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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PICTURES AS AUTHENTIC MATERIAL TO IMPROVE STUDENTS’ WRITING IN DESCRIPTIVE TEXT (A Case Study of 8th Grade of MTs Plus Raden Paku Trenggalek 2010/2011) A THESIS Submitted as partial fulfilment of requirements for the Sarjana degree of English Department Faculty of Humanities Airlangga University Surabaya
By: SITI SUNDARI St. N: 120710030
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AIRLANGGA UNIVERSITY 2011
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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PICTURES AS AUTHENTIC MATERIAL TO IMPROVE STUDENTS’ WRITING IN DESCRIPTIVE TEXT (A Case Study of 8th Grade of MTs Plus Raden Paku Trenggalek 2010/2011)
A THESIS
Submitted as partial fulfilment of requirements for the Sarjana degree of English Department Faculty of Humanities Airlangga University Surabaya
By: SITI SUNDARI St. N: 120710030
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AIRLANGGA UNIVERSITY 2011
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DECLARATION PAGE
This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university and to be the best of this candidate‟s knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by other person except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis.
Surabaya, 13th of January 2011 Siti Sundari
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To: Allah SWT and Muhammad PBUH My beloved mom and dad You are the most important thing in my life
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APPROVED TO BE EXAMINED Surabaya, 13th of January 2011
Thesis Advisor
Noerhayati Ika Putri, S.S, M.A NIP 19780716200501200
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ACCEPTED AND APPROVED BY THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS OF THE ENGLISH DEPARTMENT, FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AIRLANGGA UNIVERSITY ON 25th OF JANUARY 2011 THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS ARE:
1.
Drs. Jurianto, M.Ed. NIP 196505191991031003 2.
Noerhayati Ika Putri, S.S, M.A NIP 19780716200501200 3.
Retno Wulandari Setyaningsih, M.ITS NIP 197103272007012001
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillah, all praises are yours o Allah SWT, the only one who is always around me when I am down because of obstacles, barriers, and confusion in writing this thesis. To you I rely on everything, and without you I am lost. And also “the chosen one”, prophet Muhammad PBUH. For all of your loves, and I will strive to see your smile and be your people on that day. To my beloved father and mother, thank you for all supports and the everlasting prayers for your only daughter. You do everything for me and I will do anything to make you happy because I am your only hope. You are the reason why I should be strong and stronger every time. To all people in the faculty of humanities, especially my thesis advisor, Noerhayati Ika Putri, S.S, M.A, thank you for all your guidance, patience, support, and times that you gave me from the beginning of thesis writing. Thanks to Drs, Jurianto, M.Ed, for all of your suggestions and incredible attention to every detail. Thanks to Mr. Hariawan Aji, S.S, S.T, for your valuable suggestions. It is a very valuable to discuss my thesis with you, especially in statistical data. Also, I thank to Mrs. Retno Wulandari, M.ITS, for guiding me to the true interpretation of the data. And I thank to all lecturers of English Department of Faculty of Humanities Airlangga University, for your knowledge transfers, from you I learnt many things that I could imagine before. To Abah Syafi‟i, M.Hi and Abah Imam Daroni, M.M, and all teachers and academic staffs of PPM Raden Paku Trenggalek, thank you for all your provisions, advices, and prayers. I will never be this far without you. To the Headmaster of MTs. Plus Raden Paku Trenggalek, thank you for allowing me to conduct the research in your school and showing me the best you can do to help
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my research. To Mrs. Yuli Astuti, S.Pd, thank you for helping me conduct all processes of my research, and vacating your time to rate students‟ writing. To all students of VIIIb MTs. Plus Raden Paku for helping as my objects of research and allowing me to evaluate your writing. Good luck in your study. I deliver my deep gratitude for my „second parent‟, Mr. Khoironi, Mr. Ruchman Bashori, Mrs. Ria, Mr. Imam, Mrs.Tutik, and all of the staffs of Ministry of Religious Affairs Indonesia, for giving me a chance to study in the university, for all of living costs, and advices. May Allah returns all that you give to me and all my friends in a better way. To all my beloved “family” in KaSSanDe ‟07 Unair, I am so lucky to know you guys. With you I share every tear and joy. You‟re all unique and I am so proud to have you. Especially, the “Schnappers”, Ain and Obit, both of you drive me crazy. To all my sisters in “Weesma Rayhan”, bunda Lina,, I owe many things Bund, thank you for every suggestion and help, I won‟t be able to operate SPSS and interpret the statistical test without you, ma‟e cute Siti Maleha, Tante Mile, budhe Yanti, , and mb‟ Nobee, you‟re the beautiful gift of Allah for me. I will save all of memories I have with you in my heart. I will miss every gossip that we used to talk about, every tear that we share when we are watching stupid movie together. And of course for my beloved “CUHA”, I love you. To all of my sisters and brothers in CSS MoRa Unair, thank you for your support. And all of my friends in English Department 2007, Fahmi, thank you for becoming my proof-reader, Ema, Savira, Lisa, Tj, Ruri, Anita, Rimba, Rita, keep fighting! Finally, I thank you all. For anyone who I unintentionally missed, I hope you can forgive me. The writer
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INNER COVER PAGE …………………………………………………
i
INNER TITLE PAGE .................................................................................
ii
DECLARATION PAGE ………………………………………………….
iii
PAGE OF DEDICATION ……................................................................
iv
BOARD OF APPROVAL ........................................................................
v
BOARD OF THESIS EXAMINERS …....................................................
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .......................................................................
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ……………………………………………….
ix
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ……….…………………………..
xii
ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………
xiii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study ..............................................................
1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................
5
1.3 Objective of the Study .................................................................
5
1.4 Significance of the Study .............................................................
5
1.5 Scope of Limitation ......................................................................
6
1.6 Definition of Key Terms …………………………………………
7
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Theoretical Framework .............................................................
8
2.1.1 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) ..............................
8
2.1.2 Authentic Material .....................................................................
10
2.1.3 Authentic Material vs. Non-Authentic Material ........................
10
2.1.3.1 Authentic Materials ..................................................................
11
2.1.3.2 Non-Authentic Materials .........................................................
11
2.1.4 The advantages and disadvantages of authentic materials ……..
11
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2.1.4.1 Advantages .............................................................................
11
2.1.4.2 Disadvantages .........................................................................
12
2.1.5 Picture .......................................................................................
13
2.15.1 Roles of Picture in Writing ……………………...……………
14
2.1.5.2 Picture as an authentic material, bringing outside the world into the classroom ……………………………………………………
14
2.1.6 Descriptive Text ………………………………………………..
15
2.2 Related Theories ……………………………………………........
16
2.2.1 Hayes‟ Model of Writing ………………………………………
16
2.2.2 Types of Rating Scales in Writing ……………………………..
17
2.3 Related Studies …………………………………………………...
17
CHAPTER III METHOD OF THE STUDY 3.1 Research Approach ..................................................................................
19
3.2 Research Variable ....................................................................................
20
3.3.Population/Corpus and Sample................................................................
21
3.4 Technique of Data Collection ................................................................
21
3.4.1 Participants............................................................................................
21
3.4 Procedures................................................................................................
22
3.5 Technique of Data Analysis.....................................................................
23
3.6 Coding and Scoring .................................................................................
25
3.6.1 Scoring for Writing Assessment ……………………………………...
25
CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS 4.1 Presentation of the data............................................................................
28
4.1.1 Scoring Procedure for Pre-test ………………………………………...
30
4.1.1.1 Pre-scoring …………………………………………………………..
29
4.1.1.2 Applying Jacobs et al for Pre-test …………………………………..
32
4.1.2 Scoring procedure for Post-test ……………………………………….
36
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4.1.2.1 Pre-scoring …………………………………………………………..
36
4.1.2.2 Applying Jacobs et al for Post-test ………………………………….
37
4.2 Analysis of the data..................................................................................
40
4.3 Interpretation of finding...........................................................................
42
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION 5.1 Conclusion ...............................................................................................
51
5.2 Suggestion................................................................................................
52
BIBLIOGRAPHY..........................................................................................
54
APPENDICES ………………………………………………………………
57
Appendix 1 List of Participants …….……………………………………….
57
Appendix 2 Post-test Work Sheet …………………….…………….………
58
Appendix 3 Jacobs‟ et al ESL Composition Profile ………………………...
62
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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 1 One-group Pre-test and Post-test Design ….………………………
19
Table 1 Pre-test Score …….................................................................
33
Table 2 Post-test Score …………………………………..………………….
39
Table 3 Paired Samples Statistics …...........................................................
40
Table 4 Paired Samples Correlations ………………………………….……
40
Table 5 Paired Samples Test ………………………………………………..
41
Table 6 Score Criteria in Pre-test based on Jacobs et al ESL Composition Profile ……………...…………………………………………...…….. Table 7 Score Criteria in Post-test based on Jacobs et al ESL Composition Profile ……………...…………………………………………...……..
43
44
Table 8 Score Increase in each Feature…………...………...………...……..
44
Table 7 Participants …………………………………………………………
57
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Siti Sundari. 2011. The Effectiveness of Pictures as Authentic Material to Improve Students‟ Writing in Descriptive Text (A Case Study of 8th Grade of MTs Plus Raden Paku Trenggalek 2010/2011) Submitted as partial fulfilment of requirements for the Sarjana degree of English Department Faculty of Humanities Airlangga University Surabaya
Abstract
This study examines the effectiveness of pictures as authentic materials to improve students‟ writing in descriptive text. The participants were twenty two students (12 boys, 10 girls) of eight grade in MTs. Plus Raden Paku. The research was designed in the one-group pre-test and post-test. Using Jacobs et al‟s ESL Composition Profile, the writing was scored analytically. The data then were analyzed using SPSS 16.0. Based on the statistical analysis, it can be seen that the mean of the post-test score was higher than the mean score of the pre-test. In order to know whether the difference between the two means was significant or not, ttest in small dependent sample was applied. The critical value for two tailed tests for 21 degrees of freedom at 0.05 level of significance is 0.4227. Since the obtained t-value (-5.443) was lower than the critical value at 0.05 alpha level of significance (1.721), the writer concludes that the test was statistically significant. As the mean of the post test was statistically higher than that of the pre test, the writer concludes that the writing score achieved by the eight graders of MTs. Plus Raden Paku improved after they were taught using pictures as authentic material. Based on the analytic scoring using Jacobs et al, pictures were effective to improve the content and organization, but less effective to improve vocabulary, language use and mechanics. Even though pictures could not improve all of aspects of writing at the same time, but overall the students‟ writing, pictures could improve students‟ writing in descriptive texts.
Keywords:
picture,
authentic
material,
writing,
descriptive
text.
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
1.
Background of the Study Teaching English as a Foreign Language in Indonesia, is not as easy as it
seems. This is because English is treated as a foreign language which is very different from local languages (Javanese, Madurese, etc.) and the national language, Bahasa Indonesia. Although English is learned as a foreign language in Indonesia, it has a very important place among other foreign languages such as Arabic, Chinese, German, France, etc. Even, English is included as a part of compulsory subjects that are required in national examination test. English teachers must help the students to be competent in four basic skills of language learning, reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Taken from The Regulation of Ministry of Education no. 75 year 2009, concerning the basic requirement of English for Junior High School Students of Indonesia, writing becomes the second requirement for the students to pass this subject. It is stated there that one of the requirement is that students are able in “…expressing written functional text and simple essay in descriptive form (descriptive and report) and narrative (narrative and recount) in the context of daily life…”. Nowadays, writing is not only part of language production. The ability to write is becoming increasingly important in this global community where advances in transportation and technology allow people from nations and cultures throughout the world to interact with each other. Writing has also become more
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essential as principles of communicative language teaching – teaching language as a system of communication rather than as an object of study – hold both secondand foreign-language (Weigle, 2002). The fact that English is a foreign language which has different structures, vocabularies, and other language use conventions which are extremely different from Indonesian native language could be a serious problem for the teachers in teaching writing. Weigle (2002) stated that learning to write involves learning a specialized version of a language already known to students. Writing in a language that is closely related to students‟ native language in terms of grammar, vocabulary, and writing system is easier than writing in a language that is vastly different. In order to overcome the problems of English language teaching in the class, the teachers should find the appropriate method. Harmer (2002) stated that method is practical realisation of language approach including the decision about the types of activities, roles of teachers and learners, the kind of material will be helpful and some model of syllabus organisation, also the various procedures and techniques (p. 78). What the writer underlines in Harmer‟s definition about method here is that Harmer includes material as part of method in teaching. In other words, Harmer stated that material choice also contributes to the result of learning process. The question may emerge here is what kind of materials will be successfully used for writing? Recently, many issues related to the method of teaching and materials that are used for teaching have been developing time by time. The use of authentic material is one of them. Kilickaya (2004) defines authentic material as
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introduction to real language and its use in its own community. Harmer (2002) defines authentic texts as materials which are designed for native speakers; they are real text; designed not for language students, but for the speakers of the language. The form of authentic material examples are abound, but the most commonly used perhaps are: newspapers, TV programs, menus, magazines, the internet, movies, songs, brochures, comics, literature (novels, poems and short stories), and so forth (Martinez, 2002). The other form of authentic material proposed by Wright (1990) is picture. He stated that picture is the other form of world representation that could be carried into the classroom. The emergence of authentic material was closely related to one of language teaching approach introduced in late 1980s and 1990s, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). This was the time when the language teaching approach began to highlight the communicative properties of language, classrooms were characterized by authenticity, real-world simulation, and meaningful tasks (Brown, 2000, p.42). Authentic material as part of CLT is applicable in nowadays language teaching. This is also closely related to the basic function of language itself, communication. Students need to be carried closer into the real world. Because in their daily lives, students will rarely talk about what is stated in the textbooks. When they communicate to each other, they have to go back to the real-world, the implementation of the real world carried into the classroom might be very helpful. The issues about authentic materials for English language teaching in Indonesia have been developing lately. Recently, some experts have acquainted
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authentic materials for language teaching through seminars and some of them are doing experimental research to enhance English language skills (reading, speaking, listening, and writing) in the schools. For instance, Syaifudin (2008) proposed the potential use of authentic materials in language teaching through the Enlivening Language Teaching Classroom, a seminar organized by Tarbiyah Faculty, IAIN Surabaya. The other experimental research about authentic material will be discussed further in chapter two. This phenomenon motivated the writer to design a similar study in the use of authentic material for writing descriptive text. Descriptive text is a text which is aimed to give information (Sudarwati and Grace, 2007). The writer considers this important because descriptive text is also one of requirements that must be taught to the Junior High School students. On the other hand, descriptive genre is more applicable in students‟ daily life both oral and written form. Furthermore, the use of authentic materials for writing is rarely discussed. Recent studies about TEFL in Indonesia, especially teaching writing, usually use ordinary schools. This study is different because it is conducted in a special school, a school under the pesantren management. The focus of this study is to examine the effectiveness of pictures as authentic materials to teach writing. The effectiveness is measured by comparing the means score of pre-test and pot-test score.
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2.
Statement of the Problem The problem that may arise is: How effective is the use of pictures as authentic material in improving the
students‟ writing in the eighth grade of MTs Plus Raden Paku Trenggalek East Java? Hypotheses H0: The mean of students‟ writing score before and after the use of picture as an authentic material is the same H1: The mean of students‟ writing score before and after the use of picture as an authentic material is not the same 3.
Objective of the study The objective of this study is to examine whether the use of picture as an
authentic material effective for improving the writing result of students of eighth grade of MTs Plus Raden Paku Trenggalek East Java .
4.
Significance of the study The study is expected to contribute in some ways: a) Theoretically, the result of the study is hoped to enrich the theory of authentic material for TEFL in high schools especially Junior High Schools in Indonesia. b) Practically, it is expected to be benefit for the teacher of English language in MTs Plus Raden Paku or the other schools under the management of pesantren in exploring new method of teaching for their students.
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c) Developmentally, it is expected to be a stimulus for further study in the use of authentic materials to improve writing skills in other genre (narrative, recount, report, etc.) as well as improving other language skills, reading, listening, and speaking.
5.
Scope and Limitation This study focuses on text written in descriptive genre. This genre is
selected because descriptive genre is extremely applicable for students‟ daily live. Every day people deal with description whether the simple description for instance about people‟s appearance, location, street, etc. or more complicated one for example about certain tourism object, ect. The focus of this study is the use of picture as authentic material for writing descriptive text. The pictures that are used are any pictures, photographs, sketch and map. The use of different pictures is applied in describing different purpose. Photographs is used for an aid in describing people‟s appearance or animal because students can get more specific details in the photograph and explain it in their writings. On the other hand, maps are used when the students are asked to describe the place and location. This study does not analyze other form of authentic material such as magazine articles, novel, comics, and so forth. The other language skills such as reading, writing, and listening are also not examined. The result taken from this analysis may not be generalization for the whole written text in different genre since the purposes and structures of every genre of text are different. Hyland pointed out that what make texts different or similar to
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the other are the sociocultural purposes they are intended to serve and the way they are structured to achieve these (2002, p.61). For instance, procedural texts which aim to show how to make something is different with descriptive texts which are written to present what something is like. And, since the quality of school is different from one another, the similar study which is conducted in a different school will result differently. 6.
Definition of Key Terms
Authentic material
: texts as materials which are designed for native speakers; they are real text; designed not for language students, but for the speakers of the language (Harmer, 2002)
CLT
: language teaching approach that highlights the communicative properties of language, classrooms were characterized by authenticity, real-world simulation, and meaningful tasks (Brown, 2000, p.42)
Descriptive text
: a text which is aimed to give information (Sudarwati and Grace, 2007)
MTs Plus Raden Paku: is a public school under the management of an Islamic foundation and pesantren, Raden Paku, located in Jl. Ki Mangun Sarkoro 17b Trenggalek Picture
: a description of something that enables one to form a mental picture or impression of it (Oxford, 2005)
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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Theoretical Framework 2.1.1 Communicative Language Teaching Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) was introduced in late 1980s and 1990s. This was the time when the language teaching approach began to highlight
the
communicative properties of
language, classrooms were
characterized by authenticity, real-world simulation, and meaningful tasks. The method is exploring the means of education for “real-life” communication on the classroom. Many examples of activities that mark CLT practices such as trying to develop both fluency and accuracy, even fluency sometimes more important, equipping students with tools for generated unrehearsed language performance out of the classrooms, concerned how to facilitate lifelong language learning among students (Brown, 2007). The goal of CLT is enable students to communicate in the target language. To do this students have to understand about linguistics forms, meanings, and functions. They need to know that many different forms can be used to perform a function and also that a single form can often serve a variety of functions (LarsenFreeman, 2000). According to Brown (2000) the characteristics of CLT are: 1. Classroom goals are focused on all of the components (grammatical, discourse, functional, sociolinguistic, and strategic of communicative
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competence) not only focus on a certain competence such as speaking or grammar. 2. Language techniques are designed to prosecute learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes. 3. Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques. Sometimes, fluency even more important that accuracy to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use. 4. Students in a communicative class ultimately have to use the language, productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts outside the classroom. Therefore, classroom must equip students with the skills necessary for communication. 5. Students are given opportunities to focus on their own learning process through an understanding of their own style of learning and through the development of appropriate strategies for autonomous learning. 6. The role of the teacher is both as facilitator and guide, not an all-knowing of knowledge. Students are therefore encouraged to construct meaning through interaction with others. 7. Chamber (1997) cited in Brown (2000) stated that CLT implied a great deal of use authentic language because it attempt to build fluency. CLT may be difficult for a non-native speaking teacher who is not very proficient in the second language. But technologies can help such teachers. As educational and political institutions in various countries become more aware to
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the importance of teaching foreign languages for communication purposes, the communicative language teaching would be very helpful to accomplish the goal.
2.1.2 Authentic material Kilickaya (2004) defines authentic material as introduction to real language and its use in its own community. Harmer (2002) defines authentic texts as materials which are designed for native speakers; they are real text; designed not for language students, but for the speakers of the language. From those definitions, what can be underlined about authentic materials are not designed for language teaching but designed for native speakers, and bringing the real language outside into the classroom. The form of authentic materials examples are abound, but the most commonly used perhaps are: newspapers, TV programs, menus, magazines, the internet, movies, songs, brochures, comics, literature (novels, poems and short stories), and so forth (Martinez, 2002).
2.1.3 Authentic material vs. Non-Authentic material The discussion about authentic material will always lead the reader to the opposition of authentic material, non-authentic material. What is the difference between the authentic and non-authentic material? As stated in by Adam (1995) cited in Al-Musallam (2009), what differentiate authentic and non-authentic materials are as follows:
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2.1.3.1 Authentic materials a) Language data produced for real life communication purposes. b) They are useful for improving the communicative aspects of the language 2.1.3.2 Non-Authentic Materials a) They are specially designed for learning purposes. b) The language used in them is artificial. They contain well formed sentences all the time. c) They are useful for teaching grammar.
2.1.4
The advantages and disadvantages of authentic materials Every single thing in this world contains binary opposition, for example
“good” or “bad”, “appropriate” or “inappropriate”, etc.. Authentic materials also have advantages and disadvantages. According to Martinez (2002), the advantages and disadvantages are as follows: 2.1.4.1 Advantages Using authentic material in the classroom, even when not done in an authentic situation, and provided it is appropriately exploited, is significant for many reasons, amongst which are: a) Sanderson (1999, cited in Kilickaya, 2004) noted that authentic materials keep students informed about what is happening in the world, so they have an intrinsic educational value. b) Textbooks often do not include incidental or improper English.
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c) The same piece of material can be used under different circumstances if the task is different. d) Books, articles, newspapers, and so on contain a wide variety of text types, language styles not easily found in conventional teaching materials. e) Authentic materials is significant since it increases students' motivation for learning, makes the learner be exposed to the 'real' language as discussed by Guariento & Morley (2001, p. 347 as cited in Kilickaya, 2004)
2.1.4.2 Disadvantages The disadvantages mentioned in Kilickaya (2004) are: a) They may be too culturally biased, so unnecessarily difficult to understand outside the language community. b) The vocabulary might not be relevant to the student's immediate needs. c) Too many structures are mixed so lower levels have a hard time decoding the texts. d) Special preparation is necessary which can be time consuming. e) If it is applied in listening, the students will deal with too many different accents. f) The material can become outdated easily, e.g. news. The use of picture as an authentic material in this study is another way to reduce the disadvantages of authentic materials themselves. The choice of pictures for example choosing the simpler pictures (not ambiguous and too many object to perceive) enable students to focus on certain part of picture itself. This will be at
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least avoids point (a-c) to happen. Furthermore, pictures perhaps will not deal with point (f) because picture is longer lasting than the other form of authentic materials.
2.1.5
Picture According Oxford Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2005), picture is a
description of something that enables one to form a mental picture or impression of it. The other definition about picture is what stated by. Picture is not just an aspect of methods, they are an essential part of the overall experiences through its representation of places, objects, and people (Wright, 1990). Wright also added that picture can represent non-verbal sources of information as communicative methodology emphasizes the need for making use of non-verbal as well as verbal means. There are many types of picture. For example: checkchart for pictures, pictures of single object, picture of people (single person, famous, several people, or people in action), pictures from history, pictures with a lot of information, pictures of news, pictures of fantasy, pictures of maps dan symbols, pairs of pictures, sequences of pictures, related pictures, single stimulating pictures, ambiguous pictures, bizarre pictures, explanatory pictures, and so forth (ibid, pp. 193-203). While according to Harmer (2002, p.134) picture can be in these forms: a) Flashcard or smallish cards which we can hold up for our students to see b) Large wall picture or big enough picture that everyone can see the details c) Cue cards or small cards which students use in pair or group-work
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d) Photograph, and e) Illustration which are typically in a textbook.
2.1.5.1 Roles of picture in writing Pictures are beneficial in some ways. Wright (1990) has described the role of pictures particularly in writing as follows: a. Pictures motivate the students and make them to pay attention and stimulate their participation b. Pictures contribute to the context in which the language is being used. They bring world into the classroom c. The pictures can be described in objective way or interpreted, or responded to subjectively. d. Pictures enable cue responses to questions or cue substitutions through controlled practices e. Picture can stimulate and provide information to be referred to
2.1.5.2 Picture as an authentic material, bringing outside the world into the classroom Scrivener's (1996) cited in Pegrum (2000) introduced a scheme in English language teaching which is known as CRA pattern, C (Clarification) -- R (Restricted Practice) – A (Authentic). Scrivener defined authentic as resources outside the classroom. According to him, authentic materials principally introduce the students and enable them to connect the real world with their learning process.
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Wright (1990) pointed that outside the world must be stimulated. If the students are able to understand the representation and reference of the world outside, it is hoped that they will learn „new‟ language based on the context the reference refers to. And the representation of the world outside the classroom could be seen in a picture. Wallerstein (1983) proposed that teaching with pictures provides endless possibilities of language learning, one of them is for writing exercises. Pictures could be described (conventional way) and added by certain opinions and feelings by the students. Picture might be a perfect representation of authentic materials for language teaching. Furthermore, Brown et-al (1977, pp.179-180) added that pictures provide the feeling that they make contacts with the real world.
2.1.6 Descriptive text Descriptive text is a text which is aimed to give information. The social context of this text is to describe a specific thing, animal, or human being ( particular thing, our pets or someone we know well). The generic structure of descriptive text is:
Identification; identifying the phenomenon to be described; and
Description; describing the phenomenon in parts, qualities, or/and characteristics.
In a descriptive text, the writer is considered as the authority and the readers are considered as the unknown readers or listeners. The medium of a written descriptive text can be an encyclopedia, scientific magazines, text books, and history texts (Sudarwati and Grace, 2007).
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Describing someone or something, we have to give the reader the vivid picture in words. The vividness could be presented by such activities: observing and recording specific details that appeal the readers‟ senses (sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch). These sensory languages may also be applied by inserting certain feeling to the text. Moreover, a descriptive text needs a sharp colourful detail (Langan, 2001).
2.2 Related Theories 2.2.1 Hayes‟ model of writing Hayes (1996) cited in Weigle (2002) sees writing as two main parts, the task environment and the individual.
The environment is divided into two
categories, social environment such as audiences (real or imagined) and collaborators in writing process, and physical environment which includes the text written, which influences and shapes the writers‟ further efforts. Hayes focuses more in the individual rather than the task environment. In the individual aspects, he states, there are four components that interact one to another in writing process: working memory, motivation and affect, cognitive processes, and long term memory. Hayes conceptualizes working memory into three components: phonological memory, which stores auditory or verbal information, the visual-spatial sketchpad, which stores visually or spatially coded information, and a semantic memory, which stores conceptual information. Hayes‟ model recognizes that motivation and affect play the important roles in writing. Particularly, a writer‟s goals, predispositions, beliefs and
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attitudes, and cost/benefit estimates may influence the way the writer goes about the task of writing and the effort that will be put into the writing task (ibid). The cognitive processes include text interpretation, reflection, and text production. The last is long-term memory that includes task schemas, topic knowledge, audience knowledge, genre knowledge, and linguistic knowledge (ibid, p.28).
2.2.2 Types of rating scales in writing There are three types of rating scales in writing: primary trait scoring, “the rating scale is defined with respect to the specific writing assignment and essays are judged according to degree of success with which the writer has carried out the assignment” (Weigle, 2002, p.110), holistic scoring, the scripts assigned based on the whole impression of the script (ibid, p.112), and analytic scoring, the scripts are rated based on several aspects or criteria such as vocabulary, grammar, mechanics, etc. (ibid, p. 114). The commonest used analytic scoring is Jacobs et al ESL Composition Profile.
2.3 Related Studies The studies about the use of authentic material for language teaching are abound. Sari (2007) did a study about the effectiveness of authentic materials in teaching procedural text, particularly in students‟ speaking ability. Her participants were the third grade students of Junior High School. The result of this study indicated that the means of post-test score in experimental group was significantly higher than that for the control group. In other words, the use of
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authentic material was effective in teaching procedural text to improve students‟ speaking. Al-Musallam (2009) conducted a study entitled “College Instructors’ and Learners’ Attitudes to Authentic EFL Reading Materials in Saudi Arabia”. The analysis of the results indicated that EFL Saudi college learners and teachers had positive attitudes toward the use of authentic materials in their reading classes. In fact, they indicated that an ideal reading class should use a combination of both authentic texts and textbooks Stearns and Reid (2004) applied the authentic material in their institution, Adult Basic Education, particularly in writing because through authentic materials the participants could write better both outside and inside classroom issues. The other study about the use of authentic material to develop functional proficiency in writing was done by Liontas in 1989. He stressed that in a series of sample classroom activities, ways in which realia from the target culture can be adapted to the learner's immediate environment and everyday tasks should be illustrated. The examples of the study were given in German.
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CHAPTER III METHOD OF THE STUDY
3.1 Research Approach The study was conducted in a quantitative method. Sugiyono (2008) pointed out that this method is also called positivistic method because the development of this method is based on positivism. It is characterized as concrete/empiric, objective, countable, rational, and systematic. This method is called as quantitative method because the research data contain the numerical data and is analyzed using statistical test. The research is designed in a one-group pre-test and post-test. In onegroup pre-test and post-test design (see Figure 1), pre-test and post-test are given to the participant in a single group so that the result of treatment could be more accurate and be used to compare before and after the treatments (Arikunto, 1989, p.77). The design is described as follows: O1 X O2
O1= pre-test (before treatment) X= treatments O2= post-test (after treatment)
Figure 1. One-group pre-test and post-test design The design is further developed as follows: Sample
O1
X
Sample
O2
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Particular sample was tested in the pre-test, the students were asked to write descriptive paragraph without using picture, and treated using new method, asking the students to write descriptive texts by using pictures. After several treatments, the sample was then tested in the post-test to examine the effectiveness of the new method. The single-group design enables the researcher to examine the effectiveness of certain method applied in a single group of participants. This is because in a single-group design both control and experimental samples are in a single group and it enables the researcher to examine the participants from the beginning of research because the participants are the same. 3.2 Research Variable According to Kerlinger (1973) cited in Sugiyono (2008), variables constructs or characteristics that are going to be examined or learned. The variable is obtained from different values of something or someone. There are two variables, independent variable and dependent variable. Independent variable is, also called stimulus variable, variable that influences or causes the dependent variable. Dependent variable on the other hand, is variable that is being influenced or changed by independent variable. This study has two variables: picture as an authentic material (independent variable) and writing score (dependent variable).
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3.3 Population/Corpus & Sample Population is generalization area consisting objects/subjects with certain quality and characteristics determined by the researcher. Sample is part of quantity and characteristics of the population (Sugiyono, 2008). The population of this study is the eighth grade of MTs Plus Raden Paku Trenggalek (consists of two classes, VIII A and VIII B), and the sample is the students VIII B MTs Plus raden Paku Trenggalek.
3.4 Technique of Data Collection 3.4.1 Participants The participants were twenty two students of eighth grade of MTs Plus Raden Paku Trenggalek, particularly VIII B (12 boys, 10 girls). This study is using t-test with small sample which is the amount of participants are only between 20-30 persons. Moreover, the amount of participant is more than half of the total students in the classroom, thirty one students. Based on statistics convention, when the amount of participants is more than half of total sample in the classroom, the data is still reliable (Bachman, 2004). Most of students are originally from Trenggalek regency. All of the students are living in a school dormitory since the school is under an Islamic foundation, pesantren. Participants were selected because of several reasons. First, the participants, not being 100% homogenous, share the same regularities, hav the same teacher, and are not allowed to have additional English course but the dormitory programs. Second,
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the writer is one of the alumni of that pesantren that enables her to collect the data easier than the other school with new negotiation. The teacher involved in this study was an English teacher that takes the responsibilities for VIII B who has been teaching in this school for about six years. In this study, all of procedures were done by the teacher based on the researcher‟s instruction. The control was done by phone and regular meeting between the teacher and the researcher, once a week for a month. 3.4.2 Procedures Since the study was conducted in a particular school, MTs Plus Raden Paku Trenggalek and took place in a formal class, the writer cooperated with the teacher to conduct this study so that the students considered the research is important and the writer could obtain natural data. The first step was giving the pre-test to the students. The students‟ writings were scored as the first tabulation of data. The next step was giving treatments to the students. The treatments were given three times and were handled by the English teacher for three weeks. The treatments were divided into three parts. In the first part, students were given a map and were asked to write paragraph about how to go to certain place according to the picture presented to them. Second treatment was done by giving a house sketch and students were asked to describe the picture vividly. The last treatment was done by giving a photograph of a famous people (actress and actor). Students were given the vocabularies concerning the topic such as vocabularies that are used for describing people appearance (round face, black hair, white skin, blond 22 Skripsi
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hair, etc.), the vocabularies for describing location such as (turn right, turn left, go straight, etc), and also the vocabularies about part of the house (such as mat, vase, kitchen, porch, etc.). All of these vocabularies were given before the students start to write. After giving the treatments, the sample was be given a post-test. The scoring was based on Jacobs‟ et al ESL Composition Profile which will be explained in next section. Briefly, the data were collected based on these sequences: 1. Giving the pre-test to the sample 2. Scoring the students writing 3. Tabulating the first data obtained from students mark 4. Giving the treatment 5. Giving the post-test 6. Scoring the pos-test
3.5 Technique of Data Analysis This study was conducted as a deductive research, starting from hypothesis that the use of picture does influence the students‟ writing result and theories concerning the topics followed by evidence to support or to refute the hypothesis or theories (Nunan, 2001). The analysis started from the tabulation of data in a form of students‟ mark. The data (writing marks) then were compared to guide the researcher for further analysis for supporting or refuting the hypothesis that has already made.
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The statistical test was also conducted to examine the data and to guarantee the validity of the result. In short the analysis of the data was based on these sequences: 1. Collecting the score of the students writing either pre-test or post-test. 2. Analyzing the data through statistical test, t-Test, using SPSS 16.0 to support or reject the hypothesis. T-test is a statistical test to compare the main value of the dependent variable in two different groups, each with different level of the independent variable (Reaves, 1992: 327). This study particularly used t-test for dependent samples as this study attempts to examine the effectiveness of certain instrument applied in the same group. When we have dependent samples as in single group design, we need to calculate the t-ratio differently to take the correlation between two sets of scores into consideration. The equation is: 𝑋1 − 𝑋2
𝑡= 𝑠𝑥 1
2 +𝑠
𝑥2
2 − 2𝑟 𝑠 𝑠 12 𝑥 1 𝑥 2
where: X1 and X2 are the means of the two groups of scores; sx 1 and sx 2 are the squares of the standard errors of the two means; and r12 is the coefficient of correlation between the two groups scores (Bachman, 2004, p.240).
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3.6 Coding and scoring 3.6.1 Scoring for Writing Assessment According to Brown (2004), there are three major approaches to scoring writing performance: holistic, primary trait, and analytical. Holistic scoring can be defined as assigning of a single score to a script based on overall impression of the script. Primary trait scoring focuses on “how well students can write within a narrowly defined range of discourse” (Weigle, 2002). The last scoring approach which also applied in this study is analytic scoring. In analytic scoring the scripts could be rated on these features: content, organization, cohesion, register, vocabulary, grammar, or mechanics, depending on the purpose of the assessment. Unlike the holistic scoring that score the writing or script based on the whole impression of scripts, analytic scoring is more beneficial. The analytic scoring is chosen because this scoring provides more detailed information about a test taker‟s performance in different aspects of writing. The other advantages of analytic scoring are: first, it is more useful in rater training, it enables inexperienced raters to be more easily understand and apply criteria in separate scales; second, it is useful for second language learner that usually pay more attention to the development of each feature in writing; finally, the analytic scoring is more reliable (ibid, p. 120). Moreover, Brown (2000) stated that classroom evaluation of learning is best served through analytic scoring to evaluate the weaknesses and understanding the strengths. This study partly used one of analytical scoring proposed by Jacobs et al because his analytic scales is best known and has widely been used among the
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other analytic scales. Jacobs et al rated the scripts based on five aspects of writing: content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanics. Furthermore, Jacobs et al differentiated the weight of five aspects: content is weighted 30 points, language use is weighted 25 points, both organization and vocabulary are weighted 20 points, and mechanics is weighted 5 points. These are the criteria: 1. Content The criteria are: knowledgeable, substantive, thorough development of thesis, and relevant to assigned topic. The rate starts from 13-30. 2. Organization The criteria are: fluent expression, ideas clearly stated/supported, succinct, well-organized, logical sequencing, cohesive. The rate starts from 7-20. 3. Vocabulary: The criteria are: sophisticated range, effective word/idiom choice and usage, word form mastery, appropriate register. The rate starts from 720. 4. Language use The criteria are: effective complex construction, few errors of agreement, tense, number, word order/function, articles, pronouns, prepositions. The rate starts from 5-25. 5. Mechanics
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The criteria are: demonstrate mastery conventions, few errors of spelling, punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing. The rate starts from 2-5
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CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS
The analysis contains the presentation of the data including writing scoring procedures using Jacobs et al„s ESL Composition, analysis of the data using SPSS 16.0, interpretation of the finding based on statistical test and factors found in students‟ writing. 4.1 Presentation of the data The data were obtained from the result of students‟ writing, pre-test and post-test. In pre-test, students were asked to write three simple paragraphs in descriptive genre containing the description of location, description of place, and the description of people. Students wrote based on certain instruction of the teacher. For example, in describing about location, students were only allowed to write about the description of how to get to their schools. On the other hand, they are allowed to write the description of place and people. But still, students were not equipped by pictures in their writing. Students‟ writing were scored based on Jacobs et al„s ESL Composition Profile. In Jacobs‟ scale, scripts are rated on five aspects: content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanics.
Jacobs et al also determined the
profound criteria of each scale. Every scale is defined into four categories, excellent to very good, good to average, fair to poor, and very poor. Although this scale seems to be complicated, it is very helpful for both the rater and students. Jacobs et al‟s scale enables raters to be more objective and thorough in scoring the
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scripts because every aspect is examined. The students could know in what aspect they have to learn and enhance. The more complete explanation about Jacobs‟ et al composition profile will be attached in appendix. Applying Jacobs et al’s ESL Composition Profile, the writer also scored students‟ writing analytically. This the example, Pre-test: Text 1: Asking the direction From my house
we must go straight
. after that turn right , there is
Bank. go straight ! after that Turn left and than go straight . after that Turn right next go straight. after that turn right go straight, there is Tjunction Turn left There is in intersection we must go straight , there is police station and park , Turn right and go straight and we reach my school. Text 2: Islamic Boarding School My Islamic boarding school is very big .the color pink and is very clean and beautiful. my Islamic boarding school is very many room and bathroom. my Islamic boarding school have three flour but all clean and Islamic boarding school near with field. And the yard is verry wide. Text 3: The Aderable Agnes Monika My idol is Agnes Monika. Her full name is Agnes Monika Sukma. Her nick name is Agnes. Her was born in Jakarta, Indonesia, on July 1, 1986. and her blonde hair. The colour of her eyes black. Despite her young age, Agnes has already released there album. Si Meong, Yess, Bala-Bala. She also became a TV
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presenter. Thousands of her fans attend her concerts. Agnes Monica is now studying at Pelita Harapan University.
4.1.1
Scoring procedure for Pre-test: To maintain high reliability in scoring, White (1984, as cited in Weigle
2002) stated that one of the procedures of scoring scripts is that each script must be scored independently by at least two raters (p.129). In this study, the raters were the writer herself and the English teacher.
4.1.1.1 Pre-scoring The pre-scoring was intended to analyze the mistakes or errors made by students in their writing. The mistakes or errors are the initial steps to score the writing and furthermore, knowing the mistakes or errors in students‟ writing make the scoring process using Jacobs et al much easier. Text 1: There are 22 mistakes in text one. Six of them are in punctuations. Eleven mistakes are in capitalization. Many words which are supposed to be written in a small letters are written in capital letters, such as Turn, There, etc. and the other mistake of capitalization is because the irregularity of punctuation that causes the misuse of capital letters. There are two mistakes in article. For example, there is Bank, should be there is a bank. The rest is in misspelling such as Tjunction should be T-junction and the last is misuse of preposition in, there is in
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intersection, it should be omitted, there is intersection or changed with article „an‟, there is an intersection. Text 2: There are 13 mistakes in text one. One of them is in punctuation. My Islamic boarding school is very big the. There should be a ‟full stop‟ between „big and there‟ to make the flow of the sentence easier. My Islamic boarding school is very big. The …. And automatically, the word „the‟ is began with capitalized „T‟. There is also misspelling like floor written as flour, very written as very. The other mistakes are in the use of „have/has‟, plural form, and to be. Like in my Islamic boarding school is very many room and bathroom, should be My Islamic boarding school is has many rooms and bathrooms. „The color pink‟ should be „The color is pink‟. Text 3: There are eleven points of mistakes in this paragraph. Five are in spelling (Aderable which should be adorable and there which should be three. Two in pronouns, “Her was born in Jakarta”, should be “She was born in Jakarta”, and “And her blonde hair”, which should be “And she has blonde hair” or “And her hair is blonde”. Two mistakes deal with number, first “her eyes black”, there is a missing to be and should be her eyes are black. Second is “there album” this sentence should be “three albums” in correct form. One in the form of word order/function, on July 1, this should be 1st of July. One deals with capitalization, and her blonde hair, the word “and” is preceded by full stop, the “a” should be capitalized, “And”.
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4.1.1.2 Applying Jacobs et al for pre-test Content
: rating the content of paragraph, the highest point is put on the relevance of the paragraph to the topic given. This is descriptive text, particularly the description of people appearance, so the most important point is how detail the writer describes Agnes Monica in the paragraph, including physical appearance and additional information about her that can support the paragraph. The raters also consider about the creativity of the writer (the student). Above all, the content is good, the writer achieved 22 points for text 1, 23 points for text 2, and 24 points. The average score for content is 23 points.
Organization : overall, the paragraph is good, the student achieved 14 points for text 1, 16 points for text 2, and 16 points for text 3. The average score for organization is 15. It is loosely organized but main ideas stand out and it is choppy in some ways. For example, the additional information about Agnes Monica‟s young age is preceded by two sentences about her appearance. This is will be better if the information about when she was born is put after the appearance to make the paragraph smoother. Vocabulary
: the vocabulary is good, the errors of word/idiom, form, and usage occasionally occur but the meaning is not obscured. The student
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achieved 15 points for text 1, 15 points for text 2, and 16 points for vocabulary in text 3. The average score for vocabulary is 15 points. Language use : there are some errors of word order/function, pronouns, tense, and number
in
student
paragraph.
But
overall
meaning
is
understandable. For this occasional errors, the student got 18 points for every text (1, 2, and 3), and it is categorized as average level. Mechanics
: overall errors for mechanics are six. Despite of these errors, the meaning is not obscured. The rater gave 3 points for text 1 and 2, 4 point for mechanics in text 3. The average score for mechanics is 3 poits.
The total score for the paragraph is 78 points (23+15+15+18+3=74). Bellow is the result of students‟ writing in pre-test. Table 1 Pre-test Score of Eighth Grade of MTs. Plus Raden Paku Trenggalek
Student Conten t Number 1 17 2 25 3 22 4 17 5 25 6 22 7 25 8 23 9 22 10 21 11 20
Organizatio n 13 16 11 14 16 14 17 13 14 14 13
Competence Vocabular y 13 16 16 13 16 14 17 13 14 14 14
Total score Lang. Use 16 17 15 17 20 18 19 13 17 17 18
Mechanic s 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 2 4 3 3
62 77 67 64 81 72 82 64 71 69 68
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12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Total Average
22 25 25 22 23 17 25 18 24 24 22 486 22.1
14 16 16 15 16 13 17 13 15 16 16 322 14.6
14 15 16 13 15 13 17 14 14 16 14 321 14.6
18 18 19 13 17 17 19 17 17 18 18 378 17.2
3 4 4 3 3 3 4 3 3 4 3 73 3.3
71 78 80 66 74 63 82 65 73 78 73 1580 71.8
From this table, we can summarize that overall students‟ result based on Jacobs et al „s ESL Composition Profile are as follows: 1) Content – 72.7% are good to average, 27.3% are fair to poor; 2) Organization – 72.7% are good to average, and 27.3% are fair to poor; 3) Vocabulary - 77.3% are good to average and the rests 22.7% are fair to poor; 4) Language use – 45.5% are good to average and the rest 54.5% are fair to poor; 5) Mechanics – 36.4% are good to average, 59.1% are fair to poor, and 4.5% are very poor in mechanics. The total result is 1580 and the average of the result is 71.8. The minimum score for student for English subject in MTs. Plus Raden Paku is 75. From the pre-test table, it can be concluded that 16 students (72.7%) are bellow 75 or do not pass the standard of minimum score, while the rest, 6 students (27.3%), have fulfilled the standard score. Moreover, 3.33% or one student got very poor rate in mechanics and none of the students could reach excellent to very good rate in each score feature.
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The treatments were designed more flexible, in the form of homework. Students were asked to write descriptive texts based on certain pictures which are related to type of texts which are addressed for the students, map for describing location, house for describing house, and picture of famous people for describing people‟s appearance. The detail of treatment is in chapter III. In pos-test, students are equipped by certain pictures, map for describing location, house sketch for describing place, and picture of young dancer and singer (which they are able to choose their own preference to write about). Post-test: Text 1: When we stand in the Amir Hamzah street, we must turn left and straight in Bung Karno street until Bung Hatta street. that is street how to get to my house. When we in the Bung Karno street, in the right of street, there is a Granada Hotel. In front of Granada Hotel, Mataram mall stand in there. After arrive in the Bung Hatta street, we turn right to Pejunggik street. My house in front of this street. Text 2: My house is my heaven. that is the suitest wise word for my house. Because I love it. If you see my house wall, you will feel sunny. Because my father paint it with yellow colour. I have a garden in front of my house. I usually plant it with flower. Beside garden, there are porch and living room. Beside living room, there is main bedroom where my parents sleep. In front of main bedroom, it is my sweety bedroom. It is my favourite room. Beside my bedroom, it is a family room, my family usually watch a TV in this room. In the corner of
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my house are kitchen and Bathroom. My house is very clean. I sweep it everyday. I will keep my house well. Text 3: Gita Gutawa, she is my favourite singer. She is very smart and multitalent actress. She has a beautiful voice. When I hear her voice, I‟m so crazy with her. She also a smart student. She always get a good mark in her school. Gita Gutawa is a beautiful girl. She has a long black hair, a bright skin, and a pointed nose. She is slim but not very tall. When she smile, she look cute. I want to like her. So I must study hard to be the next Gita Gutawa. The scoring procedure for students‟ writing in post-test was also done as in the pre-test. First, the texts were revised and then scored using Jacobs et al ESL Composition Profile.
4.1.2
Scoring procedure for post-test
4.1.2.1 Pre-scoring Text 1: The frequent errors in text one is in the use of article, preposition, and to be. For example, “after arrive in the Bung Hatta street”, the article „the‟ should be omitted. Also, the word arrive is preceded by preposition „after‟ should be changed into „arriving‟. The example of to be is “My house in front of this street”, My house is in front of this street.
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Text 2: Still almost the same with text 1, most of the errors are found in article, tense, capitalization, etc.. For example, the second sentence should be initiated with capital letter. “That is the suitest wise word for my house” instead of “that is the suitest wise word for my house”. There is also word form mistake such as, it is my sweety bedroom. the word “sweety” should be replaced by “sweet”. Text 3: There are seven points of mistakes in this paragraph. There is a missing to be in “She also a smart student”, should be “She is also a smart student”. And the other is in “I want to like her”, should be “I want to be like her”. One in the form of word choice/usage, multitalent actress, this should be multitalented actress. Three mistakes deal with tense, “get, smile, look” should be “gets, smiles, looks”. And the last is in idiom. I‟m so crazy with her, this should be “I‟m so crazy about her. 4.1.2.2 Applying Jacobs et al for post-test Content
: rating the content of paragraph, the highest point is put on the relevance of the paragraph to the topic given. This is descriptive text, particularly the description of people appearance, so the most important point is how detail the writer describes Gita Gutawa in the paragraph, including physical appearance and additional information about her that can support the paragraph. The raters also consider about the creativity of the writer. Above all, the content is good, the writer achieved 25 point for text 1, 27 point for
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text 2, and 26 point for text 3. The average score for content in post-test is 26. Organization : overall, the paragraph is good, the student achieved 18 point for each text. It is fluently expressed. The idea is clearly stated and supported. It is cohesive and well organized. The writer achieved 18 point. Vocabulary
: the vocabulary is good, the errors of word/idiom, form, and usage occasionally occur but the meaning is not obscured. The student achieved 17 point for text 1, 18 point for text 2, and 17 point for vocabulary. The average score for vocabulary is 17.
Language use : there are some errors of word order/function, pronouns, tense, and number
in
student
paragraph.
But
overall
meaning
is
understandable. For this occasional errors, the student got 19 for text 1, 21 for text2, and 20 for text 3. The average score of language use is 20. Mechanics
: overall errors for mechanics are six. Despite of these errors, the meaning is not obscured. The rater gave 5 point for each text in mechanics.
The total score for the paragraph is 86 points (26+18+17+20+5=86). Bellow is the result of students‟ writing in post-test.
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Table 2 Post-test Score of Eighth Grade of MTs. Plus Raden Paku Trenggalek
St. Numbe r 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Total Average
Competence Content 18 26 24 22 23 23 26 20 22 22 24 24 26 25 21 27 22 27 18 26 26 22 514 23.4
Organization 15 18 16 16 16 15 18 13 15 16 16 15 17 17 13 17 15 18 12 17 18 16 349 15.9
Vocabulary 15 16 16 15 15 15 17 15 15 15 15 16 17 17 13 17 15 17 16 17 18 14 346 15.7
Lang. Use 17 20 19 16 18 17 21 15 17 18 19 19 20 19 17 19 17 21 17 20 20 18 404 18.4
Mechanics 3 4 4 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 5 4 78 3.5
Total score 68 84 79 72 75 73 86 66 72 74 77 78 84 82 67 84 72 87 66 84 87 74 1691 76.9
From this table, we can summarize that overall students‟ result based on Jacobs et al „s ESL Composition Profile are as follows: 1) Content – 9.1% are excellent to very good rate, 72.7% are good to average, 18.2% are fair to poor; 2) Organization - 18.2% are excellent, 68.2% good to average, and 13.6% are fair to poor; 3) Vocabulary - 4.5% are excellent to very good, 91% are good to average,
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and the rests 4.5% are fair to poor; 4) Language use - 63.6% are good to average and the rest 36.4% are fair to poor; 5) Mechanics – 4.5% are excellent to very good, 45.5% are good to average, 50% are fair to poor. The total result is 1691 and the average of the result is 76.9. From the post-test table, it can be concluded that 10 students (45.5%) are bellow 75 or do not pass the standard of minimum score, while the rest, 12 students (54.5%), have fulfilled the standard score. That means, that in the post-test, the students who do not pass the standard decreased 27.2% and at the same time, the students who are able to pass the minimum standard of the score increases 27.2%.
4.2 Analysis of the data This study aims to examine whether picture as an authentic material is effective for teaching descriptive writing. The previous result which is presented in the data presentation is still insufficient to prove it. To examine the data profoundly, the writer analyzes it using SPSS 16.0. SPSS is computerized statistics program which provides a powerful statistical-analysis and datamanagement system in a graphical environment, using descriptive menus and simple dialog boxes to do most of the work. The data will be analyzed using t-test because the purpose of data analysis is only to compare the result of students‟ writing before and after using picture. The hypotheses of this study are as follows: H0: The mean of students‟ writing score before and after the use of picture as an authentic material is the same
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H1: The mean of students‟ writing score before and after the use of picture as an authentic material is not the same
α in this study is 5% (0.05), the confidence interval of the difference is 95%. The writer then operated SPSS 16.0 in the computer. These are the procedures: 1. Open SPSS Inc, click SPSS 16.0 2. Open data file for paired t-test that has been saved in SPSS file (import the data, click menu File - data - data, sort the directory where the SPSS data was saved, My Document – data - then click Open. 3. Click menu, choose Analyze – Compare means – Paired sample t-test, the output of data analysis result is processed.
This is the output of paired sample t-test using SPSS 16.0. Table 3 Paired Samples Statistics
Mean Pair 1
N
Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Pre-test
71.8182
22
6.52202
1.39050
Post-test
76.8636
22
7.04608
1.50223
Table 4 Paired Samples Correlations Correlation
N
Pair 1 Pre-test & Post-test
22
.797
Sig. .000
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Table 5 Paired Samples Test Paired Differences 95% Confidence Interval of the
Std.
Difference
Deviati Std. Error Mean Pair 1
on
Mean
Lower
Upper
T
df
Sig. (2tailed)
Pretest –
-5.04545 4.34771
.92694
-6.97312 -3.11779
-5.443
21
.000
Post -test
From the tables, it is showed that the significance (2-tailed) or p-value is 0.000 which is lower than α (0.000 < 0.05). The t-value obtained from this table is -5.443. The lower value in this table is -6.97312 and the upper value is -3.11779, while p-value is 0.000 and it is positioned outside lower and higher value. On the other hand, p-value is outside α (null hypothesis rejection area). From the tables and the curve, it can be concluded that H0 is rejected.
4.3 Interpretation of finding It has been stated that H0 is rejected. In this case, we can interpret the difference in means scores as indicating real difference in writing scores between the pre- and post-test of this group of students. Furthermore, it implies that there is
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a difference between writing descriptive text scores in pre-test (without using picture as authentic material) and post-test (using picture as authentic material). The result of scoring, both in pre-test and post-test, using Jacobs et al ESL Composition Profile shows that there is significant increase in each feature of writing, content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanics. Bellow is the score mapping: Criteria
Score
Excellent-
Good-average
very good
(%)
Fair-poor (%)
Very poor (%)
(%)
Content
-
72.7%
27.3%
-
Organization
-
72.7%
27.3%
-
Vocabulary
-
77.3%
22.7%
-
Lang. use
-
45.5%
54.5%
-
Mechanics
-
36.4%
59.1%
4.5%
Table 6 Score Criteria in Pre-test based on Jacobs‟ et al ESL Composition Profile
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Table 7 Score Criteria in Post-test based on Jacobs‟ et al ESL Composition Profile Criteria Excellent-
Score
Good-average (%)
Fair-poor (%)
Very poor
very good
(%)
(%)
Content
9.1%
72.7%
18.2%
-
Organization
18.2%
68.2%
13.6%
-
Vocabulary
4.5%
91%
4.5%
-
Lang. use
-
63.6%
36.4%
-
mechanics
4.5%
45.5%
50%
-
Table 8 Score Increase in each Feature Jacobs et al ∑
∑
(total ∑1
writing
score
feature
pre-test)
The increase
score
in (average
in post-test)
score
in (average score
(total ∑2
pre-test)
(∑1 − ∑2 )
in
post-test)
Content
486
22.1
514
23.4
1.3
Organization
322
14.6
349
15.9
1.3
Vocabulary
321
14.6
346
15.7
1.1
Lang. use
378
17.2
404
18.4
1.2
Mechanics
73
3.3
78
3.5
0.2
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As stated earlier in the data presentation and also in table 6, there is no student who could reach excellent to very good rate in content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanics in pre-test. The content score for example, 72.7% of the students could only achieve good to average rate, and the rest, 27.3% were only achieving fair to poor rate. This data show that in the pretest, students could only demonstrate these criteria: some knowledge of subject, adequate range, limited development of thesis, mostly relevant to topic, but lacks of detail. These criteria belong to good to average criteria in Jacobs et al ESL Composition Profile. Based on this phenomenon, the writer found that without pictures, students could not develop thesis and also they could not add the details which are needed. Therefore, pictures were needed to improve the weakness of students writing specifically in the content of writing. After three time treatments using pictures as authentic material in their descriptive writing, the content score for excellent to very good rate increases 9.1%, and at the same time, fair to poor rate decreases 9.1%. The content score for excellent to very good rate in Jacobs et al cited in Weigle (2002, p.116) is based on these criteria: knowledgeable, substantive, thorough development of thesis, and relevant to assigned topic. Pictures in this case are effective to develop the thesis and to improve the details of paragraph. Although in pre-test the students were asked to write the description of place, which most of them prefer to describe their own houses, the students seemed to be confuse about what part of the house that they have to write and what kind of thing in the house that they could explore in detail. Through pictures, the students could find the missing details that they have
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in their minds about the description of the house. The role of pictures as authentic material and part of CLT as cited in Brown (2007) and Kilickaya (2004) that could help students to find the real world, the real illustration about how house is like. Also, Wright (1990) stated that picture could provide information about the reference clearly. From this point, that picture could help students to achieve score in content is indisputably. Table 7 also shows significant increase in organization. There are four students (18.2%) that achieved excellent to very good rate in organization. To achieve this, students have to fulfil these criteria based on Jacobs et al ESL Composition Profile: fluent expression, ideas clearly stated/supported, succinct, well-organized, logical sequencing, and cohesive. The clearness of idea and supporting idea is related to the generic structure of descriptive text, identification and description. In identification the students have to identify what is the thing or people that they have to write about. And the description is supporting ideas of the paragraph. From the students‟ writing both in pre-test and post-test, the students could create well-organized paragraph in post-test than that one in the pre-test. This is because pictures contribute to the context that the students have to write about (Wright, 1990). In this case, pictures lead the students to what kind of information that they should put on their paragraphs and made their paragraph more fluent than when they were asked to write descriptive paragraph without using pictures. Fluency is also one of CLT characteristics. In CLT, fluency is sometimes more
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important than accuracy to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use (Brown, 2007). In the post-test, vocabulary score increases 4.5% for excellent to very good rate, good to average rate increases 3.7%, and the fair to poor rate decreases 18.2%. Beside that, there is also interesting phenomenon found in the use of vocabulary in students writing. For example in describing picture of the house (post-test), students include some details which are closely related to what they wrote in pre-test (not equipped with picture), the description of their own houses. The choices of words are relatively the same. This is the example: Pre-test: My House My house is small, the colors of my house is green. my house have four bedrooms, a living room, a family room, a kitchen, and a bath room. In front of my house, there are many flowers. Beside my house is yard. my yard is clean. the colour my veranda is pink and colour my flour is red and yellow. In family room there is a mat and television.
Post-test: My House The colour my house is white. My house is not big. There are six rooms. The first room is living room. My living room is not big and the wall is pink. and than a main bedroom and the main bedroom. the main bedroom used my parents and there is family room there is a mat, television. etc. and the colour in may family room is green. Behind family room there is my bedroom, my bedroom is not big. Used my bedroom is me and my sister. And back my bedroom is a bathroom. The
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bathroom is clean and wide and there is kitchen. The kitchen is clean. And in front of my house there is a porch and garden. My garden is green and clean. Without considering the grammatical errors and mechanics, and focus mainly on vocabulary choices, the write found that there are many similar words used to describe the two different equipped texts. In the pre-test, this student was asked to write the description of his own house. He chooses these words: small, pink, green, a mat, television to describe the house details. The text that he produced must be based on what his house looks like and what are inside his house. In post-test, this student was asked to write the description that actually enables them to choose different vocabulary and describe the house in different way if he wanted to. But then when it comes to the colour and the things in the house, the description are actually the same. The most remarkable point is in this sentence: Pre-test:
In family room there is a mat and television.
Post-test:
There is family room there is a mat, television
This student tries to describe the picture of the house based on what he recognizes in his mind (which is his house). This phenomenon is closely related to Hayes‟ model of writing, particularly in individual aspect about working memory. Hayes (1996) cited in Weigle (2002) divided the components of working memory for writing into three: phonological memory, which stores auditory/verbal information, the visual-spatial
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sketchpad, which stores visually or spatially coded information, and a semantic memory, which stores conceptual information. The tendency of students‟ choices of words in describing the house in pretest might be based on their semantic memories in their minds. When teacher or someone says about house, the reference of the word “house” in their minds are their own house. This reference also includes some details in the “house” building in their memories. Although the vocabulary choices are relatively the same and do not improve in some ways, but in the post-test the students could use more appropriate vocabularies based on the context that they have to write about than that of in the pre-test. This similarity of vocabulary choices is probably because the vocabulary which is needed for every types of paragraph (description of people, description of location, and description of thing) was given separately from the pictures. The vocabulary in treatments processes was given in listing forms. There is 18.1% increase in the language use for good to average rate in the post-test. There is no student who could achieve excellent to very good rate. But the use of pictures could help the students to be at least in the good to average rate. Language use in Jacobs et al SL Composition Profile concerns about effective complex construction, few errors of agreement, tense, number, word order/function, articles, pronouns, prepositions. The students could not achieve all of these criteria because it is the highest criteria, excellent to very good rate, but the students could produce effective but simple constructions, few errors of
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agreement, minor problems in complex constructions, several errors of agreement, tense, number, word order/function, articles, pronouns, prepositions but meaning seldom obscured in their descriptive writings. The raters found that students made mistakes in number, word order/function, the use of articles, inappropriate pronouns and prepositions, but the raters tried to look at the meaning of the whole paragraph whether it is obscured because of the mistakes or not. And the raters conclude that more than fifty percents of students‟ errors do not influence the meaning. As CLT always emphasizes on meaning rather than form, the use of pictures could help students in some ways. In mechanics, there is a student (4.5%) achieved excellent to very good rate and no more very poor rate at the same time in the post-test. There is only 0.2 average point increase in mechanics. The use of pictures does not contribute that much as in the content and organization. On the other hand, after given treatments by using pictures in three times, the students could produce better writing in better spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and paragraphing. Based on the explanation, it is concluded that pictures are more effective to improve the content and organization aspects of writing, and less effective in improving vocabulary choices, language use, and mechanics. Particularly, in the language use and mechanics, the pictures could not contribute more because language use and mechanics are closely related to grammar and syntax in writing which this study did not concern about them profoundly.
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CHAPTER V CONCLUSION
5.1 Conclusion The objective of the study was to examine whether pictures as an authentic material are effective to improve students score in writing descriptive texts. In order to gain the objectives of the study, the writer conducted an experiment in a pre-test and post-test design. The writer found the difference between the mean scores of the pre test and the post test. Based on the statistical analysis, it can be seen that the mean of the posttest score was higher than the mean score of the pretest. In order to know whether the difference between the two means was significant or not, t-test in small dependent sample was applied. The critical value for two tailed tests for 21 degrees of freedom at 0.05 level of significance is 0.4227. Since the obtained t-value (-5.443) was lower than the critical value at 0.05 alpha level of significance (1.721), the writer concludes that the test was statistically significant. As the mean of the post-test was statistically higher than that of the pre-test, the writer concludes that the writing score achieved by the eight graders of MTs. Plus Raden Paku improved after they were taught by using pictures as authentic material. Based on the analytic scoring using Jacobs et al, pictures were effective to improve the content and organization, but less effective to improve vocabulary, language use and mechanics. Even though pictures could not improve all of
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aspects of writing in the same time, but overall the students‟ writing, pictures could improve students‟ writing in descriptive texts.
5.2 Suggestions Based on the above conclusion, the writer would like to offer some suggestions to be considered by English teachers, students, and the next researchers. 1. For English teachers There are some suggestions for English teachers based on this study. First, since it is found that the use of pictures as authentic materials are effective to improve the students‟ writing score, English teachers should use them more often so that the students‟ writing score could be improved not only in descriptive genre but also narrative, procedure or report. English teachers also can apply the other forms of authentic materials such as, article from magazine, brochure, invitation, etc that contain pictures in it. This is to create new situation during teachinglearning processes in the classroom and to motivate students to learn English. Second, English teachers should use various methods or aids, such as pictures, so that the students will not get bored during the teaching-learning process. Third, to enrich students‟ vocabularies as the tool of writing, pictures can be used as effective as possible. Perhaps teacher can elicits the vocabulary items through the picture itself at the same time. In this case, the students are expected to understand more the use of vocabulary correctly. Fourth, because of the limited time at school, English teachers should give more practices as homework. This is very useful to enrich the students‟ mastery of English vocabulary.
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2. For Students There are two suggestions for students based on this study. First, students need to improve their knowledge, especially in enriching their vocabulary and grammar for writing from the other sources of authentic material like English magazines, English story books, etc. that contain pictures, since pictures could provide vivid reference about things, places, or someone that students want to describe. In this case, students are expected that they could learn more about how to produce a good paragraph in descriptive texts, or the other texts such as narrative, report, etc. Second, students have to practice their writing English a lot because it is no doubt that practice makes perfect.
3. For the Next Researchers They can make this study as their milestone to conduct other research on the same field using the other form of authentic material applied in other skills such as speaking, listening, and reading. They may use true experimental research design in a longer period to know whether the method more effective or not.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Al-Musallam, Enas Ibrahim. 2009. College Instructors’ and Learners’ Attitudes to Authentic EFL Reading Materials in Saudi Arabia. Unpublished thesis master degree. Retrieved from http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/enasalmusallam/Research%20papers/Using% 20Authentic%20Materials%20in%20the%20Foreign%20Language%2 0Classroom%20Teachers‟%20Perspectives%20in%20Saudi%20Arabi a.doc, 27th October 20101, 10:14 am.
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Hyland, Ken. 2002. Teaching and researching: Writing. Longman: Pearson Education Kilickaya, Ferit. 2004. Authentic Materials and Cultural Content in EFL Classrooms. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. X, No. 7, July 2004. http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Kilickaya-AutenticMaterial.html
Langan, John. 2001. College Writing Skills with Readings (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill Companies: New York
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Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 2000. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford University Press: New York
Liontas, John I. 1989. Using Authentic Materials To Develop Functional Proficiency in Writing. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=t rue&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED329104&ERICExtSearc h_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED329104. Accessed on 26th of October 2010, 09:59 a.m.
Martinez, A. (2002). Authentic materials: An overview. Karen's Linguistic Issues. Retrieved October 22, 2010 from http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/authenticmaterials.html
Nunan, David. 2001. Research Method in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary. 1995. New York: Oxford University Press.
Pegrum, Mark A. 2000. The Outside World as an Extension of the EFL/ESL Classroom. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No. 8, August 2000. http://iteslj.org/
Reaves, Celia C. (1992) Quantitative Research for Behavioral Sciences. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Sari, Iis Mustika. 2007. The Effectiveness of Using Authentic Materials in Teaching Procedural Text to Improve Students’ Speaking Ability (An Experimental Study Among The Third Grade Students Of Junior High School). http://digilib.upi.edu/pasca/available/etd-0613107-084506/. Accessed on 8th of November 2010, 10:45 am.
Stearns, David, Reid, Carey. 2004. Using Authentic Materials in an ABE Writing Class. Field Notes, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Fall 2004). SABES/World Education: Boston.
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http://sabes.org/resources/publications/fieldnotes/vol14/f142stearns.ht m Retrieved on Monday, 11th of October 2010, 04:00 pm Sudarwati and Grace, Eudia. 2007. Look Ahead an English Course 1 for High School Year X. Jakarta: Erlangga. Sugiyono, 2008. Metode Penelitian Kulitatif, Kuantitatif dan R&D. Bandung: Alfabeta Syaifuddin.
2008. Enlivening Language Teaching Classroom. http://msyaifudin.wordpress.com/2008/07/20/mengeksplorasiauthentic-materials-untuk-pembelajaran-bahasa-asing/ Retrieved on Monday, 11-10-2010, 17:11.
Wallerstein, Nina. 1983. Language and Culture in Conflict. Adison-Wesley Publishing company: United states.
Wright. Andrew.1990. Pictures for Language Learning. Cambridge University Press: New York
Weigle, Sara Cushing. 2002. Assessing Writing. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
http://www.depdiknas.go.id/produk_hukum/permen/permen_75_2009.pdf accessed on April 16, 2010 14:06:09.
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1 Table 9 Participants Students of 8th Grade of MTs Plus Raden Paku No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Name Anggi Septian Toro Befika Noviandini Dimas Sandy Prayoga Fadhlul Hanif Fitria Wahyuning Tiyas Hinun Ayyu Mufidah Inda Mailia Juri Priyo Atmojo Moch Nur Afdloli Quswa Muhammad Soleh Muhammad Whimar Fachri Mutis Dining Cahyo Nisa'ul Mu'minah Nur Faiz Kholidiyah Nurul Arofiah Risomar Litaiyirril Arzaq Rizki Zakaria Tio Retnaning Tiyas Wahyu Rizal Wasiq Fahamsyah Zulva Anifatul Khoiriyah Kahfi Akbar Almachzuumi
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Appendix 2 Picture 1: Show mw how to get to “My House” clearly! Write a descriptive paragraph about how to get to “My House” based on “The Map”! Note: You may develop your writing by adding some verbs indicating sensory languages such as sense of hearing (hear, listen,etc.), sense of smell, sense of sight (see, watch, look, etc.) action (swallow, walk, run, etc.) and colour (red, yellow etc.), and what you feel when you see the picture.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......................
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Picture 2: Tell me about “My House” in detail! Write a descriptive paragraph about “My House” based on “The House Sketch”! Note: You may develop your writing by adding some verbs indicating sensory languages such as sense of hearing (hear, listen,etc.), sense of smell, sense of sight (see, watch, look, etc.) action (swallow, walk, run, etc.) and colour (red, yellow etc.), and what you feel when you see the picture.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......................
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Picture 3: Tell me about “My Brother” in detail! Write a descriptive paragraph about “My Brother” based on the picture! Note: You may develop your writing by adding some verbs indicating sensory languages such as sense of hearing (hear, listen,etc.), sense of smell, sense of sight (see, watch, look, etc.) action (swallow, walk, run, etc.) and colour (red, yellow etc.), and what you feel when you see the picture.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......................
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Picture 3: Tell me about “My Sister” in detail! Write a descriptive paragraph about “My Sister” based on the picture! Note: You may develop your writing by adding some verbs indicating sensory languages such as sense of hearing (hear, listen,etc.), sense of smell, sense of sight (see, watch, look, etc.) action (swallow, walk, run, etc.) and colour (red, yellow etc.), and what you feel when you see the picture.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......................
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Appendix 3 Jacobs et al ESL Composition Profile
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