The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment

Overview  The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment  AP European History Chapter 17  9/17/2014 John 3:16 1 The Scientific Revolution’s...
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Overview 

The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment



AP European History Chapter 17 

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The Scientific Revolution’s “natural philosophers” effected but a small elite But a group of intellectuals used the discoveries to examine all aspects of life

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Overview 



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These gatherings stimulated wide-ranging discussions and ideas  Ideas generated were so significant that historians refer to the 18th century as the Age of Enlightenment 

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Intellectuals and scientists of the 17th century were open to new ideas of science. Both saw science as exalting God The 18th century intellectuals saw it differently 

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Overview

“Enlightenment” included a rejection of traditional Christianity Religious wars and intolerance of 16th and 17th centuries alienated intellectuals

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Marie-Therese de Geoffrin hosted distinguished foreigners, philosophers, and artists

Overview 

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Paris was the cultural capital of Europe Parisian women took a lead in bringing together thinkers of many disciplines to cross-talk discoveries and new philosophies

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Voltaire

Voltaire

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Rejected Christian orthodoxy and secularism emerged as dominant mentality in Western mentality ever since

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Overview 



Focus Questions

Reason and materialism were beginning to replace faith and reason Although, there was an outburst of religious sensibility manifested in art and music 

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Not all artistic and intellectual hearts were captured by secularism



Who were the leading figures of the Enlightenment, and what were their main contributions?

Montesquieu

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Focus Questions 

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Focus Question

In what type of social environment did the philosophes thrive, and what role did women play in that environment?



What innovations in art, music, and literature occurred in the 18th century?

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Focus Question 

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Focus Question

How did popular culture differ form high culture in the 18th century?

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How did popular religion differ from institutional religion in the 18th century?

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Critical Thinking Question 

What is the relationship between the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment?

The Enlightenment Overview

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Overview

German philosopher Emmanuel Kant defined Enlightenment as “man’s leaving his self-caused immaturity” Kant: “Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence.”





As laws were discovered regulating nature, then laws could be found to regulate human society Buzz words: reason, natural law, hope, progress

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Overview 

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Overview

Philosophes and scientists thought that if only people could throw off the shackles of old beliefs, particularly religious, the world be a better place

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If Newton can discover the natural laws of science that govern the universe, the laws of how to govern a society could be discovered as well

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The Popularization of Science 

The Paths to Enlightenment

Books were tough to read—written by the best brains of the time—and tough to get (no Borders)  Much was done through education by “popularizers” or philosophes themselves 

Influenced by 17th century thinkers, what changes occurred with 18th century thinkers that culminated in the Enlightenment?

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The link to the people of the scientific discoveries the philosophes

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The Popularization of Science 

Spread of scientific information was not direct from scientist to people.

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The Popularization of Science

Bernard de Fontenelle, Secretary of the French Royal Academy from 1691 to 1741, wrote books on discoveries Fontenelle possessed vast knowledge of discoveries

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Fontenelle was very witty and scientifically wise His book, Plurality of Worlds, two people discussing discoveries  

Conversation between lady aristocrat and lover “Tell me”, she exclaims, “about these stars of yours”

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Fontenelle showed that science need not be the monopoly of experts, but part of literature He downplayed the religious side of scientists He was a “skeptic” about religion and portrayed churches as enemies of scientific progress

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A New Skepticism

The Popularization of Science 

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As scientific discoveries spread, more men and women questioned longheld religious truths and values

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A New Skepticism 

A New Skepticism (cont)

Skepticism and secularism was evident in the works of Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) 



Attacked religious intolerance, superstition, and dogmatism Compelling people to believe a certain set of religious ideas was wrong—as Louis XIV was doing at that time









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A New Skepticism 







David was portrayed as a sensual, cruel, treacherous, and evil man The “Dictionary” attacked traditional religious practices and heroes

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Skepticism about religion and European culture was nourished by travel reports Traders, missionaries, medical practitioner, and explorers—all wrote travel books  Geographical discoveries, e.g. Tahiti, New Zealand, and Australia by James Cook  Aroused much enthusiasm

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The Impact of Travel Literature

The Impact of Travel Literature 

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One critic of Dictionary called it the “Bible of the eighteenth century”

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The Impact of Travel Literature

In Bayle’s most famous work, Historical and Critical Dictionary, he wrote of King David in a very different way 

that individual conscious should determine one’s action the existence of many religions would benefit rather than harm a state the Bible should not be exempt from criticism

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Bayle believed

Exotic peoples, such as natives from Tahiti, presented an image of “natural man” The idea of the “noble savage” would impact the work of some philosophes



The literature also demonstrated there were highly developed cultures in other parts of the world  

China and Confucian morality were singled out Europeans began to evaluate their culture compared to others

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The Impact of Travel Literature 

The Legacy of Locke and Newton

Certainties about European practices gave way to “cultural relativism”



Accompanied by religious skepticism The Christian perception of God was one of many  “…Every day they see a new religion, new customs, and new rites 





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The Legacy of Locke and Newton

Newton frequently singled out



“the greatest and rarest genius that ever rose for the ornament and instruction of the species”  “God said, ‘Let Newton be, and all is light’” 



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The Legacy of Locke and Newton 

The intellectual inspiration for the Enlightenment were Locke and Newton Intellectuals believed that by following Newton’s laws of reasoning, they could discover the natural laws that governed politics, economics, justice, religion, and art

John Locke’s theory of knowledge especially influenced the philosophes 

Philosophes enchanted by Newton’s world machine



Wrote, Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) Denied Descates belief in innate ideas

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The Legacy of Locke and Newton 

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The Legacy of Locke and Newton

Lock denied Descartes’ belief in innate ideas. Locke argued that every person was born with a tabula rasa, a blank mind

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Our mind is developed from our environment, not from heredity; from reason, not from faith People molded through experiences they received through their senses from their surrounding world

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The Legacy of Locke and Newton

The Philosophes and Their Ideas

By changing the environment, peoples and societies can be changed Reason enabled enlightened people to discover natural laws to which all institutions should conform The philosophes were enamored with Locke and Newton. Taken together, their ideas seem to offer the hope of a “brave new world” built on reason



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Literary people, professors, journalists, statesmen, economists, political scientists, and social reformers  Came from the nobility and middle class, some poor 

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The role of philosophy was the change the world, not just discuss it  Reason was scientific method, an appeal to facts and experiences  Rational criticism was to be applied to everything, including religion and politics





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Pseudonyms, anonymously, or abroad  Double meanings, e.g., talk about Persians and mean French  Publish secretly or in manuscript form to avoid censors  Burned books often made them more popular 

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The Philosophes and Their Ideas (cont)

Philosophes found ways around censorship

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Philosophes worked in environment where they were not free to write anything State censors were ever present Seizure of books and imprisonment of authors, publishers and sellers was very possible

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The Philosophes and Their Ideas (cont) 

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The Philosophes and Their Ideas

Philosophes had different circumstances, but the many common threads

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International and cosmopolitan movement Dominated by French culture and Paris considered the capital of the Enlightenment

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The Philosophes and Their Ideas 

Philosophes were intellectuals and not all philosophers

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Although bound together by common bonds, philosophes often disagreed Each succeeding generation became more radical A few people tended to dominate the landscape  Three French giants stood out  



Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot

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Montesquieu and Political Thought 

Charles de Secondat, the Baron de Montesquieu From French nobility  Received a classical education then studied law 



Montesquieu and Political Thought (cont) 



His first book, “Persian Letters”



Two Persians traveling in Paris and criticizing French institutions, especially Catholic Church and French monarchy  Much of French Enlightenment: attack on traditional religion, advocating religious toleration, denunciation of slavery, use of reason to liberate humans beings 

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“The Spirit of the Laws” distinguished three basic kinds of governments   

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Republics, suitable for small states and based on citizen involvement Monarchy, appropriate for the middle-size states and grounded in the ruling class’s adherence to law Despotism, apt for large empires and dependent on fear to inspire obedience

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Benjamin Franklin  James Madison  John Adams  Alexander Hamilton  Thomas Jefferson 





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England had separate executive, legislative, and judicial powers Limited control of each other Served as greatest freedom and security for a state

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Voltaire and the Enlightenment

Translation of Montesquieu’s work ensured it was read by American philosophes who incorporated much into the U.S. Constitution

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He wanted the nobility of France to play and active role in the running of the French government

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Montesquieu and Political Thought (cont) 

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Praised England’s constitution which led to his most lasting contribution to political thought, the importance of checks and balances created through the “separation of Powers” 



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Published in 1748 Comparative study of governments in which he attempted to apply the scientific method to the social and political arena to ascertain the “natural laws” governing the social relationships of human beings

Montesquieu and Political Thought (cont)

Montesquieu and Political Thought 

Montesquieu’s most famous work, “The Spirit of the Laws”

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Francois-Marie Arouet known as Voltaire Greatest figure of the Enlightenment Classical education in Jesuit school Hailed as successor to Racine for his tragedy CEdipe and his epic on King IV Well liked by Parisian intellectuals, a quarrel with a nobleman forced him abroad to England for 2 years

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Voltaire and the Enlightenment  

Voltaire and the Enlightenment

Very impressed with England His “Philosophic Letters on the English” (1733)



Expressed deep admiration for English  Liked freedom of press, political freedom, and religious toleration….”there are thirty religions and they live together peacefully and happily  Indirectly, he criticized France, especially absolute royalty, lack of religious toleration, and freedom of thought





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An early philosophe, she had published a translation of Newton’s “Principia”  The two collaborated about a book on the natural philosophy of Newton 

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Voltaire and the Enlightenment 

Eventually settled on magnificent estate in Ferney, in France near the Swiss border



Had become wealthy through writing, investments, and inheritance  Had the leisure time to write pamphlets, novels, plays, letters, and histories



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Calas’ family paid an indemnity and Voltaire’s appeals for moderation seemed more reasonable He wrote, “Treatise of Toleration” Reminded people that religious toleration had created no problems for England or Holland  Reminded governments “all men are brothers under God”

Voltaire, “Crush the infamous thing.” 

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Religious intolerance, fanaticism, and superstition John 3:16

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Voltaire and the Enlightenment





Used prestige and skills as a polemicist to fight cases of intolerance in France Most famous case: Jean Calas Accused of murdering his son to stop him from becoming Catholic  Tortured to confess, he soon died  Voltaire, through his writings, forced a retrial in which Calas was exonerated. His son had committed suicide

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He was especially well known for his criticism of traditional religion and strong support of religious toleration

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Voltaire and the Enlightenment





Voltaire returned to France but, at this point, had to live near the eastern border for security Lived with his mistress the marquise de Chatelet

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Accepted Deism Accepted by most philosophes Built on the Newtonian world machine theory  The mechanic—God—created the universe  God had no direct involvement in the world and let it run according to its own natural laws  God did not extend grace nor answer prayers  Jesus might be a “good fellow,” as Voltaire called Him but he was not divine as Christianity claimed  

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Diderot and the Encyclopedia

Voltaire and the Enlightenment 

Voltaire said, “In the opinion that there is a God, there are difficulties, but in the contrary opinion there are absurdities.”





Son of skilled craftsman form eastern France Freelance writer—many languages and subjects

Voltaire John 3:16

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Diderot and the Encyclopedia 

“the most absurd and…atrocious in its dogma”



Most famous work was his “Encyclopedia” or “Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades.” Called it, “the great work of his life”



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The purpose of the encyclopedia was to “change the general way of thinking” Became a weapon against the old French society Attacked religious superstition and promoted toleration  Sought social, legal, and political improvements  Sought more cosmopolitan, tolerant, humane, and reasonable society  Ideas of the Enlightenment spread even further 

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The New “Science of Man”

Diderot and the Encyclopedia (cont) 

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Diderot and the Encyclopedia

Condemned Christianity as fanatical and unreasonable— considered it the worst religion 

Diderot

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Newton’s scientific methods were thought to be useful to address the natural laws of social man Could the scientific process be used to solve the inherent problems and challenges of society? Eighteenth century movement called the “science of man” or the “social sciences” Philosophes arrived at natural laws they believed to be universal

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The New “Science of Man”

The New “Science of Man” (cont) 

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Scottish philosopher David Hume thought that a science of man was possible “A Pioneering social scientist” Wrote “Treatise on Human Nature”



Experimental method of reasoning with reference to moral subjects  Observation and reflection grounded in “systemized common sense” made conceivable a science of man 

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The Physiocrats and Adam Smith  Founders of economics  Physiocrat leader was Francois Quesnay, French court physician  Claimed they could discover natural economic laws  Land constituted only source of wealth, their first principle  Agriculture was only means to increase wealth—all other activities were sterile and unproductive  Revenues should come from a single tax on the land  Rejected mercantilism, their second principle, and the idea of money—gold and silver

The New “Science of Man”  



Scottish philosopher Adam Smith 

Individuals should pursue their own economic self interests—all society will benefit  Government should leave the system alone. Don’t regulate  Doctrine became known as laissez-faire (noninterference—let people do as they choose) 

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Best statement of laissezfaire Made in 1776

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The New “Science of Man” 

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The New “Science of Man”

The second principle of the physiocrats was the rejection of mercantilism Emphasized the natural economic forces of the supply and demand

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The New “Science of Man

Wrote The Wealth of Nations



Three basic principles of economics, including an attack on mercantilism  First principle--condemned the use of tariffs. Better to purchase a product from another nation rather than try to produce it if the other nation produces it cheaper 

Second principle, labor theory of value 



Gold and silver do not constitute true wealth Labor of individuals— farmers, artisans, merchants, etc., constitute the true wealth of nations

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The New “Science of Man” 

The New “Science of Man”

Third Principle, Government should not interfere with economic management

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Adam Smith Principle three (cont)—government only has three jobs To protect society from invasion To defend individuals from injustice and oppression  To keep up certain public works, such as roads and canals, that private individuals could not afford  

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The New “Science of Man” 



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The Later Enlightenment

Between the Physiocrats and Adam Smith, they laid the foundation of 19th century economic liberalism 

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By the 1760s, new group of philisophes emerged 



Government: stay out Economic liberty

Grew up in the Enlightenment Went beyond the original group

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The Later Enlightenment  





Doctrine of strict atheism and materialism Wrote System of Nature



Everything in universe is matter and motion  Humans are machines and God is only in the mind  People need only reason to live in the world  Please ourselves because we must live with each other

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Baron Paul d’Holback… 



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The Later Enlightenment

Movement beyond the beliefs of predecessors Baron Paul d’ Holback, German aristocrat who settled in Paris 

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“Let us persuade men to be just, beneficent, moderate, sociable; not because the gods demand it, but because they must please men”

Most intellectuals remained deists, as they the effect of atheism on society

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The Later Enlightenment 

The later Enlightenment

Marie-Jean de Condorcet, French philosophe 





Humans had progressed through 9 historical stages With science and reason, humans will enter tenth  Tenth stage would be one of perfection. “There is no limit to the perfecting of the powers of man”  Shortly after composing his work, he died in a French revolutionary prison 

Victim of turmoil of French Revolution Wrote his chief work while in hiding during the Reign of Terror

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Rousseau and the Social Contract 



Marie-Jean de Condorcet wrote The Progress of the Human Mind

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, born in Geneva As youth, wandered France and Italy doing jobs

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Rousseau and the Social Contract 

Later, studied classics and music 





A paid lover of an older woman Eventually made his way to Paris

Introduced to philosophes in Paris Jean-Jacques Rousseau

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Rousseau and the Social Contract

Rousseau and the Social Contract

Rousseau’s political beliefs in two major works, Discourse on



Discourse… Humans were happy in their primitive state—no laws, judges, equality--but then they made changes  To preserve private property, people adopted laws and governments  “…rushed headlong not to liberty but into chains”  Government is an evil, but a necessary one 

the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind and The Social Contract

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Rousseau and the Social Contract

Rousseau and the Social Contract

He wrote, The Social Contract



Tried to harmonize individual liberty with government authority  Society agrees to be governed by their general will  Individuals compelled to abide by the general will 

“This means nothing less than that he will be forced to be free”  

What was best for all was best for the individual True freedom is adherence to laws that one has imposed on oneself

People should be forced to be free General will is community’s highest aspirations  What is good for all is good for each individual  

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Rousseau and the Social Contract 







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Rousseau and the Social Contract

The creation of laws could never be delegated to a parliamentary institution—or legislature “Any law which the people has not ratified in person is void; it is not law at all” “…as soon as Members are elected, the people is enslaved; it is nothing.” The ultimate statement of participatory democracy

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He wrote, Emile Important work on education Education should foster children’s natural instincts  Saw a necessary balance between feelings and reason  Importance of promptings of the heart  Precursor of the intellectual movement called Romanticism—emphasis on the heart, that dominated Europe at the beginning of the nineteenth century  

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Rousseau and the Social Contract

Rousseau and the Social Contract

Rousseau: did he practice what he preaches?







“…She needs a soft sedentary life to suckle her babies.”  In Emile, Sophie, Emile’s intended wife was educated to be a wife and mother by learning obedience and nurturing skills to provide loving care to her husband and children 

His children sent to foundling homes Viewed women as naturally different



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Rousseau…

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Made ideas of gender an important issue

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The “Woman’s Question” in the Enlightenment

Rousseau and the Social Contract 

Rousseau was described in three ways:



The father of romanticism  A prophet of democracy  An apologist for totalitarianism 







Which was he?

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Based on “natural” biological differences

Some male writers critical of women’s intellect

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The “Woman’s Question” in the Enlightenment 

Men framed debate of value and nature of women Many male intellectuals argued the nature of women made them inferior to men

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The “Woman’s Question” in the Enlightenment

Two intellectual men asserted women were “not all that different” (Diderot), and “capable of all men are” intellectually (Voltaire)

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Some women writers made suggestions Mary Astell, daughter of wealthy English coal merchant, wrote, A Serious Proposal to the

Ladies  

Women needed to become better educated (of critical men) “…excuse me, if I be as partial to my own sex as they are to theirs….”

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Mary Astell She wrote, Some Reflections upon Marriage



Mary Astell: Some Reflections Upon “…if arbitrary power is evil…it ought not be practiced anywhere”  …if all men are born free, how is it that all women are born slaves?” 

Argued for the equality of the sexes in marriage  “If absolute sovereignty be not necessary in a state, how comes it to be so in a family”

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Marriage



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The “Woman’s Question” in the Enlightenment

The “Woman’s Question” in the Enlightenment 

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The Woman’s Question in the Enlightenment

The “Woman’s Question” in the Enlightenment Mary Wollstonecraft, an English writer







Viewed by many as the founder of modern European feminism

Mary Wollstonecraft  Wrote,Vindication of the Rights of Woman  Subjection of women to men is as wrong as the arbitrary power of monarchs over people  Writers like Rousseau seen to contradict their own statements about the power on monarchs over people or slave owners over people

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The “Woman’s Question” in the Enlightenment 



The Enlightenment appealed to reason. If women have reason, then they are entitled to the same rights as men  Women should have the same education, economic, and political rights





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Social background of philosophes varied 



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The publication of books and treatise Salons, elegant drawing rooms of the wealthy, brought philosophes and other guests for witty and enlightened conversations

Hostesses of salons, women found themselves in a position to sway political and effect the decisions of kings

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The Social Environment of the Philosophes

Spread of ideas to literate elite in European society 

Aristocratic to lower middle class

Appeal of the Enlightenment mostly aristocracy Common people not effected much

The Social Environment of the Philosophes 

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The Social Environment of the Philosophes

Mary Wollstonecraft: Vindication of the Rights of Women

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Salon hostess, 18th century 95

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The Social Environment of the Philosophes 



The Social Environment of the Philosophes

The reputation of a salon was based on the stature of the males attracted Some complaints occurred that females exerted undue influence on political affairs 



The salons were important in promoting conversation and Enlightenment thought

Exaggerated, but Salons declined during the French Revolution

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The Social Environment of the Philosophes 



Coffeehouses, cafes, reading clubs, and public lending libraries important in spreading ideas Learned societies formed in Europe and America

Culture and Society in the Enlightenment

Select Society of Edinburgh, Scotland, and the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia  Secret societies developed like the Freemasons established in London in 1717 

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The intellectual adventure fostered by the philosophes was accompanied by both traditional practices and important changes in 18th century culture and society

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Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature 





Baroque and Neoclassical emphasized majesty, power, and movement

Rococo, new style of decoration and architecture, entered 1730s  

Rococo brought change

Emphasized grace and gentle action Followed wandering lines of natural objects (seashells and flowers)

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Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature

Baroque and Neoclassical styles gave way to Rococo 

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Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature 

Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature

Rococo…   



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Charm speaks to pleasure, love, and life (secular) Could be used with Baroque Baroque-Rococo architecture was popular style of 18th century Gold, delicate contours, graceful curves

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Pilgrimmage church of the Viezehnheiligen, Germany (see text)  Bishop’s palace, known as the Residenz of Wurzburg  Light, bright colors; elaborate and rich detail  Mix of secular and spiritual 

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Jacques-Louis David, re-created a scene from Roman history 

Oath of the Horatii



Horatius brothers swore an oath before their father, proclaiming their willingness to sacrifice their lives for their country (see text)

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The Development of Music  

Germans, Austrians, and English followed

Most musicians depended on a patron—perhaps a prince who would offer a court and financial support 

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Helped make Italy and Germany music leaders

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The Development of Music

The 17th and 18th centuries saw the rise of the opera, oratorio, sonata, concerto, and symphony Italians were the first to develop above formats 



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Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature

Neoclassicism continued to make strong appeal in 18th century France Simplicity, dignity, and classical style of ancient Greece

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Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature (cont) 

Balthasar Neumann, one of greatest architects of the 18th century. Known for two masterpieces

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Bach and Handel—1600-1750 timeframe  



Composers, seen as geniuses Baroque music style

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) Came from family of musicians Became director of church music at the Church of Saint Thomas in Leipzig  Composed his Mass in B Minor  

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The Development of Music 

The Development of Music

Bach



One of the greatest composers of all time  Music was a worship of God 





Handel 

Band for his fireworks music was to be accompanied by 101 canon  Wrote 40 operas, and more 

“…well ordered music in the honor of God”

George Frederick Handel (1685-1759) Born in Germany the same year as Bach Stormy international life and secular in temperament  Moved to England attempting most of his life to run an opera company 





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immediately to everyone, and yet…a masterpiece of the highest order”



Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) Spent most of adult life as musical director for wealthy Hungarian princes, the Esterhazy brothers  Composed 104 symphonies, plus numerous string quartets, concerti, songs, oratorios, and Masses  Trip to England introduced him to writing for public concerts rather than princes

Their renown caused the musical center of Europe to shift from Italy and Germany to the Austrian Empire



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Mozart… 

Child prodigy, started in Salzburg Gave first concert at age 6, wrote first opera at 12



Moved to Vienna, unable to find a permanent patron which made his life miserable Wrote music prolifically and passionately, but died a debt-ridden pauper at 35

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The Development of Music

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) 

Wrote two oratorios, The Creation and The Seasons, both dedicated to the common people

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New instruments like the piano appeared  Classical Era, new musical period, (1750-1830)  Representing this new the orchestra music era are Haydn and Mozart

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Messiah called “one of those rare works that appealed

The Development of Music

Orchestra music not until second half of 18th century



Best known for his religious music 

The Development of Music 

Wrote for large audiences, writing some huge, unusual sounding pieces

Mozart 113

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The Development of the Novel

The Development of Music 

Mozart 

  





Carried tradition of Italian comic opera to new heights. Three of world’s greatest operas



The Marriage of Figaro The Magic Flute Don Giovanni



Blended grace, precision, and emotion, arguably, no one has excelled





Mozart

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The novel grew out of the medieval romances and 16th century stories English credited with establishing the novel as main vehicle for fiction writing Proved attractive to women readers and writers Samuel Richardson, printer, started writing at 50 

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The Writing of History

Henry Fielding (1707-1754) Wrote novels abut people without scruples who survived with their wits 

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The Development of the Novel 

First novel, Pamela: or, Virtue Rewarded Appealed to sensibilities



Philosophes created revolution in history writing 

The History of Tom Jones, A Foundling, was his



best Emphasized action rather than inner feeling  However, he did attack the hypocrisy of his age 



Secular orientation Eliminated role of God in history Could focus on events

Voltaire John 3:16

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The Writing of History 



for causal relationships in natural world  Broadened the scope from just politics to economic, social, intellectual, and cultural developments  The Age of Louis XIV by Voltaire was written not just to depict his life, but to depict the “…spirit of men in the most enlightened age the world has ever seen”  Voltaire initiated the modern ideal of social history 

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The Writing of History

History writing…

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Voltaire, as much as anyone, initiated the “modern ideal of social history” Weakness of philosophes stemmed from their preoccupations as philosophes Sought to instruct as well as entertain Goal was to help civilize their age  History could play a role by revealing its lessons according to their vision  

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The Writing of History 

The Writing of History

Philosophes writing history (cont)



Emphasized reason and science  Disliked Christianity, making them less sympathetic to the Middle Ages 

Philosophes writing history… 

Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon 



Portrayed the growth of Christianity as a major reason for Rome’s eventual collapse Also thought the decline had many causes Edward Gibbon

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The High Culture of the Eighteenth Century 

High Culture, by 18th century





Popular Culture 

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The High Culture of the Eighteenth Century 

The Female Spectator featured articles by



female writers Newspapers began to appear

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Large number of privately endowed secondary schools by 18th century 

First newspaper printed on London in 1702 By 1780, 37 other towns had newspapers  Cheap and provided free in coffeehouses

Twenty five published in 1700, 158 in 1780 Best known, Spectator, by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele, started in 1711

Education and Universities 





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Expansion of reading public and publishing Authors making money, less dependent on patrons Development of magazines, Great Britain leading the way 

Written and unwritten lore of the masses, most passed down orally John 3:16

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The High Culture of the Eighteenth Century 

Literally and artistic world of educated and wealthy  Latin as language  Theologians, scientists, philosophes, poets, etc.  Supported by wealthy and literate lay group, mostly landed aristocracy and rich upper classed in cities 



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Tended to be elitist, meeting needs of upper class Perpetuated class hierarchy instead of social mobility





Books circulated more widely 

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Public libraries and private circulating libraries John 3:16

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Education and Universities 

Education and Universities

Privately endowed secondary schools… 



Philosophes reinforced idea to keep people in their original social class 

Privately owned secondary schools…  

“Education should teach princes to reign, the ruling classes to distinguish themselves by their merit and virtue, the rich to use their riches well, the poor to live by honest industry”…Baron d’Holbach

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Education and Universities 



Too much emphasis on classics and Aristotelian philosophy No training in sciences and modern languages





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   



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Crime and Punishment

Most European countries had hierarchy of courts Judicial torture was important means of obtaining evidence for trial Punishments were cruel and spectacular Nobles executed by simple beheading Lower class criminals tortured—broken at the wheel, drawn and quartered, etc.

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In Germany, the Realschule opened 1747 and offered modern languages, geography, and bookkeeping to prepare boys for business New schools also opened for women, but emphasized religions and domestic skills Few scientific discoveries of 18th century occurred in universities

Crime and Punishment 

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Education and Universities

Complaints by philosophe-reformers led to attempt at more practical curriculums— most common complaints 

Still largely concentrated on Greek and Latin classics Not much mathematics, science, or modern languages

 

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Public executions seen as necessary for deterrence Death penalty was commonly used—more than 200 crimes earned the death penalty

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Crime and Punishment  

Crime and Punishment

There was forced labor in mines, forts, and navies Sent criminals as indentured servants to colonies



Crimes and Punishments

Punishments should only serve as deterrent, not brutality  Against capital punishment 



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Italian philosophe, Cesare Beccaria, wrote, On

By end of 18th century, prisons replaced much of capital punishment actions

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The World of Medicine 



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Below physicians were surgeons whose main jobs were to bleed patients and perform surgery Surgery often done without painkillers and under filthy conditions  Bleeding believed to combat variety of illnesses 

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The World of Medicine  

Began to be licensed  Began to see patients 

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The World of Medicine

In 1740s, surgeons began to separate themselves from the barbers and organize into guilds Surgeons underwent more training in anatomy

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The World on Medicine

University medical education conducted in Latin and based on Galen medicine even to 17th and 18th centuries. Based hierarchy of positions Graduate with doctorate in medicine needed for license to hold regular patient consultations

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 

Apothecaries, midwives, and faith healers served the common people Hospitals were filthy and often people would leave with diseases they didn’t have when they went in

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Popular Culture 



Carnival 

Social activities and other pursuits common to lives of most people Festivals—a variety of celebrations



Lots of food Offensive songs  Verbal and physical aggression through insults and pelting with eggs, apples, flour, etc.  Criticism of superiors OK  

Christmas and Easter  Carnivals  People ate, drank, and celebrated to excess 

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Celebrated the weeks leading up to Lent Time of great indulgence

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Taverns and Alcohol   







The differences in drinking habits and the abandoning of festivals by the rich was symbolic of abandoning the popular world view as well

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Literacy and Primary Education 

Pop culture not entirely oral 



Chapbooks were short brochures sold by peddlers to lower classes containing spiritual and secular material Lives of saints, adventure stories, etc.  Promoted literacy

 

While the wealthy and middle class artisans grew in literacy, women and peasants remained largely illiterate

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Upper classes now viewed such things as witchcraft, faith healing, fortune telling, and prophesy as the beliefs, “such are of the weakest judgment and reason, as women, children, and ignorant and superstitious persons.”

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Literacy and Primary Education





Abandoning the world view

The rich drank different beverages such as port or brandy causing fewer physical problems

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Taverns and Alcohol

People also gathered in taverns and cabarets Social gatherings in neighborhoods Cheap alcoholic beverages led to physical and monetary problems for average people 

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Protestant reformation and bible reading led to more interest in literacy Some states, Germany, Swiss, Scotland, etc., made an effort toward mass education Efforts to teach the lower classes was often thwarted by the upper class because they feared educating the lower classes would lead to rebellion 

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Teaching hard work and loyalty to superiors was seen as paramount John 3:16

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Literacy and Primary Education 

Hannah More, English writer, set up a network of Sunday schools, explains her philosophy 

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Religion and the Churches

“They learn on weekdays such coarse work as may befit them for servants. I allow of no writing for the poor. My object is to train up the lower classes in habits of industry and piety.”

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Life was becoming secularized and men of reason attacked the churches. Yet much of the art and music was religious. Most Europeans were Christian. Accepted by most church critics was that society could not function without faith

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The Institutional Church 

Church-State Relations 

Churches of 18th century upheld society’s hierarchical structure No dramatic internal changes Church, run by priest or pastor, was center of religious practice  Kept records of births, deaths, and marriages  Provided charity for the poor  Supervised primary education  Cared for orphans



 

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Protestant Reformation established state control over the churches Protestant state churches flourished throughout Europe in 18th century  Scandinavia, north German states, England, Scotland, etc.

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Church-State Relations 

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Church-State Relations

Catholic church still exercised much control by 1700. Church had enormous wealth  In Spain, 3000 monastic institutions housing 100,000 men and women controlled enormous land estates  Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Hapsburg empire, Poland, and southern Germany

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Catholic church remained on top of the hierarchy structure Bishops, archbishops, abbots, and abbesses were members of the upper classes  Received revenues from landed estates and faithful tithes  Wide gulf between upper and lower clergy 



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Church-State Relations 

Church-State Relations

States sought to control (nationalize) the Catholic churches



Meant controlling the papacy and Society of Jesus  Jesuits had created special enclaves within states and French, Spanish, and Portuguese colonies 



Jesuits had acquired much success and power Monarchs distrust Jesuits  

Much political influence Created many enemies  Spain and France demanded the Society be dissolved and Pope Clement XIV complied 

Portugal, Spain, France expelled the Jesuits Spain and France asked Pope Clement XIV to dissolve the Jesuits—he reluctantly did



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Church-State Relations 





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 

Louis XIV had suppressed the rights of Huguenots It was seen as true duty of ruler not to allow subjects to be condemned to hell by being heretics  Persecution continued and the last burning of heretics took place 1781  

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Toleration Patent of 1781 Granted Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Orthodox the right to worship privately  In all ways, all subjects were now equal







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Toleration and the Jews

Some progress made toward religious toleration through Joseph II of Austria

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Philosophes had called for religious toleration Many rulers still found toleration difficult to accept

Toleration and Religious Minorities 

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Toleration and Religious Minorities

The termination of the Jesuits paralleled the decline in papal power Mid-eighteenth century, papacy played only minor role in diplomacy and international affairs The papacy could no longer appoint high clerical officials

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Jews were the most despised religious minority of Europe Largest number called Ashkenazic Jews Except for Poland, they were restricted in their movements, forbidden to own land or hold many jobs, forced to pay special taxes, and subject to outbursts of popular wrath

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Toleration of the Jews 

Toleration of the Jews 

Pogroms were actions that saw looting of Jewish communities and the massacre Jews

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Sephardic Jews were another major group Lived in Amsterdam, Venice, London, Frankfurt, etc., relatively free to practice banking and commercial activities, which they had done since the Middle Ages  Provided valuable services to courts 

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Toleration of the Jews 

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Toleration of the Jews

Treatment of Jews…  They were still set apart and socially resented  Many philosophes denounced persecution of Jews  Many Europeans favored assimilation of Jews but only if they converted to Christianity— not acceptable to most Jews

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Austrian emperor Joseph II tried new policy Too limited Freed the Jews from nuisance taxes  Allowed more freedom of movement and jobs  Restricted from owning land  Could not worship in public  Encouraged them to learn German  Encouraged greater assimilation into German society  

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Catholic Piety 

Popular Religion in the Eighteenth Century

European Catholic religiosity difficult to assess Parish was important center for community Hard to establish regular attendance figures  Ninety-plus percent attended Mass on Easter Sunday  

Despite the rise of skepticism and the intellectuals’ belief in deism and natural religion, religious devotion remained strong in the 18th century

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Catholic Piety 

Protestant Revivalism: Pietism

Catholic piety…



Much externalized form of worship, e.g., prayers to saints, pilgrimages, and devotion to relics and images  Parishioners “more superstitious than devout”  Feared witches and prayed to Virgin Mary to save them from personal disasters caused by the devil 



Protestant state-run churches established good patterns and served by well-educated clergy Bureaucratic and bereft of religious enthusiasm 

In Germany and England, where there was more “rational” Christianity, ordinary Protestants wanted a deeper religious experience leading to new religious movements 

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Protestant Revivalism: Pietism 



Begun in 17th century by German clerics  Spread by teachings of Count Nikolaus von Zinzwndorf and his Moravian Brethren (sect)  “Personal experience of God”—true religious experience  Zinzedorf: “He who wishes to comprehend God with his mind becomes an atheist” 

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 



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Experienced deep spiritual, mystical experience “…an assurance was given me, that He had taken away my sins…saved me from the law of sin and death”  “The gift of God’s grace” assured him of salvation  Criticized by Anglican church as emotional mysticism  

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Wesley and Methodism

John Wesley, ordained Anglican minister (17031791)

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Protestant churches offered little excitement in England as well Anglican church offered little excitement Dissenting Protestants—Puritans, Quakers, Baptists, were relatively subdued Deeper spiritual experience gone unmet until John Wesley

Wesley and Methodism 

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Protestant Revivalism: Pietism (cont)

Pietism

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Pietism was one response to rationalism



To Wesley, all could be saved by experiencing God and opening the doors to His grace

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Wesley and Methodism 

Wesley and Methodism

Wesley… 







Spoke to masses in open fields Concentrated on lower classes neglected by elitist Anglicans Charismatic preaching fostered highly-charged conversion experiences John Wesley

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Wesley…  Converts organized into Methodist societies for good works  Became separate religious sect after Wesley’s death despite his preference to keep Methodism within Anglican church  Proved need for spiritualism not expunged by search for reason

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Conclusion 

Influenced by Scientific Revolution and particularly ideas of Locke and Newton  Philosophes hoped they could create new society through natural laws, like laws of science  Believed education could produce better human beings and better society





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Conclusion

The 18th century was about change and, to some degree, tradition

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Attacking traditional religion and creating the “new science of man” in economics, politics, justice, and education, the philosophes laid the foundation for a modern worldview based on rationalism and secularism Despite secular thought, most people still lived in God, religious worship, and farming.

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Conclusion 



The most brilliant architecture and music of the age were religious Yet, secular changes were underway and would lead to both political and social upheavals before century’s end

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