THE ETHICS INVOLVED IN NANOTECHNOLOGY AND AN EXTENDED LIFE SPAN Anita Jain ([email protected])

INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY AND HOW CAN IT EXTEND A PERSON’S LIFE SPAN? In today’s world, the prefix “nano” is used in our everyday language, from iPod nano to the phrase “I’ll be there in a nanosecond!” However, “nano-“ originates from Greek for “dwarf”, and in science actually means one billionth. Thus, a nanosecond is a billionth of a second, and an iPod nano is not truly “nano”. Nanotechnology began with Richard Feynman, who challenged scientists to create molecule-sized machines that could perform surgery, for starters. Feynman believed that machines of this size would not only be cheaper to manufacture, but could also work more efficiently and use less power. Today, researchers in the field of nanotechnology work with small-scale molecules and individual atoms to develop new materials, processes, and machines that can potentially better our everyday lives [1]. In the field of medicine, nanotechnology involves the use of nanoparticles in applications such as drug delivery and therapy techniques. Furthermore, researchers such as leading scientist Robert A. Freitas, Jr are working to develop nano-robots that can make repairs to the body at the cellular level (commonly referred to as “nanomedicine”.) For instance, these nano-robots can generate a greater control of medical treatment with diamondoid nanocomputercontrolled nanorobotic systems, correct genetic damage and mutations by performing chromosome replacement therapy, detect and remove the cells that cause certain illnesses (such as Alzheimer’s disease), and remove cells that are not functioning as desired. However, this is only a glimpse of what nanomedicine can potentially do. In reality, nanomedicine and the use of nano-robots could increase the human life span. This type of development, however, raises ethical questions regarding safety of the materials used, human enhancement and what defines being a human [2]. In other words, nanomedicine applications blur the boundary of what defines being a “human” and a “non-human,” because these technologies will be created for medicinal purposes but also have human enhancement potentials (they can give humans capabilities that are not possible without nanomedicine) [3]. These ethical issues include morality, human dignity, and fairness, which involve fundamental canons from both the National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) Code of Ethics as well as the Biomedical Engineering Society (BMES) Code of Ethics. I believe that nanomedicine can

hugely impact the future of health care and medicine, and that the ethical issue of human enhancement is relevant, but should not affect the development of nanomedicine. The goal of nanomedicine is to create a wider range of medical treatments that are more efficient, controllable, effective (especially when the damage to the body is very small or highly selective), and precise. This goal does not involve making people “super-humans,” and does not aim to disrupt society, but rather to make society better. Furthermore, I think that there is important value in doing a project such as this one, where we research and write about a current engineering issue, because it broadens our perspectives on engineering and teaches us skills of being “moral engineers” that we can use in our practice of engineering.

NANOMEDICINE: THE VISION Diamondoid Nanorobots By 2020, leading scientist and researcher Robert A Freitas, Jr. believes that nanomedicine will fully emerge, because of the proper completion and construction of the nano-robot. Currently, biotechnology, especially genetic and tissue engineering, is used in performing certain medical procedures and creating medicines. However, nanomaterials are involved in developing products in biotechnology. The problem with nanomaterials is that they could be potentially harmful to humans, because of their possible insolubility, reactivity, and electrical charge. Instead of nanomaterials, medical nano-robots would contain rigid, biocompatible diamondoid nanometer-scale parts [4]. Diamondoid is desired to build these nano-robots because it contains pure diamond, which has a high thermal conductivity, a low frictional coefficient, and is the strongest and stiffest material at ordinary pressures, among other properties [5]. Nano-robots containing these diamondoid molecular sized gears, ratchets, and bearings can contain a variety of subsystems, such as motors that allow the robot to move, and manipulator arms and mechanical legs, which give the robot mobility and proficiency. With diamondoid material, nano-robots would be able to harmlessly move through the bloodstream and cure diseases, thus increasing the human life span. FUNCTIONS OF NANO-ROBOTS Chromosome Replacement Therapy

The primary goal of nanomedicine is to use nano-robots to conduct therapeutic procedures on individual cells in the human body. In order to reduce aging, a cell repair nanorobot (called a “chromallocyte”) can perform a procedure called “chromosome replacement therapy,” where the genetic mutations and damage in each cell of the human body will be corrected [6].

According to biogerontologist Aubrey de Grey, “Aging is a three-stage process: metabolism, damage, and pathology.” [10]. Intervening in the damage stage can reduce or delay aging, because the removal of the damage (the second stage) would break the connection between the first and third stages, metabolism and pathology. Currently, seven categories of age-related damage have been identified and targeted for anti-aging treatment. One of these categories involves removing the extracellular, or “garbage” buildup outside of the cells. This buildup consists of biomaterials that have collected outside of the cell, and are of no particular use to the physiological or structural function of the cell. An example of this biomaterial is the amyloid plaque, which forms small amounts of indigestible material drops around the cell in normal brain tissue, but forms larger amounts of this material in humans with Alzheimer’s disease. Using nanomedicine, a nano-robot could enter the brain, steer itself through the blood-brain barrier, release an artificially manufactured peptide (compound containing two or more amino acids linked in a chain) in the area surrounding the plaques, collect the agents after the plaque degrades or dissolves in the peptide, and finally exit the brain via the same place it entered [11]. By using these peptides to dissolve the harmful amyloid plaques in the brain, aging can be avoided because the unwanted “garbage” outside of cells will be eliminated, thus protecting and leaving only the harmless and vital cells in the brain.

FIGURE 1, THE CHROMALLOCYTE Photo of what a chromallocyte is expected to look like [7].

The nucleus of a cell contains most of a cell’s DNA. Moreover, DNA is a coiled structure made up of proteins (called “chromosomes”). When a cell does not divide as expected, the protein and DNA within it, called “chromatin” becomes a scattered and spread out mass, instead of the desired coiled structure. In chromosome replacement therapy, all of the chromatin contained in the nucleus of a cell is removed and replaced with artificially made, nondefect versions of the original chromosomes. The chromallocyte is infused in the body, where it travels to the target tissue or organ to perform the procedure, and once finished returns to the bloodstream to be extracted from the original infusion site [8]. This type of cell repair procedure can cause a breakthrough in medicine. Although surgeons can perform procedures such as stitching wounds and reattaching limbs, they cannot cut and stitch fine tissue structures in the human body, even with modern-day scalpels and knives. Additionally, many current cell repair mechanisms act as tissue repairing mechanisms instead, and replace cells rather than repair them [9]. However, chromallocytes will be able to repair individual cells with their technological combination of sensors, programs, and molecule-sized tools (the diamondoid materials.) And with the development of individual cell repair, humans will be able to live longer because the defect cells will be replaced with newly manufactured, nearly identical ones.

The Microbivore The buildup of “toxic” cells (cells that are death-resistant and secrete toxic substances to other cells) is another cause of age-related damage. These types of cells are fat cells, senescent cells, immune cells, and memory cytotoxic T cells (cells that are either not working or not working well enough.) In order to completely remove these types of cells, a microbivore-class nano-robot is necessary [12]. The microbivore is an example of what a traditional nano-robot would look like, as it would act as an artificial mechanical white cell and travel through a human’s bloodstream, finding and digesting unwanted bacteria, viruses, and fungi. When a bacterium hits the microbivore, it will stick to the surface and be transported to the nanorobot’s “mouth.” Inside the microbivore’s mouth, the bacterium would be digested into amino acids, mononucleotides, simple fatty acids, and sugars, which will then leave the nano-robot and reenter the bloodstream. For instance, a person with a blood born infection could be injected with 100 billion microbivores to cure his or her infection. Impressively, the entire treatment could last anywhere from a couple minutes to a few hours (the microbivore’s digestion process takes about 30 seconds,) rather than the days or weeks necessary for antibiotics to work. Once the entire treatment is finished, the doctor

Removing Extracellular Buildup Unlike biotechnology, which provides mainly short-term repair because the age- related damage varies (some damages are harder to repair than others), nanotechnology and nano-robots can offer more effective solutions and treatments to these damages and human senescence.

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would send an ultrasound signal to the nano-robots, and they would leave the body through the kidneys [13]. Microbivores, along with peptides and chromallocytes, have the potential to expand a human’s lifespan because they have the ability to remove any unwanted and/or defect cells that cause age-related damage. Moreover, microbivores have the ability to quickly remove these unwanted cells, so the patient will not have to suffer from any long-term side affects from medication and will be cured within hours instead of weeks.

Since nanomedicine and nano-robots promise to increase the human lifespan, ethical questions and issue have emerged, especially surrounding human enhancement and what is considered “human” and “non-human.” Although nanomedical applications would be created for restoring bodily functioning, it possesses possibilities for enhancement. For instance, the microbivore would be able to rid the body of unwanted “toxic” cells, but can also be considered a human enhancement because it is helping to increase a person’s life span, and such a task would be impossible without the use of a microbivore. This leads to the ethical question of morality, and which nanomedicine application counts as enhancement and which doesn’t. For example, nanomaterials and nano-robots can boost a human’s immune system because of their ability to detect and destroy unwanted bacteria, thus increasing his or her life span [18]. Moreover, this enhancement implies a disadvantage for the people who do not undergo procedures involving nanomedicine. The issue of fairness comes into play as well, because of the disadvantage implied. Even more, wealthier people may be the first people to undergo nanomedical procedures because they will be able to afford them, thus creating an even larger gap between the people who are considered “enhanced” and the people who are not [19]. Despite these ethical issues, I think that the development of nanomedicine will be beneficial for humans and society in the future. According to the BMES Codes of Ethics, “Biomedical engineers involved in research shall: Comply fully with legal, ethical, institutional, governmental, and other applicable research guidelines, respecting the rights of and exercising the responsibilities to human and animal subjects, colleagues, the scientific community and the general public” [20]. The research surrounding nanomedicine is meant to benefit the field of medicine, not to create eternal life and human enhancement. Thus, nanorobots have the possibility to transform health care in the future and expand a human’s life span by eliminating unwanted “garbage” surrounding cells, thus eliminating damage caused by aging.

FIGURE 2, THE MOCROBIVORE Photo of what a microbivore is expected to look like [14].

ETHICS AND THE ETHICAL ISSUES SURROUNDING NANOMEDICINE Code of Ethics With the current research and development in the field of nanomedicine, there are ethical issues surrounding the safety of the diamondoid material and nano-robots. Even though nanomedicine promises to improve treatment options, the nano-robots must be able to bypass the blood-brain barrier and move around cells to perform functions such as repair cells (chromosome replacement therapy) and remove extracellular buildup and unwanted cells (the microbivore) without causing harm. However, the toxicity of the diamondoid material and thus of the nano-robots is uncertain [15]. The first fundamental canon in the NSPE Code of Ethics states that “Engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall: Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public” [16]. Furthermore, the BMES Biomedical Engineering Professional Obligations canon states that “Biomedical engineers in the fulfillment of their professional engineering duties shall: Use their knowledge, skills, and abilities to enhance the safety, health, and welfare of the public” [17]. According to both of these canons, safety is a primary concern in the practice of engineering. Thus, they should ethically guide engineers to develop safe and effective diamandoid materials and nanoparticles that the nano-robots will be made up of. I believe that safety should be a main issue in nanomedicine, but it should not hinder the research and development of these nano-robots, because they have the potential to revolutionize the field of medicine, particularly in the field of senescence. Human Enhancement

EDUCATIONAL VALUE In my opinion, doing an assignment similar to this one is beneficial to us as future engineers. By researching a current engineering issue and incorporating ethics into this issue, I am not only learning about the field of bioengineering, but I am also learning about the ethics and morality involved in the field. According to Charles J. Abate in his article “Should Engineering Ethics be Taught?”, “the ultimate aim of efforts to teach engineering ethics is not to produce moral engineers, but rather to instill careful clarity of insight and cogent decision-making skills” [21]. Thus, by researching the NSPE and BMES Codes of Ethics, I am better prepared for the workforce as a future engineer, and my perspective of

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engineering is increased because I now know how to be a more effective engineer by following these Codes of Ethics. I have realized that ethics is a large aspect of engineering, and thus I believe that a research and writing project like this one is valuable to current and future engineering students. It expands our horizons and causes us to recognize that engineering is more that just applying math and science, but also involves ethical and morality issues. Learning about the various engineering Codes of Ethics causes us to become more well-rounded and socially responsible engineers.

previously in this paper, nano- robots are much more effective, easier to control, and superior in comparison because of the diamondoid material they will be constructed with [23]. Additionally, I feel that the ethical issues surrounding nanomedicine are significant, but should not hinder the development of nano-robots in the future. Although there are safety risks with the type of biomaterials used and concerns involving human enhancement, researchers in the field of nanomedicine must comply by the research, safety, and welfare canons in the BMES Code of Ethics, as well as the safety and welfare canon stated in the NSPE Codes of Ethics. Thus, the research involved in the field of medicine should not be halted, because nanomedicine and nano-robots can better the health field in the future by eliminating agerelated disease and increasing the human life span. Moreover, I believe that there is a strong value in doing a research project like this because we learn about the ethics involved in various fields of engineering, and how the various Codes of Ethics applies to these fields of engineering. For me personally, my view of engineering has greatly increased by doing this writing assignment, because I now realize that there is more to engineering than just physics and math. This is why I think that engineering students all over the country should also learn about ethics, or at least do an assignment similar to this one. Overall, nanomedicine and the development of nanorobots will not only affect human aging, but will also improve the quality of life of human beings, reduce the economic costs associated with healthcare because medical treatments and procedures will be less frequent and necessary with the capabilities of the nano-robots, offer early detection of medical conditions, reduce the side effects involved with therapy and treatments, and finally improve a human’s medical outcome [24]. In the end, we realize that in order to prevent aging, we must concentrate on the cells in our body, rather than just our skin. With the development of nanomedicine and the creation of nano-robots, we will be able to live for hundreds of years, and not have to worry about applying another antiaging facial cream ever again.

CONCLUSION: NANOMEDICINE AND THE FUTURE OF MEDICINE Nanotechnology is an up and coming field of research all over the world today. What’s interesting about nanotechnology is how it can relate to a broad range of topics, from everyday mundane objects, such as food and clothing, to applications in medicine. What’s more is that in society today, many people, especially women, focus on anti-aging, and ways to look and remain feeling younger. I have always been fascinated by how cosmetics are made and if each cosmetic actually does what it promises to do (such as foundation that makes a person’s skin look more radiant, or eye shadow that makes a person’s eyes look more awake with antioxidants.) The more I researched this topic and the nanotechonology involved in cosmetics, I learned that beauty and anti-aging is more that just skin deep, despite what modern day advertisements and society portray. In actuality, anti-aging involves the entire human body, especially the cells within it. Instead of applying facial creams that promise to reduce wrinkles and dark spots, a person needs to remove the age-related, damaged cells in his or her body to prevent aging. With nanomedicine, this type of cell removal and repair is possible, and this is why I believe the topic of senescence and the overall field of medicine is going to transform tremendously. In 1850, an American man had a life expectancy of about thirty-eight years. In 1990, a man’s life span was about seventy-three years. As time went on, the human lifespan increased, because of the development of new medicines, proper food, sanitary facilities, and so on [22]. However, this increase in life span does not need to end. With the development of nanomedicine, nano-robots will be able to increase the human lifespan by fixing the cells damaged from aging and building new mechanical ones nearly identical to the originals. Despite the argument that nano-robots are merely created for eternal life, these robots will always have physical limitations and cannot promise a deathless life. These limitations include constraints on their mobility, energy availability, mechanical and geometric limits, and biocompatibility requirements, for starters. Unlike biotechnology, which has many limitations as discussed

REFERENCES [1] I. Flatow. (2007). Present at the Future: From Evolution to Nanotechnology, Candid and Controversial Conversations on Science and Nature. New York, NY: HarperCollins. (Print book). pp. 153-154 [2] R. Bawa, S. Johnson. (2008). “Emerging Issues in Nanomedicine and Ethics.” Nanoethics: Emerging Debates. pp. 7-8 [3] R. Sandler. (2009). “Nanomedicine and Nanomedical Ethics.” American Journal of Bioethics. (Online report). Academic Search Premier. http://web.ebscohost.com.pitt.idm.oclc.org/ehost/pdfviewer/

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pdfviewer?sid=297ad82d-430e-47f2-a7fa36524c2c071d%40sessionmgr11&vid=4&hid=15 [4] R. Freitas. (2012). “Freitas Homepage.” http://www.rfreitas.com/ [5] R. Freitas. (2009). “Meeting the Challenge of Building Diamondoid Medical Nanorobots.” The International Journal of Robotics Research. (Print article). P.548 [6] G. M. Fahy, M. D. West, S. B. Harris (2010). The Future of Aging: Pathways to Human Life Extension. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. (Print book). pp. 704 [7] J S. Hall. (2005). Nanofuture: What’s Next for Nanotechnology. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. (Print Book). pp. 253 [8] R. Freitas (2009). “The Future of Nanomedicine.” World Future Society. (Online article).   https://www.wfs.org/Dec09-Jan10/freitas.htm [9] R. A. Freitas. (2007). “The Ideal Gene Delivery Vector: Chromallocytes, Cell Repair Nanorobots for Chromosome Replacement Therapy.” Journal of Evolution & Technology. (Online article). http://jetpress.org/volume16/freitas.html p. 51 [10] G. M. Fahy, M. D. West, S. B. Harris (2010). The Future of Aging: Pathways to Human Life Extension. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. (Print book). pp. 751-752 [11] G. M. Fahy, M. D. West, S. B. Harris (2010). The Future of Aging: Pathways to Human Life Extension. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. (Print book). pp. 765 [12] G. M. Fahy, M. D. West, S. B. Harris (2010). The Future of Aging: Pathways to Human Life Extension. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. (Print book). pp. 767 [13] G. M. Fahy, M. D. West, S. B. Harris (2010). The Future of Aging: Pathways to Human Life Extension. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. (Print book). pp. 769 [14] R. A. Freitas (2009). "Nanotechnology and radically extended life span." Life Extension. (Online Report). Academic OneFile. http://go.galegroup.com.pitt.idm.oclc.org/ps/i.do?id=GA LE|A192802777&v=2.1&u=upitt_main&it=r&p=AONE&s w=w [15] E. M. McGee. (2009). “Nanomedicine: Ethical Concerns Beyond Diagnostics, Drugs, and Techniques.” American Journal of Bioethics. (Online report). Academic Search Premier. http://web.ebscohost.com.pitt.idm.oclc.org/ehost/pdfviewer/ pdfviewer?sid=297ad82d-430e-47f2-a7fa36524c2c071d%40sessionmgr11&vid=4&hid=15 [16] (2007). “NSPE Code of Ethics for Engineers.” (Online article). http://www.nspe.org/Ethics/CodeofEthics/index.html

[17] (2012). “Biomedical Engineering Society Code of Ethics.” (Online article). http://www.bmes.org/aws/BMES/pt/sp/ethics [18] R. Sandler. (2009). “Nanomedicine and Nanomedical Ethics.” American Journal of Bioethics. (Online report). Academic Search Premier. http://web.ebscohost.com.pitt.idm.oclc.org/ehost/pdfviewer/ pdfviewer?sid=297ad82d-430e-47f2-a7fa36524c2c071d%40sessionmgr11&vid=4&hid=15 [19] F. Allhoff, P. Lin, J. Steinberg (2010). “Ethics of Human Enhancement: An Executive Summary.” Science & Engineering Ethics. (Online report). Academic Search Premier. http://web.ebscohost.com.pitt.idm.oclc.org/ehost/pdfviewer/ pdfviewer?sid=b05629f8-ced2-496e-9ad8714167790117%40sessionmgr12&vid=6&hid=15 [20] (2012). “Biomedical Engineering Society Code of Ethics.” (Online article). http://www.bmes.org/aws/BMES/pt/sp/ethics [21] C. Abate (2010). “Should Engineering Ethics be Taught?” Science & Engineering Ethics. (Online report). Academic Search Premier.   http://web.ebscohost.com.pitt.idm.oclc.org/ehost/pdfviewer/ pdfviewer?sid=3109018f-3a7a-4718-bdfc9f5be1bdec8a%40sessionmgr11&vid=4&hid=15 [22] S. Hall. (2005). Nanofuture: What’s Next for Nanotechnology. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. (Print Book). Pp. 254 [23] G. M. Fahy, M. D. West, S. B. Harris (2010). The Future of Aging: Pathways to Human Life Extension. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. (Print book). pp. 782-783 [24] R. Bawa, S. Johnson. (2008). “Emerging Issues in Nanomedicine and Ethics.” Nanoethics: Emerging Debates. pp. 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First off, I would like to thank the writing staff, and Beth Bateman Newborg especially, for her help in formatting, outlining, citing, and overall sending us emails with helpful information on how to write our papers. I would also like to thank my father, who first got me interested in the topic of nanomedicine and helped read and edit my paper. Finally, I would like to thank my fellow peers in Forbes Hall for the help they gave me in peer editing and motivating me to write this paper.

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