerce and Industry (NAFCOC) in particular has made far-reaching policy demands. At its annual conference in 1990 it announced that the corporate sector had to meet the following demands by the year 2000: 30 percent of all board members of companies listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) have to be black; 40 percent of all shares on the JSE should be black owned; 50 percent of the value of all outside purchases by companies listed on the JSE should come from black suppliers; and 60 percent of top management in the JSE listed companies should be black (Adams, 1993 : 16). Research done by Human (1991:48) on management profiles on 300 black and white managers provides some insight into the attitudes, prejudices, strengths and weaknesses of South African managers. This research was intended to provide broad generalisations which serve to highlight the most general similarities and differences between managers in the three main groups, namely the white Afrikaans-speaking manager, the white English-speaking manager, and the Black manager. Much of the thinking relating to affirmative action on the part of South African management has its origins in the policies adopted by foreign owned companies operating in South Africa during the sanctions era. In order to justify their continued presence in South Africa, these companies had to become signatories to various codes of employment practice, such as EEC code or the Sullivan Code. In many cases, the major concern of these organisations in devising their affirmative action policies was quite simply to satisfy the minimum requirements of these codes.

4.5.2

THE ROLE OF THE TRADE UNION

The fact that all major black political organisations have policies on affirmative action is a clear indication that it will be one of the key programmes of redress under a new government. Trade unions are emphatic in their view that affirmative action is not about having a token of figurehead in a senior position. The latter is more kin to the wave of black advancement that took place in the middle to late 19707s,ofien spurred on by measures such as the Sullivan Code (Levy, 1993:49).

For trade unions, affirmative action normally refers to something quite different: a comprehensive strategy to overcome the imbalances caused by apartheid and racism. Omar 1993 (in Levy, 1993 :49) human resources co-ordinator at COSATU (Congress of South African Trade Unions - largest trade union organisation in South Africa, with 1,3 million members) stated: " . . . i t entails a total restructuring in employment, education, health, nutrition and other areas of social welfare." Such restructuring aims to compensate for the long-term lack of education experienced by blacks. This has prevented many from attaining the types of jobs and job security that could enable them to provide comfortable lives for their families. A major problem confronting unions is a shortage of resources to research or implement policies, including affirmative action. The CWIU (Chemical Workers Industrial Union) argues that the lack of a centralised bargaining capacity means that organisers at plants where CWIU has a bargaining unit are on their own, in terms o f negotiating agreements.

4.5.3

THE ROLE OF THE STATE

Four documents currently in circulation address the specifics of equality and affirmative action, namely: The Namibian Affirmative Action and Employment Drafi Bill; The 'Bumrosen' Draft; The government's Promotion of Equal Opportunities Drafi Bill; and The South African chamber of Business (SACOB) Proposals. The Namibian and Blumrosen drafts are the most comprehensive and prescriptive. They impose far-reaching obligations on employers to devise and implement afirmative action programmes, and envisage the establishment of a supervisory commission with extensive standard-setting, investigatory and conciliation powers. Both models would allow offenders to be brought to heel through court or arbitration procedures. The researcher is of the opinion that we need now urgently to ensure that everyone is covered on an equal footing by the government. This means giving immediate attention to building up all the basic infrastructures of decent living in the areas where the majority live. In many countries with thriving economies, the state liaises with employers and unions to establish a social contract governing the principles whereby national levels are to be fixed. Most developed societies provide machinery for collective bargaining and for the settling of disputes between capital and labour. For the sake of equal opportunity, the state should enforce the law that affirmative action is practiced in companies.

4.6

A STAKEHOLDER APPROACH TO A F F I R M A T m ACTION

4.6.1

MANAGING DlRECTOR AND MEMBERS OF THE GROUP MANAGEMENT TEAM

The Managing Director is the custodian of the company's affirmative action policy and together with all members of the Group Management Team, will demonstrate commitment and support for the policy by taking the lead, approving policy related costs and ensuring that affirmative action objectives, (already discussed under 4.2.1 of this chapter) are included in all management performance objectives. Management must provide periodic affirmative action-report backs to all employees, in which they publicise their targets and evaluate the progress of the programmes. It is important to be open about these programmes as secrecy will breed mistrust and suspicions. Openness will 18). encourage feedback from all employees, which is important (Innes, -1,1993:

4.6.1.1 CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER The Chief Executive Officer (CEO), must drive, lobby, lead, promote and be ultimately accountable for the process. It is important for the CEO to demonstrate clear commitment to the process by ensuring, for instance, that at every board meeting reports are tabled by every executive director indicating the extent to which affirmative action targets have been met. The CEO and all executives within a company must be properly sensitised to what affirmative action entails. It is important that top management, as a stakeholder (together with other stakeholders within the company, such as women, unionised and nonunionised employees) share a common level of understanding before mission statements are written Rawana, 1994:24 (in De Bruyn, 1996:35). As convener of the affirmative action advisory committee and board member, the CEO should be involved in the development of an affirmative action strategy and understand the process of employee development and what is expected of himlher, histher hnctional heads, line managers and other employees. Ensure the inclusion of affirmative action and people development objectives in the key result areas of all managers. Act as chairperson to an advisory committee composed of managers, unionslworker representatives, and administrative staff which regularly monitors and adapts the affirmative action policy.

Develop a positive attitude towards affirmative action and people development, and positive expectations. Consciously avoid stereotyping and discourage this where it occurs. Communicate with all employees in a mature and adult way (Human, 1993:54).

4.6.2 THE MONITORING COMMITTEE

-

Gather information on the following: 0

RaciaVgender profiles per grade/level in the company. Labour turnover by grade/level over the last 5 years. Skills/competency profile of workforce. Skills/competency profile anticipated in the next 5 years. Population profiles within the local society.

The monitoring committee must carry out an audit of current human resource policies and procedures to identify areas which may need to be reviewed to ensure equity and eliminate any discriminatory practices. It must also ensure that any unfair or discriminatory practices which have been identified are removed as well as propose relevant strategies to ensure the creation of opportunities for disadvantaged people. The other important thing the committee must consider is to monitor and evaluate the response to the communication strategy. Adapt the communication on an ongoing basis. Also, it must propose and monitor short and long term objectives, to facilitate the affirmative action process and benchmark and identify best practices within the company and within other companies for possible implementation in an organisation. Amongst other things the monitoring committee should propose a communication strategy to communicate the objectives of the affirmative action programme and plans to all employees not forgetting to create the awareness that line management are the champions of the process (Dumsani, 1998).

4.6.3 LINE MANAGEMENT Line managers are the most important role players in the implementation of the affirmative action programme. They represent the driving force in the active implementation of the policy, thus they have to ensure that work environment is free

from all forms of unfair discrimination and encourage/champion behaviour which reflects the company's commitment to Affirmative Action. Line managers should develop a longterm manpower and succession plan as well as reviewing all policies related to the identification of skillslcompetence and the measurement of performance to remove any cultural bias. They are also expected to be involved in the training and development process and create forums where direct feedback can be given to team leaders in respect of progress. It is also mentioned that they have to oversee, in the role of sponsor; the way in which subordinate managers or supervisors manage their subordinates. Line managers have to ensure that affirmative actionlpeople management is a key area of appraisal for their own subordinates and that development, in terms of career and succession planning for subordinates, is taking place. They also have to ensure that selection, recruitment and induction of new staff complies with company policy in relation to affirmative action as well as actively participating in regular departmental meetings monitoring people developmentlaffirmative action (Human; 1993: 56-57).

4.6.4

HUMAN RESOURCES

Human resources advertise all positions throughout the company. Where internal candidates do not meet minimum requirements, recruit externally. They conduct appropriate assessments on applicants to ensure that they meet minimum requirements for the advertised position and, identify the best medium for advertising to attract candidates from disadvantaged groups. Also, they facilitate the establishment of local Affirmative Action Monitoring committees, where needed as well as ensuring that progress towards targets are monitored in line with the manpowerlsuccession plan. It is recommended that human resources provide necessary information to line management to champion the Affirmative Action process and facilitate problem solving where negative feedback has been received. They must also co-ordinate and facilitate regular meetings with mentors1coaches to assess their perceptions of the process, assist them to deal with sensitive or difficult cases and identify educationalltraining needs. Last but not least they have to ensure that departmentslmanagers that achieve the affirmative action objectives receive appropriate recognition at management meetings and functions and actively encourage the involvement of all employee representatives in the process. The mission of the human resources department is to support the company in the achievement of its strategic objectives by providing professional and effective service which will support line managers in their resourcing, management and development of people to ensure the effective and efficient staffing of the business and a motivated and productive workforce (Human, 1993:57-58).

4.6.5

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT

The above department is expected to facilitate the developing of climate and culture that will support the process of affirmative action and that of a long-term manpowerlsuccession plan by line management. They might as well train managers in selection techniques and involve them in the selection of candidates. In addition to this the department must identify specific training requirements and call for volunteers to act as mentors. They also provide all managers with coaching skills; conduct a needs analysis to establish the overall training needs of identified candidates; design and implement relevant training interventions for identified candidates; co-ordinate, facilitate and implement certain activities on behalf of Monitoring committee; after proper career-pathing exercise has been done with an employee, this should be communicated and approved by his coach and mentor; and regular performance appraisals will be vital and it is important that these appraisals will be constructive, open and honest assessment of the employee's progress (Wingrove, 1993: 148).

4.6.6

TRADE UNIONS AND STAFF ASSOCIATIONS

They commit themselves to and participate in activities aimed at achieving the Affirmative Action Policy; actively encourage employees to participate in the affirmative action process; identify problem areas obstructing the process; and propose corrective action where appropriate (Dumsani: 1998).

4.7

PROBLEMS WITH AFFIRMATIW ACTION

It is found that "persons are appointed in 'affirmative action positions' or imposed on the organization merely to window-dress or to fill quotas, usually without due consideration of their suitability for the position or the possibility of support and development. Such arbitrary appointments leave other employees dissatisfied and are unfair to the appointees themselves, since they are either placed in meaningless positions or cannot handle their specified tasks, thus perpetuating the myth that affirmative action appointees are 'no good' example" (Bendix, 1996.592-593). This is seen where for example, a company or organization is very keen to promote blacks without the requisite skills into prominent positions. This form of affirmative action is particularly pernicious because it degrades the black incumbent in the eyes of hislher colleagues and subordinates. Furthermore, this experience is eventually humiliating for the incumbent as well since helshe becomes a symbol of ridicule within the organization (Innes, et.al., 1993:15). The researcher

believes that quotas in recruitment can easily do more harm than good. Therefore it is important that a formal affirmative action programme should at least guide the elimination of discrimination and develop various skills. Another problem with affirmative action, especially where higher level jobs are concerned, is the fact that the available pool of previously disadvantaged persons able to h l f i l l the requirements is extremely small. For example, in organizations where a need has been identified for greater representation of Africans at managerial level and where one of the requirements is a tertiary qualification, the selectors are most certain to encounter problems. The result is that there develops a small, highly sought after group of elite candidates who, as has already been proved, are certainly 'poached' by one organization from another. Thus only this "elite group advances, while the rest of the black African population remains where it was before" (Bendix, 1996:593): an organisational climate that discourages blacks from operating independently or taking risks; reservations concerning their ability to accomplish their allocated tasks, i.e. handle the job; not being accepted, experiencing discrimination and antagonism in the work place; and when promoted, having to leave their mostly black working group and face possible hostility from ex-colleagues who are now subordinates The CEO should therefore consider it part of hidher duty to ensure that persons appointed or promoted as a consequence of affirmative action programmes, are treated in a purposefbl, systematic manner, i.e. that such employees undergo orientation within the institution and are introduced into, as well as guided with respect to, hidher job. Furthermore, the CEO should not only be prepared for resistance to change emanating from employees (and sometimes even other executive directors), but should also be prepared to implement measures against such resistance (Cloete, 1990:173-1 8 1). According to Hannekom (1986:200) the counter-measures that are used, e.g. motivation and communication, should concentrated on minimizing or neutralizing those factors that mhibit innovation, e.g. uncertainty or fear of the unknown, and should therefore not increase the pressure towards changing.

Black and white concerns The process of allying the fears of Blacks and Whites will demand more energy. The success of true cultural integration is the acknowledgement and acceptance by all of the value of diversity. Dialogue is the essence of democracy and will be necessary to develop interaction forums 90

among race groups that will foster mutual trust. The fears that used to exist during the implementaion of affirmative action early years of affirmative action have changed and summarised in table 3 :

Table 3:

BLACK AND WHITE FEARS BLACK

Demand for inclusion and participation Suspicion of business and institutions High expectations of quality of work 1ife ear of being a sell out and /or sold-out Fear of white manivulation Fear of victimisation Fear of co-option

I

WHITE

I High negative expectations, guilt, anger and frustrations. Fear of retrenchment Fear of being trapped on a plateau Fear of black revenge Fear of primitive taxation of redistribution of wealth Fear of nationalisation Fear of poor standards or black anarchy

Source: Cloete, 1990: 183 For interest sake when affirmative action was initially implemented some black employees lacking knowledge used to forcefidly demand to be included in management decisions as well as in participative structures. This was totally unacceptable and at the same time they had unrealistic expectations, such as thinking all white will be demoted and them (blacks) being promoted. This was not to be the case, the researcher believes they were supposed to have skiils, experince e.t.c., and required to be in those positions in order to avoid biasness. 4.7.1

CAUSES OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION PROGRAMMES FAILURE

Many affirmative action programmes fail for specific reasons. The following can be considered as some of the reasons these programmes fail in the South African context. Initially, no commitment or support for the process from top management (Wingrove, 1993:25). This is an important and possibly the most crucial, reason why these programmes fail. Senior management appears to be doing something whilst nothing actually changes in practice. In other instances, commitment is affected either by other very important strategic objectives (particularly in terms of economic downturn) or by failure to remain interested for very long Rawana, 1994:1 1 (in De Bruyn, 1996:34). For example, the researcher went to a number of companies asking to do research on affirmative action. Unfortunately the researcher did not succeed as top management said

I

1

that it is impossible to do the research within their orgnisation as affirmative action is still on paper and not yet practiced. This shows that they are not committed to affirmative action programmes. The researcher has also watched Felicia Mabuza Suttle Show on SABC 1 (1998) where the majority of executives were invited to participate on the title called Affirmative Action: Black Economic Empowerment. Because the topic of the day was affirmative action, most of them did not attend the show. The line-managers were not measured or rewarded for their performance in the affirmative action process It is pointed out by the researcher that the majority of companies are saying affirmative action is supposed to be line-management's Key Performance objectives In other words, they are to be measured in terms of Performance Appraisal. This seems to be a paper exercise in most companies as non of them have ever been measured in affirmative action since its inception in 1994 (Wingrove, 1993:26). He continues by saying that "there were no clear job objectives". The pressure to have Blacks in managerial position often creates a situation of tokenism - a managerial position without any real decision - making powers" and this is supported by Bullat (1998) in the Felicia Mabuza Suttle show. A good example is provided by Nkosi (1998:3) where 'black accountants' in the Reserve Bank were being appointed in positions without proper decision - making. This will eventually give rise to job-hopping and dissillution among black people in South Africa. The researcher is of the opinion that tokenism invites backlash and is detrimental to the token, to the company and to the cause of black development generally. The researcher is of the opinion that job-hopping has a negative influence on career development and contributes to a decrease in experience obtained, preventing the employee from developing commitment to an organization that has often invested large sums of money and time in his development. Affirmative action programmes fail because they are based on a model of development that sees development simply in terms of pumping education into black people. Unless we address prejudice, racism, stereotypes and/or negative expectations on the part of white managers as well, then education per se will have a limited payoff (Adams, 1993: 82). The emphasis is placed on short-term numbers and not on long term development (Wingrove, 1993:27). Although codes of employment practice, such as the Sillivan Code, have played an important role in black advancement in South Africa, the way in which companies have been rated has tended t o lead to an emphasis on short-term development. This does not mean that such codes should be disposed of Such codes could be developed to ensure that meaninghl and constructive development does not take place in the companies subscribing to them.

This process would involve agreement on critical success factors for black manager development and assessing companies on their commitment to development, rather than simply in terms of numbers of people currently occupying specific jobs. The affirmative action process is incorrectly managed as Black 'uplifiment' and not Black 'empowerment' and therefore reinforces the myth of white superiority and Black inferiority resulting in the rejection of the process by all rational employees. One other thing not enough attention is given to the support of mechanism for mentors and coaches involved with the driving of the affirmative action process. The researcher feels that this is one of the inherent causes of affirmative action failure as in most cases mentors are white people who do not have commitment and dedication to the process, and thus do not support the whole process. They are being instructed and did not volunteer to act as mentors and coaches. Wingrove (1993:26) mentions that "There is no open and honest feedback on performance. There are only a limited number of suitably qualified Blacks currently available for senior positions and their services are sought by and increasing number of organisations. The risk of loosing such an employee and the fear of appearing racist or unnecessarily prejudiced feedback on performance and the resultant opportunity for growth and development." This also serves to reinforce feelings of superiority amongst the white colleagues of such an employee as he is considered unable to be measured by the same criteria as his white peers. Under this heading of why affirmative action programmes fail, (including black advancement) one has to look at the extent to which black people are willing to put time and effort into developing themselves. Political developments have raised expectations, sometimes beyond the have raised expectations, sometimes beyond the level o f realism (Adams, 1993:82). There exists a fine line between the low expectations some whites have of blacks and the high expectations some have of themselves. South Africa cannot expect to prosper as a nation unless blacks, as well as whites are prepared to face up to individual strengths and weaknesses, individual training and development needs. Development requires a level realism, a level of humility, it also requires a great deal of effort on both sides. Without that effort on both sides, the h t u r e looks-bleaks. There is also lack of resources in terms of training and development. The majority of South African companies are actually saying that they do not have the resources/money to advance most of the black people in this country. They always talk about cutting-costs, for example points out that they are spending between 0,5% to 1% or their usage bill on education and training. Whereas Europe is spending between 4% and 6% and Japan is spending 10% (Dumsani, 1999).

To overcome this problem the researcher therefore suggests that the government should contribute some funds necessary to assists companies in their training and development programmes so that they become like outside countries. This is also seconded by Ndlow (in Mabuza, 1998) as he says government intervention would be highly appreciated. High illiteracy levels and low levels of education from people of previously disadvantaged communities is a major stumbling block. For such people to be affirmed they need to be given basic literacy skills through Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET). Unfortunately Ndlovu states that only 25% of South African organizations consider literacy education to be part of ABET whereas 75% have not started. One of the failures of affirmative action is that the stakeholders in the affirmative action communities within various companies do not adequately understand their roles. Trade unions understand aff~rmativeaction in a different way to management. This difference in understanding is a big problem as far as the way forward of affirmative action is concerned. White management sees it as a training and development programme whereas black trade unions see it as improving their positions. Yes, affirmative action is about training and development but also about black advancement Radebe (1998) says that as far as the government regulatory framework is needed to remove apartheid so is affirmative action needed to help blacks to advance. Mistrust between trade unions and employees also contribute to affirmative action failures.. Most of the employees see companies not doing enough as far as affirmative action is concerned. In the steeringlmonitoring committee the employees are therefor represented by the trade unions. Thus, the problems arise where these employees feel that they are being betrayed by the unions. Consequently, they do no give their full cooperation, as they do not trust the unions. Failure to reflect the company's demographics In a certain company (Company Y) around the Vaal Triangle area a full-scale survey of the Company's demographic composition was conducted. Detailed results are in table 3 and 4. In summary, it was found that out 8 executive positions 100% is white males, out of 154 management (senior to junior) positions, 94.7% is white males, 3,3% is white females, 1,7% is black males and 0,3% is black females. Out of 99 supervisory positions, 75% us black males and 0% is black females. Out of 265 trainee positions 18.6% is white males, 8,3% is white females. On the overall, out of 526 employees 50,6% is white males, 8,0% is white females, 41% is black males and 0,4% is black females. From the researcher's point of view is that this spells danger for that company and South Africa, and calls for an urgent affirmative action programme. Buys (in Mabuza, 1998) argues that it organizations are to survive, they should face the real challenge of affirmative action which is to redress the imbalances of the past and correcting any forms of discrimination.

It is therefore the researcher's opinion that blacks should also be given an opportufity to fail as long as the status quo is being reached. They should not just be trained for a long time without being put in the positions they deserve e.g. managerial positions. Company Y Demographic Composition Table 4: WHITE (%) No of CATEGORY Executives1 Employees Male Female 00 100.0 8 Executives 94.7 3.3 154 Managers (1 -9) (Senior to Junior) 13.0 75.0 99 Supervisor (1011) Trainees (I 2- 16) TOTAL

18.6 50.6

265 526

8.3 8.0

Table 5: Category of white and black Total # of CATEGORY Total # White Executive1 Employees Female Male

Non Executive Director Executive Director Senior Managers (1 -4) Middle Managers (57) Junior Managers (8-9) Supervisor (10-1 1) Trainees ( 12-16)

TOTAL

BLACK (%)

Male 0.0 1.70

Female 0.0 0.3

12.0

0.0

75.5 41 .O

0.3

Total # Black

Male

0

0

0

0

8 7 61

8 7

0 0 3

0 0

4 13 22 42

2 12 200

86 99 26 5 526

56 79 74 42 266

2

216

Femal e 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 2

Organisational culture not conducive and supportive of the programme. There is a growing resistance to accept norms of the Western business culture. Blacks do not want to be assimilated into white culture. On the other hand, many organizations fail to win the support of their white employees for the Equal Opportunity process. Uncertainty, fear and resistance are ignored, often resulting in covertlovert sabotage.

English is the second language for most Black people. Frames of references influence the perceptions and interpretation that people give to words. This often results in poor communication between people of different cultures and languages (Wingrove, 1993: 154). The issues of managing and valuing diversity was not entrenched through orientation and cross-cultual communication programmes. Lack of understanding of the magnitude of the process and its impact on the organisation.

4.8

SUCCESS MEASUREMENT OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

SuccessfUl organisations instill in themselves the notion of constant learning and the responsibility for initiative and change. They are distinguished by utilising the capabilities of all employees in order to create and sustain competitive advantage. A critical factor in successfd organisations is the competence of all employees. Affirmative action is a strategy of achieving equity between people of different races and gender, creating opportunities for growth and development for previously disadvantaged and transforming the working environment to more accurately represent the demographics of South Africa. It implies the empowerment of people through opportunity and development. It is a temporary strategy that intends to correct past imbalances and therefore has a life span (Verster-Nowak ml,1998 :3-4). The researcher is of the opinion that organisations should be committed to transform the demographic profile of their businesses as to more realistically reflect the community in which they conduct their business. This should be a key business priority and it will be achieved through a programme of affirmative action. Key performance indicators should be set and progress in meeting them should be measured. The measurement should be aimed at development.

4.8.1

A LOCAL DEVELOPMENT MODEL (ISCOR)

The following model was developed by a local steel manufacturer in South Africa ISCOR, Vanderbijlpark. The critical success factors in relation to this model are that the organisation has to recognise people development as a key strategic objective and the development of people is a line responsibility i.e. total commitment by line management would be highly appreciated. Promotion and development from within, and hence manpower, succession and career planning, are vital for the development and motivation of people.

Behaviour - modelling on its own will have little real impact, value clarification is also essential. Thus the success of organisational values change and environment of diversity are managed and valued by all Top management must be committed to people development and to actively and seriously evaluating managerial behaviour with regard to the development of people. In addition to this, it is the researcher's opinion that positive, visible and active support given to strategy by top management is of importance. There must be strict monitoring and adaption of strategy to cope with changing circumstances that have an influence on the organisation both on the external and internal macro and micro - level should take place. The other interesting thing is that development is regarded as the joint responsibility of manager and subordinate and both are appraised in this area. Hence it is mentioned that managers should be made aware of self- and people development and all employees should be made aware of the processes by means of which self-development takes place. Affirmative action should take place at the selection and recruitment stage only and thereafter all employees should be promoted on merit. Selection and assessment of potential should move away from the traditional 'formal education and experience' approach to an approach which more adequately addresses the actual requirements of the job. Black development should be seen as part of employee development in general and individual managed and developed in accordance with individual needs. Managers should be expected to explore their prejudices and stereotypes and to come up with processes for dealing with these. Wingrove (1993:164) mentions other successes of affirmative action and they are one, ~rganisationsshould make sure that all employees understand all the issues related to the process. The researcher believes that if the process is not understood people will start to question this and have negative attitudes which could lead t o the failure of the whole ?recess. Two, another success of aff~rmativeaction is to keep it simple, relatively easy t o mplement and ensure that it is properly communicated by every employee in the ~rganisation.Three, it must not be implemented on an ad-hoc basis but must form part of :he overall strategic business plans. Four, it is important not to ignore White fears or mrealistic Black expectations, but deal with them openly, honestly and with great :mpathy and understanding. As well as ensuring that these issues are resolved.

I"ve, ensure that everyone is aware of the fact that the process is long term and that it is 1ikely to yield wonderfbl short-term results. The researcher is of the opinion that iiffirmative action should be accepted as a long-term strategy and not as a 'quick fix' :;elution. This will mean the affirmative action becomes part of company's business plan. Six, blacks are in senior positions and have a real decision-making input in the economy of the country. Motsohi (in Mabuza, 1998) adds by saying "to implement affirmative action there should be proper black leadership. Seven, the Human Resources 97

Development is important for the success of affirmative action as it acquires the necessary skills Sigcau (in Mabuza, 1998). According to Manyi (in Mabuza, 1998) believes that affirmative action will probably succeed whereby a suitable black person with potential is chosen for a position. Helshe should have qualifications and needs to be upgraded and be given guidance. Finally, positive union involvement. Khumalo (in Mabuza, 1998) mentions that Eskom is one of the organisations in South Africa where affirmative action is succeeding The processes of affirmative action is h l l y agreed upon in the organisations by management and trade unions. Hlapholosa (in Mabuza, 1998) also from Eskom points out that white males in Eskom are also engaged in this process, they are not left out. They are given credit as they are performing well. According to Moolman (1998:17) affirmative action can be beneficial to everyone if it encourages an organisation to pay attention to its human resources, particularly through training. He continuouslly "Do not make the mistake of concentrating on training black people at the expense of others in the organisation. There must be something in it for everybody for affirmative action to really succeed. For affirmative action to be successful, people within the organisation must not be - or feel - threatened. In the organisation non-designated people with skills must be encouraged to import their skills, not leave the organisation,". H e states that to be successfiA, affirmative action candidates need mentors to help the designated groups to overcome the many performance barriers they are likely to encounter before they reach their potential. These mentors will probably be white, so everything should be done to ensure their job security otherwise they will not train others. Providing job security through involving existing white employees in the affirmative action programme, will help to break down barriers and rebuild our society to become a true rainbow nation. According to the researcher the leadership style applied in an organisation also plays a vital role in affirmative action. Through a good leadership affirmative action should be supported by all, develop potentials of people, bring more skilled blacks to management positions. As a result performance will increase. It is important that blacks within an organisation not to go away from the company when other blacks are promoted, and say it should have been me. They should support each other and keep in mind that there is a chance for everyone, their turn will also come.

4.9

CONCLUSION

The research on its own is based on chapter four as this chapter is the foundation of the research. The broadness of this chapter makes it to be the core of the research. Initially the researcher provides the reasons for the implementation of affirmative action for the

sake of readers' clear understanding. Next, the affirmative action objectives are stated. Very importantly employers and employees may need to ensure that they adhere to the objectives of those affirmative action processes. The other important thing to look at is the so-called affirmative action and change, as affirmative action is one of the ways that brings change in organisations. So, according to the researcher the two goes hand in hand. From the above the first thing to be discussed is the need for change. Here it is found that for the organisations to survive or to become winners at the end of the day, they need to change. But it is of importance that for such change to take place, unions together with the employees at large should be aware of that and be part of decision making. At the heart of the h t u r e partnership and relationship is every organisation's commitment to give trade unions the opportunity to meaninghlly influence decisions which affect employees. The necessary processes, participative structures, agreements, rights and obligations that must be in place to support the change should be captured in the company's recognition agreement. The dynamics of change have been experienced in organisations over the past 15 to 20 years. The employees tend to have more needs and expectations that they used to previously. They always want transparency concerning any change that takes place in organisations the same applies to change brought about by affirmative action. In the absence of such a transparency they will engage in labour unrest and, to avoid this fiom happening the management tends to focus more on organisational peace in order to satisfy the employees. Then ways of managing change there are found. For managing change there are five activities to be followed and they involve motivating change, creating a vision, developing political support, managing the transition and sustaining momentum. A change agent is therefore used in this regard to win both the company's and employees' co-operation in a spirit of mutual regard and respect, especially concerning the implementation of affirmative action. Regardless of the fact that there is a change agent some employees find it hard to accept this change then in turn they resist it. Resistance to change can result in some negativism for example, fear, unpleasantness, discomfort, pain, mistrust etc. A conclusion can be made that resistance to change brought about by positive affirmative action cannot lead to the survival of the organisation, in actual facts it will destroy the organisation. The ways in which resistance to change can be managed are many and are described thoroughly. Also, it is important to look at the role that affirmative action plays as far as Industrial Relations Human Resources are concerned. A stakeholder approach to affirmative action is the next thing to be discussed. Here, the role they have to play as far as affirmative action is concerned is looked at as well as what is expected fiom them.

The other important thing that is looked at is the problem with affirmative action leading to the failure of the process. The researcher believes that too much emphasis on the failure will hamper the positive outcomes of the process that will benefit all. Consequently, this leads to a discussion on the success measurement of affirmative action, which according to the researcher demonstrates the overarching importance of economic growth due to the correct implementation of affirmative action. It is important to apply affirmative action the right way to avoid any kind of failures which may arise in the present as well as in future. Thus the successes of affirmative action should be seen as a way that will lead all employees of different levels in organisations, to the happiness and satisfaction they deserve.

CHAPTER 5 RDP AND EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY

5.1

INTRODUCTION

Looking back at chapter four, too much attention was paid on the implications/effects of affirmative action within organisations. Amongst all the sub-headings under that chapter, a more detailed discussion was made with regard to the reasons behind the failures and successes of affirmative action. Thus, affirmative action is perceived and understood differently by various stakeholders within organisations and the question is why? Fortunately enough from those two sub-headings being the core of the study, the answers to these questions are provided in the very same chapter. This chapter deals with Reconstruction and Development Programme as well as Equal Employment Opportunity and the way in which the researcher picks-up their similarities with those of an affirmative action strategy. Initially the researcher looks at the role the Reconstruction and Development Programme plays in conjunction with affirmative action. The RDP represents a framework that is coherent, viable and has widespread support. RDP was not necessarily drawn up by experts - although many experts have participated in that process -but by the very people that will be part of its implementation. It is a product of consultation, debate and reflection on what we need and what is possible. For those who have participated in the process it has been invigorating and reaffirmed the belief that the people of South Africa are indeed its greatest asset (African National Congress, 1994:4). To understand the reason behind the implementation of affirmative action much better, attention is also given to its experience in outside countries. The researcher would like to bring t o the reader's attention that in Equal Opportunity Attirmative Action "there is nothing so unequal as the equal treatment of unequals", based on background, social standards, economic considerations, education, skills, experience and opportunities. Thus, equal opportunity and affirmative action will mean organisations creating opportunities for blacks t o acquire education relevant t o the core of the business, and opportunities t o be trained, developed and acquire experience that enable them a contribution and a career in an orgnisation.

The researcher is of the opinion that the most important thing is that equal opportunities should not only concentrate on blacks but, should also include white males, women and the disabled. In addition to this, the Minister of Labour, Mdladlana (1999: 1) says that the Employment Equity Act, No. 5 5 of 1998 seeks to give effect to our Constitution by prohibiting discrimination on the one hand and entrenching equity in the workplace through the use of affirmative action on the other. These twin objectives are designed to complement one another. Removing discrimination on its own will not ensure equality in employment opportunities for those who have been denied access to jobs, education and skills in the past. The Act therefore has to go further and place an obligation on employers to introduce affirmative action steps to redress these imbalances. Having said these, it is therefore the researcher's wish to bring the reader's attention to the role that RDP and the Employment Equity plays as far as affirmative action is concerned.

5.2

SIX BASIC PRINCIPLES OF THE RDP

These basic principles, linked together, make up the political and economic philosophy that underlines the whole RDP (Afiican National Congress, 1994:4-7).

5.2.1

AN INTEGRATED AND SUSTAINABLE PROGRAMME

The RDP brings together strategies to harness all resources in a coherent and purposeful effort that can be sustained into the future. These strategies will be implemented at all levels within the RDP. This programme is essentially centred on:

5.2.2

A PEOPLE DRIVEN PROCESS

The RDP is focused on people's most immediate needs, and it relies, in turn, on their energies to drive the process of meeting these needs. This programme and this people driven process are closely bound up with:

5.2.3

PEACE AND SECURITY FOR ALL

Promoting peace and security must involve all South Africans, this includes the security forces and the judicial system. As peace and security are established, the following will be embarked upon:

5.2.4

NATION BUILDING

This is the basis on which to ensure that South A h c a takes up an effective role in the world community and can support the development of the Southern African region. Nation-building requires:

5.2.5

LINK RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT

The RDP integrates growth, development, reconstruction and redistribution into a unified programme. This programme will both meet basic needs and open up previously suppressed economic and human potential in urban and rural areas. Finally, these first five principles all depend on a thoroughgoing (uncompromising factor):

5.2.6

DEMOCRATISATION OF SOUTH AFRICA:

The RDP requires hndamental changes in the way that policy is made and programmes are implemented. Democracy is an active process enabling everyone to contribute to reconstruction and development.

5.3

THE KEY PROGRAMMES OF THE RDP

5.3.1 MEETING BASIC NEEDS The first priority of the RDP is to begin to meet the basic needs of the people's jobs, land, housing, water, electricity, transport, health care and social welfare (Smith 1994:14).

u,

5.3.2

DEVELOPING HUMAN RESOURCES

Because the RDP is a people-centred programme, people must be involved in the decision-making process, in implementation, new job opportunities requiring skills and in managing and governing our society. This means enhancing the availability of education and training to all from "the cradle t o the grave"

5.3.3

BUILDING THE ECONOMY

The strengths in the South African economy must be built upon for the benefit of all its people and weaknesses must be rectified. Racial and gender inequalities in ownership, employment and skills need to be addressed. 103

5.3.4

DEMOCRATISING THE STATE AND SOCIETY

Democracy, development and a people-centred approach must be linked to pave the way for a new democratic order in South Afi-ica. This will enable the resources and potential of the country and its people to become available for a coherent programme of reconstruction and development. 5.3.5

IMPLEMENTING THE RDP

T o implement and co-ordinate the RDP will require the establishment of effective RDP structures in government at a national, provincial and local level.

5.4

RDP AND AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

arrnative Action is prominent on the labour and empowerment agendas. This is until government feels that it has had a reasonable shot at black recruitment and adjusted the race and gender profile of the civil service sufficiently. But affirmative action whether by regulation or not - will feature in the allotment of state tenders and contracts (Cargill, 1994b:15). The RDP states affirmative action measures would have t o contain at least the following seven elements, Seijas & Singh (in Mac Donald, 1996:16- 17): A programme of education and training, adult basic education and recognition of prior learning t overcome apartheid' legacy. Empowering not only individuals but communities and groups under conditions which promote the collective rights and capacity of workers to negotiate workplace issues. Principles for hiring and promoting workers who prevent discrimination against those previously disadvantaged by apartheid. Accelerate, through collective bargaining, eradication of workplace discrimination. Provide job security for pregnant women and provide child-care.

Ensure the development of special expertise in South Africa takes priority over the import of outside personnel. Establish legislation and a strong ombudsman to monitor and implement affirmative action measures. Therefore neither legislation nor quotas should be the main mechanism for achieving affirmative action. Rather social and workplace programme negotiated directly with workers must be at the heart of any affirmative action drive. At workplace level, this means negotiations between management and union on a process of affirmative action that should lead to joint affirmative action committee being set up. Social and workplace programmes must be the heart of any affirmative action drive.

5.4.1

AFFIRMATIVE ACTION TARGETS

In line with the RDP and Eskom's ten commitments, says Khumalo (1996:4) the target for affirmative action is 50% by the year 2000. An interim benchmark of 30% for the end of 1996 was set to evaluate progress and take corrective action. With respect to Eskom's state, the following interim benchmark and target was set: At least 30% of all staff in C-Upper (i.e representing a certain level) and above positions to be Black South African by 1996 and at least 50% by the year 2000

Growth rate per annum T o achieve the interim benchmark of 30% by the end of 1996, the number of Black people employed at CU and above would have to be increased by 83% per annum.

As can be seen from the following graph, since the implementation of the stance, growth for the years 1994 and 1995 has not reached 8.3%. On the basis of the January 1996 to November 1996 figures it would seem that the 8.3% would be surpassed for the year 1996.

-

PERCENTAGE OF BLACKS IN ESKOM AT CU F BANDS

Figure 12:

DECEMBER 1993 TO NOVEMBER 1996

25 20 15 10 5

o Dec93

Dee - 94

Dee-95

0

Source: Khumalo, 1996:5 The percentage increases per year have been as follows: December 1993 December 1994 December 1995

December 1994 December 1995 December 1996

= = =

3.7% 7.1% 7.7%

The current growth rate in the eleventhmonth period of 1996 was 7.7%. Should this remain constant, then a total growth of 8.4% would be achieved in 1996. This shows an increase in the annual growth rate. The growth rate however falls short of the 14.1% required to reach the 1996 interim benchmark of 30%. In not achieving the required growth rate in 1994 and 1995, the 8.4% increase would have not been sufficient to reach the 1996 interim benchmark of 30%.

106

-- --

--

----

-------

5.5

THE EXPERLENCE COUNTRIES

OF

AFFIRMATIVE

ACTION

IN

OTHER

The experience of affirmative action in other countries offers valuable advice for South Africa. There are mixed feelings about the success of affirmative action that has been practised in some other countries. South Africa is in a unique position as compared to other countries due to affirmative action being implemented for a black majority in South Africa. While in other countries, affirmative action is implemented for the minority. The time period in which affirmative action has to be accomplished is much shorter than in other countries and this adds to South Africa problem. No single programme anywhere in the world is applicable to the South African situation and circumstance. Thus a model on which to launch the affirmative action programme in South Africa is non existent. The United State of America (USA) has a system of affirmative action that is composed of voluntary affirmativeaction programmes with minimal legislation (such as the Civil Rights Act, Bill of Rights, and federal and state legislation) and the court determined limits and nature of affirmative action. Albertyn (1 994:57) states that, "For example, the Us Supreme Court has found that affirmative action does not contravene the protection against discrimination where the beneficiary is a member of a previously disadvantaged group (race or gender); where it is not in accordance with rigid quotas, but is part of a flexible and temporary programme; and where there is not undue costs to the white male". Once more in US, it has been accepted that affirmative action has helped a black professional class to grow and enabled women to advance their professional careers. It has not significantly improved the lives of the mass of black persons, nor in any major way counteracted sexual oppression. The US research has been slammed irrelevant to SA situation because affirmative action in South Africa was directed at uplifting a minority - blacks, hispanics, American Indians, women, and to a lesser extent Asians, while South Africa's is to uplift a majority - Africans and also women; to a lesser extent Asians and Coloureds. Several corporates in US have decided that having a diverse workforce can be a business asset. Taylor Cox, of University of Michigan Business School, in his social science research suggested that diversity can boost creativity. It is projected by the World bank that by the year 2000 white males will make up only 45% of US workforce (Braithmaite, 1998). The USA is the originator of the concept and term of 'affirmative action'. It is thus important to give to the USA with respect to the history, legislation and important court cases. These are important lessons and references from which South Africa can learn 107

and mistakes that can be avoided. Although affirmative action is not new in South Africa, it is currently highly visible due to the new government's promotion of the use of affirmative action programmes. The Civil Rights Act came into law on 2 July 1964. The VII of this act is the most relevant and important to business. Title VII prohibits discrimination in employment on the basis of race, colour, religion, sex or national origin. Employees fitting these targeted criteria are considered protected groups. Employers are prohibited from discriminating in hiring, training, compensating, promoting or firing employees. It also prohibits segregating or classitjling in any way that would deprive, or tend to deprive a person of equal employment opportunities. The Act covers both private and public employers. The Act also established the EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY COMMISSION (EEOC) which is comprise of five members. The responsibility of the commission is t o investigate complaints, seek to attain settlements through conciliation, and ask the attorney general to bring a law suit if conciliation fails (Luthans et al., 1987:267-268). Three general standards are applied so as to determine if there is discrimination against members of a specific group. The first standard is to determine whether there is any evidence of overt and/or disparate treatment against a protected group member. Secondly, examine rules that tend to maintain any past intentional discrimination or segregation. The third standard questions whether there are rules that have had and continue to have an adverse influence on any member or group which are not justified by 'business necessity' (Luthans et al., l987:268). Discrimination is deemed to have occurred if any one of the above three conditions are met or exist. Penalties include such areas as back pay, remedial seniority, and attorney fees; punitive damages are excluded. President Lyndon Johnson signed Executive Order 1 1246 in 1965. An executive order is not a law, but an administrative guideline that is issued by the executive branch of the USA's government. This order required federal contractors to undertake affirmative action ensuring that applicants are employed and treated without regard t o their race, colour, religion, sex or national origin during employment. This introduced the term 'affirmative action' to the American public. Executive Order 11246 lays down some very specific employment regulations and guidelines regarding affirmative action and discrimination, for businesses that desire to have contracts with the federal government of more than $10 000. This has since been increased to &SO 000. The regulations and guidelines also apply if a business employs more than 50 people (Crosby & Clayton, 199O:63 and Schlesinger, 1995:8). These regulations and guidelines are as follows: 108

1)

There must be no discrimination of applicants and employees on the basis of race, colour, religion or national region.

ii)

Business must have an acceptable affirmative action programme;

iii)

Business must provide any required information under the executive order;

iv)

Business must indicate in all of its advertising that it is in an affirmative action employer and that all applicants will be treated equally; Business must ensure that any and all sub-contracting work is also under a bona fide affirmative action programme; and

vi )

Business must file regular compliance reports with respect to employment practices (Luthans et al., 1987:269).

The legality of affirmative action in America is determined by the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court has indicated that affirmative action is legal under the following four conditions or a combination thereof (i)

"Court imposed remedies may include affirmative measures following a finding of unlawful discrimination under the Constitution or the Civil Rights laws, and thus, may be properly imposed against both Private and public actors."

(ii)

Private and public employers may voluntarily institute affirmative action plan consistent with Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, to remedy a conspicuous imbalance in a traditionally segregated job category within its workforce if the plan is temporary and does not unnecessarily rammel theinterests of non-minorities or males.

iii)

State and local governments may adopt and implement affirmative action plans narrowly tailored to correct the effects of past discrimination in which the specific governmental entity subject to the plan participated .

(iv)

Congress may implement affirmative action measures to redress societal discrimination or to promote diversity (Ofice of General Counsel-US Commission on Civil Rghts 1952,2) Weber 443 U S 193 (1979) .

The following four points should be used in conjunction with the points from the executive order and those from court decisions already mentioned. The Supreme Court stated that an employer who implements a programme, must demonstrate that: i)

There is an under representation of woman and minorities in the jobs covered by the programme,

(ii)

The programme must avoid unnecessarily discriminating against any employees,

(iii)

The programme is tailored t o accomplish its goals and objectives, and

(iv)

After discrimination and discriminatory practices have been eliminated and/or compensated for, the programme must be terminated (Matusewitch, 1990:84 ).

Canada, France and Australia have examples of detailed prescriptive legislation. This legislation requires that the nature and scope of affirmative action be specified. The legislation demands employment equity policies and programmes. It also imposes administrative, procedural and 'soft' target requirements on private sector employers with more than a certain number of employees. There are four general points that Albertyn (1 993 :24-25) proposes that organisations and employers should: (i)

'Commit themselves to employment equality or equal opportunity programmes;

(ii)

Conduct research t o identifj, the number and distribution of members of disadvantaged groups in the enterprise and to identifj, artificial barriers and disriminatory practices;

(iii)

Devise plans and programmes together with timetables and goals to overcome these; and

(iv)

Prepare annual reports on conditions and progress'

In India affirmative action has certainly helped members of the untouchable and other oppressed groups it has been criticised for giving people a stake in identifying themselves as members of a group simply because it gives them material advantages i.e. quota access to universities and state employment. The 1949 Indian Constitution makes provision for special measures for the advancement of members of "scheduled castes and tribes and other backward communities ".The former two categories constituted 15% and 7% respectively of the total population Besides special reserved seats in Parliament in proportion to their population, 22% of the places in educational institutions and the public service were reserved for them .In 1990 a further 27% of such places were set aside for "other backward communities". Thus the total of reserved positions is now nearly 50%. The lessons from India are that, without massive expenditure on mass education, the setting of simple quotas can be deleterious: decades after the imposition of quotas it still not possible to fill the reserved positions due to the absence of the educated candidate (Black Management Forum, 1998:18). Like Blacks in South Mica; in Malaysia 50% of the bumiputra (indigenous Malays) were poor compared with 20% of the Chinese and 28% of the Indians in 1970. The economic growth in Malaysia improved to 75 per annum between 1970 and 1990, and number of poor Malaysians fell from 4.5 -to 2.5 -million. Further successes in the economy were low inflation rate, stable exchange rate and competitiveness, and public sector share of the economy grew. AA has helped in a significant and visible way to open up the economy and the civil service to the majority Malay population. In education; universities implemented informal racial quotas so that Malays now constitute 67% of the university students. In terms of ownership of enterprises, a target of 30% in Malay hands was set and all new businesses had to have at least 30% Malay participation. Public trusts were set up which would own businesses on behalf of Malays. All state departments and parastatals had special programmes favouring Malays.

In employment the government pushed targets of 40% to 50% for Malay employees in private firms. The public service was legislated to obtain a 3: 1 or 4: 1 ratio of Malays to non Malays in top positions, varying by department. It is widely shared view that this policy has been successfid in the public service and in the education sector. However, Chinese; Malaysians still control the private sector and

the policy has been able to succeed only because a deal was struck so that Chinese Malaysians were able t o maintain their economic supremacy.

5.5.1

SUGGESTIONS FOR AFFIRMATIVE ACTION IN SOUTH AFRICA

Albertyn (in Coldwell, 1994:58) suggests that the Australian approach may be a model on which South Atiica could base its legislation. The system that Australia uses is an eight point comprehensive sex-based affirmative action programme. It is for organisations of over 100 employees. The eight points are as follows: 1. A policy statement on affirmative action must be developed and communicated to all employees. 2. A senior manager must be appointed to develop, implement and co-ordinate an affirmative action programme. 3 . Trade unions and employees must be consulted about the programme. 4. A statistical analysis and profile of the workforce must be prepared.

5. All existing practices and policies must be reviewed. 6. The enterprise then sets its own objectives and goals

7. There are no quotas. 8. The programme must be monitored and evaluated. A public report must be prepared on the workforce profile. An outline of the programme and a separate confidential

report must be prepared on the details of the programme (Coldwell, 1994~58; Albertyn and White, 1994:60-61; Albertyn, 1993:25).

1

The Institute of Personnel Management (IPM) (in Coldwell, 1994:58) has suggested that :argets be set for affirmative action on a negotiated basis in each organisations. The ntroduction of tax concessions could be used to encourage organisations to embark on and set up affirmative action programmes. The IPM sees legislation as the last resort if an organisation has failed to set or to meet its targets under a normal operating business climate. 112

Quotas should be rejected as they are the most extreme form of compulsory action. Quotas can be used as coercive measure against management by means of legislation. The problem with quotas is that once set they are seldom revised. A secondary problem is that organisations will usually use them as a lower reference point that defeats the whole purpose of quotas. Quotas do not encourage organisations to seek quality employees. This results in tokenism (Coldwell, 1994:59). SACOB suggests that organisations should be allowed to follow the most voluntarist approach to affirmative action. Organisations should be encouraged and not compelled through legislation to embark and adopt affirmative action programmes. Organisations should be allowed to decide what, when, where and how to implement affirmative action (Coldwell, 1994:59; SACOB, 1993). The researcher is of the opinion that South Africa could use ten points (six from the American executive order and four from American court decisions) in a programme to ensure the effective and efficient implementation of affirmative action in both the private and public sectors. South Africa could also use and adapt Title VII from the American Civil Rights Act. Aspects of both the executive orders and the Civil Rights Act could be inserted into a Bill of Rights in South Africa or even possibly inserted in a new constitution. The first and forth points of legality of affirmative action as defined by the Supreme Court need to be avoided in South Africa. Thus the points to be avoided are: lengthy court cases to ensure clarity on affirmative action and government needs to be involved in business as possible to ensure the smooth running of the economy. Thus, South Africa could follow the four guidelines that have been set out by the Supreme Court in United Steelworkers of America vs. Weber 443 US 193 (1979). The first point would need to be altered for South Africa and not the black majority of South Africa and not the black minority of the USA. These four points must only be used in South Africa as a guideline in South Africa or to form a basis for an affirmative action programme.

5.6

EMPLOYMENT EQUITY BILL AND AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

In the Employment Equity Bill /''the BillW/Act(in Padayachee, 1998:55) which was published in December 1997, it is stated that the legislation is drafted with a view to advancing those groups who have been disadvantaged as a result of discrimination caused by laws and social practices and not with a view to seeking retribution for past

injustices. Positive measures are to be implemented to redress the imbalances of the past and to create equality in employment.

5.6.1

THE BILL HAS TWO MAIN OBJECTIVES:

promoting equal opportunity and fair treatment in employment through the elimination of various forms of unfair discrimination (refer to figure 13); and implementing positive measures to redress the disadvantages in employment experienced by black people, women and people with disabilities, in order to ensure their equitable representation in all occupational categories and levels in the workplace. The BilVAct envisages that a Commission for Employment Equity will be established to monitor and "police" the provisions of the legislation together with inspectors from the Department of Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration ("the C C M A ) . This already overburdened forum has been allocated the task of conciliating disputes of affirmative action, thereafter arbitrating the dispute (Padayachee, 1998:55). Mirmative Action strategies involve the eradication of discrimination, the establishment of a demographically representative workforce and the creation of and access to opportunities for growth, development and empowerment. Consequently, accelerated recruitment, training and promotion opportunities will be provided to black people, women and people with disabilities in order to achieve a more equitable and diverse workforce. Section 9 of the Constitution of RSA Act 108 of 1996 guarantees everyone the right to equality before the law and equal protection and benefit of the law. Section 9(2) fbrther states that "equality includes the full and equal enjoyment of all rights and freedoms. To promote the achievement of equality, legislative and other measure designed to protect or advance persons, or categories of persons, disadvantaged by unfair discrimination may be taken." This section reaffirms that affirmative action is a necessary strategy to achieve equity and permits the limitation of rights if the purpose of such limitation is the advancement of persons disadvantaged by unfair discrimination. Equity does not mean the same treatment of everyone, but making distinctions between employees in order to accommodate the needs of specific employees. Furthermore, schedule 7 part 2B (2) (b) of the Labour Relations Act 1995 as amended, provides that an "employer is not prevented from adopting or implementing employment policies and practices that are designed to achieve the adequate protection and advancement of persons or groups or categories of persons disadvantaged by unfair

discrimination, in order to enable their full and equal el1ioyment of all rights and freedoms." The Labour Relations Act thus places affirmative action within the realm of fair labour practices (Verster-Nowak, et.al, 1998:4) From the above the researcher is of the view that with affirmative action strategies, companies will reach a stage: race, gender, pregnancy, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, political opinion, culture, language, marital status or family responsibility will have no efiect on employment opportunities. The researcher therefore strongly believes the o~iective of equal employment opportunity and affirmativeaction are more or less the same as they usually focus on things like fair/unfair discrimination, equal treatment of individuals, disabled people, women etc.

Figure 13:

The various forms of unfair discrimination in employment AFFIRMATIVE ACTION!!! Intentional Discrimination

,

Retaliation against employees who oppose discrimination

Unequal treatment using different sets of standards

r

REASONS FOR EOPs FAILURE

Continuation of past effects

I

/

-0

/

Unequal effect-use same standards but look at different outcomes

To ensure that the equal opportunity programme is sustainable, you need top management commitment and support, union/employeeinvolvement, proper training and development, fair selection and promotion, and good communication.

Source: Developed by researcher

lIS

- -

--

--

---

Contradictory to the above figure, Eskom's current employment policies are in alignment with Employment Equity standards i.e. Eskom sees to it that it avoids Employment Opportunities (EOPs) failure. Only a handfid of Eskom's employment policy documents show positive signs of the employment equity trend. For instance: kskom's written "Policy on HlV and AlUS in the workplace" stresses a commitment to ensure that Eskom is committed t o "fair, sound and non-discriminatory practices". Eskom's "Business Conduct Policy and Guidelines" applies non-discrimination standards between employees. Eskom's Directive on Industrial Psychological Evaluation states that Eskom supports non-discriminatory assessment. A review has commenced to scrutinise existing assessment techniques to ensure that no direct or indirect discrimination exists towards the protected groups in the Final Constitution and the Labour Relations Act (re: race, gender, sex ethnic or social origin, belief, political opinion, culture, language, marital status or family responsibility).

Further, Eskom's Business Conduct Policy and Guidelines document states 'Ai3rmative action policies are designed to redress the imbalances caused by past government policies and until such time as the balance is corrected the broader community objectives must take preference over the concept of equal employment opportunity". Clearly, in the light of new labour and constitutional standards, this focus will have to be revisited and a more equitable synthesis between affirmative and employment equity needs to be forged (Khumalo, l996:2 1-22).

5.7

PRODUCTIVE AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

AfIkmative action can have positive and negative effects on an organisation's productivity. Conversely, the implementation of affirmative action can have apositive effect on the productivity of lower level employees, who are most likely to be black. Due to the appointment of an increasing number of blacks in executive positions, they may feel that the organisational hierarchy is becoming more representative of the country's population and that they are no longer being exclusively managed by whites. However, should this group realise that the black executives are only token appointments, it may, in time, impact negatively on their productivity (Employment Equity Act, 1999:63). Mirmative action, if implemented correctly, can have a positive influence on productivity levels. In order t o improve productivity, it is essential that the entire organisation be committed to it, that black executives be allowed to use their initiatives and to make important decisions, and that appointees be motivated t o perform for

promotional purposes. Should these factors not be attended to, affirmative action is likely to have a negative effect on productivity. According to the researcher, becoming a productive and internationally competitive nation should be South Africa's national goal. However, South Africa's current imbalances and unequal opportunities are not conducive to the pursuit of such a goal. Opportunities should be equally assessable to all people. This calls for special emphasis action to rectifL the current social imbalances. M~rmativeaction is seen as a process requiring special emphasis which should enable currently disadvantaged groups to participate fully in all aspects of wealth generation. For the sake of clarification Venter (1997:2) identified the concept of "productive affirmative action", as a process of adopting organisations to become productive workplaces where a diverse workforce can apply its full potential to wealth creation. Among other thing this requires the redressing of imbalances by matching work demands with people's potential and creating a sense of belonging in the workforce. Productive affirmative action is a process which ultimately results in more competitive organisations. This result will be achieved if the following dimensions are present (see figures 14 and 15): 5.7.1

DEVELOPMENT

The Employment Equity Act states that the development strategy is a combination of the black advancement and black upliftment strategies. Black employees are exposed to specially designed training programmes and are then given preferential treatment through accelerated advancement. In terms of this strategy affirmative action beneficiaries should first be trained and developed, in order to acquire the necessary qualifications and experience to be appointed or promoted to senior positions in the organisation. AiTh-mativeaction, therefore, forms part of a career development strategy. Appointees with potential are exposed to devised development programmes to enhance their progress within the organisation. The researcher believes that career development planning should be part of human resource development programmes as it is simply not enough to move disadvantaged people into better paid jobs. Career paths must be mapped out with incumbents, along with a development programme that will enable them to advance in their chosen careers. "The development of participants in affirmative action programmes should go hand in hand with the correct identification of potential. The pace and level of development programmes must be matched to the potential of participants. Furthermore, development must fit the organisational circumstances and should take place through an appropriate mix of training, job responsibilities and support systems (such as mentorship

schemes) to ensure that the latent potential of participants is unfolded as far as possible" (Venter, 1997:4).

5.7.2

ADVANCEMENT

The Employment Equity Act (1999:55) states that adjustment aims to redress historical injustices by forcehlly changing the composition of the workforce to ensure that managerial levels are demographically representative of the organisation's employees. When looking at black advancement programmes it is found that they aim to advance the black population. Such programmes rely on favouritism in that employers are obliged to give preferential treatment to prospective black employees and to discriminate against better-qualified whites. Due t o lack of qualified and experienced blacks, organisations are obliged to resort to tokenism and, in the process productivity is forfeited. Contrary to the above "the career progression of participants should be in line with the pace of their development. However, managers tend to feel more comfortable about appointing and promoting people like themselves, and this leads to the under-promotion of groups such as blacks that are not dominant in management ranks. Therefore the tendency to under-promote certain groups should be countered by the creation of realistic pressure mechanisms accompanying incentives for reaching goals. But overpromotion should be avoided as it has negative consequences for both the organisation and the individual. Thus appropriate and fair selection methods should be adopted" (Venter, 1997:4). The researcher agrees with the above in a sense that individuals should be developed in organisations, but at the same time they should have the potential. They should undergo training and be supported so that when they are appointed for higher positions they will be able to show their skills. The researcher's opinion is that people should not just be pushed to the positions because they are "Blacks", they should deserve the positions by proving t o the outside world that they are not in senior position for the sake of "tokenism". However, it should be organisation's duty to develop their affirmative action beneficiaries and to help them adjust t o the corporate environment. The researcher is of the opinion that the development programme will provide employees with the necessary skills to cope with the demands of the management process.

5.7.3 INTEGRATION

As training and development is essentially an area of broad common interest t o employers and employees, it would be suggested that this is an important area for negotiation between parties. Employers who ignore the needs of the unions in the process of developing affirmative action processes may find that their plans lack legitimacy of the workforce and could be doomed to failure (De Bruyn, 1996:55-56). Venter (1997:4) mentions that changing the racial composition of orgnisations will require a process of integration, and organisations will have to become more accommodating and non-partisan. Mechanisms for collectively aligning people with the goals of the organisation should be utilised in order t o create synergy within a diverse work. Consultation with all groups should be emphasised to ensure that efforts at achieving integration address the critical issues. Like Venter, the researcher also believes that the racial composition of organisations should change as we are now in a democratic South Africa. Because there is too much diversity in South African organisations, to balance the ratio of equal employment opportunity a process of integration should take place and everyone should be accommodated. In addition, consultation as a mode of engagement with other groups as well as trade unions should be applied to try to reach an agreement on the integration process before implementing it. There should be transparency as far as critical issues are concerned not forgetting disclosure of information to employees, especially trade unions.

Figure 14:

Dimensions of afirmative action (two-dimensional) igh Develop ment Inadequate (only a development emphasis)

Low

Focus (development and advancement)

High

Advancement

Lame (unequal opportunities or discrimination)

Trap (tokenism, window dressing and overpromotion)

Low *Identification and unfolding of potential

Source: Verster (1996:4)

5.7.4 A COMBINATION OF ALL THREE DIMENSIONS

All three dimensions are absolutely critical for productive affirmative action (see figure 15). If one dimension is given greater emphasis than the other, the affirmative action process will not be productive. For instance, if black people are advanced to higher positions without the necessary development, this will lead to the traps of tokenism and window-dressing. Conversely, if there is only a development emphasis, black people might be trained, but, because of prejudice or reluctance to lose trained personnel, would remain in low-level positions. This will hinder development as there will be no reinforcement of learning through progressively greater job responsibility. However, even if a person is developed and promoted on merit, hislher efforts might not be utilised fdly if he/she is not integrated into organisational affairs but is kept on the periphery and denied critical information or excluded from decision-making processes. All three of the dimensions described above must be applied within the constraints of each organisation's situation. For instance, affirmative action in a company that is growing can be much faster than in one that is having to scale down on its operations to survive. Truly speaking, a successfid affirmative action process must in the longer-term 120

result in more competitive organisations. This will ultimately mean an improvement in the living standards and quality of life of all people in South Africa, and the creation of employment opportunities through the growth of these more competitive organisations. Venter (1 997:8) mentions that the National Productivity Institute (NPI) has formulated general guidelines on how it believes an organisation could implement productive affirmative action. A framework that explains the different levels of affirmative action that are encountered have also been developed (see table 6). The NPI believes that productive affirmative action would not go beyond level 3.2. Also, affirmative action should be accepted as a rectification process that cannot continue indefinitely. After a period of rectification, non-discriminatory equal opportunity practices should be followed. Figure 15:

Dimensions of affirmative action (three-dimensional)

D E

v

E L 0 P M E N T ADVANCEMENT

Source: Verster (1996:4)

Table 6:

I

Levels of affirmative action regarding blacks in South Africa

Level 1:

DISCRIMINATION (NEGATIVE)

1.1 1.2

Open discrimination More subtle forms of discrimination

2.1

No discrimination, Everybody is treated in the same way.

Level 3 : 3.1

3.2

Level 4:

4.1

PREFERENTAL TREATMENT BASED ON MERIT Blacks who display potential (and are sufficiently ready) are Given preference but for development and training appointmentlpromotion the same as Level 2.

only

-

Blacks are not only given preference for development and Training but those who display potential (and are sufficiently ready) are appointedlpromoted in preference to ready whites.

PREFERENTIAL TREATMENT WITHOUT FULL REFERENCE TO MERIT Blacks are given preference for development and appointment without always being sufficiently ready.

Source: Verster (1996:5)

5.8

AFFIRMING EQUAL OPPORTUNITY FOR WHITE MALES

The researcher feels that it is important for the above sub-heading to be thoroughly discussed as the previous sub-heading might be misinterpreted by the readers, as if it is excluding white males. And it is important to view equal opportunity as a moral right, and it needs no apology. That is why affirmative action is a tool ensuring that equal opportunities are provided. One of the objectives of affirmative action is to create a society where everyone has the same chance to get on in life. However, if black men and women are being provided opportunities at the expense of white males, can this be said to be effective, positive affirmative action? Affirmative action needs to be an inclusive policy where all groups, including white males, stand to benefit. Integral to any affirmative action policy, 122

therefore, is the need to affirm equal opportunity for white men. Anything less is not equal opportunity, nor is it positive affirmative action (Fischer, 1996:30).

5.8.1

THE UPLIFTMENT OF BLACK EMPLOYEES

Most organisations which follow black upliftment programmes believe blacks need t o be developed and trained to function effectively and efficiently in the corporate world. One of the major criticisms levelled against this strategy is the assumption that blacks need to be trained to perform better in a so-called white world which remains unchanged. In other words, the implicit assumptions of the black advancement model are that blacks currently haven't the wherewithal to succeed in business and what we have to do is educate and train them and place them in organisations as they currently exist. It can be argued that black upliftment programmes have to date been largely unsuccessful in a sense that they were largely confined t o the multinationals and were driven by the Human Resources department with little commitment from line managers. The result represented, in the main, tokenism and failure. According to the Employment Equity Act (1999:44) the black upliftment strategy came about as a result of the failure of the equal opportunity and forced black advancement strategies. Organisations usually make special provision in their budgets for the upliftment programmes detailed in their affirmative action policy. Black upliftment programmes have a strong paternalistic inclination and aim to recti@ past injustices with regard to black education and training. For such programmes to work, it is imperative that organisations create situations that will enable blacks to advance to higher-level positions within the organisation once they have been uplifted. The researcher believes that this strategy is a soft option whereby organisations spend considerable amounts of money on training black employees, but do not create opportunities for them to advance to higher positions in the organisational hierarchy.

5.8.2 PREFERENTIAL TREATMENT Various options exist as to when and where the use of preferential treatment is acceptable. For example, Human (1992:54) believes that preferential treatment should only occur at the recruitment and selection interface. This she believes is necessary and fair, as the education and background of black South Africans have affected their

opportunities and access to meaninghl work. Research conducted by Wright (1993 :30) in Fischer (1996:34) indicated that preferential treatment in terms of access t o training and development opportunities was found t o be an acceptable form of preferential treatment by white and black, men and women. Effective affirmative action calls for a 'balancing' between criteria of race (and, in some cases, gender) and merit. This is seen as 'levelling the playing field', where black men and women can compete equally with white males. Padayachee ( 1 998 : 5 5) expects affirmative action measures, including preferential treatment, to appoint and promote suitably qualified people from designated groups to ensure their equitable representation in all occupational categories and levels in the workplace. It is advisable that a designated employer does not appoint or promote from designated groups who are not suitably qualified. From the previous paragraph it does not necessarily mean that the previously disadvantaged groups are the only beneficiaries of affirmative action, at some stage it should also include white males. Failure to make affirmative action an inclusive policy is not acceptable. White males also need affirmative action in the form of the provision of equal opportunity. They need the assurance that, in the quest to ensure equal opportunity for other groups, they in turn will not be denied their right to equal opportunity (Fischer, 1996:34). Mentorship approach, according to the Employment Equity Act (1999:46) ideally suits this the purpose of preferential treatment. Mentorship is a means of assisting the appointee in adjusting to his or her new work environment. Mentors are assigned to coach, assist and activate affirmative action appointees, t o monitor their performance and to address conduct considered detrimental to organisational goal achievement. The mentor's task is to ensure that appointees function optimally in their new positions on an ongoing basis. Mentors are appointed on the understanding that they will pass on their knowledge and work experience to their prote'ge's being dealt with the race issue above, the researcher therefore believes that it is necessary to look at gender and affirmative action where equal opportunity once more needs to be applied

5.9

GENDER AND AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

To facilitate the creation of a more demographically representative workforce, affirmative action strategies shall benefit gender as well (i.e. women). MyakayakaManzini (1992: 1) defines gender as the social construction of masculinity and femininity.

It refers to the differential social and cultural characteristics that we attribute to merit and women. Gender attributes construct men as dominant and women as subordinate in any familial, social, legal, economic or political relationship. Preukel (1989: 12) states that the sub-ordination issue is a specific challenge facing black women. Thus, Myakayaka-Manzini (1992:1) continues, gender is not sex. Sex refers to the biological characteristics of men and women (De Bruyn, 1996.78). Gender differences are not necessarily sex differences. Gender attributes play an important role in shaping the sexual division of labour in the home, in society and in the labour force. They influence work which women have to do, their remuneration, the value of their labour and their visibility in society. The linkage between women's social reproduction roles and paid work roles is crucial in maintaining women's subordination. But mere recognition of this problem does not solve the problem of women workers. Young (1993: 128) states that it is a mistake to assume that all women would necessarily work for women or against gender subordination. Yet there is reason to believe that women may be more likely to open doors for talented women and to provide new balance and comprehensive attention to gender in the decision-making process (De Bruyn, 1996:78). Alperson (1993:36) adds that the constraints women's development need to face are: Attitudes in South Africa are so entrenched that specific gender roles are acceptable. If a woman is perceived as aggressive, she may have problems. Teenage girls are not encouraged to study Maths or Science. Yet these subjects can provide a foundation for professional development. Once in the workplace, many female employees encounter two-types of men: those who do not acknowledge women's equality of potential and those who think they do women a favour when they give them less work because they have household chores to do. South African companies may say that they encourage women's advancement, but a survey conducted by Wits Business School for the Executive Women's Club of South Africa found most such assertions to be token gestures. Few offered benefits such as day care support, even though sucamenities can help retain valued employees.

Clayton (1995:64) indicates that affirmative action is a societal response to a societal problem. He continues and states that in the absence of group identification problems by men or women, gender discrimination is likely to be perceived and an abstract social problem rather than an immediate personal threat. He believes that women with a low level of gender consciousness may express concern about gender discrimination, but assume it does not affect their own lives. Their response to any personal disadvantage, if they perceive it at all is likely to be that it is a personal problem. Stress and feelings of guilt may result. The researcher believes that previously women were regarded as being weak and as subordinates to their husbands and bosses. As a result they used to feel inferior and look down to themselves. But in the long run they realised that they were being oppressed/undermined and were denied their rights. They then formulated a movement of women called "Feminism" in which they fought for their freedom and rights. But that was not quite enough, until the early nineties (before the democratic government) most women were still being suppressed and were treated unequal to males. Thanks to the existing Labour Relations Act (No. 66. of 1995) which opened up equal employment opportunities even for women at large. In most organisations women are now being recognised, and because of their skills they are being put in positions they deserve. Stance on black and white women is next to be discussed.

5.9.1

STANCE ON BLACK AND WHITE WOMEN

At the time when the affirmative action policy was implemented (February 1994), the numbers of white women employed by Company X for example, were more than six times the number of black women. By January 1996 this gap had decreased: the number of white women at Company X was just over double the number of black women. The increase in black women in C-F Bands (i.e. gradingllevel) over this period was approximately 243%, while the increase in white women in the same bands over the same period was approximately 11% (see table 6). Given the trend toward equalisation in representative numbers between black and white women at Company X and the emerging non-discriminatory standards, there is a need to carehlly reassess the exclusion of white women from the affirmative action policy (Khumalo, 1996:20-21). The above does not necessarily imply the that exclusion must go as white women still outnumber black women by more than 2.6:1 in positions of power (C-Upper to F Bands) in Company X. It may rather mean that the exclusion will have to be phased out via a mechanism of separate targets for white and black women.

A-F Band Distribution of Women per Race 1994 - 1996

Table 7:

Total 4248 678

White Women Black Women

5000

_

Janura C-F Bands 1428 322

A-B Bands 2423 1088

1996 Total 3851 1410

4248 3851

«xx>j 3000

29ED

2OCO 1000 o

LL8LlJ: A-B Bands Jan-94

C-F Bands

Total

III White Women.

A-B Bands

C-F Bands Januray 1996

Black Women

Total

I

Source: Khumalo (1996:2)

The issue of establishing a gender equity policy as part of an overall affinnative action policy was explored further in 1997. It is found that white women do not fall in the same category as blacks. Company X regards blacks as the primary beneficiariesof affirmative action because of their disadvantaged background. The company is however addressing gender inequality by opening up opportunities for women of all races to enjoy the same benefits as men. By the year 2000, at least 20% of all employees across each level in Company X will be women. The milestones for women of all races are as follows:

.

15% of employees at each level to be women by the end of 1998

.

17% of employees at each level to be women by the end of 1999

.

20% of employees at each level to be women by the end of2000.

127

- -- -

-

-

-- -- -

-

-

-

-

5.10

DISABILITY AND AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

People with disabilities require the fundamentals of everyday life, such as employment, housing, education, entertainment, sporting and leisure activities. Like the able-bodied, they need to enjoy all of these to the extent of their individual abilities. The Labour Relations Act No. 66 of 1995 includes "disability" as a job prohibited ground of unfair discrimination. The guarantee against unfair discrimination on the ground of disability also enjoys constitutional protection at present (Verster, 1996:32). Towards the end of 1993, the United Nations ("the UN") adopted its Standard Rules of the Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities. The Standard Rules establish that states have a responsibility "to create the legal bases for measures to achieve the objectives of full participation and equality for persons with disabilities". The Standard Rules further enshrine "the principle that persons with disabilities must be empowered t o exercise their human rights, particularly in the field of employment", and recognise that the "equalisation of opportunities for persons with disabilities is an essential contribution in the general and worldwide effort to mobilise human resources" (Verster, 1996:32-33).

5.10.1 OBJECTIVE AND INHERENT REQUIREMENTS OF THE JOB The researcher agrees with Verster (1996:32) that it is important to appreciate that, unlike other grounds of unfair discrimination including race, sex and sexual orientation, the disability or health status of an applicant may directly determine whether that applicant would be able to perform at least the essential functions of a particular position. For example total blindness will effectively prevent an applicant from being employed as an airline pilot and an applicant who has lost both hands cannot be employed as a concert pianist. In either of the above two extreme examples, although the applicant may possess the requisite academic or technical qualifications for the position, the applicant will simply not possess the "minimum qualifications" to meet the legitimate physical requirements of the position in question. The researcher has observed that very often people with disabilities are protected form discrimination in employment, transportation and public accommodation. The Law prohibits an employer form discriminating against a" qualified individual with a disability." A qualified individual is one who is able to perform the "essential" (i.e. primary) functions of a job with or without accommodation. Thus, qualified job 128

applicants (i.e. individuals with disabilities who can perform the essential hnctions of a job with or without reasonable accommodation) must be considered for employment. According to the researcher it well known that affirmative action requires organisations to employ the disabled, but findings on one survey reflect that two-thirds of those between the ages of 16 and 64 are unemployed and they really want jobs (Cascio, 1998:50 &loo). From the above it is perceived that perhaps the biggest barrier is employers' lack of knowledge. For example, Many are concerned about financial hardship because they assume it will be costly to make architectural changes to accommodate wheelchairs and add equipment to aid workers who are sight - or hearing-impaired. Consider several possible modifications: Placing a desk on blocks, lowering shelves, and using a carousel for files. Such inexpensive accommodations enable people in wheelchairs to be employed. Installing telephone amplifiers for hearing-impaired individuals or magnifiing glasses for sight-impaired individuals. Introducing flextime, job sharing, and other modifications to the work schedule. The researcher is of the opinion that commitment by top management to accommodate workers with disabilities and assignment of a specialist within the ''EEO/Mrmative Action" section to focus on "equal access" for people with disabilities. Outreach recruitment to organisations that can refer job applicants with disabilities. Actions like these enable people with disabilities to work, to gain self-esteem, and other their full potential. That is a key objective of diversity at work.

5.10.2 DUTY TO MAKE REASONABLE ACCOMMODATION "The Standard Rules require states to "encourage employers to make reasonable adjustments to accommodate disabled workers". A duty to make reasonable accommodations is an example of, and clearly falls within the ambit of, the affirmative action provisions contained in the Labour Relations Act and the Constitution." Steps that employers might be expected to take would involve alterations or adjustments to policies and practices. So the employer might accommodate a disabled worker by allocating some of the disabled person's duties to another person, by alterating the disabled person's working hours or by assigning the disabled person to a different place of work. Where disability prevents a newly disabled employee from continuing to

perform existing job functions (which involve taking account of the capacity or skills a person must have t o do the job), a reasonable adjustment might involve transferring the disabled person t o fill an existing vacancy.

5.1 1

A SOUTH AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE

It can be predicted with reasonable certainty that future employment equity and/or affirmative action legislation will impose a duty on employers to reasonably accommodate employees with disabilities. This will require an employer to recognise the applicant for employment or the incumbent employee's abilities so that the employer can make allowances or provide special services or facilities that will enable the individual with a disability to perform the essential functions of the position satisfactorily. Most employers want t o select the best-qualified applicant for an advertised position. Presumably, employers will be mindful of their duties under employment equity legislation and the wider law to provide safe workplaces, while avoiding practices that may directly or indirectly discriminate against applicants with disabilities or infringe on an applicant's privacy. When advertising a position, a statement such as, for example, "the position requires a physically fit and agile individual" should be avoided. A job application form and any responses to initial enquiries should avoid requiring applicants to disclose health, medical or disability information about themselves, since this question is likely to be interpreted as indicating an intention t o discriminate on the ground of disability (Verster, 1996:34-35). In conclusion of the above the researcher is of the view that one of the factors which inhibits development of employment equity measures is a lack of understanding of the realities of the discrimination suffered by people with disabilities and of the measures which need to be taken to overcome such discrimination. Not every person with disability will require accommodations to have access t o equal opportunity, but some people will. Some people may require simple, inexpensive accommodation. Others may require more significant changes which could be costly and disruptive. Mere expense or inconvenience should not per se be regarded as a bar to reasonable accommodation of people with disabilities. Also when offering employment employers must not be permitted to ask workers about past or present disabilities. The best thing t o do is, after describing essential job functions, an employer can ask whether the applicant can perform the job in question and not on a form. Medical information on employees must be kept separate from other personal or work-related information about them. It will be usehl if there be programmes focusing on making sure that employees with disabilities receive the care and rehabilitation they need to help them return t o work quickly.

Another things is that people with disabilities must also receive in-service training and be allowed to attend development programmes in order to improve their skills.

5.12

CONCLUSION

The researcher would like to mention that this chapter might be sensitive to some readers. Therefore it is important to read it carefdly, with good understanding and not with a misinterpretation. A thorough explanation on the reconstruction and development programme is made, focusing on its basic principles and key programmes, RDP and affirmativeaction including affirmative action targets. Finally the experience of affirmative action in other countries is discussed. The researcher is of the opinion that the integration of the Australian eight-point plan would be most beneficial to South Africa. However some form of legislation might be needed just to get the organisation off the starting block and turn them in the right direction. This chapter also deals with Equal Employment Opportunity and the role it plays within affirmative action. These two mainly focus on an important factor being the equal treatment of all people of colour. As the researcher believes that there is some congruency between Equal Employment opportunity and affirmative action, the proof was therefore provided in the discussion of the current chapter. This was theoretically proven but, it was not enough. As such, an empirical study was done with the intention of adding more value and adding evidence that these two items work hand-in-hand. The researcher therefore feels that the reader should take this into consideration (see chapter 6, section C on open questions). The next chapter to be discussed deals with the results as well as recommendations mainly of the empirical research.

CHAPTER 6 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

INTRODUCTION

6.1

The questionnaire was formulated with the purpose of backing statements and opinions made during study. The researcher took a decision of studying only one organisation even though affirmative action is applied in many organisations around the country. It is important to note that this very same study can be applied to and can be conducted within any organisation as a result, proposals and results will be different. The researcher decided not to compare two organisations when conducting the study but preferred to choose only one organisation. Hence it is important to discuss the choice of the organisation for this study. It is of necessity to give a short discussion regarding the choice of the organisation for this study, and this is seen in section 6.2

6.2

CHOICE OF COMPANY FOR RESEARCH

The reason for the research being conducted in only one organisation is that each and every organisation will have a different perspective to the affirmative action process that should be implemented. To conduct the empirical research a large but structured organisation was chosen using stratified random sampling design consisting of four groups.

6.2.1

SAMPLING DESIGNS

From the above-mentioned paragraph Leedy (1985: 156-160) identified the following five types of sampling designs (methods) that are available for descriptive survey research, namely, stratified random sampling, simple random sampling, proportional stratified sampling, cluster or area sampling and systematic sampling.

STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING As mentioned in 6.2.1, the researcher has decided to use this method for specific reasons, and they are the following; Firstly, the researcher is going to be able to randomly select 132

each sample from a diverse stratum within the organisation. Secondly, equal samples from each of the four groups are taken to avoid bias in the research design. In this way every stratum will have the same number as the rest of the strata. Consequently, more emphasis will only be put on this method. In the stratified random sampling design, thus the population, instead of a homogeneous mass, is composed of layers (strata) of discretely different types of individual units. Think of toplsenior management, linelmiddle management, supervisors and shop floor workers (unionised and non-unionised) in an organisation. This is a stratified population. Generally, the stratification layers are somewhat equal in number to the rest of the groups (Leedy, 1985: 156). It is found that in the stratified random sampling, as we are to sample a population seen in section 6.3 of this chapter within Company X, w e should probably equal samples from each of the four groups. Thus, the first reason for the researcher to use this method is that each sample is going to be randomly selected from diverse strata within the organisation. One more level, namely the equalisation level, will be added to the diagram of our sampling design at which point we would be carehl to see that the sample was indeed representative of the entire population. Leedy (1985: 157) believes that in the above-mentioned equalisation process, w e attempt to get four sub-populations of approximately the same size. To do so preserves equalisation in one dimension, and the fact that all people within that particular subpopulation cell are all of the same group level, seeks to assure equalisation in a second dimension. In this way we can be reasonably assured that the population is not skewed or biased because of inequality in any of the cells. Therefore, the second reason for the researcher to choose this method, is that the four strata will be the same in size. As a result, the bias caused by inequality is going to be avoided at all cost in the research.

6.3

SAMPLE POPULATION

To give clarity regarding exactly who the research group is, the total sample of 300 people will be randomly selected from the following strata: Toplsenior management -: this band is constituted of the chairman, CEO, and executive directors who are forming part of the governance structure of Company X. Linelmiddle structure -: this band is constituted of linelmiddle management, professionals and specialists. Supervisory level -: it is constituted of skilled labour force, for example, artisans and technicians. 133

Shop-floor workers (unionised and non-unionised) -: the level here consists of grey collar workers or non-skilled labour force.

MEASUFUNG INSTRUMENT

6.4

A session in the form of informal interviews will be held separately with the abovementioned groups to identify factors that they consider as important regarding the concept of affirmative action. A standardised questionnaire complemented by unstructured interviews will be used to assess the respondents.

MEANS OF DATA INTERPRETATION

6.5

After receiving the questionnaires' feedback from the respondents, the statistical analysis will be drawn up to ensure the questionnaires' validity and reliability. The result of the study will be analysed by making use of the SAS method and Statistica software.

RESULTS AND RESEARCH FINDINGS

6.6

The statistical results obtained from the questionnaire will be discussed in the following order: Section 6.6 is concerned with the biographical section of the sample population (see section 6.6.1 of this chapter) and the perceptions of the sample population in connection with certain issues involved in change and affirmative action. (see section 6.6.2). Section 6.7 provides the outcomes of the open-ended questions posed to the sample population.

6.6.1

BIOGRAPHICAL DATA

The biographical profile of the organisational sample is found in section A of the questionnaire. The researcher refers the reader to Appendix A for an example of this questionnaire. A discussion regarding the general information obtained here will be based under the following headings: 134

I

Gender of the sample population Age Highest standard passed Highest qualification of the respondents Ethnic group of the respondents Knowledge of affirmative action

On top of every questionnaire the researcher requested the members of the sample population to indicate the level they hold and they were given the assurity to remain anonymous. To support this statement it was going to be impossible to reveal their identification as they were randomly selected and not given their names. The reason for identifying the level was to make sure that all the levels were equal in number so that biasness could be avoided by all means. In other words by revealing their levels would not cause any harm, the respondent's identity would not be traceable at all. The gender of the respondents is the first biographical characteristic to be discussed.

I

6.6.1

SECTION A: BIOGRAPHICAL DATA

Figure 16:

58

,

Gender of the sample population Histogram (ANNAHZ.STA 3 4 ~ 3 0 1 ~ ) G M P H DEPICTING MALE AND FEMALE

1

FEMALE

MALE GENDER

6.6.1.1 Gender of the sample population

As mentioned earlier in Chapter one, the sample population chosen at Company X consisted of four levels ranging from the top management level, followed by linelmiddle management level, followed by supervisory level to the shop-floor workers of the organisation. It is clear that 59,4% of the sample population were men while 40, 6% were women. In short the above graph indicates that male respondents are more than female ones. This shows that in almost all the sections of Company X males are more than females. This according to the researcher is true because through the observation the handing over of questionnaires in different departments the majority of the staff in offices were males. This brings about a big question mark with regard to the representation of women as one of the previously disadvantaged group within all the structures of the organisation. The researcher was fortunate enough to go deeper with conducting this research by collecting more information through some informal interviews and going through the policies and directives of Company X. The outcomes of there shows that really in company X more males are employed and also occupying top positions as compared to females (refer to figure 16) .On the other hand Company X is planning to balance the ratio between males and females by the year 2000 the next point of biographical data is that of the age of the respondents.

6.6.1.2 The age of the sample population Figure 18:

Age of the sample population GRAPH DEPICTING THE AGE OF THE PEOPLE.

42 39 36 33 30 27 24 21 18 15 12 9 6 3

..-............................................................... .....................-............................................ ..................................................................

............................................... .... ..................... ............................................... ............................................... ............................................... ............................ ............................ ............................ ............................ ............................ ............................ ............................

.................................................................. .................................................................. .............................................. ..........-................................... .............................................. ..............................................

AGE

The representation of the various age groups represented in the general society, are generally all representedwithin in sample population taken trom Company X. This is shown in the above graph (see figure 18). It is evident that the majority of people are those of agebetween 30 - 39 years old.

6.6.1.3 School qualification of respondents There is an interesting phenomenon with regard to the highest standard passed of the respondents. The below graph provides the response (refer to figure 19) Figure 19

Highest standard passed Graph depicting highest school education people completed.

90 84 78 72 66 60 54 46 42 36 No of ob s

30 24 18 12 6

o

.......................-....-.....-...--............................__......................-........................................ ........................................-...-..................... ..............................-....-....-...-..................... .....................-.......--....-....-......................... .................................................................. .............................-.....-....-......................... .............................-.....-.............................. .............................--....-....-...-...................-. ....................--..-....--....-.......................-....-. .....-....-....-...--...-....-........................-....-....-. .....-....-....-...---................................-....-....-. .................................................................. -....-......................................--...-....-........... ........................................-...--...-................ ..................... .-"'T"L 1n C"T _ 0

..........-....-......................... ...........-....-.... ..................... ..................... ..................... .-....--...-....-.... ..................... .......-...-......... .-....-.............. ..................... ..................... ..................... ......--...-....-....

Highest School Education

137

It is evident that most (95.5%) staff members employed in Company X have completed their highest school education between STD9 - 10.Furtherwhen lookingat those with standard 6 to 8, only few of them are in the range (4.5%), on the other hand it is motivating enough to see that neither of the respondents have less than standard 6. The researcher is of the opinion that further training and development will be important so that everyone will be given a chance to be competent. 6.6.1.4 Qualifications of respondents In question four of section A of the questionnaire (see Appendix A) the levels of qualifications of the respondents were obtained. The response is given in figure 20 Figure 20

Qualifications of the sample population

Graph depicting Students at Highest Tertiary Education.

36

........-...........-......

~

.....................................................................................

15 12 L

~

of ob

............

........................--. .......--.................. .......--.................. ........................... .......--.................. .......--............--....

g ............................................... 6 3 ............................ o [ .......... EducationalCollege University-pr&-grad HighestTertiaryEducation

None

It is evident that most people who completed highest tertiary education are university post-graduates. It is clear that the majority (43%) of the managerial staff within Company X have obtained their degrees. 6.6.1.5 Ethnic group of the respondents The response is given next in figure 21

138

-- - -have the kmOot knowleag to implement affirmative action in organisations. The researcher therefore believes that 139

Figure 21

Ethnic group of the respondents Graph depicting Ethnics Groups.

36 33 30 27 24 21 18 15 N

~ ob

12

.................................................................................................................................... .......--....................-........................---..........-......-..........................-. .....----.............---.............................--.................__.........-.................. ........-.............__..............................................-......-..--..................... .....----.............................................---...............---..........................-. ...........--.........................................................-......-..._..................... -.......................................................-.......................................... ....-..........................................................-......-................................ ................................-......................................................................

9 6 3

o

The above graph depicts that the dominant Ethnic group is white people (43.7%).

6.6.1.6 Knowledge of the respondents regarding affirmative action The response of this question is given below (figure 22) Figure 22

Knowledge of affirmative action

Graph depicting people tha~ do they have knowledge about affirmative action? 98 91 84

n 70 63 56 49 42 35 ~ of ob s

.....................

........................................................................................

...............................

................................................................................

.....................

.................................................................. .................................................................. .................................................................. .................................................................... ................................................................... ............................................................................. ..................................................................... .................................................................. .................................................................... .................................................................. .....................................................................

................................

..................... ........................ ..................... ...................... ..................... 28 ..................... 21 ...................... 14 ..................... 7 o .....................

v_

Knowledge d Affinnatiw Action

The above graph explains that the majority (98%) of respondents do have some knowledge of affirmative action and only 2% have no knowledge of the concept. It is therefore the researchers opinion that all the levels in Company X, seeing that most of them have the knowledge of affirmative action they should work together in order to avoid the reasons that might lead to the failures of affirmative action (see section C, question 2). The researcher is of the opinion that employees as well as management have the kind of knowledge that is required by the Employment Equity Act, and that is to implement affirmative action in organisations. The researcher therefore believes that 139

because of this knowledge they have it shows that affirmative action strategies, policies and programmes are well communicated and that people are informed about them. On the other hand there is a possibility that the level of knowledge they have as per researcher is inappropriate (from unstructured interviews). For example, others view affirmative action even though implemented correctly, as a reverse discrimination whereas that is not the case. The above shows that many have wrong perceptions about affirmative action, in other words they lack enough information. The researcher therefore believes it is management duty to hlly educate all workers about affirmative action as well as make them understand the reasons behind its implementation in the organisation. This is supported by the Employment Equity Act of 1999, section 18 which says that a designated employer must disclose all relevant information that will allow them to consult effectively. On the other hand one might ask if 2% of the sample population do not have the knowledge of affirmative action, what kind of a measure is to be taken by Company X to ensure that all employees are familiar with this concept. The researcher is of the view that the answer to this question might be found in section C question 1. It can thus be concluded that the lack of knowledge regarding affirmative action could lead to resistance to change which in this study, that change happens to be affirmative action. It should be noted that one of the goals of Company X is for the implementation of affirmative action to be successfU. Thus the researcher's opinion is that each and every section in Company X should educate, train and develop their staff about affirmative action so that they will not resist it but accept and adapt to it. Table 8

Knowledge of affirmative action

I Count

I Cumul. -

~

1 Percent

Yes No Knowledge Missing

290 6 1 4

290 296 297 30 1

1 Cumul. Percent

Count 96 1.9934 0.3322 1.3289

96.346 98.339 98.671 100

The above table explains that, only 98% of people have knowledge about Affirmative Action. The second part (section B) of the questionnaire is the core of the study as it deals in details with affirmative action as one of the means to change. The researcher refers the reader to Appendix A for an example of section B of the questionnaire.

SECTION B: CHANGE AND AFFIRMATIVE ACTION The aim of the set up regarding Section B of the questionnaire given to the sample population at Company X was mainly to obtain some information will regard information with regards to the perception of various issues, related to change, the management of change as well as the perception of respondents on the implementation of affirmative action strategies within the organisation, applying to the organisation as a whole, thus with many departments involved. The discussion of the data obtained will be sub-divided under the following: the general perception of this respondents as to the operational structure of the organisat ion. perception of respondents regarding the effect of both change and affirmative action on various departments and levels. the effect of differences between those departments and levels. The general perception of the respondents as to the operational structure of the organisation. In section B, question seven (being the first question under section B) of the questionnaire, the respondents were asked to what degree they experience changes occurring in their departments (see question 7, Appendix A). The results are given in table 10. Table 10 B7(annah2.sta)

Highly accepted

Experience of change within different organisations

Count 32

l ~ i a h l vUnacceptable (24 Experience Changes 1 4 Missinn

Count 32

Percent Percent 10.631229 10.631229

1296 297 301

(7.9734219198.33887 1 0.3322259 198.671096 1.32890371 100

The above table depicts that 98% respondents see changes as highly unacceptable in their departments. The researcher believes the reason behind might be that people in Company X are not ready for change and do not understand the need for change (see chapter 3, section 3.6.1). It is also possible that due to the fact that top managers are threatened by affirmative action they are reverting to tokenism because they want to maintain their power base. Hence they do not accept change, they will appoint somebody who is not knowledgeable and empowered to see him fail in the position

being appointed for. If they accepted change they were going to take them through training and developed programmes to enhance their skills (chapter 4, section 4.4.5) Only 70% accept change in their departments. These might be the ones who understand the reasoning behind the implementation of affirmative action strategy (refer to chapter 4, section 4.2) such as 1) pressure from government, 2) external market expectations which are not prepared to have good dealings with companies not reflecting the demographics underpinning affirmative action (see chapter 4, section 4.3.1.1). The researcher is of the opinion that because of the level of people in the organisation as well as their professional status it is easier for them to accept change and understand the direction this country is taking in removing past imbalances.

Table 11

Affirmative action strategies, as a means of change implemented by force B8 (annah2.sta)

To a larger degree To a lesser degree Not at all Affirmative Action

Count 144 1 15 35 1

Count 144 259 294 295

Percent Percent 47.840532 47.840532 38.20598 86.046512 1 1.627907 97.674419 0.3322259 98.006645

The above table indicated that 97,6% people believe that affirmative action is implemented by force within Company X whereas 47,8% say to a lesser degree. The researcher believes that the reason behind those saying it was implemented by force to a lesser degree is because of negative attitudes. Instead of them wanting to know more about affirmative action strategy they turn to have a wrong perception that the strategy impose a reverse discrimination. Another reason might be that Company X implemented an inappropriate strategy. On the other hand it is possible that 97,6 have attended seminars, workshops, and meetings regarding affirmative action. For the researcher is convinced that they see it as not being implemented forcefully. This shows that they understand the reasons for affirmative action (see chapter 4, section 4.2) Table 12 The necessity to manage change B9 (annah2.sta)

Definitelv so To some extent Not at all Don't know Manage changeEnterurise

Count 200 85 7 8 11

Count Percent 200 66.445 183 285 28.239203 292 2.3255814 300 2.6578073 1301 10.3322259

Percent 66.445 183 94.684385 97.009967 99.667774 1lo0

-

The above Table depicts that only 95% people believe that it is necessary to manage change in the enterprise, whereas 97% say not at all. The researcher is of the opinion that if change is not managed it will lead to havoc and people's emotions will rise. Therefore it is important to manage change (refer to chapter 3, section 3.6.3) in order to avoid confrontation as well as creating a state of harmony within Company X. Also the management of change will eliminate a large degree of fears by skilled employees who fear to loose their jobs to affirmative action candidates. Table 13 Resistance to change needs to be managed B 12 (annah2.sta)

Yes,without a doubt To some extent Not at all change Missing

Count 208

Cumul. Count 208

Cumul. Percent Percent 69.10299 69.10299

83 8

29 1 299

27.57475 1 96.677741 2.6578073 99.335548

1

301

0.3322259 100

The table explained that 97% believe that, resistance to change needs to be managed. The researcher agrees with this and believe that 99% who say not at all must be made aware of the need to manage resistance (refer to chapter 3, section 3.6.4). It is obvious that if a radical change is brought in an organisation it will be resisted and. If not managed Company X will be delaying the process of change by holding on to the old beliefs and old ways of doing things. Managing this resistance element involves, from the researcher's point of view, giving options to enable the process to fast-track.

Figure 23

Factors contributing to resistance to change Graph indicating factors that can be contributed to resistance to change.

98 91 84 77 70 63 56 49 42 35 N o of ob

.................--.......................................--.......................................-................. .................................................................................. ............................................................................-...... .................................................................... ...................................................... ..................................................................

..-.....................................

28 21 14 7

o Economicconditions Factors

Personal Fears contributing

LabourLegislation

to resistance

Management

to change

The above graph indicates that all factors contribute to resistance to change, but management skills appeared to be the highest factor to resistance to change. The researcher believes that the reason behind might be that management lacks skills to drive affirmative action (look at chapter 4, section 4.4.1.1), negative comotations contribute to people not to manage resistance appropriately, job loss fear, no basically corporate strategy that has been put into place to manage resistance. Also the way in which some people who are threatened by the existence of affirmative action as a means of change are the ones who are resisting it, so in no way they can manage it appropriately. Some managers do not want to be taken away from their comfortable zones or positions so they are not interested in having skills to manage change. Table 14 Indicating that, managers are being trained to manage diversity. B12 (annah2.sta)

Count 30 183 79

Yes, definitely To a degree Not at all Managers trained 1 for diversity 8 Missing

Cumul. Count 30 213 292 293

Percent 9.9667774 60.797342 26.245847 0.3322259

Cumul. Percent 9.9667774 70.76412 97.009967 97.342193

301

2.6578073

100

144

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-

-

---

-

----

-----

- - --

-

The above table explained that, only 71% of people believe that managers are being trained to manage diversity. On top of diversity management there is a need for a deliberate strategy to do what affirmative action is doing by redressing past imbalances (see chapter 1, section 1.6.1). Therefore the researcher believes that if really line managers have been trained to manage diversity, they have done the following: developed organisational policies that support diversity, are able to work with a diverse group of people in pursuing the organisational objectives, it is supported by a highly qualified and respected person, holding a senior position and they also make use of appropriate leadership style.

Figure 24

Meaning of affirmative action Pie Chart (ANNAH2.STA 34v*301c) Graph depicting the meaning

of affirmative action what, people believe to be.

C-Pastwrongs, 47.8 % Equal opportrity,

The meaning

52.2 %

of Affirmative Action.

The above graph indicates that 52.2% say affirmative action means equal opportunity and 47.8% people say it means correcting past wrongs. There is no clear definition of affirmative action. It seems that people vote for both equal opportunity and correcting past wrong.

145

--

-

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-------

Figure 25

Application of affirmative action policies Pie Chart (ANNAH2.STA 34v*301c) Graph depicting that affirmative action policy is applied within the organisation?

Not at ai, 1.9 '4

Applying affirmative action within organisation.

The above graph indicates that most peopleknow completelythat affirmativeaction is

applied within their organisation. From the above figure it is clear that 69,9% of the populationhave seen somechangesbroughtabout by affirmativeactionwhencompared to the previous dispensation. The demographic representation has changed, it is more reflective of that one of the country whereby in Company X black people as well as women are brought to the main stream company activities. Affirmative action candidates are being promoted to higher positions, as well as gender and different races. On the other hand those who said partially the researcher believes that they are the ones who views affirmative action ftom tokenism point of views and not addressing the fundamentals of the affirmative action policy (chapter 3, section 3.5.2.1). They are the ones who want to see the picture when it is complete, they do not regard changes that are taking place as beneficial up until to a point where affirmative action has achieved all of its objectives.

146

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-

-

--

---

--

---

-

- """"- - - -

Figure 26 action

Inclusion of stake-holders in the implementation

of affirmative

Pie Chart (ANNAH2.STA 34v*301c)

No,1.2%

Unsure, 34.9 %

Yes, 63.9 %

Includingstakeholders in the implementation of affirmative action?

It is evident that stakeholders such as top-managers are included in the implementation of affirmative action within most organisation. Table 15

Explaining affirmative action as part of business and as human resources strategy. B16 (annah2.sta)

Yes Unsure No Affirmative action Missing

Count 259 30 7 1 4

Cumul. Count 259 289 296 297 301

Percent 86.046512 9.9667774 2.3255814 0.3322259 1.3289037

Cumul. Percent 86.046512 96.013289 98.33887 98.671096 100

The above table depicts that 96% people believe affirmative action as part of business as well as part of human resources strategy. The researcher believes that if affirmative action is not part of the overall business strategy as well as the human resource strategy it will be sitting with pressure trom government and will receive a penalty for not adhering to the legislation. This will result to negative production publications within the organisation. It is therefore important to always keep in mind that affirmative action 147

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-

-

is aiming at putting everybody at the equal footing. The poor people who form the majority will benefit then the business will be accepted on a global market as it reflects the demographics of affirmative action. Human resources people are being trained or employee wellbeing, so this makes affirmative action part of Human Resources stategy. Figure 27

Mechanisms to change people's attitudes Graph indicating the machinisms that can change attitudes d people within the organisation.

56 52 48 44 40 36 32 28 24 20

...-...........................................-.....--.................................................

........................................................................................................ ...........-.........................................__..........-...................................... ........................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................ .~ ... .~...~...~~ .~... .~............ ~............._........................................................ ~................. .~..~~.. .~ ~ .~... .~...~........

No 16 of 12 ob s

.................. .................. .~~...

8 r....... 4o r....... ........ Work Relations

Others

Affirmative action

Mechanisms used to change attitudes within the organisation.

It is evident that communication is the mechanism that can be used to change the attitudes of the people within the organisation. From above the researcher agrees with the respondents because really effective communication (see chapter 3, section 3.6.5.3) regarding affirmative action clears people's perceptions about affirmative action. It also eliminate the fears of those who are threatened by the process. By communicating more effectively with workers, management can play a leading role in facilitating change in Company X, and thereby contributing meaningfully to a prosperous and peaceful future. Consequently labour unrest cannot be expected and, for any other matter mission Company X embark on it must be communicated for the sake of buy-in. Table 16 Explaining the development programs equally available to all staff. B19 (annah2.sta) Cumul. Count

Count Yes, definately To a degree Uncertain No, definately not Development Programmes Missing

Cumul. Percent Percent 112 37.209302 37.209302 214 33.887043 71.096346 243 9.6345515 80.730897 298 18.272425 99.003322 299 0.3322259 99.335548

112 102 29 55 1 2

301 0.6644518

100

148

-

-

-

-

-

-

The above table indicates that 71% of people believe that the development programmes are equally available to all staff, but to a certain degree the researcher believes that the availability of equal development programmes (see chapter 4, section 4.4.5) will assists with own personal career path. In turn this will ensure that the business has the skills it needs for the future.

Depicting how people or employees values training efforts within the Enterprise. B20 (annah2.Sta) Table 17

program Missing

4

301

1.3289037 1100

The table shows that 82% of people do value training and development efforts within the enterprise, whereas 98% think it is not important. According to the researcher it is management's responsibility to make the 98% staff that thought training and development (see chapter 4, section 4.4.5) the organisation can expose the previously disadvantage groups to the real work environment and help them to grow.

Table 18 Indicating Affirmative Action as advantageous to the organisations. B30 (annah2.sta)

/Count l ~ e sdefinitely , 1170 111 To a degree 15 Not at all action as 1

1 Count 1170 28 1 296 297

\Percent ]Percent I 156.478405 156.4784051 36.877076 93.355482 4.9833887 98.33887 0.3322259 98.671096

It is evident that 93% of people concluded that afErmative action can be advantageous to the organisations. The researcher is of the opinion that affirmative action is advantageous (refer to chapter 4.2.2.1) in a sense that it opened gates for all races, women and disabled people whom in the past did not enjoy the business benefits. Thus, people are treated fairly in order to create equality but on the other hand, the unfair labour practices jurisdiction of the Industrial court has to be exercised with due regard to fairness to both employer and employee. Also affirmative action creates a diverse work teams based on equalitarian principles, namely to bring about a culture of equal employment opportunity.

Depicting reasons of affirmative action programme. Table 19 B' 22 (annah2.sta) Cumul.

Cumul.

Yes Unsure No

Reasons for affirmative action Missing

Count

Count

Percent

Percent

267 23 6 1

267 290 296 297

88.704319 7.641 196 1.9933555 0.3322259

88.7043 19 96.345515 98.33887 98.671096

4

1301

11.3289037 1100

1

The above table indicates that almost 88% of people agree to understand the reasons for affirmative action. The support they gave to the affirmative action strategy shows that they know the reason for affirmative action (as seen in chapter 4, section 4.2) This proves that the programme before implemented was well communicated to all stakeholders.

Figure 28

Preference to talk about affirmative action Histogram (ANNAH2.STA34v'301 c) Graph depicting people or employees preferencesto talk about affirmative action.

901

I

Director

Supervisor Manager

Cc-workers Foreman

Shopstewards

Affirmative Action Communication.

The previous graph indicates that, people preferred to communicate about affirmative action much better with the shop -stewards. The researcher believes that shop -stewards are seen as the advocates of people who were previously disadvantaged. They talk on workers behalf in a sense that they represent them in the meetings and forums. So much the workforce they have trust in them rather than other stakeholders of Company X. As said earlier on (look in chapter 4, section 4.4.2) the role of trade unions as far as organisational changes are concerned is highly important. This will sensitise shop -floor workers to the need for change so that at the end it will be easier not to resist change but accept it. Therefore to get the approval of a written affirmative action strategy, shop stewards should be involved as trade union representation.

Figure 29 Affirmative action information availability 105 98 91

E ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

N

o of ob

"

63

................................

56 49 42 35 28 21 14 7 o

................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... .......... .......... .......... ..........

Availability d information concerning Affirmative Action.

In general; the above graph indicates that information about affirmative action is not provided to the people or not available at their organisations. The reason behind might be that others do not know how to access resources having the night information. Hence the researcher propose that a newsletter once a month about situations in the organisation, activities, changes, people and their culture relating to affirmative action, will be a good way to make information available. Once more, the human resource should play a leading role in this regard whereby they provide a written strategy to individuals as per request. They should also be able to explain the strategy in other official languages to those who do not understand English or Aftikaans. Table 9 (annah2.sta)

Comparison of gender and age group 20 years 0 3 0 3

Male Female Gender All Grps

20-29 years 24 45 0 69

30-39 years 77 43 0 120

40-49 years 42 21 0 63

50-59 years 30 6 0 36

60> years 4 1 0 5

Row Totals 177 119 1 297

Age 0 0 1 1

According to the researcher this shows that there are more males as compared to females in Company X, it does not mean that there is gender discrimination. In fact, Company X (ftom informed interviews) has set targets of 18% females representation respectivelyat supervisorylevelup to seniortop managementlevelfor 2000 and 2001. The researcher believes that through this the achievement of equity within occupational levels is of priority to Company X and the gender representation targets or supportive of the started objectives of the Employment Equity Act.

151

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-

-

-

-

Figure 19

Comparison of gender and age

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

o years 20

years 20-29

years 30-39

years 40-49

years 50-59

years 60>

Age

Age

. Male .Fenule o Gender

Here the researcher is comparing gender according age group; it is clear that males dominate females group. At the age of 30-39 years there are more males than females. This is shown in the above graph (see figure 19). Figure 30

Information of future Affirmative Action success Graph depicting that. is there enoogh to keep employees informed on future success d affirmative action.

112 104 ...........................................................................................-_....-....-............................. 96 88 80 ... ... 72 64 ... 56 ................... 48 ................................................. 40 No 32 of 24

~b

16 8

o

............................. ............... ............... ... ...... ............... .............. ............... ............... ...............

................

:::::::::::::::

...............

.............--

Future of employees about Affirmative Action.

The above graph explained that, not much have been done to keep employees informed on future success of affirmative action. Yes it is true that ITomthe previous empirical research questions most people agree that they have the knowledge of affirmative action. But this knowledge is not enough, as they still not well informed of the future success of affirmative action. According to the researcher it might be possible that the existing affirmative action strategy and its success has not been effectively explained to everybody, or that its objectives are seen as bias by other employees. That is why the researcher is of the views that to remove their doubts Company X can resort to the proposed affirmative action strategy by the researcher (see chapter 7, section 7.3.1). 152

-

- -

6.7

SECTION C: OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS ON THE EFFECTS OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

The researcher observes that some respondents did not provide answers regarding section C. Many reasons for the success of affirmative action were identified and they are the following: Excellent/successfi~lperformance by affirmative action appointees, good communication (refer to chapter 4, section 4.3.5.2), be driven by CEOITop managers as a business key indicator, enforcementlrecruitment of blacks and females as affirmative action targetslcandidates, appointees to have necessary qualifications/experience, involvement of trade unionslother stakeholders, clear knowledgelunderstanding of affirmative action programmes, policies and directives, education, training and development of appointees, commitment of top management, tutorslmentors in place, affirmative action process is supported by top management and set and meet clear targetslgoal s.

Good communication The above is one of the reasons for success of affirmative action raised by respondents. T o elaborate on this concept the researcher is of the opinion that company X uses different means of interpretation inter-alia: pamphlets, porters, workshops, internal television, documents, internal newspapers. Also, managers as well as trade unions representatives should pass the necessary information to their employees (look at chapter 4, section 4.6.6) to allow employees to ask questions for clarity if possible. To be able to communicate more effectively they should be trained.

Education, Training and Development The majority of respondents in the study consistently emphasised that Education, Training and Development of affirmative action appointees is of necessity (refer to chapter 4, section 4.6.5). This will prepare them for the new challenges they will face when placed in top positions as well as removing the doubts of them being just tokens of affirmative action. This will boast their skills and help them to be competent during their training, they must be equipped with a great volume of new knowledge and management styles pertaining to statutory requirements and processes necessary to implement affirmative action.

Regular evaluation/monitoring of affirmative action candidates

The researcher picked one of the interesting factor related to the affirmative action success namely, regular evaluation/ monitoring of affirmative action (see chapter 4, section 4.6.1 and section 4.6.6). A third party involved such as change management expect(s) must be used on an on-going basis to identify problems and facilitate relationship building, develop new skills, deal with mistrust and develop communication systems to help guide the affirmative action process. A researcher believes that a research need to be conducted at least once a year to assess the effect of affirmative action. Such findings could then be utilised to determine which interventions and new strategies could be implemented. Some of the reasons for failure of affirmative action are that affirmative action candidates not performing accordingly and poor communication. Not enforcing the recruitment of blacks and females as affirmative action candidates. Also, inexperienced people are appointed for top positions for the sake of filling quotas (see chapter 1, section 1.2 and chapter 4, section 4.6.1). No clear knowledgelunderstanding of affirmative action programmes, policies and directives as well as insufficient focus on education training, and development of appointees. Lack of commitment to the affirmative action process by top management. The researcher believes that it is important that total commitment and support by the Managing Director as well as CEO be portrayed during the implementation of affirmative action (refer to chapter 4, section 4.4.1 and 4.4.1.1). Lack of coaches/mentors (see chapter 4, section 4.6.2) can also contribute to the affirmative action failure. No equal employment opportunities for all which results in afirmative action being seen as reverse discrimination/racism/applies to blacks only (refer to chapter 5, section 5.4). No information-sharing, lack of support from top management and short-term strategyltoo speedilylpoor succession planning. Resistance to change (especially by white employees causing them not to accept affirmative action. It is also found that skilled people leave the organisation. The chasing of numbers/quotas is also seen as causing affirmative action failure. The researcher arrives at the assumptions and conclusions concerning certain key failures of affirmative action.

Poor communication It is evident that some of the respondents believe that poor communication is one of the reasons for failures of affirmative action within Company X. Regardless of the fact that the majority of respondents believe that affirmative action is effectively implemented in Company X, it is also clear that communication breakdown do exist.

Lack of commitment from top management It is stated in chapter three that the role played by top management, especially the Chief Executive officer and line management will probably lead to the success of this. Others see top management as not committed to the afflrmative action process and mentions that this leads to its failure. The researcher is of the opinion that top management should be an example to its subordinates so that they can adapt and accept affirmative action strategies implemented within Company X.

6.8

CONCLUSION

This chapter dealt with biographical data of the respondents, change and affirmative action and successes as well as failures related to affirmative action. Section C was therefore the core of the study as it elaborated on the effect of afflrmative action within Company X and the manner in which employees perceive it. With regard to section C of the study the respondents were free to record their views as far as affirmative action is concerned. Ineffective implementation is one of the key reasons for the failure of many affirmative action programmes. For example a total communication breakdown between management and the unions regarding affirmative action strategy can lead to a failure of the programme. A successfbl programme has the following key attributes; a logical sequence of events, commitment from top management, line management accountability, intensive sensitising and education of workforce and continued monitoring of the process.

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES

7.1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses the findings of the study as they relate to the stated hypothesis. Conclusions are drawn and recommendations put forth. This study was approached in such a way that people are made aware of the need for affirmative action within South African organisations. It is clear that our political background, as in the USA had a major influence for the implementation of affirmative action. Regardless of the reasons for affirmative action (see chapter 4, section 4.2), it is still difficult for other groups within our organizations to support and accept affirmative action. As a result this proves that affirmative action has a negative effect on groups of different backgrounds (refer to chapter 6, section C). On the other hand the reasons for the success of affirmative action can make it possible to transform the negative effects to being the possible the positive ones only if the strategies are correctly applied. This is what the researcher wishes to achieve from this study and that is to provide the measures for the success of affirmativeaction especially which will eliminate the factors leading to the failures thereof. The necessity of introducing the concept of affirmative action reviewed in the literature highlighting the imperative facing South African companies. To provide a clear picture and understanding the study was divided into chapters. In chapter two the attention is more on theories of social change and its application. A further discussion is based on the affirmative action concept and its origin. Last but least a focus is on the historical background of affirmative action. Chapter three focussed more on the theoretical base when discussing the concept of affirmative action. The following related factors were discussed: its nature, definition, managing diversity, the role of legislation, establishing its strategy. Chapter four dealt with effects of affirmative action on organisations at large. Affirmative action objectives and results are highlighted at initial stage. But more emphasis was shown for change and the importance of this affirmative action. Because affirmative action is a

fundamental change factor, the management of this and the resistance shown will bring enriching results for management and employees both. Also, affirmative action role in Industrial Relations and Human Resource Management, all stakeholders including Trade Unions approach to affirmative action, its success and failure are also discussed. Chapter five focused on the role of RDP and Equal Employment Opportunity on affirmative action. The researcher believes that there is a link between these mentioned elements because they all look after the needs of the previously disadvantaged groups but at the same time taking into consideration the effects they will have on all groups. The experience of affirmative action in outside countries is also looked at as well as the way it becomes productive. Another focus is on gender and disability. According to the empirical findings in chapter six the response by all was highly favourable. This chapter discussed the practical findings which will be used to test the researcher's assumptions within Company X. The main reason for this is to integrate these findings with the theory presented so that the researcher's statements and assumptions be proven to be shared perceptions of the current organisation. For more information with regard to the empirical research findings the reader is referred to chapter 6. The last chapter i.e chapter 7 summarises the key assumptions and conclusions that the researcher made throughout the study. Finally recommendations to the acceptable affirmative action strategy, the roles of different stakeholders, equal employment opportunity etc will be provided. This recommendation will also expansiate to the research findings of chapter 6.

7.2

FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

With regard to the group resistance being experienced toward affirmative action, it is so clear that ineffective implementation is one of the major contributing factor. The researcher is of the view that (taken from the empirical research) at Company X the implementation of affirmative action continues to be a problem even though the critical success factors behind affirmative action seem to overarch the failures. There seems to be a hustle and lack of consensus on how it should be implemented and this is experienced in some other organisations around the country.

From the above it is clear that change influences the experience of people in a company, regardless of how it is implemented. According to Moolman (1996:380) people are usually negative towards change and will to a greater or lesser extent, resist it at first but will eventually accept the change and will even view it as a challenge. The researcher therefore believes that in the long run the employees of Company X who seem to resist change will accept it and will also benefit from it. Thus the effects of group resistance toward affirmative action can be used to promote positive affirmative action rather than to hinder them. The empirical research findings are included in detailed discussions in chapter six. As mentioned in chapter one, section 1.5.2, the goal of the study was to obtain empirical backing for certain statements that are made within the study. This goal was achieved, however this allows the researcher to come up with some future perspectives related to affirmative action. The main empirical objective of this study, i.e. to explore the perceptions of various groupings (toplsenior management, middlelline management, supervisors, and shop-floor workers - unionised and non-unionised). With regard to the concept of affirmative action, the empirical goal was met in that the findings revealed that there are in fact differences in perceptions with regard to the concept of affirmative action among various groupings. When the researcher distributed the questionnaires to writing their names on the questionnaires they levelslgrading. The reason behind was to look at managerial and professional positions. Thus, to see if opportunities as compared to men and whether they

the respondents, instead of them were requested to write their their representation mainly in women have equal employment are disadvantaged or not.

The researcher managed to come with some findings related to this statement during informal discussions with some woman in Company X, Woman want to be appreciated. They do not want to be men they say that they just want to be recognised for what they are as individuals and as women. When the researcher asked whether they are satisfied with gender equality in Company X so far, one of them said, "even though attempts are made to address gender equity (see chapter 5, section 5.5)in Company X, they are far from satisfied". The South African demographics far from indicate that women are 50% of the population. The researcher found out that Company X is currently sitting at 16%, and the year target is 18%, so they still have a long way to go. For these reasons, the important thing according to

them is that several programmes have been identified to address the training and development of women. But the researcher believes that they must always remember that equity comes at a price -hard work, tears and sacrifices at different levels. From the above it was also interesting to note that through the implementations at affirmative action strategy, Company X for the sake of employment equity is also focusing more on women and on disabled persons (refer to chapter 5, section 5.6). Company X wants 18% of its supervisory staff to be women (refer to table 8) by the end of 2000 (16% at the end of May). The reason for this is that the company believes that the demographic profile of the community within, it is doing business, exist at supervisory to top levels. The current status relating to the representation of people with disabilities in Company X is being investigated and a strategy will be formulated to address this aspect. The percentage for disabled person has been set at 0.5% in the Employment Equity Plan submitted to Government. It is well known that the Employment Equity Act, which became law during the first quarter of 1999, requires that employers do not discriminate against any person on the basis of race, gender or disability. While the company's gender equity project focuses on women, the same exercise dealing with the disabled, is running parallel to this. Women and disabled people in South Africa continue to be disadvantaged because of historical prejudice, stereotype, cultural and traditional values. It is therefore found that the women of Company X in managerial and professional position. This is partially due to very low numbers of women who are developed critical finance, technical and commercial/business skills. To address this, the management board of Company X has approved the Gender Equity. The other information obtained from unstructured interviews and sources within Company X is that the same company therefore encourages women to start studying a preferred course, which will equip them for the new field they want to enter.They should keep in mind that Company X needs them mostly in the technical, financial and commercial fields and 'they therefore need to focus on those areas. Company X strives to give an equal opportunity to all women and encourages them to study further. It is found that for a long time women did not study engineering, but that is changing. The intention is to appoint these candidates as soon as they graduate, as they deserve to be treated as equals.

7.3

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS MADE DURING THE STUDY

This research provides evidence of a certain degree of attitude amongst groupings in Company X. There is a perception that the concept of affirmative action is essential, however its implementation and strategies open ways for the previously disadvantaged groups. The researcher believes that it is important to compare the South African affirmative action strategy with those of outside companies. The reason being that many of the models and theories of this concept that are applied overseas need to be adapted to suit the South African working environment. The reason being that we are dealing with workforce that is extremely diverse and culturally unique in terms of the problems and issues that exist therein. In terms of the business strategy all stakeholders need to know where the company is heading, why this emerging dominant is necessary and what the organisation aims to achieve by implementing affirmative action. It is evident from the study that management, supervisors and shop-floor workers having diverse opinions on some key issues. But these should not hinder their aim in making affirmative action a success. The following were the major conclusions drawn from the study and they are related to the failures of affirmative action: Inexperienced appointees with no proper qualifications appointed for top positions; no clear knowledgelunderstanding of affirmative action programmes, policies and directives; insufficient focus on education, training and development of appointees; and lack of support from top management. The following were the recommendations made: The majority of respondents in the study consistently emphasised that education, training and development of affirmative action candidates is essential for the success of affirmative action. Though obstacles to the process cannot be denied or even easily removed, it will only be through. Management must be equipped with a great volume of new knowledge, skills and management styles pertaining to the process necessary to implement affirmative action. Continued emphasis on people development and the relentless pursuit of a firmly entrenched affirmative action policy that progress will be made.

Companies embarking on any kind of affirmative action process will have to ensure that appropriate monitoring and evaluation systems are put in place. A democratically elected committee or steering committee needs to be established in order to put together a democratic panel comprising insiders and outsiders who are committed to the affirmative action process. Above all the researcher recommends that the monitoring part of affirmative action strategy the task of the Chief Executive Officer in order to establish that the strategy would be successful. A positive approach towards the implementation of affirmative action strategy by the Chief Executive influences his colleques including all stakeholder. He should act as chairman to an advisory committee which consists of managers, union representatives and administrative staff which regularly monitors and adapts the affirmative action strategy. In short he must drive the process (see chapter 4, section 4.1.1.1). In addition the researcher (see chapter 4, section 4.4.2) proposes that the role and effectiveness of affirmative action strategy as a long term planning within a continual organisational change environment, indeed needs to be monitored. This is supported by some of the respondents' reasons for the success of affirmative action. The researcher believes that the monitoring of affirmative action will make it possible to establish if there are any problems with the current strategy to address, and also if the goals have been achieved. The current situation should be monitored in an organisation in order to eliminate the discriminatory practices. Another important factor to be taken into consideration is the organisational climate and its influence on the successfd development of all employees, being a beneficiary or not. The researcher suggests that this climate must encourage mutual respect and understanding by means of an intervention to address employees/employers fears and expectations in terms of affirmative action. Everyone should learn about as well as know the different cultures in their organisation. Thus, a proactive way rather than a reactive one will be valuable whereby monthly newsletters about organisational situation, changes, organisational scenario, activities, individuals/groups and their cultures will be a better way to start an action. The researcher is of the opinion that a positive impact that affirmative action could have on both employees and management is that South Africans need to undergo an inward journey of self discovery so that they can find a new collective rainbow identity as South Africans. We need to establish new competitive and co-operative practices. The correct and enthusiastic

implementation of affirmative action strategy will not only create an acceptable culture in any organisation. Becoming a productive co-operative and internationally competitive nation should be South Africa's national goal. Productive affirmative action is a process that ultimately results in more competitive organisations (Venter, 1997:1 and 3). The researcher is of the opinion that co-operation between management and employees reduces inter group conflict and tension, increase communication, leads to greater trust and increases satisfaction. This kind of situation creates an interdependence between different groups organisation and encourages competition with outside organisations. As a result, productivity within an organisation will grow further. We need t o establish inclusive structures. A large American organisation maintains that: "Talent comes in all colours and both genders". The challenge for us is t o synthesise Western and Afiican managerial concepts and practices. The reseacher identified and recommended the reason for the success of affirmative action which indeed over-arch the failures, inter-alia: The researcher believes that for affirmative action t o be successful, organisations must learn things, such as managing the process entails more than merely implementing a strategy of affirmative action. It involves manipulating the organisational culture to ensure that it will be receptive t o the process and will accommodate it. The organisation, with the full commitment of top management, should therefore prepare itself to accommodate and integrate members of previously disadvantaged groups. As each organisation is unique, it must be understood at the outset that each one will need to design a strategy with point of entry, options of activities and time frames that will differ. The researcher therefore recommend the ISCOR strategy as an alternative model for approaching the process of affirmative action. A breakdown of communication between management and trade unions might lead to failure of affirmative action. This will assist in the affirmative action strategy to be communicated clearly to all employees. One way of achieving this is with communication workshops. The affirmative action support person and HR officers must arrange and co-ordinate the workshops.

7.3.1 PROPOSED AFFIRMATIVE ACTION STRATEGY The implementation of affirmative action strategy is a business imperative and will impact on the manner in which the business is conducted. The researcher suggests that the existing policies of Company X be reviewed and amended for alignment with affirmative action plan.

Voluntary Separations According to the researcher there should be no forced retrenchments to achieve affirmative action targets as this is done in some organisations. However, the option of voluntary separations should be encouraged and retained on condition that successful skills transfer and coaching takes place prior to the person leaving the organisation. A process to monitor and track the successful skills transfer should be implemented.

7.3.1.1 HUMAN RESOURCES PRACTICES There are three areas of Human Resource Practices that have to be modified and enhanced to enable the group to achieve its aff~rmativeaction objectives. To change the group profile to reflect the demographics of the country, Company X needs to change the manner in which people are recruited, trained and retained. The changes to these three areas are detailed as follows:

a

RECRUITMENT PRACTICE

Although Company X is concentrating on the internal development of employees rather than external recruitment, it should then fully engage in initiatives that will ensure that members of the designated groups are targeted for recruitment. It should further ensure that advertisements for recruitment purpose are written in a non-discriminatory manner and make available in media that will attract applicants from the designated groups. To this end, company X has to liase with organisations and institutions that have access to skilled blacks, women and people with disabilities. Candidates from designated groups must be actively sought for every new position that becomes vacant or is created. For instance, were a black, a woman or a person with a disability has equal merit with a white candidate or shows potential to develop the required skills within a specific timeframe, then the person from the most under-represented group must be appointed. A special effort should be made o identify appropriate employment 163

opportunities for people with disabilities. There must be no tokenism and all employees should be placed in meaninghl positions.

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT The researcher believes that Company X has to recognise that people development is one of the strategies that will enable the achievement of affirmative action. Hence Personal Development Plans should be negotiated and signed by all Company X employees as well as managers. A new programme should be developed focussing on the accelerated advancement of women and disabled people. Employees undergoing accelerated training must be contractually bound to stay in the service of the organisation to ensure that both parties gain mutual benefit out of the development initiative. Benefits for both the organisation and the individual from a development path should be made clear. Mentorship

Effective mentorship programmes as part of training should be developed where all employees are made to understand their job requirements and responsibilities, get an opportunity to discuss their development needs and receive constructive feedback on their progress. A special emphasis has to be placed on designated employees undergoing accelerated development.

RETENTION STRATEGY Because of the demand in Company X for competent designated group individuals, there should be some efforts to minimise their loss and retaining them within the organisation. A contractual incentive will need to be developed to ensure that identified individuals are retained within the company. The researcher recommeds that the so-called Young Professional Performance and Development Programme be established in an attempt to retain young professionals (viewing affirmative action as a reverse discrimination) with critical skills within the organisation.

Table 20: New affirmative action strategy

STRATEGIC PLAN

.

Businessimperative Reviewand amendpolicies.

..

VOLUNTARY SEPARATIONS

.

.

Skillstransfer Coaching Monitoringprocess .

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT · People and Personal Development Plans · Advancement Programme · Contract to gain mutual benefit

·

RETENTION

·

Mentorship.

STRATEGY

Contractual incentive YoungProfessional Programme Critical Skills.

. .

Source: Developed by the researcher

165

- --

-

-

--

---------

--

7.4

FUTURE RESEARCH PERPECTIVES

There is a need for cultural change that will ensure a total shift from the old attitudes of the past to lay a foundation for the h t u r e industrial democracy. South African organisations need to develop a clear vision of the future and to ensure reinvestment in people as a major objective. It is thus argued that companies should be measured not only on their ability to deliver returns to stakeholders, but also in terms of results achieved in the area of people development. This should be done by involving all the key role players in the organisation namely, management, trade unions and shopfloor workers in which all parties come together and reach (19% :9l) says "If you want one year concensus on a way forward. Hence Innes u., of prosperity, grow grain. If you want ten years of prosperity, grow a tree. If you want one hundred years of prosperity, grow people. The researcher recommends that in future affirmative action beneficiaries be empowered to better themselves not just attending many courses for the sake of being certificated. They can empower themselves through initiatives such as literacy training in job-related competencies and bursaries for tertiary education. Members of disadvantaged groups should also be provided with career paths which entails assessing, on an individual basis, the development needs and potential abilities of beneficiaries, and providing formal career planning and a mentorship process. According to the researcher all the stakeholders should be involved in the approval of a written affirmative action strategy and not only be a managements' decision. In conclusion, the researcher is convinced that affirmative action strategy is a process of uplifiment and advancement for those previously disadvantaged by apartheid regime. Amongst all, emphasis should be made on training and development as they will help further the affirmative action process into a successfid direction as Albie Sachs says: "affirmative action is in the air. We put it there and it is our duty to explore its implications, give it a thoroughly South African meaning and ensure that it responds to the claims of all our people and not just a small, new elite and finally see that it achieves such success that it extinguishes itself'.

Company X must equip employees with the skills they will need to cope with change. Human Resources Development and Industrial Relations Department need to integrate with other processes of change in the organisation. The company will have to develop the skill to reinvent itself continuously, and to do this successfully it will constantly have to be in a learning mode of coping with the new demands of affirmative action.

30A Lewis Avenue Vereeniging 1930 Telephone no: (016) 455-2390 Cellular no: 082 805 9212 Date: 30 June 1999-12-1 1 Attention:

Organisational Development

Dear SirMadam

RE: PERMISSION COMPANY

TO

CONDUCT

RESEARCH

WITHIN

YOUR

I hereby request permission to conduct research for my Masters Degree within your environment. I am currently a student at Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher education.

The theme for my dissertation is the implementation of affirmative action strategy in a large South African organisation. I wish to target a total sample of 300 persons from seniorltop management, middlelline managers, supervisory level and shop-floor workers (unionised and non-unionised). The research methodology is empirical and will consist mostly of questionnaires and less unstructuredlinforma1 interviews. The expected duration of questionnaires distribution to your company with your consent is approximately 3 to 4 weeks.

I am keen to work in line with the vision and mission of your company. I am willing to meet with you should you have any fiu-ther questions or queries. Furthermore I would like to assure you of the utmost confidentiality of all the research conducted. Please contact me at the above numbers and address.

Yours faithfully

ANNAH MONATE

29 JULY 1999

DEAR RESPONDENT

The questionnaire is part of a research project to determine certain aspects regarding the implementation of affirmative action strategy in organisations. It is very important to do research considering the above-mentioned topic because affirmative action is necessary for transformation since the beginning of the new democratic government. South Africa is a new nation, focusing specifically on a non-racial, non-sexist democracy with equal representation on all levels. Affirmative action plays a very important role in employee empowerment as well as in equal employment opportunity programmes. It has become necessary t o have the results of a primary research on this topic in order to avoid costly and poor decisionmaking regarding this topic. The researcher would appreciate your completion of this questionnaire as honestly as possible in order to obtain correct and trustworthy information. Please forward your ~ 1999 to your Human completed questionnaire designated by not later than 3 0 August Resources Manager. Approval to conduct the study within your company had been obtained from the Corporate Human Resources Ofice.

Kind Regards

ANNAH MONATE RESEARCHER

29 JULIE 1999

LIEWE RESPONDENTE

Hierdie vraelys vorm 'n deel van 'n navorsingsprojek om sekere aspekte rondom die implementering van regstellende optrede strategie in ondernemings te bepaal. Navorsing in verband met die bogenoemde ondenverp is belangrik aangesien regstellende optrede noodsaaklik is vir transformasie. Suid Afrika is 'n nuwe nasie met 'n spesifieke fokus op gelyke verteenwoordiging op alle vlakke sonder om ten opsigte van ras of geslag te diskrimeneer. Regstellende optrede speel 'n baie belangrike rol in die bemagtiging van werknemers sowel as in programme wat gelyke toegang tot werksgeleenthede bevorder. Om duur en swak besluitneming rondom hierdie ondenverp te vermy, het dit nodig geword om die uitslae van primere navorsing in te win. Die narvorser sal dit waardeer as u hierdie vraelys so eerlik as moontlik kan voltooi sodat korrekte en betroubare inligting ingewin kan word. Stuur asseblief u voltooide vraelyste teen 30 Augustus 1999 aan u menslike hulpbronne bestuurdes. Toestemming om hierdie studie binne die Suid Afrikaanse lugdiens te doen, is van die menslike hulpbronne hoofkantoor verkry.

By voorbaat dank

ANNAH MONATE NAVORSER

APPENDIX A

SECTION A: BIOGRAPI3XCA.LDETAIL

Younger than 20 years 20 -29 years 30 - 39 years 40 - 49 years 50 - 59 years 60 and older

3.

Highest school education

Highest tertiary education

5

Lower than standard 6 Standard 6 - 8 Standard 9 - 10

2 3

Technical college Educational college Techmkon University pre-graduate University post-graduate None

2 3 1 5 6

Ethnic group Tswana

1

1

l---kkl

Coloured White Other

6

Do you have any knowledge of affirmative action?

Yes No

6

7

1 2

171 QUESTIONNAIRE

SECTION B: CHANGE AND AFFllWIATWE ACTION

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

How do you experience changes in your departments?

Affirmative action strategies, as a means of change are implemented by force within the organisation Is it necessary to manage change in your enterprise?

Do you believe that the resistance to change need to be managed? Which of the following do you regard to be the most important factor contributing to resistance to change? (Number from I - 8 according to importance) 1 = Most important 8 - Least important

12.

Are line managers being trained to manage diversity?

13.

Affirmative action means: Do you apply affirmative action within Your organisation?

Have you included all the stakeholders such as chief executive officer, middle managers, line managers, human resources managers and trade unions in the implementation thereof

I-hghly acceptable Acceptable Unacceptable I-hghly unacceptable

1

3 4

1

To a large degree To a lesser degreee Not at all Definitely so To some extent Not at all Don't know

1

1 2

2 3 1

2 .

Yes, without a doubt To some extent Not a1 all Political climate . Economic conditions Cultural differences Personal fears . Organisation structures Labour legislation Traditional values Management skills Yes, definitely To a degree Not alt all Equal opportunity . Correcting past wrongs

3 4 1

2 3 1 2 3 4 5

6

7 8

1 2 3

1 2

~om~letel~ Partially 1 3 Not a1 all I Yes Unsure Mo

1 2 3

172 QUESTIONNAIRE

16.

[

18.

19.

20..

2 1.

Is affirmative action part of the overall business strategy a s well as the human resources strategy

Yes Unsure No

Which single most important 1 mechanism do you primarily apply to change attitudes in the organisation?

Communication Work relations Salaries Affirmative action Social investment others

1 If marked "others"

; 3

I

I

4 5 -

1 6 1

please elaborate:

Yes, definitely To a degree Uncertain No, definitely not

4

Very important Uncertain Not very important

2 3

Do you feel that a programme of affirmative action can be advantgeous to your organisation?

Yes, definitely To a degree Not at all

2 3

Do you understand the reasons for an affirmative action programme?

Yes Unsure No

Are development programmes available to all staff equal?

How do you value training and development efforts within your enterprise.

22.

1 2

1 23.. 1 With whom would you rather communicate

Director

1

1

1 2 3

I

1 1 1

if you have to know more about affirmative action?

24,

Is information concerning affirmative action policy, programmes and strategies readily available in organisation

Always Sometimes Uncertain Seldom Never

1 2 3 1

I

4.

5

173 QUESTIONNAIRE

25.

Is enough been done to keep employees informed on hture success of affirmative action?

I 2 3

Yes

Uncertain No

SECTION C: EFFECTS OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION STRATEGfES

What are the reasons for the success of affirmative action strategies within your company?

What are the reasons for the lack of success of affirmative action strategies within your company?

Thank you for your cooperation

l7-l QUESTIONNAIRE

AANHANGSEL B

1.

Geslag

2.

Ouderdom

13- ! 4.

5.

6

Hoogste skool opvoeding

Hoogste naskoolse opvoeding

1 Etniese grope

Het u enige kennis van regstellende aksie?

Manlik Vroulik Jonger as 20 j a r 20 - 29 jaar 30 - 39 jaar 40 - 49 jaar 50 - 59 jaar 60 jaar en ouer

1 1

1 2 1 2 3 4 5

'

6

Laer as St 6 St6-8 St 9 - 10 Tegniese Kollege Onderwys Kollege Technlkon Universiteit voorgraads Universeiteit nagraads Geen

1 2 3 4

5 6

Sotho Tswana Zulu Asierlhdier Kleurling Blank Ander Ja Nee

1 2 3

1 5 6

7 11 12

175 VRAELYS

SEKSIE B: WRANDERING EN BEGSTELLENDE AKSIE

Hoe ondervind u veranding in u afdelings?

8.

9.

10.

2 3 4

Grootliks Tot 'n mindere mate . Hoogs onaanvaarbaar

2 3

Is dit nodig om verandering in u onderneming te bestuur?

Definitief Tot 'n sekere mate Geensins Ek week nie

2 3 4

Glo u dat teenkanting teen verandering bestuur moet word?

Jar, sonder twyfel Tot 'n sekere mate Geensins

2 3

Hoe ondervind u veranding in u afdelings?

Politiese klimaat Ekonomiese toestande Kulturele verskille Personlike vrese Strukture in organisasies Arbeid wetgewing Tradsionele waardes Bestuursvermoens

Watter van die volgende beskou u as d e belangrikste faktor wat bydrae tot teenkanting teen regstellende aksie? 1 = Belangrikste 8 - Onbelangrikste

12.

Is eerstelyn bestuurders opgelei om diversteit te bestuur?

13.

Regstellende aksie beteken

( 14.

1

Hoogs aaanvaarbaar Aanvaarbaar Onaanvaarbaar Hoogs onaanvaarbaar

1 Pas u regstellende aksie in u organisasie toe? Het u a1 die betrokkenes soos by. Die hoof uitvoerende beampte, middel bestuur, eestelyn bestuur, menslike hulpbron bestuur en vakbonde geraadpleeg in die implementasie daarvan?

I

1

1

1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

.

.

la, sonder twyfel Tot 'n sekere mate Geensins

1 2 3

Gelyke geleentheide Regsit veby onregs

2

Heeltemaal Gedeeltelik Geensins

1

I

1 1 1 (

1

Onsekere Nee

176 VRAELYS

1

Wat is die belangnkste meganisme wat u primer toepas om houding in u organisasie te verander?

I 1

18.

1

21.

22.

1

1

1

1

I

h

Kommu~ukasie Werk verhoudings Salarisse Regstellende aksie Onseker Ander

Hoe beskou u opleidings en ontwikkelings programme in u onderneming?. Voel u dat regstellende akse tot voordeel van u organisasie kan wees? Verstaan u die redes waarom 'n regstellende aksie program noodsaaklik is?

1 23.. 1 Met wie sou u liewer graag wou skakel om meer omtrent regstell&de aksie uit te vind?.

Is inligting in verband met regstellende aksic staatkund, programme en strategiee beskikbaar in u organisasie

I

Jar, beslis Tot 'n sekere mate Onsekere Ander

1 1 1 I

Baie belangrik Onseker Nie baie belangrik nie

1

2 3

Ja, beslis Tot 'n seker mate Geensins

1

2 3

Ja Onseker Nee Direkteur Bestuurder Oorsigter Voorman Medewerkers Verkgesant

/ - I \

I

1 2 3

1 1 1 2 3 A

Onseker Selde Nooit

177 VRAELY S

1

5

Brei asseblief uit indien u "Ander" ~rekieshet:

Is ontwikkelings programme op 'n gelyke grondslag beskikbaar vir alle werknemers?

20..

1 2 3

Ja Onseker Nee

Is regstellende aksie deel van die algehele besigheids strategie sowel as die menslike hulpbronne strategie?

16.

25.

Word genoeg gedoen om werknemers op hoogte van sake to hou in verband met die toekomstige sukses van regstellende aksie?

Ja

1

Onseker Nee

2 3

SEKSIE C: TNVLOEDE VAN REGSTELLENDE AKSm STRATEGEE --.....

Waarom is regstellende aksie strategiee suksesvol in u firma?

1

1 - ~ a a r o mis regstellende aksie strategiee onsuksesvol in u firma?

Dankie vir u samewerking

178 VRAELYS

ABSTRACT

THE IMPLEMANTATION OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION STRATEGY IN A LARGE SOUTH AFRICAN ORGANISATION

INTRODUCTION South Africa is in the process of change. This changes taking place in South Africa at present have influenced all people in some other way. These people come from different cultures, each with its own background, beliefs and values. South Africa is a new nation, focusing especially on a non-racial, non-sexist democracy with equal representation on all levels. Therefore the authors of the new Labour Relations Act found it expedient to introduce the concept of affirmative action in the legislation as an effort to bring about industrial democracy at the workplace. Viewpoints on the issue of affirmative action are highly divergent, especially in a deeply divided society such as South Africa. Nevertheless, various factors can contribute towards the implementation of affirmative action strategy and the successfd management of change and the resistance towards it. Consequently, it is the management's responsibility to monitor the effect of change and affirmative action in order to bring about possible solutions to manage the impacts, so as to ensure the effective and peacefd growth of the company. It is a well-known fact that all employees (i.e fiom top management to shopfloor workers) of any organisation is directly or indirectly influenced by change. There is a high possibility that some of those employees might resist change due to past experiences, negative attitudes, uncertainty of the unknown etc. On the other hand others might accept change because they might benefit a lot from it and have high expectations, because of this resistance the relationship between employer and employees (industrial relations) is negatively influenced. The following might result in lack of trust, lack of respect, poor performance, early retirements, lack of acceptance, labour turnover and hostility. In turn affirmative action is perceived as a reverse discrimination by other groups within the organisation. Hence the researcher believes that South Africa must find its own solutions and create its own future, one of equality and representation so that everyone will be satisfied at the end of the day.

THE AIM OF THE STUDY The main objective of the research is to study the concept of affirmative action and to explore various strategies that could be used to implement the concept so that it benefits both the employer and the employee.

THE SECONDARY AIMS OF THIS STUDY CAN BE SUMMARISED AS FOLLOWS: To analyse affirmative action To determine the impact of affirmative action as a means of change on the organisation To find out the attitude of different stakeholders (i.e. top management, middlelline management, supervisors, unionised and non-unionised shopfloor workers), with regard to affirmative action To find out ways in which stakeholders can adapt to change To determine the effective and affirmative action

ineffective

implementation methods of

To find out the failures and successes of affirmative action

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research is divided into two parts, namely literature review and empirical research

A theoretical orientation was done mainly focusing on affirmative action within a large South African organisation. Too much emphasis was placed on the implementation of change. This was followed by an empirical study within the already mentioned organisation. In the empirical survey, a questionnaire was developed using the information gathered from a literature review. Initially the questionnaire was presented to the study leader and validity of questionnaire was determined and statistical techniques used were also identified. The researcher used unstructured/informal personal interviews in the process of distributing and collecting questionnaire for the accumilation of data. 180

MAJOR FINDINGS Some of the core findings are listed below A tremendous 97,97% of respondents on all levels admit to have some knowledge of affirmative action. Even though change seems to be resisted by most groups, about 61,22% of both males and females found changes to be acceptable in their departments. With regard to the management of change about 41% of age group of 30 to 39 years as compared to others, said change should definitely be managed. A remarkable 97,95% of respondents in standard 9 to 10 believes that without a doubt resistance to change need to be managed whereas only 2,05% in standard 6 to 8 agrees with that. In total about 54,6194 of respondents from different tertiary institutions gave affirmative action a meaning of equal opportunity. On the other hand 45,39% defined the concept as correcting past wrongs. As the researcher initially mentioned different meanings of affirmative action are given by various people. It all depends on an individual understanding of the term itself. The majority of AsiadIndian respondents (71,88%) concur that affirmative action is applied in Company X as compared to the Tswana (2,67%). About 97,96% of respondents with knowledge of affirmative action agrees that development programmes are equally available to all staff whereas 2,04% disagree. Some of the successes of affirmative action are the following: 1. Good communication 2. Appointing skilled people for positions 3. Commitment of top management The following are the failures of affirmative action as per various respondents:

1 . Poor communication 2. Lack of monitors 3. No equal e'mployment opportunities 4. Lack of trust

5. Unrealistic fears of the unknown

CONCLUSION The implementation of the affirmative action brought about some negative impacts on the existing groups within organisations. This is one of the factors that hampers the employer-employee relationship. These are the reasons why industrial Relations Practitioners must be part of the planning and implementation phases of an organisation going through change. This will be one of the major drivers in bringing about the success of affirmative action fiom the empirical study at large it is obvious that the majority of employees on different levels are beginning to adapt to affirmative action as a means of change even though some minority still resist it. This answers the researcher's question on whether affirmative action is the solution for future organisations. But it will only be a solution if there is explicit commitment fiom top management to the implementation of the affirmative action process. It is imperative that top management are seen to "champion" the process and that they consistently monitor, evaluate and insist on progress towards the agreed-upon objectives and standards. Line managers should also be made accountable for the development of the organisation's human resources department function are over. Therefore positive affirmative action strategy will prevail and benefit everyone equally.

OPSOMMING

DIE IMPLEMENTENNG VAN REGSTELLENDE OPTREDE STRATEGIE IN 'N GROOT SUID AFRIKAANSE ONDERNEMING

INLEIDING Suid Afrika is in die proses van verandering. Die veranderinge wat tans plaasvind beinvloed almal op een of ander manier. Mense se agtergronde verskil ten opsigtevan kultuur, geloof en waardes. Suid Afrika is 'n nuwe nasie wat spesifiek daarop gefokus is om gelyke verteenwoordiging op alle vlakke te verskaf sonder inagneming van ras of geslag. As gevolg daarvan het die skrywers van die nuwe Arbeidsverhoudinge wetgewing dit nodig geag om die konsep van regstellende aksiein die wetgewing by te voeg ten einde industrieele demokrasie in die werk omgewingte weeg te bring. Uitgangspunte ten opsigte van regstellende aksie verskil grootliksin die Suid Afrikaanse gemeenskap. Nieteenstaande dra verskeie faktore by tot die implementenng van regstellende optrede strategiee en die suksesvolle beheer van verandering en die teenkanting daarteen. Dit is dus bestuur se verantwoodelikheidom die effek van verandering en regstellende optrede te monitor ten einde moontlikeoplossings te beheer en die effektiewe en vreedsame groei van die organisasie teverseker. Dit is 'n welbekende feit dat alle werknemers (d.w.s. van top bestuur tot gewone werkers) direk of inderek deur verandering geraak word. Daar bestaan 'n groot moontlikheid dat vele werknemers as gevolg van vorige ondervinding negatiewe gesindhede en onsekerheid verandering mag teenstaan. Aan die anderkant mag sommige van hulle verandering aanvaar omdat hulle daardeur bevoordeel kan word en hierdie werknemers het gewoonlik hoe verwagtinge. As gevolg van hierdie teenkanting kan die verhouding tussen werkgewer en werknemer (industrieele verhoudings) negatief beinvloed word. Die volgende kan gebeur: gebrek aan vertroue, gebrek aan respek, swak werk verrigting, vroee aftrede, gebrek aan aanvaading, hoe arbeidsomset en vyandigheid. Binne ander groepe in die orginisasie word regstellende aksie as omgekeerde diskriminasie beskou. Die navorser glo gevolglik dat Suid Akrika sy eie oplossings moet vind en sy eie toekoms van gelykmatigheid en verteenwoordiging moet skep sodat almal mettertyd tevrede gestel kan word.

DIE DOEL VAN DIE STUDIE Die hoofdoel van die navorsing is om die konsep van regstellende optrede te bestudeer en om verskeie strategiee wat gebruik kan word om die konsep tot voordeel van beide die werkgewer en alle werknemers te implementeer.

DIE S E K O N D ~ R E DOEL VAN HIERDIE OPGESOM WORD:

STUDIE KAN AS VOLGS

Om regstellende optrede te ontleed Om die impak van regstellende optrede as 'n medium vir verandering binne die organisasie te bepaal. Om die gesindheid van verskillende belangstellendes (d.w.s. top bestuur, middelllyn bestuur, toesighouers en gewone werknemers ongeag daarvanof hulle lede van vakbonde is of nie) ten opsigte van regstellende optrede te bepaal. Om maniere te bepaal waarmee alle belangstellendes met verandering kan aanpas Om effektiewe en oneffektiewe regstellende optrede implementerings metodes te bepaal. Om die sukses en tekortkominge van regstellende optrede te bepaal

NAVORSINGS METODES Die navorsing bestaan uit twee gedeeltes, naamlik 'n literatuur oorsig en 'n empiriese studie. Die fokus van die teoretiese orientasie was op regstellende optrede binne 'n groot Suid 'Afrikaanse onderneming. Daar was op die impak van verandering, die beheer daarvan, diversiteit binne die onderneming en alle ander betrokkenis gekonsentreer. Daarna was 'n empiriese ondersoek in bogenoemde organisasie gedoen. In die empiriese besigtiging was 'n vraelys opgestel vanuit die inligting wat in die literere boekoordeling ingewin is Die vraelys is aanvangklik aan die studie leier aangebied en is uiteindelik aanvaar, die betroubaarheid en geldigheid van die vraelys is bepaal en die statisiese tegnieke wat toegepas is was ook geidentifiseer. Om die data te bekom het die navorser

ongestruktueerde/informele onderhoude tydens die proses van verspreiding en invordering uitgevoer.

HOOFBEVINDINGS

Sommige van die kern bevindings word hier onder gelys 'n Oonveldigende 97.97% van die respondente op alle vlakke erken dat hulle 'n mate van kennis oor regstellende optrede het. Alhoewel dit blyk asof die meeste groepe verandering teenstaan, het 61.22% ongeag van geslag gevoel dat verandering in hulle departemente aanvaabaar is. Ten opsig van die beheer van verandering het 41% van die 30-39 jaar ouderdoms groep, vergeleke met die ander ouderdomsgroep groepe het gevoel dat veranderiing moet beslis beheer word. 'n Merkwaardige 97.95% van respondente in die standard 9 tot 10 groep glo sonder twyfel dat teenkanting tot verandering beslis beheer moet word, maar net 2.05% in die standaard 6 tot 8 groep stem daarmee saam. 54.61% van respondente van die verskillende naskoolse inrigtings beskou regstellende optrede as gelyke geleentheid skepping. Aan die ander kant het 45.39% van respondente die konsep as regstelling van die verlede se onreg beskou. Soos die navorser aanvanglik genoem het, het regstellende optrede 'n verskillende betekenis vir verskillende persone. Dit hang af hoe die individu die konsep beskou. Die meerderheid AsierIIndier respondente 71.88% stem saam dat regstellende aksie in Firma X toegepas word in teenstelling met die 2.67% van Tswana respondente wat nie saam stem nie. Omtrent 97.96% van respondente met 'n kennis van regstellende optredestem saam dat ontwikkelings programme gelykmatig beskikbaar tot almal is, en 2.04% stem nie saam nie. Die suksese van regstellende optrede sluit die volgende in: 1.

Goeie kommunikasie.

2.

Die aanstelling van opgeleide mense in posisies.

3.

Verbintenis van hoog bestuur

Volgens verskeie respondente sluit die tekortkornrninge van regstellende optrede die volgende in: 1.

Gebrekkige kommunikasie.

2.

Gebrek aan mentors.

3.

Ongelyke werksgeleenthede.

4.

Gebrek aan vertroue.

5.

Onrealistiese vrese in verband met dit wat onbekend is

SLOTSOM Die implementenng van regstellend e optrede het sommige negatiewe impakte o'P bestaande groepe binne ondernemings. Dit is een van die faktore wat verhoudings tussen werkgewers en werknemers belemmer. Hierdie is die redes hoekom Industrieele Verhoudings praktiseyns altyd in die beplanning en implementenngs fase van 'n onderneming wat verandering betree,betrokke moet wees. Van die empirisie studie is dit duidelik dat die meerderheid van weknemers op verskillende vlakke begin aanpas tot regstellende optrede as 'n veranderings meganisme alhoewel sommige minderheidsgroepe dit nog steeds teenstaan. Dit beantwoord die navorser se vraag oor of regstellende optrede die oplossing is vir toekomstige ondernemings. Maar dit is slegs die oplossing indien daar "duidelike verbintenis " van top bestuur is tot die implementenng van die regstellende optrede proses. Dit is belangrik dat top bestuur die proses dryf en dat hulle dit aanhoudend evalueer en daarop aandring dat daar aan vasgestelde mikpunte en standaarde voldoen word. Lyn bestuurders moet ook aanspreeklik wees vir die ontwikkeling van die onderneming se hulpbronne. Ontwikkeling van mense is nie meer net die fimksie van die menslike hulpbronne departement nie. Positiewe regstellende optrede strategie sal dus bly voortbestaan en vir almal voordelig wees.

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