The Horse Industry in the European Union Final Report EU Equus 2001, Skara and Solvalla, Sweden
EU Equus 2001 is a part of the Swedish EU-presidency calendar of meetings in Sweden
Abbreviations A B D DK EL ES F FIN I IRL L NL P S UK
Austria Belgium Germany Denmark Greece Spain France Finland Italy Ireland Luxembourg Netherlands Portugal Sweden United Kingdom
COPA FEI IFHA UET
Committee of Agricultural Organisations in the European Union Federation Equestre Internationale International Federation of Horseracing Authorities Union Européenne du Trot
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Résumé Ce rapport réalisé en vue de la conférence EU Equus 2001 vise à donner aux lecteurs une image d’ensemble de l’utilisation privée ou professionnelle des chevaux au sein de l’Union européenne. L’impact du cheval sur l’économie en général, et sur les secteurs agricole et rural en particulier, y est analysé et commenté. Les informations fournies dans ce rapport se fondent en partie sur des statistiques officielles. Il est hélas souvent difficile de se procurer des données statistiques sur les chevaux et sur ce qui les concerne. Des questionnaires ont été conçus pour les organisations du COPA (Comité des Organisations Professionnelles Agricoles de l’Union Européenne) et les fédérations nationales de courses de chevaux (galop et trot), afin d’obtenir une image plus complète du secteur des chevaux en Europe. Cette enquête révèle qu’au sein de l’Union européenne, au moins 6,4 millions de personnes pratiquent l’équitation pendant leurs loisirs, ce qui correspond à environ 2% de la population totale de l’Union. Le cheval joue un rôle social important dans l’Europe d’aujourd’hui en offrant à des individus d’âges et de sexes différents des loisirs satisfaisants. Cette même enquête révèle que le nombre total de chevaux dans l’Union européenne se monte à 4,4 millions au total, soit 11,7 chevaux pour 1000 habitants. On peut comparer ces données au nombre de vaches laitières dans l’Union européenne, qui se montait à quelque 22 millions en 1997. Bien que l’équitation ne soit pas considérée comme une activité agricole traditionnelle, on reconnaît son importance croissante pour le secteur de l’agriculture, notamment en raison de l’utilisation des terres pour les pâturages et de la production de nourriture pour animaux. Les pâturages et la production de nourriture pour chevaux nécessitent quelque 3,7 millions d’hectares de terres, ce qui correspond à 3% environ du total des terres arables au sein de l’Europe des Quinze. L’importance économique de l’industrie du cheval en Europe est analysée en termes de chiffre d’affaires annuel, d’emplois, de contribution du secteur agricole au PIB et d’effets multiplicateurs. Des études empiriques menées aux PaysBas, au Royaume-Uni et en Suède démontrent que l’industrie du cheval génère un chiffre d’affaires annuel de l’ordre de 2200 à 2800 EUR par cheval. Chaque cheval génère directement de 0,03 à 0,07 emplois ETP (équivalent temps plein) et environ 0,2 emplois ETP si l’on tient compte des effets multiplicateurs dans les secteurs connexes. Le temps de loisirs consacré à l’entretien des chevaux peut être considérable, et n’est pas inclus dans les chiffres ci-dessus. Les faits prouvent que l’industrie du cheval peut avoir une influence non négligeable sur l’économie dans son ensemble. Des études récentes en provenance des Etats-
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Unis démontrent que les effets multiplicateurs sur l’économie des Etats-Unis dans son ensemble sont de 1,6 à 4,4. Les activités liées à l’industrie du cheval génèrent une part croissante des revenus ruraux en Europe, et ce en partie aux dépens d’autres activités d’élevage de cheptel. Ces activités contribuent à préserver les emplois dans les zones rurales, ce qui est important pour des raisons d’ordre économique et social. Les activités liées au cheval peuvent tirer parti des méthodes existantes (d’élevage), tout en utilisant des ressources rurales telles que les terres, les bâtiments et la main d’oeuvre. Outre le fait que de nombreux agriculteurs diversifient ainsi leurs activités en offrant des services liés au cheval, le tourisme équestre rural progresse dans toute l’Europe, en particulier dans les régions méditerranéennes. Une comparaison prouve que les frais d’entretien d’un cheval sont de 1,5 à 3 fois plus élevés en zone urbaine qu’en zone rurale. On a également comparé le nombre de chevaux par rapport aux niveaux de consommation respectifs des différents Etats membres. Cette comparaison dénote une corrélation positive entre les revenus et le nombre de chevaux pour mille habitants. Cela corrobore donc l’hypothèse selon laquelle la demande d’activités de loisirs (équitation) suit l’augmentation des revenus disponibles des ménages. Au fur et à mesure du déclin du cheptel, l’importance du cheval pour les pâturages est de plus en plus manifeste. Nous en concluons que le cheval joue un rôle important dans la préservation des paysages ouverts en Europe du nord mais également, dans certaines conditions, dans la préservation des paysages d’autres régions sensibles d’Europe. On peut également noter certains effets écologiques négatifs liés aux chevaux, notamment en cas de traitement inapproprié du crottin. L’une des conclusions majeures de la présente enquête est qu’il est nécessaire d’avoir accès à des données plus fiables en matière de chevaux. Des estimations précises de la population chevaline et de sa distribution sont nécessaires pour pouvoir réaliser des études économiques et épidémiologiques. L’étude révèle également le besoin de recherches plus poussées pour déterminer les facteurs qui influent sur l’offre et la demande d’activités liées au cheval.
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1. Introduction
s7
2. The horse in the history of mankind
s8
2.1 Domestication s 8 2.2 The horse in times of war s 9 2.3 The horse in times of peace s 9
3. The horse in Europe today
s 12 3.1 The number of horses in the European Union s 12 3.1.1 Breeding s 14 3.1.2 Trade s 15 3.2 Economic and environmental significance of the horse s 16 3.2.1 Economic importance of the horse sector s 16 3.2.2 Environmental aspects s 17 3.3 The horse and rural economy s 20 3.3.1 Diversification for farmers s 20 3.3.2 Horses in modern agriculture and forestry s 22 3.3.3 Production of horse feed s 23 3.4 Private consumption of equine services s 25 3.4.1 Private consumption and costs s 25 3.4.2 Consumption of horsemeat s 28 3.4.3 Horse welfare s 28 3.5 Social importance s 28 3.5.1 Leisure riding s 28 3.5.2 Riding for the disabled s 30 3.5.3 Education s 31
4 Equestrian sports 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4
s 33 Equestrian sports s 33 Thoroughbred racing s 35 Harness racing s 38 New areas of equestrian uses s 40 4.4.1 Western riding s 40 4.4.2 Icelandic horses s 41 4.4.3 T.R.E.C competitions s 42
5. Concluding remarks
s 43
5
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1. Introduction EU Equus 2001 was a conference on horses and their significance in the European society, arranged by the Swedish Ministry of Agriculture in co-operation with the Swedish horse industry through the Swedish Horse Council Foundation. The objective of the conference was to create a forum where issues concerning the role of the horse and the future developments of the horse industry can be discussed, and also to facilitate the collaboration between public administration and representatives of the horse industry. This report was produced to support the conference and to present readers with an overview of both the professional and private uses of horses in the European Union as well as their impact upon the economy in general and the agricultural and rural sectors in particular. The report is a result of a project at the Department of Economics, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU). Alexandra Helgesson, M.Sc. Agric and Anna Hedberg, Agr lic have served as secretaries and authors of the report, with Professor Hans Andersson as the project co-ordinator. The project was initiated by Olof Karlander, chair of the organising committee and general manager of the Swedish Horse Council Foundation. The study has been continuously discussed in a reference group chaired by Olof Karlander, with Lennart Lindqvist from the Ministry of Agriculture and Bo Slättsjö and Mats Reidius from the Federation of Swedish Farmers as supplementary members. The reference group has played a vital role in acquiring information from a wide array of European sources. The information for this report is to some extent based on official statistics from EUROSTAT, UET, IFHA and FEI. Unfortunately, not much material is available regarding horse issues. Questionnaires were designed for the organisations of COPA and the national federations of thoroughbred and harness racing in order to get a more complete picture of the horse sector in Europe today. Supplementary information has in some cases been requested from other sources, such as Ministries of Agriculture and organisations related to the horse industry. Delegates at the conference were also asked to review the information presented and comment on incorrect or missing information. Their comments have been considered in this version.
In most countries, statistical data on the horse sector is incomplete. We asked the respondents to use official statistics if available and otherwise to make estimates based on their experience and knowledge of the sector. Data in this report based on the questionnaires are in many cases estimations made by the respondents and might therefore not be fully comparable between states.
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2. The horse in the history of mankind 1 For about five thousand years human progress depended on the use and exploitation of the world’s horse power. The evolution of the horse and its subsequent domestication is briefly described here in order to illustrate the important part played by the horse in the history of mankind. The present stock of horses is believed to have developed from the Equus Caballus, first established about one million years ago. Originally, Equus Caballus was not much bigger than the average Shetland and had yet to develop the freedom of movement of the modern equine. In temperate zones with the availability of suitable foodstuffs larger horses developed while dry regions produced lighter-boned specimens capable of greater speed in movement but not achieving great size. In mountainous regions and in climatic extremes where vegetation was sparse, small, hardy ponies, well equipped to cope with the harsh rigours of their habitat, evolved.
2.1 Domestication Somewhere around 9000 BC sheep were kept in domestic flocks by pastoral people and some two thousand years after that goats, pigs and cattle were added to the list of domestic animals. Herding was initially, probably more a matter of following the movement of wild or semi-wild flocks of animal like sheep or cattle. Familiarity resulted in acceptance and in time animals allowed humans to drive them from one pasture area to another and to move them to winter quarters in more sheltered regions. The first relationship between man and horse was that between the hunter and hunted. Early cave drawings illustrate the use of the horse as a source of food. The early domestication of horses is believed to have taken place in Eurasia among nomadic steppe people some five to six thousand years ago. The horses were used to supply meat, hides for clothing, shelter and milk as well as being used as pack animals. It seems likely that the smaller and therefore more easily handled horses were herded first. 1 Chapter 2 is based on Hartley Edwards, 1987
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Once the tribe learned to ride its horses their mobility and speed greatly increased and they gained access to a greater range of feeding grounds. The animals could then be better fed and selected breeding resulted in larger horses in succeeding generations.
2.2 The horse in times of war In time the horse herd became the very staff of life for the nomads providing for every basic need. A strong incentive for the nomad to become a horseman was that it made herding so much easier. In time the nomadic herdsman became the mounted warrior who used the horse to hold his land and to make war to obtain more pasture, more stock and even more possessions. The possession of horses built some powerful cultures, where the horse was sometimes considered so important that a man’s position was judged by the number of his horses. After the evolution of the horse and its subsequent domestication, the next landmark in history of man and horse was the invention of the wheel. It was in conjunction with the chariot that the first major impact of the horse warrior was made. The wheel and the wheeled vehicle increased mobility and facilitated the movement of families and possessions. The wheeled vehicle added a new dimension to warfare, allowing military operations to be conducted over a far wider front than was possible for men fighting on foot. It was as a means of waging war more extensively and effectively that the horse began to exert his inexorable influence upon human progress.
2.3 The horse in times of peace For almost four thousand years the primary use of the horse was for the purpose of war. It has, of course, also played an important part in times of peace, the most obvious uses being in agriculture, forestry and transport. In Europe it was not until the eighth century that harness and horseshoes had been sufficiently developed for horses to be able to carry out agricultural work. At that time they were really not big enough to undertake more than a limited range of tasks. By the eleventh century bigger horses based on the cold-bloods of Europe were being bred for warfare. These horses are partially responsible for the powerful heavy draught breeds of today. Another relevant factor in the development of the heavy agricultural horse was the invention of more sophisticated farm machinery equipment better adapted
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Harrowing with draught horses at the beginning of the 20:th century to the quick action of the horse than that of the slower moving oxen. By the middle of the nineteenth century the machinery was becoming increasingly sophisticated. There were threshing machines, corn grinders, elevators, multifurrowed ploughs, cutters and even (in the USA) combine harvesters drawn by forty-horse teams. This all represented heavy work for the horse and required the heaviest and most powerful animals. At this time a great number of heavy breeds were developed in Europe. In addition to agricultural work, horses were used in mines, drawing coal wagons and supplying power for many other pieces of heavy machinery. Ponies were used regularly underground in British coal mines from the nineteenth century onwards. In 1972 the last five ponies working in British mines were retired. Horses were also used in networks of canals where freight and passengers were carried in barges drawn by horse. In severe weather when the water froze hard the horses pulled the ice-breaker to keep the canal open. The barge horse also had to assist in the opening and closing of gates in a series of locks along the canals. Another transport network was made up by the pack horse and pony trails. Even after the arrival of the railroads there was a need for greater horsepower.
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More and more goods and raw materials had to be moved to the factories from the railways and also the passengers required transports. The useful working life of railway horses was usually short because of the great strain put upon their legs by the continual starting and stopping when pulling heavy loads. Many horses also worked in the big cities where they were used as draught horses by the breweries, the Post Office, as funeral horses and for cabs. Some were well cared for but many were desperately overworked and cruelly treated. As we can see, the horse has been part of man’s life for a long time and has helped build the world as we know it. Today, horses are kept more for recreational purposes and still play an important part in the lives of many people.
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3. The horse in Europe today As described in chapter two, the horse has historically played an important role for human progress. Even though the horse today is mostly used for recreation, leisure and sports it still has economic and environmental significance in society, most evident in rural areas. The horse also still has some public functions, such as with mounted guards and police in several European countries.
3.1 The number of horses in the European Union On the 22 December 1999, the EU Commission decided that all equidae (horses) for breeding and production must be identified during their movement. All horses will have an identification document (passport) with a unique identification number from the time of their registration and throughout their life. The passport must contain a description of colour and distinguishing marks as well as space for the registration of certain medical treatments and the results of various laboratory tests. This is to ensure that no meat containing residues of pharmacological active substances will enter the human food chain. The Commission also states that official veterinarians at slaughterhouses must record the identification number when equidae are slaughtered. The complete implementation of these passports will take time but eventually they will provide valuable information about the horse sector in the EU (European Commission, 2000). The number of horses in each member state have been estimated with the help of the COPA organisations. In most countries the total number of horses is not known exactly as there are no records covering all horses. Horses owned by agricultural enterprises are registered in FAO’s official statistics and the equestrian sports have their registers. Table 1 shows the total number of horses in the EU. When COPA estimates are missing, FAO data are used instead. FAO data are likely to underestimate the total number of horses as an increasing share of horses are kept outside agricultural enterprises. According to these estimates, there are at least 4.4 million horses in the EU. In comparison, there were 22 million dairy cows in the EU in 1997 (Swedish Board of Agriculture, 1998). Table 1 also presents the rela-
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tion of horses to inhabitants. The rate gives a hint on the availability of horses to consumers. The average number of horses per 1000 persons in the EU is 11.7. Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands and Belgium have the highest rates of horses per inhabitants, while Greece and Portugal have the lowest rates. Table 1 Number of horses per 1000 persons in EU member states and the relation of horses to inhabitants Member state
8 200 000
10
B
200-250 000
10 200 000
22
150 000
5 300 000
28.3
1 000 000
82 200 000
12.2
EL
35 000
10 600 000
3.3
ES
350 000
39 600 000
8.8
57 400
5 200 000
11.0
452 000
59 100 000
7.65
60 000
3 700 000
16.2
323 000
57 300 000
5.6
na
431 000
na
400 000
15 800 000
25.3
P
27 000
9 900 000
2.5
S
250 000
8 900 000
28.1
UK
965 0003
58 800 000
16.4
375 231 000
11.7
FIN F IRL I
1
L2 NL
Total
3
Horses per 1000 persons
81 864
D
2
Inhabitants
A DK
1
Tot. number of horses
4 376 264
COPA estimates are missing, FAO data is used instead (Statistics Sweden, 2000) Separate FAO data for Luxembourg is not available Based on British Equestrian Trade Association, National Equestrian Survey, 1999
Source: Own questionnaires and Eurostat (2000 a)
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3.1.1 Breeding Early horse owners conducted successful breeding long before the theory of heredity was known. Breeding at that time was based on two important principles, firstly that related individuals resembled each other more than unrelated and secondly that the best individuals should be mated with each other. Breeding is a way of enhancing the horse’s performance and exterior and to produce healthier horses with improved temperaments for the future (Philipsson 1994). The horses of today are the results of past breeding strategies and the current breeding activities will influence horses in the future. Historically, the supply of breeding animals was much more limited. Mare owners had to make do with local stallions. Given today’s more advanced technology of artificial insemination, the availability of suitable breeding animals is no longer a problem. International projects, like for example Interstallion, work to facilitate the exchange of genetic material between populations and supply correct information on the breeding animals (Bruns and Schober, 2000). The number of stud books in each Member state over time can be used as a way to illustrate the increased interest in the horse sector. A comparison of the number of studbooks in the years 1990 and 1999 shows that there has been an increase in most countries. This does not mean that new horse breeds have evolved but rather that earlier national horse breeds have now become international and are present in more countries than earlier. Many of the horse breeders in Europe are not professional breeders in the sense that they keep horses for their living. Rather, horse breeding is mainly managed as a hobby activity, with no or very low requirements on profit performances. However, poor profitability is considered a problem for many of the professional breeders all over Europe. According to the results from our questionnaires, the price of an average 3-yearold warmblood is less than or close to the breeding costs. This relation between sales revenues and costs may be partly due to non profit-maximising behaviour of suppliers of horses. The large number of hobby breeders increases the supply of horses, which implies a downward pressure on market prices. The actual structure of the horse industry, with a large share of small breeding units unable to take advantage of potential economies of scale in production, indicates a less cost-efficient business. While a firm normally would leave or change such a business over time, hobby breeders with external sources of income can sell their horses at prices below cost without risking their standard of living. This indicates that hobby breeders may experience values other than monetary from their horse business.
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3.1.2 Trade When looking at the trade of live horses in EU-15, not including intra-trade, for the years 1990, 1995 and 1999 some interesting aspects appear. EU is a net importer of horses and buys about 15 times as many horses as it sells, see Table 2. What is remarkable is the difference in value reported for the imported horses and the value of exported horses. The exported horses are valued at least 10 times higher a head. This seems to indicate that the horses being exported are among the most valuable animals, probably top breeding animals or sport horses.
Table 2. FAO trade statistics for live horses EU (15) excl Intra-Trade
1990
1995
1999
Imports -quantity (head)
187 792
156 620
147 338
Imports -value (1000 EUR)
269 596
231 532
379 398
6 927
10 092
10 732
142 917
214 793
408 039
1435
1478
2575
20 631
21 283
38 020
Exports -quantity (head) Exports -value (1000 EUR) Import value (EUR/head ) Export value (EUR/head)
Source: FAO (2001)
In 1999 about 200 000 horses were imported to EU member states (including intra-trade). 73 per cent of these were imported to Italy. The Italian import only accounts for 14 per cent of the value of imported horses. This could be explained by the fact that equine meat is part of the human food chain in Italy. In contrast, the UK, where there is no tradition of eating horse meat, imported 1.6 per cent of all horses, representing 43.9 per cent of total value (fao, 2001). Trade statistics including intra-trade are more insecure as only trade exceeding specified threshold values are registered. This means that “small-scale” trade are not included and consequently the statistical data is incomplete.
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3.2 Economic and environmental significance of the horse 3.2.1 Economic importance of the horse sector The economic importance of a specific sector may be approximated by the annual turnover, the number of people employed and the regional distribution of the sector. Empirical studies concerning the Netherlands (van Markus, 2000), the UK (Suggett, 1999) and Sweden (NS, 1996) indicate that the annual turnover for the horse industry is in the magnitude of 2200-2800 EUR per horse2. Included in the figures are direct expenditures, internal transfers within the horse industry and wagering money excluded. Note that the definitions of direct expenditure may vary between the studies and therefore the figures are not directly comparable. Another measure of economic importance may be the share of the consumption budget used for a specific purpose. For example, Heldt (1996) measures horserelated consumption to about 0.8 per cent of private consumption in Sweden. Horse related consumption is defined as the value of products and services, whose main consumption purpose is connected to horse activities. The calculations include three consumer categories. Firstly, the consumer visiting horse sport events spending money on on-track betting, programmes, fees, restaurants and so on. The second category includes off-track betting while the third concerns consumption of leisure horse activities, including costs for training, stabling, riding lessons, equipment and veterinarian services. However, horse-related businesses are often of great importance for the rural economies. According to the Swedish study by NS (1996), the agricultural sector’s revenues originating from the horse industry (sales of feed, revenues from grazing and stabling) are calculated to about 4 per cent of total revenues. Figures of the same magnitude seem to be representative also in an international perspective – the horse industry’s share of the GDP contribution of the agriculture, forestry and fishing sector in the US is estimated to 4.5 per cent (American Horse Council, 1996). Note, however, that GDP figures represent value-added, i.e. revenues are adjusted for input costs. This implies that the Swedish and American figures are not directly comparable. In order to give an estimate of the total economic effect generated by the horse industry, indirect as well as induced effects should be included in addition to 2 Turnover figures for the countries respectively are as follows: the Netherlands 948 million EUR, the UK 1654 million EUR, Sweden 403 million EUR (own calculations based on van Markus, 2000; Suggett, 1999; NS 1996). For further details concerning the data see the three studies respectively.
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the direct effects. Two American studies use this methodolgy, one concerning the economic impact of horse racing in Maryland (Musser et al, 1999) and one analysing the total horse industry in the US (American Horse Council, 1996). Both models calculate market impacts using input-output models. Direct economic impacts are defined as the expenditures of the horse industry in other industries. Indirect impacts are the expenditures in the upstream level of the horse industry marketing chain, e.g. feed producers expenditures for inputs spent on fertilizers. Induced economic impacts are attributable to household expenditures spent on consumer goods, stemming from households receiving wage or other sources of incomes from the horse industry. The total economic impact is the sum of direct, indirect and induced impacts. By a comparison of total and direct economic impacts, the multiplier effects of money spent directly in the horse industry can be achieved. The Maryland study yields a multiplier effect of 1.6 - 1.7, while the study of the entire US horse industry presents a clearly larger value (about 4.4). Unfortunately, no European studies of multiplier effects in the horse sector are available. To be comparable, employment in a sector usually is reported as full-time equivalent (FTE) jobs. Figures concerning FTE jobs in the horse sector are available for the Netherlands (van Markus, 2000), the UK (Suggett, 1999) and Sweden (NS, 1996). The European studies indicate that each horse generates 0.03-0.07 direct FTE jobs and about 0.2 FTE jobs when multiplier effects are accounted for (direct and total impacts defined as above). For comparison purposes, figures concerning the US (American Horse Council, 1996) are also reported. The American figures are of the same magnitude; 0.05 direct FTE jobs and 0.2 total FTE jobs. Consumer leisure time devoted to the management of horses is substantial, and is not included in the figures.
3.2.2 Environmental aspects Grazing livestock is to a great extent a pre-condition for preserved landscape features and biodiversity in the countryside. As the number of livestock declines, the value of the horse as a grazing animal has become even more pronounced. When horses and cattle or sheep are kept alternately on the same grazing area, problems with parasites are reduced and the pasture grass is utilised more efficiently. Different kinds of alternate grazing are rather common in some parts of Europe, for instance on the British Isles (Matzon 1996). Horses are able to make use of tender and highly nutritious as well as rough and overgrown grass. Ruminants, as cattle and sheep, have problems digesting too rough grass. As a horse is able to graze up to 18 hours per day, it can com-
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Grazing horses in a summer meadow. pensate a low nutritive value by increasing the grazing time (Pehrson, 2000). However, there are some problems related to horses as grazing animals, usually with too high animal intensity on small grazing areas as the main cause. Possible problems are, for example, damage to trees through bark gnawing, tramping damage on plants and soil, and negative effects caused by parasite preparations (Swedish Equestrian Federation, 1997). These problems may be substantial in urban areas, where there is a lack of outdoor yards for horses during the stabling period. In semi-natural grazing land the horse is an acceptable landscape preserver, given that the animal intensity is kept on a reasonable level. Some breeds are especially suitable as grazing animals, e.g. the Icelandic horse and several old breeds of draught horses and ponies (Matzon, 1996). One example of a pony breed preserving the landscape is the Exmoor pony, which is the oldest domestic breed in the UK. In the regions of Cumbria and Yorkshire herds of Exmoor ponies are spread out at the request of the British Society for the Conservation of Nature and the National Trust. Their robust jaws make it possible for the Exmoor to eat rough plants which are difficult to chew, while several rare species are preserved. In Dorset, in southern England, Exmoor ponies have contributed to the preservation of a rare orchid, only growing in areas with very low vegetation. Projects with Exmoor ponies and semi-natural grazing lands are presently ongoing in nature areas in the Netherlands and other countries, for instance Denmark, have also expressed interest in the subject (Archer, 2000).
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In northern Europe, e.g. Finland and Sweden, there are problems with insufficient grazing animals and land management. Empirical studies (Drake, 1999; Pruckner, 1995) show that consumer willingness to pay for the preservation of an open landscape may be substantial. In many other European countries, overgrazing is a more urgent agri-environmental problem and the policy focus is on extensification measures. Yet, practically all EU countries have agri-environmental policies targeted at management of valuable biotopes in environmental sensitive areas. The role of farmers in maintaining the countryside and natural open spaces was clearly pronounced in the Agenda 2000 reform of the CAP (Buller et al. 2000). The horse seems to have an important role in contributing to the open landscape in northern Europe but also, under certain conditions, as a landscape preserver in sensitive regions in other parts of Europe. In order for the horse to be a part of an integrated eco-system where resources are efficiently utilised, the nutrients from the manure ought to be recirculated to the land where horse feed is produced (Jakobsson, 2000). If this is done, the natural circulation is maintained and the manure is utilised as a valuable resource in crop production. A recent study concerning handling of manure (Steineck et al. 2000) shows that crops treated with composted horse manure generated yields of the same magnitude as when treated with manure from cattle. Unfortunately, the handling of horse manure is largely associated with problems, especially in urban areas of Europe (see e.g. Drangel 2000). If there is a shortage of spreading acreage, horse manure may be transported to deposits, with nutrient losses and unnecessary transportation as a consequence. When deposited, ammonia emissions from horse manure contribute to acidification. Nitrate leaching is also a problem, as seas and water systems may be polluted. There are possible solutions to the problem with horse manure in urban areas, though. One possibility is to compost the manure, whereby the volume is radically reduced and the spreading is simplified (Steineck et al. 2000). However, during the composting period ammonia is emitted and if the compost is not handled correctly it could lead to nutrient leakage. An economic analysis of manure handling systems at horse establishments (Hammar 2000) concludes that the most economically rational alternative is direct spreading on arable land, when compared with other alternatives such as transportation to deposit or container storing with final spreading on arable land. Smaller establishments may view the investment costs associated with composting as too high to be economically motivated. For larger establishments where the manure is transported to a deposit, composting may be an interesting alternative.
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3.3 The horse and the rural economy Horse-related business activities generate an increasing share of income in rural economies all over Europe, partly as a substitute for diminishing meat and milk production and other changes in agriculture. These businesses contribute to maintain employment in the countryside, which is important for economic as well as for social reasons. Furthermore, the horse has become an important link between urban and rural ways of living, given the declining share of the European population involved in farming.
3.3.1 Diversification for farmers Farmers in Europe are used to adjust and diversify their farms to increase income and reduce risk exposure, due to structural change in agriculture and the total rural economy as well as to changes in agricultural policy. One possible strategy may be to develop horse-related services. A positive effect stemming from the increased interest for horse businesses may therefore be a contribution to the general prosperity of rural areas. While the demand for agricultural commodities usually is rather inelastic with respect to income, consumer demand for services is relatively more elastic. When the households’ disposable income increases, demand for agricultural commodities do not increase to the same extent as the demand for services. To sustain profitability levels, many farmers have to reallocate resources to more profitable use than the production of traditional agricultural commodities. Several authors argue that diversification of the farms into services is likely to be a beneficial strategy for farmers in this situation. However, such a strategy requires a sufficient demand for services, often connected with a certain population density around the farm and a farmer with appropiate managerial skills. (McInerney and Turner, 1991; Bailey et al, 2000). Examples of services provided by European farmers include accommodation, agro-tourism, sports or recreational activities and horse-related activities. Horse-related activities have the advantage of using familiar technology (for livestock farmers) as well as making use of rural resources such as land and labour. A provider of rather unique horse services in a local area has the possibility to increase farm income. There are several British studies concerning horse enterprises and the rural economy (e.g. Davies, 1990; Suggett, 1999). Opportunities mentioned are the provision of grazing, stabling, riding ways, livery (including service and facilities), trekking centres, horse transports, and high quality feed. An empirical
20
Horse tourism in Ireland. study of agricultural holdings in England and Wales (McInerney and Turner, 1991) estimates that about 40 per cent of the sample holdings operate some form of diversified enterprise. Of those, “equine” was the third largest group, after “agricultural services” and “accommodation”. Since this UK study was conducted some years ago, the share of farmers engaged in diversified enterprises may be even larger today.
High quality silage produced for sale to horse owners is one example of a horse-related enterprise for which there is an increasing market demand, at least in Northern Europe. Horse owners and trainers with horses in professional training (e.g. training for harness and thoroughbred racing) usually have a high willingness to pay for high quality feed, thus generating considerable surpluses for farmers who are able to fulfil the quality requirements. Besides farmers diversifying into horse-related services, different kinds of rural tourism connected to the horse is expanding all over Europe, and especially in the Mediterranean regions. In Greece, there is an increasing interest for riding as a tourist activity. Portugal has a great deal of equestrian tourism, both related the domestic breed ,“the Lusitano”, and to the use of donkeys. Tourism is also mentioned as one of the growth areas of the Irish economy. In Ireland,
21
much effort has been devoted to the arrangements of horse festivals, fairs and shows aimed at rural tourists (EAAP, 1995). An important part of the agricultural policy of EU nowadays is directed towards rural development, within the framework of a large number of rural development plans. The so-called “second pillar” of the Common Agricultural Policy aims to guarantee the future of rural areas, including social as well as economic needs (European Commission, 2001).
3.3.2 Horses in modern agriculture and forestry Despite the increased mechanisation of agriculture, draught animals still play an important role in rural life in many parts of the world including much of the Mediterranean area and the candidate countries. Animal power can be purchased with local currency, is able to reproduce and uses technology already familiar to livestock farmers. In addition to this, animal power runs on locally available fuel in the form of animal feed stuff (EAAP, 1995). The use of animal power may be economically rational even on highly mechanised farms. Animal carts and sledges are used to move people and goods in rural areas especially where the roads are unsuitable for motor vehicles. Horses are specially useful for tasks that require frequent stops to load or unload material, or where difficulties are experienced in working the soil with tractors. Horse power is still used for agricultural work in many parts of the world.
22
Examples of fields inaccessible by tractors are those on terraced hillsides or in muddy river valleys (EAAP, 1995).
In small-scale forestry the use of horses is advantageous in some operations although they are not able to compete with heavy machinery in large-scale forestry. Examples of these operations include (Hedman, 1986): • very small areas of final felling, especially when the units are small, the terrain is difficult and on environmentally sensitive areas • thinning where the strip road network is sparse. The use of horses instead of heavy machinery can decrease damage to roots and stems in the remaining stands • extraction of seed trees and wind-thrown timber in difficult terrain. Traditionally, it was mostly cold-blood breeds that did agricultural and forestry work. One of the questions posed to the COPA organisations was to provide an estimate of the number of horses used in modern agriculture and forestry today. Not all countries were able to provide estimates of this but it appears as if horses are more commonly used in forestry than in agriculture. The most common breeds are the traditional, Shire and Clydesdale in the UK, North Swedish coldblood breed in Sweden, Finnhorses in Finland, Jutland in Denmark, Ardennes in Belgium and Haflinger in Austria. In Spain, it is more common to use mules and donkeys instead of horses for agricultural work. France, Portugal, and Italy gave the highest estimates of horses used in agriculture and forestry3, while the other countries state numbers between 200-700 horses.
3.3.3 Production of horse feed A direct consequence of the number of horses to modern agriculture is the arable land required for the production of fodder and pasture. Estimates of the proportion of utilised agricultural area used for this purpose are calculated for each member state. The calculations are made for a warm-blooded horse (weight 500 kg), in normal training. The energy requirement is 84 MJ per day (56 MJ per day for maintenance and 28 MJ per day for training) and 504 g protein per day, (Planck, 2001). Two different scenarios that meet these energy requirements are defined. Scenario A is a coarse feed-based scenario with 300 days of grazing per year. The feeding plan contains 8 kg hay and 2 kg oats per day during the stable period. Scenario B is based on concentrated food with a higher degree of grain 3. Number of horses used in agriculture and forestry are 5000 in France and Portugal and approx. 2000 in Italy.
23
(oats) as an energy source, a feeding plan suitable in areas with a more scarce supply of agricultural land. The feeding plan contains 4 kg hay, 4 kg oats and 2 kg straw per day during the stable period. The grazing period is 165 days per year. Feedstuffs used in the calculations are hay from a medium early harvested grass ley, oat grain (not crushed), and straw from cereals.
Scenario A and B represent two extreme feeding plans. Using these scenarios we are able to capture a wide variety of different strategies for land use in all parts of the EU in order to assess a relevant interval for the proportion utilised agricultural area used for the production of horse feed. The yields of oats are based on the three-year average of 1996, 1997 and 1998. (Statistics Sweden, 1997,1998,1999). For the production of ley, the assumption is made that yields of ley vary with the yields of barley in the countries respectively. Finally, the grazing is assumed to take place on extensive land with yields of about 2000 kg dry matter per hectare of grazing land. For Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain drier conditions are assumed, producing yields of 1500 kg dry matter per hectare. More favourable conditions are assumed in Belgium, France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, resulting
Table 3 Proportion (%) of utilised agricultural area required to produce the horsefeed in each member state.
Member state A B
9.8
DK
5.4
4.1
D
4.2
3.5
EL
1.65
1.5
ES
2.5
2.4
FIN
3.0
2.50
1.20
1.01
0.9
0.7
3.5
3.2
na
na
13.95
11.4
P
1.7
1.8
S
8.2
6.5
UK
4.1
3.3
3.15
2.68
IRL 1
I
2
L
NL COPA estimate of number of horses missing, FAO data used instead (Statistics Sweden, 2000) 2 Separate FAO data for Luxembourg is not available Source: Own calculations
24
Scenario B 1.9
11.8
F
1
Scenario A 2.4
Total EU-15
in higher yields, 3000 kg dry matter per hectare (European Grassland Federation, 1982). Given these assumptions, the area required to produce the yearly feed for a horse varies between 0.5 hectare in favourable areas to almost 2.5 hectares per horse and year in less favourable areas. In order to calculate the total area of arable land used for production of horse feed, we multiply the area required to keep one horse with the estimates of total number of horses in each country. The number presented in Table 3 is the proportion (in per cent) of the utilised agricultural area used for this purpose in each member state. It is important to note that the figures in Table 3 are based on the assumption that all feed is produced nationally and that horses are fed according to the feeding plans defined earlier. One also needs to keep in mind that if the number of horses is underestimated, so is the proportion agricultural area used for the production of horse feed. The marketing of feed for horses may not represent a major share of income from agriculture but, as Table 3 shows, the areas used for the production of horse feed are not negligible in size. With these assumptions, 3.5-4.05 million hectares (or 2.7-3.1 per cent of total utilised agricultural area) is used for the production of horse feed. In comparison, rape seed represents 2.1 per cent of utilised agricultural area in EU-15, vines 2.6 per cent, sugar beets 1.6 per cent and olive trees 3.3 per cent (European Commission, 2000 c).
3.4 Private consumption of equine services 3.4.1 Private consumption and costs As household income increases, other things being equal, the demand for most goods increases. For some “luxury” goods demand increases proportionately more rapidly than income whereas the demand for “necessities” grow less rapidly than income, (Nicholson 1992). Food is usually mentioned as an example of “necessities”, while leisure and leisure activities are examples of goods that are more income-elastic. The present study compares the number of horses per capita with the private consumption budget in each member state. The result is presented in Figure 1. The graph indicates a positive relation between the consumption level and the number of horses per inhabitants. A correlation test results in a correlation coefficient of 0.628.4 That is, the hypothesis of an accen4. Statistically significant at least at a 5 per cent level.
25
tuated demand for leisure activities (leisure riding) following an increase in households’ disposable income appears to be supported by the empirical data. Horses per 1000 persons 30 25
Figure 1 Relation between national consumption levels and number of horses per 1000 persons. Source: Eurostat, (2000 b) and own questionnaires
DK
S
NL
B
20 UK
IRL
15 FIN
10
D
ES
A F
5 P
I
EL
0 0
5000
10000
15000
20000
National consumption, EUR/cap
The costs of owning a horse and caring for it influences the number of households that ultimately decides to buy a horse. In the survey one question concerned the purchase price (taxes excluded) of a three-year old warmblood, a riding horse for leisure riding and exercise. There is, of course, great variation in the prices of horses depending on breed and other characteristics. The horse we asked for is supposed to be of a common quality and is not to be used at elite level. In addition to the price, we also asked for the yearly cost of feeding the horse (including grazing) and for the monthly rent of keeping it in a stable in the outskirts of the capital of the country. These numbers have been transformed to euro and are presented in Table 4. As Table 4 shows, the price range for a three-year-old warmblood spans from about 1000 EUR in Greece to 7700 EUR in Italy. Part of this difference is probably attributable to differing interpretations regarding the quality of the pre-defined horse. Note, the relatively low cost of keeping horses in Ireland. The estimates of prices for the yearly feed and the monthly rent are used to calculate the share of private consumption required to keep a horse in rural and urban areas. To do this we assume a real interest rate of 6 per cent and that the three-year old warmblood lives for another 15 years.
26
Table 4 Prices of horse services in EU member states and share (%) of private consumption per capita required to keep a horse in rural and urban areas Member State
Price of horse (EUR)
Feed, yearly cost (EUR)
A
3500
1308
452
44%
20%
B
3718
na
273
30%
na
DK
5366
805
604
50%
15%
D
5113
1662
358
35%
22%
EL
1040
965
na
na
22%
ES
6010
986
331
56%
22%
FIN
4700
757
378
44%
17%
F
2668
915
457
47%
18%
IRL
4031
645
122
17%
16%
I
7747
1808
516
62%
26%
L
na
na
na
na
na
NL
6806
771
318
39%
17%
P
4500
1500
375
77 %
33.6%
S
3848
1420
385
41%
22%
820
73%
22%
UK
2707
1
1640
Stabling, monthly Urban cost cost (EUR)
Rural cost
1
Data from Williams (BETA, 2001) Source: Own questionnaires and calculations.
In the rural case, the purchase price and the cost of feed represent the costs of keeping a horse. The yearly cost is calculated, using the annuity method, and compared with the level of private consumption. For the urban case, the purchase price and the monthly rate of keeping a horse in the outskirts of the capital (including feed) represent the urban costs. This figure is also compared with consumption levels. The results from the calculations are presented in Table 4 as shares of household private consumption. Neither of these calculations include other costs like for equipment, insurance or veterinarian care. Value at slaughter is not included. According to these calculations, it is up to 1.5 to 3 times more expensive to keep a horse in an urban environment than in a rural. Although, it should be noted that average income is likely to be higher in urban areas. In such a case, the relative cost of keeping a horse in an urban area is somewhat overestimated in Table 4.
27
3.4.2 Consumption of horsemeat The total consumption of equine meat in the EU amounted to 168 000 tons in 1998 which represents less than 0.5 kg/person. The vast majority of equines in the community are kept for recreational purposes and even in countries where equine meat is consumed, it represents only a small fraction of total meat consumption. The average consumption of pig meat during 1998 was 44 kg/head and for beef and veal 19.7 kg/head (European Commission, 2000). There are three major areas of production and consumption of equine meat in the EU; the Benelux, France and Italy (Federation of Veterinarians of Europe,1998).
3.4.3 Horse welfare The subject of horse welfare concerns the everyday managing of the horse as well as specific issues such as transports. Transports of slaughter horses in Europe has attracted much attention lately, but there may also be substantial imperfections associated with the transport of sport horses. Examples include horses transported to riding schools and to horse fairs (Andersson, 2001). Scientific studies within the area of horse welfare is sparse and before general conclusions concerning the state of horse welfare in Europe can be drawn, more research is warranted (Kennedy and Hill, 2000). Animal welfare in Europe is regulated through national animal welfare legislation and regulations as well as through EC regulations and directives. Several organisations are devoted to animal welfare issues – one example is the British organisation ILPH (International League for Protection of Horses), mainly working for the well-being of slaughter horses (Andersson, 2001). However, the question of horse welfare cannot be the total responsibility of authorities through legislation and directives. Horse owners, including leisure riders, professional riders, riding schools and other commercial users of horses, have the ultimate responsibility of the welfare of their horses. As pointed out later on in the report (section 3.5.3), education concerning practical issues as well as horsemanship is increasingly important, in the view of the accentuated interest for horses and horse-related activities.
3.5 Social importance 3.5.1 Leisure riding Riding is a popular leisure activity, not the least among children and young adults. People with companion animals are usually more active and healthier than other groups in society (Manimalis, 1996). Studies show that regular con-
28
tact with animals result in lower blood pressure, lower blood fat levels and reduced stress. This could be due to increased physical activity but also to the mental satisfaction of caring for a pet (Andersson, 1998). Another positive feature of riding is that riders from different generations and of different sexes can compete and participate at the same events. Two main groups of leisure riders can be identified. The first being those owning their horse and the other those buying lessons and training at riding schools or elsewhere. In the questionnaire, we asked for the number of leisure riders, number of riding schools and members in riding schools. The results are presented in Table 5. We also asked the national Equestrian Federations to help us estimate the average fee for a riding lesson in urban areas in their countries. Prices in rural areas proved to be about 30-50% lower in most countries.
Table 5. The number of leisure riders and riding schools in each member state. Member state
Leisure riders
Number of riding schools
Members in riding schools
A
200 000
1100
80 000
14.50
B
na
800
15 000
24.80
100 000
500
70 000
29.50
>2 000 000
5000
100 000
11.25
na
na
na
13.40
100 000
273
na
18.00
60 000
500
26 000
17.00
600 000
5939
426 000
15.25
30 000
na
na
19.00
I
50-70 000
1200
25 000
na
L
na
na
na
na
N
400 000
1000
260 000
10.40
P
na
400
700
12.50
S
500 000
600
215 000
17.70
UK
2 400 000
2280
1 440 000
24.60
TOTAL EU-15
6 460 000
19 592
2 657 700
DK D EL ES 2
FIN F IRL
Average fee (EUR) riding lesson1
1
Data from National Equestrian Federations 2 Peltonen, Soumen Hippos, 2001 Source: Own questionnaires
29
3.5.2 Riding for the disabled The healing effect of animals is increasingly being used in health care and especially when dealing with patients with different sorts of trauma. Therapeutic riding is an approach considering the individual physical and psychological needs; while providing all-round physical training, there is a sense of community, friendship with an animal and strong tactile impressions. Each rider is given the opportunity to experience success and pride in his/her accomplishments as well as an unconditional acceptance by staff, volunteers and horses. The rider not only learns to ride but also to care for and take responsibility of the horse (Eriksson, 1999). Unfortunately, there is a lack of scientific studies made in this area and current knowledge is merely based on clinical experiences and anecdotal evidence. There is a need for further studies to examine the positive effects alleged by the practitioners. The three main strands of “therapeutic riding” are psychological, educational and physical and all are linked and interchangeable, using the horse as the motivational key. Working with horses enables the rider to detect non-verbal signs of communication. This is valuable training, especially for students who themselves are unable to verbally explain their problems. (Harrington, 1999) Successful examples of this approach include rehabilitation programmes for drug addicts and criminals as well as patients with eating disorders and children and young adults with learning difficulties. Riding instructors work closely with specially educated psychologists and therapists to set and achieve goals based on an individual’s educational, psychological or cognitive needs (Håkanson, 2001). Hippotherapy is a medically prescribed procedure conducted by health care professionals with the assistance of therapeutic riding instructors and specially trained horses. The rider is passive and lets the horse’s movements stimulate his/ her body (Håkanson and Hane, 1998). Riding stimulates the nervous, skeletal, muscular and circulatory systems of the body. Riding as a therapeutic method gained popularity during the second half of the 20th century. The method is known for its benefits on neurological disorders but is increasingly used in psychiatric and orthopaedic treatment. In, e.g., England, France and Germany, therapeutic riding is a well-established method of treatment (Eriksson, 1999). Children are the largest group using riding as therapy; many centres for disabled children have therapeutic riding on their programmes. Disabled children and young adults are often well cared for in everyday life but sometimes lack meaningful leisure activities. Riding or driving horses may be an excellent way of providing this and of finding new friends with and without disabilities. The stable is a natural meeting place where everyone can do more or less the same things (Fagerlund, 2000).
30
The Federation Riding for the Disabled International (FRDI) was founded in 1980 to strengthen the international co-operation and exchange of knowledge between countries and centres offering therapeutic riding and driving. FRDI has 45 member countries and every third year they sanction an International Congress for their members. The 10th International congress was held in France April 26-29th, 2000 (FRDI, 2001). Riding may start as therapy, e.g. as a complement to physiotherapy, and develop into a hobby or a sport. Equestrian sport for the disabled is still young but is gaining popularity all over the world. The first World Championships for disabled riders were held in Sweden in 1987. The International Paralympic Equestrian Committee (I.P.E.C.) was set up in 1991. I.P.E.C. is responsible for providing the framework for international competition. This includes the provision of training courses and accreditation for judges and technical personnel, as well as the production of rule books, classifications manuals, and other relevant material. Equestrian Sport was part of the Paralympic Games in Atlanta in 1996, and in Sydney in 2000. By then there were 34 nations widely practising equestrian sport for the disabled world-wide. I.P.E.C estimates that in EU-15 alone, the number of therapeutic riders is almost 68 000 and the number of competing riders is about 1 800.
3.5.3 Education Working with horses always includes a risk that people or animals can get hurt. Through enhanced knowledge it is possible to greatly diminish these risks. In the interest of achieving animal welfare and safe handling of horses, sufficient knowledge is a prerequisite for those working with horses. More animals get hurt through their care-takers inability than through meanness. Horse organisations offer course material and advice on how to best handle your horse, but there is also a need for further education (Dalin, 1994).
Traditionally, much of the knowledge in this area was with the early users in the cavalry and in agriculture. This base of knowledge was established during a long period and new participators learned from more experienced predecessors. Today, the horse has been replaced by machinery in both systems and much of the knowledge has been lost. New groups of consumers demand equine services today. In many cases, these consumers have no prior experience of horses and are not part of a network that could supply the adequate knowledge.
31
In more or less all countries there are riding schools where consumers can buy lessons and acquire riding skills. But those owning or handling horses on a more regular basis need a broader perspective. The education should include more general horse knowledge, such as behavioural aspects, physiological needs, health issues, correct equipment as well as adminstration and marketing. The COPA organisations were asked about the possibilities to get formal education in their country today. These organisations might not know all possibilities, so this might not be a complete list. The question concerning education had three parts; firstly programmes at upper secondary school level, mainly for 16-18 year olds, secondly we asked for details on higher education, and the final part concerned apprenticeships. The result is presented in Table 6. It should be remembered that not all education at the same level can be expected to be equal and/or have the same content. The situation in the UK is interesting, with 30 universities and colleges offering 89 equine courses in 2001.
Table 6 Existing possibilities to attend formal education in the horse area and the number of graduates from such programmes in year 2000. Member state
Upper secondary level (reported number of graduates)
Higher education (reported number of graduates)
Apprenticeships (reported number of participants)
A
yes
na
yes (10-15)
B
yes (60)
no
no
DK
no
na
yes (50)
D
no
yes (12)
yes (220)
ES
no
yes
yes (60-100)
yes (230)
yes (12)
yes (400)
yes (1185)
no
yes (1700)
yes
yes
yes
no
no
no
yes (60)
yes (10)
yes
P
yes
yes (24+23)
yes (700)
S
yes (300)
yes (35-55)
yes (20)
yes (5000)
yes (600-1000)
yes (1200)
FIN F IRL I NL
UK
Source: Own questionnaires
32
4 Equestrian sports 4.1 Equestrian sports The modern equestrian sports, jumping, dressage and eventing evolved in Europe during the nineteenth century. These three disciplines where accepted in the Olympic Games in Stockholm, 1912. At that time the majority of riders in Europe were in the military and only officers were allowed to participate in riding events at the Olympic Games. This rule was changed after the Olympic Games in London 1948 (Furugren, 1994). The FEI is the international governing body of equestrian sport recognised by the International Olympic Committee. The organisation establishes rules and regulations for the conduct of international equestrian events in jumping, dressage, eventing, driving, endurance, vaulting and reining disciplines. The tasks include the supervision and maintenance of the health and welfare of the horses taking part as well as the respect of the principles of horsemanship (FEI, 2001). The FEI was founded in 1921 and is based in Lausanne, Switzerland since 1991. Today FEI has 127 member countries divided into 9 regional groups.
Cross-country riding
33
Jumping is the most practised of the three Olympic disciplines among the FEI members in the European Union. In Europe there are slightly more female riders than male riders taking part in all levels of jumping (FEI, 1999). The principles of jumping are simple to understand but more difficult for participants to master. Horse and rider have to negotiate a number of obstacles without knocking them down and against the clock. Traditionally Germany, France and United Kingdom have been the most successful countries in World and European Championships. Dressage is the second most popular Olympic discipline among the FEI members in the EU (FEI, 1999). A majority of the riders competing in dressage are female according to the FEI world-wide survey. The first dressage programmes were designed as tests of the military horse and its capability. Today dressage is a graceful exercise often compared with ballet. The dressage horse is asked to perform difficult movements at all gaits, speeds and degrees of collection. In World and European Championships, Germany has been very successful, with for example 13 of 18 possible individual and team World champions from 1966 to 1998. Eventing is a combined competition, which requires experience in several equestrian disciplines. Eventing is composed of three phases: dressage, endurance – with cross-country and steeplechase- and jumping (FEI, 2001). Eventing is the third most popular Olympic discipline among FEI countries within the EU. In the Northern part of Europe there are mostly women competing in eventing, while in Austria and Portugal there are mostly men competing. In Greece, Italy and Spain the distribution between male and female riders is almost equal (FEI, 1999). One of the most successful countries in international eventing in the EU is Great Britain (FEI, 1999). Driving competitions are held for one (single), two (pairs) and four horse teams (four-in-hand). Driving is the oldest known competitive equestrian sport. While mechanical vehicles may have eliminated the need for horses as a primary form of transportation, driving as a sport is one of the fastest growing disciplines today. There are three types of driving competitions, which can be combined: dressage, marathon and obstacle driving. In countries where driving is practised, a majority of drivers are male. Endurance is a competition against the clock to test the speed and the endurance ability of a horse. At the same time it should demonstrate the rider’s knowledge of pace and use of his horse across the country. For competitions of more than one day, the average distance at a normal international event is 100 – 130 km. For a Championship competition the distance is usually 160 km and the winning riding time about eight to ten hours (FEI, 2001).
34
Full speed ahead! Vaulting is a discipline dating back to the remote past of military training. It is a kind of team gymnastics in which one or more vaulters carry out a series of exercises on horseback with the help of a special handle instead of a saddle. A “loungeur“ on the ground ensures that the horse gallops regularly around in a circle. Team Vaulting competitions are reserved to participants up to the age of 18. There is no upper age-limit for individual vaulters. Reining was accepted as a new FEI discipline at the General Assembly in 2000. Reining is a celebration of a 500-year tradition of bridging the Old World together with the New. Though closely tied to the cowboy, reining has roots that extend to other centuries and other continents, to the equestrian traditions of Spain, Portugal, France, Australia and North Africa, among others. Modern reining functions as an artful elaboration of mounted cow work. EVENTING 14% DRIVING 4%
DRESSAGE 30%
ENDURANCE 3% JUMPING 44%
VAULTING 5%
Figure 2 Proportion of practitioners of equestrian sports split by discipline in EU-15 Source: Own, based on FEI, (1999)
35
4.2 Thoroughbred racing Thoroughbred racing is available in twelve of the fifteen European Union member states. These are, in alphabetical order, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom. The races are almost exclusively arranged for English thoroughbreds but some countries arrange races for pure arabs as well. There are two kinds of races, flat and jump races (either hurdle races or steeplechases). Jump races are principally popular in France, Ireland and United Kingdom. In flat races the start is made from starting gates and the races usually cover 1000-3000 meters. Hurdle races usually cover 2800-4000 meters while the steeplechases are 3000-5000 meters. Some of the most well known flat races in Europe are the Derby at Epsom, England and Prix de l’Arc de Triomphe in Longchamp, France. For jump races the most important races are The Gold Cup at Cheltenham, England and Grand National at Aintree, England.
Table 7 Some basic thoroughbred racing statistics from twelve member states Member state
Number of Horses Number of Distributed prize Prize moneyraces, 1999 running, 1999 racecourses1 money (EUR) GDP-ratio (10-5)
UK
7528
7431
59
111 076 560
8.87
F
6361
7266
257
113 073 962
8.72
I
5288
na
24
50 642 528
4.78
D
3032
3855
44
23 127 010
1.2
IRL
1866
1421
27
25 904 864
34.2
EL
1417
1420
1
15 723 153
14.5
S
728
1285
4
6 142 415
2.9
B
451
726
4
877 066
0.39
DK
356
740
4
1 648 625
1.06
ES
260
503
na
1 190 622
0.23
NL
198
322
3
530 283
0.15
A
120
257
1
518 545
0.275
27 605
25 226
428
TOTAL
1 Data from own questionnaires Source: IFHA (2000)
36
350 455 633
As Table 7 shows, a majority of the race courses in the EU are situated in France. Many of the smaller French tracks have flat, jump and trot races on the same course. Italy, United Kingdom and France arranged most of the races during 1999. The number of races (flat and jump) in each country is presented in Table 7 as well as the number of domestic horses racing and the number of race courses. A comparison of arranged races, distributed prize-money and the number of foals born in absolute numbers reveals that thoroughbred racing is largest in France and UK. Germany, Ireland and Italy follows next in this ranking and thereafter we find Greece, Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands and Austria. The relative size of thoroughbred racing in each country is estimated by the ratio of distributed prize-money to the GDP level. The ratio does not say anything about the overall economic importance of racing, since distributed prize-money is only part of racing turnover, but can still be used to compare the importance of racing between countries. In year 1999, Ireland had the highest prize money – GDP ratio of all countries followed by Greece and the UK. The lowest ratio was found in the Netherlands. Ratios for remaining countries are presented in Table 7. In thoroughbred racing, male and female jockeys and amateur riders compete on the same terms. During 2000 a total of 3179 jockeys and riders competed in the EU, of these 75 per cent, were male. This proportion varies between countries, in Denmark, for example, there are 76 per cent female participants while in Greece the corresponding number is only 8 per cent female jockeys and riders. The exact number of spectators is not available for every country. Central organisations in each country estimated the number of spectators, which ranged from 50 000 in Austria to 5 175 490 in the UK. Table 8 shows the total number of thoroughbred foals being born in the twelve countries in the years 1985, 1990, 1995 and 1999. A majority of the foals, or about 2/3 were born in Ireland (36%), the United Kingdom (24%) or France (19%) in 1999. In Austria, Belgium, Denmark and the Netherlands the number of foals born decreased, but in this period less than 5 per cent of all foals were born in these four countries. Year
Thoroughbred foals
1985
17 151
1990
21 791
1995
20 354
1999
22 389
Source: IFHA (2000)
In the questionnaire we asked for changes and new developments within the horse racing sector. The most positive responses came from the UK and Ireland, where an increase in attendance and on-course betting had been observed. Several countries observed an increase in off-course
37
betting and one way to increase public interest seems to be to provide an increasing range of facilities on the race-courses. Belgium and Germany mentioned the existence of private licensed bookmakers as a problem. All profits from bets placed at the Tote (pari-mutuel) are returned to racing while only a smaller fraction of the betting turnover with private bookmakers is returned to the sport. A decrease in the income from betting implies less money available for prize money and race course facilities, which in turn has a negative impact on the possibilities of attracting new actors to the sport. Britain has a long tradition of licensed bookmakers and in Britain most of the off-course betting is handled by large corporations. Part of their turnover (or 1.1 per cent) is paid back to the racing industry via a Government-supported levy system, as opposed to the Tote where all profits are returned to racing. Government has announced that it will withdraw from the levy system and so the betting and racing industries are currently negotiating direct commercial arrangements for the future. The racing industry hopes to agree a new rate of return that better reflects the worth of horse racing to the betting industry (Delmonte, 2001).
4.3 Harness racing Harness (trot) racing is available in ten of the fifteen European Union Member states. These are Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain and Sweden. Harness races are to a smaller extent also arranged in United Kingdom and Ireland. Trot is the gait of the cart horse. Races with horse-drawn carts occurred sporadically already during the time when horse-drawn vehicles were the dominating means of transport. The trotting horse of today has a light harness and draws a sulky. The length of the races varies between 1600 to over 4000 meters. Some of the most well-known harness races are the Prix d’Amerique at Vincennes, France, Hambletonian Stakes in the USA, Gran Premio della Lotteria in Naples, Italy and the Solvalla International Elitlopp in Sweden. As in thoroughbred racing, men and women compete on the same terms in harness racing. During the year 2000, 3419 professional drivers and trainers competed in the EU, of these about 11 per cent were female. Austria, Germany and Sweden had the highest proportion (about 20 %) of professional female trainers and drivers.
38
Table 9 Statistics from harness racing in the European Union Member state
Number of races, 1999
Horses racing, 1999
I
13823
10 158
25
73 504 710
6.94
F
9980
13 188
≈ 250
133 880 408
10.3
S
9670
14 810
31
63 781 182
30.0
D
9609
7 242
41
26 137 229
1.36
FIN
5970
8 322
43
12 999 561
11.32
DK
3702
3 367
9
5 963 019
3.83
ES
1918
970
1
686 334
0.13
B
1628
1 836
6
2 414 831
1.08
NL
1506
1 508
7
3 422 242
0.98
A
1206
1 144
12
3 060 177
1.62
59 012
62 545
425
325 849 693
Total
Number of Distributed prize Prize moneyracecourses money (EUR) GDP ratio (10-5)
Source: UET (2000)
Italy, France, Sweden and Germany arrange a majority of all races in the EU, or almost 73 per cent. The number of races, race courses and horses racing in each country is presented in Table 9, together with the distributed prize money during 1999. The relative size of harness racing in each country is estimated by the ratio of distributed prize-money to the GDP level. The ratio does not say anything about the overall economic importance of harness racing, since distributed prize-money is only part of racing turnover, but can still be used to compare the importance of racing between countries. Sweden had the highest prize money – GDP ratio of all countries with harness racing in 1999. In second place we find Finland, followed by France and Italy. Spain had the lowest ratio and ratios for remaining countries are presented in Table 9. In harness racing a more commonly used method of ranking is to compare number of races, distributed prize-money, born foals and the levels of wagering in absolute numbers. This method ranks France as the leading country followed by Italy, Sweden, Germany, Finland, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium and Austria. The exact number of spectators at the race courses is not known by most countries. The central organisations presented estimates ranging from 100 000
39
Table 10 Total number of trotter foals born 1985-1999 Year
in Belgium to 4 000 000 in Germany. Table 10 shows the total number of trotter foals born in the ten countries in the years 1985, 1990, 1993, 1996 and 1999. A majority of the foals, or about 73 per cent, were born in France (40 %), Sweden (18 %) and Italy (15 %) in 1999.
Trotter foals
1985
26 495
1990
32 770
1993
32 974
1996
27 867
1999
30 554
Source: UET (2000)
Table 11 Prize money available to foreign horses Member state %
A
B
DK
FIN
F
D
I
NL
ES
S
20
60
85
86
16
22
15
78
28
72
Source: UET (2000)
All countries allow foreign horses to compete in their races to some extent. What proportion of prize money that is available varies widely. In, for example Italy, only 15 per cent of the prize money is available to foreign horses while Finland offer 86 per cent of their prize money to foreign horses. Table 11 shows the proportion of prize money available to foreign horses in each country.
4.4 New areas of equestrian use in the European Union Chapter 4 has, so far described equestrian sports and uses with a long tradition. The increased interest in the horse sector has also lead to the development of new equestrian uses and sports in the European Union. Many new uses were mentioned in our questionnaires, such as horse ball, bull fighting, fox hunting and new breeds. Several countries also mentioned the use of horse in rural and equestrian tourism. The most common answers were western riding, Icelandic horses and T.R.E.C. These three are described a bit more in the section below.
40
4.4.1 Western riding Western riding originates from North America and cattle farming at horseback. The cowboys often spent long hours in the saddle which made it crucial that the work was made as comfortable as possible. This includes the use of more comfortable gaits and a cut-back in the level of aids required to control the horse. Obedience in the horse is essential and is achieved through close cooperation between horse and rider. All horse breeds are allowed to participate in the discipline even though some are used more than others. Western riding includes several different competition forms. One of them is western pleasure where the horse’s gaits are evaluated. Trail is a form that involves natural hurdles such as the opening and closing of gates. A third form, reining, might even become a new discipline at the Olympic Games in 2008 (WRAS, 2001).
4.4.2 Icelandic horses The first horses were brought to Iceland by the end of the ninth century. In the tenth century the Icelandic parliament decided to forbid import of foreign horses and horses which had already left Iceland were not allowed to return. These laws are still valid and as a result the Icelandic horse is the most purebred in the world.
Icelandic horses are becoming more and more popular
41
The Icelandic horse is one of few horse breeds that have five different gaits. In addition to walk, trot and gallop, the Icelandic horse also knows how to tölt and pace. Tölt is an even four-beat gait where the horse has at least one foot in the ground. The pace is a forceful two-beat gait, where each side moves together with great extension. The pace is always ridden as fast as possible. Icelandic horses are popular with leisure riders, but are also frequently used in equestrian tourism, such as tour riding (SIF, 2001).
4.4.3 T.R.E.C competitions T.R.E.C (Technique de Randonne Equestre de Competition) originated in France as a way of testing the skills of the professional guides working in the equestrian tourist industry. It rapidly became popular outside the professional sector and spread throughout the Continent. The competition is designed to test a horse and rider’s ability to find their way safely across strange country using map-reading skills, and to cope with obstacles that may be encountered when riding alone in the countryside. Although speed does play a part in determining the result, the competition is not a race. Competitions can take place over one or two days (BHS, 2000).
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5. Concluding remarks Riding is a popular leisure activity, especially among children and young adults. One positive feature of riding is that riders of different generations and gender are able to participate and compete at the same events. According to the present study, there are at least 6.4 million leisure riders in the EU, a number that represents about 2 per cent of total EU population. The study further estimates the total number of horses in the EU to be at least 4.4 million, equivalent to 11.7 horses per 1000 persons. Production of horse feed and grazing for these animals requires about 3.7 million hectares, which is slightly less than 3 per cent of the total utilised agricultural area. In comparison, the share of farm land used for sugar beets in the EU is 1.6 per cent and the corresponding figure for olive trees is 3.3 per cent. The overwhelming majority of equines in the community are kept for recreational purposes. Nevertheless, there are still some horses, mostly traditional cold-blood breeds, used in traditional agricultural and forestry activities, mainly in the Mediterranean area. The economic importance of the horse sector in Europe is analysed in terms of annual turnover, labour employment, contribution to GDP in the agricultural sector and multiplier effects. Empirical studies concerning the Netherlands, the UK and Sweden indicate that the direct annual turnover for the horse industry is in the magnitude of 2200-2800 EUR per horse. Each horse generates 0.03-0.07 direct full time equivalent (FTE) jobs and about 0.2 FTE jobs when multiplier effects in related industries are accounted for. Consumer leisure time devoted to the management of horses is substantial, and is not included in the figures. Revenues in agriculture related to the horse industry (including sales of feed and revenues from grazing and stabling) have been estimated to about 4 per cent of total revenues. American studies concerning the total economic impact of the horse industry upon the aggregate economy report multiplier effects in the range of 1.6 to 4.4. Unfortunately, no European studies of multiplier effects in the horse sector are presently available Further, we investigate international trade in horses, finding that the EU is a net importer of horses. However, the study reveals that the average value of exported horses (excluding intra-trade) is at least ten times higher than the value of the imports. This finding indicates that horses exported are among the most valuable animals, perhaps top breeding animals or sport horses.
43
A comparison of the costs of keeping a horse in either rural or urban areas shows that it is up to 1.5 to 3 times as expensive to keep a horse in an urban area. Another comparison is made relating the number of horses to the consumption levels in the different member states. This comparison indicates a positive correlation between income and horse density. That is, the theoretical assumption of an accentuated demand for leisure activities (leisure riding) following an increase in households’ disposable income is supported by the empirical data. Horse-related business activities generate an increasing share of rural income all over Europe, partly as a substitute for other livestock enterprises. Horserelated businesses contribute to maintain employment in the countryside, which is important for economic as well as for social reasons in many rural areas. Horse-related activities have the advantage of using existing technologies (for livestock farmers) as well as making use of rural resources, like land, buildings and labour. Besides farmers diversifying into horse-related services, different kinds of rural tourism connected to the horse sector are expanding all over Europe, especially in the Mediterranean regions. Grazing livestock is to a great extent a pre-condition for preserved landscape features and maintained biodiversity in the countryside. As the number of livestock declines, the value of the horse as a grazing animal has become even more pronounced. In many regions of northern parts of Europe, there are problems with insufficient number of grazing livestock for land management activities. In other parts of Europe, over-grazing may be a more urgent agri-environmental problem and the policy focus is on extensification measures. We conclude that the horse plays an important role, contributing to the open landscape and maintaining biodiversity in northern and mountainous regions of Europe but also, under certain conditions, as a landscape preserver in sensitive regions in other parts of Europe. Nevertheless, there may also be some negative environmental effects related to horses. Examples include manure handling, if not managed correctly. There appears to be an accentuated need for education in the horse discipline, not only concerning riding and training, but also in areas such as horsemanship and business administration related to horse enterprises. As the general interest for leisure riding expands, new consumer groups, without thorough experience and education, increasingly become involved in horse-related activities. Knowledge concerning safe management of horses is important with reference to animal welfare as well as for human safety reasons. The majority of the EU member countries have formal education systems at both upper secondary and higher education levels. However, the contents vary widely and the number of
44
educational positions are rather limited. Different kinds of apprenticeships are also common in the union. There is an increasing interest for the horse and the horse sector in Europe. Although equestrianism is not regarded as a traditional agricultural activity it is increasingly recognised as important within the agricultural world, due to land use for grazing and satisfying feed requirements. The need for more reliable data concerning horse issues remains crucial. Knowledge about, for example, more precise estimates of the horse population and its distribution is fundamental as a base for economic as well as epidemiological studies. Although some studies indicate that the horse industry is of substantial importance for the agricultural sector and for rural development, surprisingly few studies have been conducted. This shortcoming becomes even more accentuated since the horse sector and the whole agricultural sector is becoming more and more market oriented. Further studies of the up-stream and downstream sectors of the horse industry appear vital in such a scenario. Economic, environmental and animal welfare implications of new technologies relating to feed production as well as large and small scale stabling systems appear to be of interest. Furthermore, the entrepreneurial abilities of individuals in rural communities become ever more important. Consequently, enhanced focus on managerial decision processes along with a successful implementation of educational and extension programmes may be of importance for the developments in the industry. Finally, leisure riding and other forms of horse-related activities are relatively expensive hobbies, especially if the activities are conducted in the urban fringe. However, some mechanisms of cost-sharing are available through both public and private initiatives. Hence, another vital area for future research involves demand characteristics for horse activities with special emphasis on socio-economic attributes of the involved parties. Important questions are, for example, how demand is affected by income, cultural and historical heritage, as well as social background, gender and geographic location of the participants. Naturally, it might even be of interest to contrast demand characteristics for horse activities visavi other leisure activities such as team sports. These issues would lend themselves rather suitably to an international collaborative research effort concerning the future role of the horse in Europe.
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References American Horse Council 1996. The Economic Impact of the Horse Industry in the United States. Volume 1: National Summary. Policy Economics Practice Barents Group LLC. Andersson, I. 1998. Artikelserie: Hästens sociala betydelse. Ridsport No 1/1998: 60-61. Andersson, I. 2001. Ökat intresse för djurskyddsfrågor. Ridsport No 2/2001: 58. Archer, P. 2000. Ett nytt sätt att använda en gammal ras. Ridsport Special No 1/2001: 110-113. Bailey, A., Williams, N., Palmer, M., Geering, R. 2000. The Farmer as Service Provider: The Demand for Agricultural Commodities and Equine Services. Agricultural Systems 66(2000): 191-204. Bexelius, E. 2001. Vad kostar hästen? Ridsport No 1/2001: 58-59. Bruns, E. & Schober, M. 2000. Preliminary Report on Enquiry 1999. EAAP, Commission for Horse Production, The Hague, 21-24 August 2000. Buller, H., Wilson, G. A. & Höll, A. (eds.). 2000. Agri-environmental Policy in the European Union. Hampshire: Asgate. Dalin, G. 1994. Hantering för säkerhet och djurskydd. In: Hästens biologiutfodring och avel. Natur och Kultur, Falköping. Davies, M.C.G. 1990. The Opportunities for Equine Enterprises - An Overview. Paper presented at the Annual Conference on Agricultural Progress, Aberytstwyth, July 1989. Drake, L. 1999. The Swedish Agricultural Landscape: Economic Characteristics, Valuations and Policy Options. Essays in Honour of Clement Allan Tisdell, part 7 (ed. O’Brien, J. C.). International Journal of Social Economics, 26(1999):7/8/9: 1042-1060. Drangel, C. 2000. På hästfronten mycket nytt. Ridsport No 24/2000: 19. EAAP, 1995. Animal Production and Rural Tourism in Mediterranean Regions. The European Association for Animal Production, Publication No 74(1995). Eriksson, A. 1999. Effekter av ridterapi – en litteraturstudie. Examensarbete, Karolinska Institutet, Institutionen för sjukgymnastik. Stockholm. European Commission 2000. Commission Decision of 22 December 1999, 2000/68/EC. Official Journal L023, 28/01/2000: 0072-0075. European Commission 2001. CAP Reform: Rural development. Fact Sheet. European Grassland Federation 1982. Efficient Grassland Farming. 9th General Meeting of the European Grassland Federation. Reading, 5-9 September, 1982. Eurostat 2000a. Facts through Figures. Eurostat Yearbook at a Glance. Luxembourg.
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Eurostat 2000b. 100 Basic Indicators from Eurostat Yearbook of 2000. Luxembourg. Federation of Veterinarians of Europe 1998. Report on the Availability of Equine Medicine. FVE/98/006. Brussels. FEI 1999. FEI Worldwide Survey. Stencil. Federation Equestre International. Furugren, B. 1994. Hästen och männsikan. In: Hästens biologi – utfodring och avel. Natur och Kultur, Falköping. Hammar, M. 2000: Hantering av hästgödsel – en ekonomisk modell. Swedish Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering, Uppsala. Harrington, G. 1999. Straight from the horses mouth. The Therapist 6(1999) No 1: 29-31. Hartley Edwards, E. 1987. Horses - Their Role in the History of Man. Willow Books. London. Hedman, L. 1986. The Horse in Forestry. Small Scale Forestry No 1(1986): 13-17. Heldt, T. 1996. Hästens ekonomiska betydelse – en studie av hästberoende konsumtion i Sverige. Turismekonomiska skrifter nr 5, Uppsala universitet. Uppsala. Håkanson, M. and Hane, M. 1998. Kroppskännedomsträning till häst – utforskande partnerskap i behandling och utvärdering. Nordisk Fysioterapi 2(1998):19-25. IFHA 1999. Financial and Numeral Statistics from International Federation of Horseracing Authorities, unpublished. Jakobsson, C. 2000. Hästar - gödsel och miljö. Swedish Board of Agriculture, Jönköping. Kennedy, M.J. and Hill, J. 2000. Equine Welfare in the 21st Century. Paper presented at the 51st Annual Meeting of the European Association for Animal Production. The Hague, 21-24 August, 2000. Manimalis 1996. Manimalisrapporten – Sällskapsdjur i Sverige. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Uppsala. van Markus, R. 2000. The Social and Economic Importance of Horse Production in the Netherlands. Paper presented at the 51st Annual Meeting of the European Association for Animal Production. The Hague, 21-24 August, 2000. Matzon, C. 1996. Naturvård med betesdjur. Swedish Board of Agriculture, Jönköping. McInerney, J.P. and Turner, M.M. 1991. Farm Diversification: Enterprises and Incomes. Farm Management 7(1991) no 11: 525-534. Musser, W.N., Commer Jr., M., Wallace, N., Teichner, S., Sheriff, G., Rhodes, W. 1999. Economic Impact of Horse Racing in Maryland. Univerity of Maryland, College Park, Center for Agricultural and Natural Resource Policy. Nicholson, W. 1992. Microeconomic Theory- Basic Principles and Extensions Fifth Edition. The Dryden Press, New York.
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NS 1996. Hästen i Sverige, Europa och jordbrukpsolitiken. Swedish Horse Council Foundation. Stockholm. Pehrson, I. 2000. Hästen i landskapet. Unpublished. Palustre HB, Holm. Philipsson, J. 1994. Hästavel. In: Hästens biologi – utfodring och avel. Natur och Kultur, Falköping. Planck, C. 2001. Hästen – Näringsbehov och fodermedel. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Equine Studies. Uppsala. Pruckner, G. J. 1995. Agricultural Landscape Cultivation in Austria: An Application of the CVM. European Review of Agricultural Economics, 22(1998): 173-190. Steineck, S., Svensson, L., Jakobsson, C., Karlsson, S., Tersmeden, M. 2000. Hästar – gödselhantering. Teknik för lantbruket nr 82. Swedish Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering, Uppsala. Suggett, R.H. 1999. Horses and the Rural Economy in the United Kingdom. Equine Veterinary Journal 28(1999): 31-37. Swedish Board of Agriculture 1998. Jordbruket inom EU i diagram och tabeller. Jönköping. Swedish Equestrian Federation, 1997. Hästen och naturbetesmarker. Miljöfakta nr 8/97. Statistics Sweden 1997. Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics 1997. Stockholm. Statistics Sweden 1998. Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics 1998. Stockholm. Statistics Sweden 1999. Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics 1999. Stockholm. Statistics Sweden 2000. Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics 2000. Stockholm. UET 2000. European Statistics 1999. Union Européenne du Trot.
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FEI, Federation Equestre International, January 2001, http://www.horsesport.org. FRDI, Federation of Riding for the Disabled, February 2001, http://www.frdi.net. SIF, Svenska Islandshästföreningen, January 2001, http:// www.icelandichorse.se. WRAS, Western Riding Association of Sweden, January 2001, http://www.wras.nu.
Respondents questionnaires: Austria:
Federation Equestre National D’Autriche Zentrale Arbeitsgemeinschaft Österreichischer Pferdezüchter
Belgium:
Belgisch Warmbloedpaard(B.W.P.)
Germany:
German Equestrian Federation.
Denmark:
The Danish Agricultural Advisory Centre – The national Department of Horse Breeding.
Greece:
Hellenic Equestrian Federation. Jockey Club of Greece.
Spain:
Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentacion Asociacion Nacional de Criadores de Caballos de Pura Raza Española. (ANCCE)
France:
Observatoire Eqonomique et Social du Cheval.
Finland:
Agricultural Research Centre of Finland – Horse Research. Soumen Hippos ry. Equine College of Ypäjä.
Italy:
Confederazione Generale Dell’Agricoltura Italiana. (CONFAGRICULTURA)
Irland:
The Irish Horse Board.
Netherlands:
Productboard Meat, Livestock and Eggs.
Sweden:
Federation of Swedish Farmers.
United Kingdom:
National Farmers Union. & British Horse Society.
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