JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology 1987,Vol.53,No. l, 163-175

Copyright1987bytheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,Inc. 0022-3514/87/$00.75

The Dream in the Process of Valuation: A Method of Interpretation Hubert J. M. Hermans University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands This article contains theory and a description of a method for dream interpretation. In this theory, the person is seen as a historic process, oriented from a certain point in time and space to the past, present, and future. As this orientation varies, different valuations emerge; a valuation is a meaning unit seen by the person as particularly relevant. In line with the apparent continuity of the dream and the waking state, a distinction is made between dream valuations, which usually have a pictorial character (e.g., "I climbed a high ladder"), and wake valuations, which typically have a conceptual character (e.g., "I passed a difficult test"). These types of experience are combined and organized in a valuation system. In order to investigate the personal meaning of dreams, I described in detail a method of self-confrontation as a tool for studying the interrelation of dream valuations and wake valuations, their affective properties, and their long-term development. In their manifold variety, dream valuations and wake valuations are expressed at the manifest levelof personality organization. At the latent level,a limited number of basic motives operate. The relation between the two levelsis made explicit in this article by applying the method in three idiographic studies. Three people described their dreams, calling on symbols that were found to be used at some other point in time for the metaphorical expression of significant aspects of their life situations.

An important reason for studying dreams in close connection with other variants of human experience is that there is solid evidence for a continuity of waking and dreaming concerns and characteristics. For example, demographic variables such as sex, age, race, marital status, and social class, powerful factors with many psychological correlates, are reflected in the content of dreams. Winget, Kramer, and Whitman (1972) found that all these factors were associated with dream content, with sex showing the most content differences. Whereas women reported more dreams and had more characters and emotions in their dreams, men had more aggression and achievement motives in their dreams. Whether sociocultural differences are reflected in dreams has also been examined. In a study by LeVine (1966), the dreams of three groups of Nigerian schoolboys were analyzed. On the basis of his knowledge of the power system of three culturally distinct groups, the Hansa, the Yoruba, and the Ibo, LeVine predicted the frequency of achievement imagery in the recalled dreams and was able to order the groups accordingly. Research by Breger (1969), Domino (1976), and Foulkes (1967, 1971; Foulkes, 1.arson, Swanson, & Rardin, 1969) has also contributed to demystifying the meaning of dreams and pointed to a continuity with waking life. Foulkes, who studied the dreams of children at different age levels, has offered two hypotheses: (a) that children's dreams are realistic representations of their waking life, and (b) that when waking life is dis-

turbed by some personality disfunction, dreams are disturbed as well. In other words, dream experience is more continuous than it is discontinuous with waking life in the child. Hence, in their review of literature with respect to various demographic and personality characteristics, Webb and Cartwright (1978) concluded that dream characteristics correctly reflect the emotional concerns and styles of waking life. For Foulkes (1978), who considered the dream a pictorial sentence, the achievements of dreaming are ordinary rather than exotic, linear rather than nonlinear, dichotomous rather than unified, and expressible in words. He therefore suggested that it may be more profitable to focus on the many strong structural parallels between dreams and ordinary, serial, linguistically guided thinking than to dwell on the phenomenological features that dreams may share with poorly understood and highly specialized, altered states of consciousness (Tart, 1969). In this article I will elaborate on the proposition that dreaming is valuation. Drawing on the work of Foulkes, I will show that dreams---as expressed in words and sentences--constitute part of the personal history of valuations. On the basis of this common denominator, the relation between the experiences of dreaming and of waking can be studied. The two main questions to be addressed are these: (a) Is it possible to devise a theory-based method of dream interpretation where dreams and waking experiences can be studied as interconnected phenomena in the history of an individual? (b) Are there atfective themes common to the dream report and the expression of everyday concerns such that a similar motivational base can be inferred? I will first explain the theoretical framework. Then I will present a detailed description of how to use the self-confrontation method as a general tool for the longitudinal study of personal experiences. Later this method will be applied to the specific context of dreams. Finally, in three idiographic studies, dreams and waking experiences are investigated as complementary elements in the long-term process of self-confrontation.

I thank Fred Nulens for his help with the translation of this work; Lee Ann Weeksfor her detailed editorial comments; Wim van Grist, Eduard Roskam, and Arnold van den Wollenbergfor their statistical advice; and Els Hermans-Jansen, who placed all the data of the case studies at my disposal. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Hubert J. M. Hermans, PsychologicalLaboratory, Universityof Nijmegen, Montessorilaan 3, 6525 HR Nijmegen, The Netherlands. 163

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HUBERT J. M. HERMANS Essentials o f Valuation T h e o r y

Valuation theory (Hermans, 1976; 1985; 1987) was developed for the study of various experiential phenomena. Originally formulated as a reaction to the dominant position of nomothetic research in the field of personality, the theory's underlying view of the person is inspired by philosophicalphenomenological thinking (James, 1890; Merleau-Ponty, 1945, 1948), and personality is conceived of as an organized process. The process aspect refers to the historical nature of human experience and implies a spatio-temporal orientation: The person lives in the present and is, from a specific point in space and time, oriented to the past as well as the future. The organizational aspect emphasizes that the person not only orients successively to different aspects of his or her spatio-temporal situation but also, through the process of self-reflection, brings those factors together in a structure. In this structure the several experiences are coordinated into a composite whole in which one experience is given a more salient position than another. The experiential process is conceived of as a set of personally unified historical events. The central concept, valuation, refers to anything the person finds to be of importance when thinking about his or her life situation. It is any unit of meaning that has a positive (pleasant), negative (unpleasant), or ambivalent (both pleasant and unpleasant) value in the eyes of the person. Valuation can include a broad range of phenomena: a dear memory, a difficult problem, a beloved person, an unreachable ideal, an intriguing dream, an influential talk with a friend, and so forth. Because the person is differentially oriented to the immediate situation, to the past, and to the future, different valuations emerge. By the process of self-reflection, several valuations may be organized and integrated into a single system. The personal importance of a valuation is always current. As the experiencing process moves from one point to another, or from one phase to another, the spatio-temporal orientation shifts, producing change, to a larger or smaller extent, in the valuation system. Some valuations, which lose their relevance, are excluded; other valuations, which are elicited by the change of situation, are taken up into the system. Besides this element of change, there is an element in the system consisting of constant valuations (Hermans, 1985). An essential feature of the theory is the assumption that each valuation has a personal, affective connotation, that is, personal involvement and emotional value. In more specific terms, each valuation implies an affective modality: a pattern of affects that is characteristic of this specific valuation. When we know which types of affect are characteristic of a valuation, we know something about the valuation itself. The affective meaning of the valuation cannot be separated from it and reveals properties of the valuation itself. In a recent development of the theory (Hermans, HermansJansen, & Van Gilst, 1985), the latent-manifest distinction was introduced to capture certain differences in the functioning of the affective component of the valuation system. It is assumed that a small set of basic motives is represented (latently) in the affective component of a valuation. At the latent level, the basic motives are assumed to be similar across individuals and continuously active within each individual. At the manifest level, we see that the broad range ofphenomenological valuations var-

ies not only between individuals but also within a single individual moving through space and time. For the sake of future research, two basic motives were elaborated: the striving for self-enhancement, or S-motive (i.e., selfmaintenance and self-expansion), and the longing for contact and union with the other, or O-motive (other people and the surrounding world). This distinction resulted from review of the literature in which authors exposed their conception of the basic duality of human experience: Angyal (1965), with his concepts of autonomy and homonomy; Bakan (1966), who viewed agency and communion as fundamental dynamic principles; and Klages (1948), who considered Bindung (solidification) and Ltsung (dissolution) basic motives in his characterological construction. An example of how these two motives might be represented in the affective component of the valuation system is as follows. When the person values something, he or she always feels something about that. In these feelings, the basic motives are reflected. When a valuation (e.g., "I won that game") represents a gratification of the S-motive, then the person experiences a feeling of strength or pride immediately associated with this valuation. When we have reason to believe that strength and pride are general indications of the S-motive, the same feelings are also useful indications in the case of other valuations of this person and in the case of valuations of other persons. In other words, the affective component of the valuation can be seen as the representation on the manifest level of the motivational base on the latent level. Following this line of argument, I chose several starting points for the study of the meaning of dreams. 1. Dreams can be described as pictorial valuations, whereas wake experiences usually have the character of conceptual valuations. By treating dreaming as part of the total valuation system, the process can be studied in accordance with the continuity hypothesis, assuming an external system of meaning. As Kramer (1982) said, meaning does not exist in the dream itself but is attached to the dream by some external system of meaning. In this case, the organized valuation system provides the context for the interpretation of dreams. This allows for investigation of Kruger's (1982) thesis that, fundamentally, dreaming and waking speak the same language, which is the language of our presence in a meaningful world. 2. The dream as part of an organized process stresses the fact that dreams are time laden (Eigen, 1983). Like the historical process of valuation, dreams develop in time (e.g., making a journey or climbing a ladder) and move from a past via a present to a future. The time character is manifest not only in the verbal-narrative structure of the dream report and time-saturated symbols but--as demonstrated in the following idiographic studies--also in the development of dreams over a number of months or years. 3. Dreams as manifest valuations are rooted in a latent motivational base. Both dreams and speech pose Chomsky's problem of generativity: How can humans generate, from a finite base of experience, an infinite set of realizable surface expressions? Both Freud and Chomsky have answered this question, each using his own terminology, by proposing two levels of expression (latent/manifest content; deep/surface structure), the deeper of which is characterized by a relatively small set of basic motives or operations.

THE DREAM IN THE PROCESS OF VALUATION Table 1

Questions of the Self-Confrontation Method Set 1: The past These questions are intended to guide you to some aspect of your past life that is of great importance to you. --Was there something in your past that has been of major importance or significancefor your life and which still plays an important part today? --Was there, in the past, (a) person(s), an experience, or a circumstance that greatly influenced your life and still appreciably affects your present existence? You are free to go back into the past as far as you like. Set 2: The present This set is also composed oftwo questions that will lead you, after a certain amount ofthinkir~ to formulate a response: --Is there in your present life something that is of major importance for, or exerts a great influence on, your existence? --Is there in your present life (a) person(s) or a circumstance that exerts a significantinfluence on you? Set 3: The future The followingquestions will again be found to guide you to a response: --Do you foresee something that will be of great importance for, or of major influence on, your future life? --Do you feel that (a) certain person(s) or circumstance will exert a great influence on your future life? --Is there a future goal or object which you expect to play an important role in your life? You are free to look as far ahead as you wish.

The two-level model elaborated by Foulkes (1978) in his grammar of dreams was chosen for use in this study. In principle, the latent motivational base as explained earlier in this article can account for the selectivity of dreams: On what grounds does the person select a dream, and does he or she give a certain sequence to it? Knowledge of the underlying motivational structure may therefore lead to a limited set of dream interpretations and contribute to our understanding of the meaning of a dream.

The Self-Confrontation Method: Self-Investigation of Developing Valuations The method of self-confrontation is based on valuation theory. It was designed as a means of studying the relation between valuations and types of affect and the way both variables are organized in a structured whole (Hermans, 1976). The method involves the construction of valuations and the connection of each valuation with a standard set of affect-denoting terms. This results in a matrix in which each cell represents the extent to which, for a given individual, a specific affect is characteristic of a specific valuation. The procedure is usually performed more than once, with several weeks or months between occasions, in order to study any changes and constancies in the valuations and corresponding affective modalities. The valuations (rows in the matrix) are elicited by a series of open-ended questions. The main questions ask for relevant issues from the past, present, and future. They invite the person to reflect on his or her life situation in such a way that he or she is free to mention those concerns that are relevant from the

165

perspective of the situation. The person is encouraged to phrase the valuations in his or her own terms so that the formulation is as much as possible in agreement with the intended meaning. The typical grammatical expression is the sentence; when the person is not able to phrase the valuation in a sentence, he or she is permitted to express it in just a few words or in one word. The questions are not supposed to lead to a quick answer, and there is no one-to-one relation between question and answer. They are invitations to reflect on oneself and are administered with the help of a trained interviewer. The instructions and the main questions referring to the past, present, and future are listed in Table 1. (For additional questions, refer to Hermans, 1976, pp. 99-100). The questions lead to a variety of valuations. The aim is to arrive at an exhaustive survey of relevant concerns. At the end of the investigation, the person is asked if the interview contains all the concerns that he or she considers important from his present perspective. If something is missing, he or she can add this in the form of an additional valuation. At the end of this procedure, people may have differing numbers of valuations, but in most of the cases the total is between 20 and 40. Next, a standard list of affect terms (columns in the matrix) is presented to the subject. Concentrating on the first valuation, the subject indicates on a 0-5 scale to what extent he or she experiences each affect in relation to this specific valuation. All valuations are successively evaluated with the same list of affect terms. The subject completes this without the presence of the interviewer. The rationale underlying this procedure is that certain psychological concepts, representing the latent level, are to be translated into corresponding affect scales. By use of these scales, the valuation system can be investigated and clarified. In the course of time and over several investigations, different lists of affects have been used. The list applied in the study described here is the most recent one (Hermans et al., 1985) and contains 30 affect terms (Table 2). The indices relevant to this study are summarized as follows: 1. Index S is the sum score of four affect terms expressing self-enhancement: Numbers 3, 7, 17, and 26. 2. Index O is the sum score of four affect terms expressing contact and union with the other: Numbers 10, 11, 14, and 22. For each valuation, the S:O ratio can be determined. When the experience of self-enhancement is stronger than the experience of contact with the other, S > O. When the contact with the other prevails, O > S. When both kinds of experience coexist, S=O.

Table 2

Affect Terms Used in the Self-Confrontation Method 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Joy Powerlessness Self-esteem Anxiety Happiness Worry Strength Stress Enjoyment Caring

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Love Self-alienation Unhappiness Tenderness Guilt Solidarity Self-confidence Loneliness Inner warmth Trust

21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Inferiority Intimacy Security Anger Despondency Pride Energy Disappointment Innercalm Freedom

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HUBERT J. M. HERMANS

3. Index P is the sum score of four general-positive (pleasant) affects: Numbers 1, 5, 9, and 20. 4. Index N is the sum score of four general-negative (unpleasant) affects: Numbers 6, 13, 25, and 28. For each valuation, the P:N ratio can be studied. This indicates the well-being that the person experiences in relation to the specific valuation. Wellbeing is positive when P > N, negative when N > P, and ambivalent when P = N. (Note that the scores for each of the four indices S, O, E and N range from 0 to 20). 5. Index r represents the extent of correspondence between the affective modality of two valuations, that is, the correlation between the profiles of any two rows, computed on the basis of the responses to the 16 S, O, P, and N items. This correlation indicates any similarity between the affective meanings of two valuations as far as they are represented by the shape of the two affective profiles. The theoretically derived indices were psychometrically analyzed with a group o f 43 students (20 men, 23 women) and a group of 40 clients (20 men, 20 women). In the student group, the reliabilities (coefficient alpha; Cronbach, 195 l) of the S, O, E and N indices were .83, .86, .90, and .88, respectively. The correlation between S and O was .27, and the correlation between P and N was - . 8 0 . In the client group, the reliabilities of the S, O, P, and N indices were .83, .89, .95, and .91, respectively. The correlation between S and O was .64 and the correlation between P and N was -.67. When the two groups were compared, the clients showed lower S scores (p < .00 l), lower O scores (p < .05), lower P scores (p < .001), and higher N scores (p < .00 l). No differences were found between men and women (Hermans et al., 1985). The second investigation, after some weeks or months, consists of the same stages as the first, with an important difference in the valuation-construction phase. This time the person does not start by formulating valuations. Instead, he or she is confronted by the statements he or she constructed in Investigation I. Again the interviewer reads the questions with the person, but after each question the interviewer now produces the value statement that the person regarded as adequate in Investigation I. The client is instructed to consider, for each statement separately, whether he or she can still go along with its content, that is, whether in the new situation he or she would still come up with the same answer to the questions. The helper explains that, if this is not the case, the client has various options available: An old valuation may be reformulated (modification); an old valuation may be replaced, with the new one setting out the person's answer to the same question as the old valuation purported to answer (substitution); an old valuation may be discarded altogether (elimination); or a quite new valuation may be added (supplementation). In this way the client has considerable freedom to point to the constant and changing parts of the valuation system. In essence, the self-confrontation method represents a dialogical model between psychologist and client. Both are seen as experts, each with a specific expertise. The client is an expert in the knowledge he or she has concerning experiences in his or her particular life situation. This person has the largest data bank available about his or her own life and is uniquely able to communicate about those things relevant to his or her local situation. The psychologist is primarily an expert with respect to general concepts and theories and their corresponding method-

ology; he or she has insight primarily into phenomena and processes at the level of general relevance (see Fishoff, 1976, for a comparable distinction in attribution theory). The self-confrontation method creates a platform on which these two people, with different kinds of expertise, can meet. The client presents his or her valuation system; the psychologist offers affect terms and affect scales selected on the basis of general concepts. These affects and their combination permit a new perspective on the valuation system and can, in principle, help us to detect its latent or implicit aspects. The client can use this perspective to look at his or her valuation system anew and to develop it further. In turn, the psychologist can see what kinds of experiences and processes correspond to the concepts, scales, and theories. He or she proceeds by means of an idiographic study in which standardized scales facilitate both the comparison of valuations at a single time and the analysis of their development across time. By performing a number o f idiographic studies, he or she can gradually generalize the findings and conclusions (see Runyan, 1983, for the relation between the general and the particular).

Comparison With Other Approaches Because they all explore personal meaning, there are some basic similarities between the self-confrontation method and both Kelly's Role Construct Reportory Test and Osgood's Semantic Differential procedure. Nevertheless, there are also some major differences. Whereas Kelly's test aims to collect the constructs with which a person makes cognitive discriminations, the concept valuation is a cognitive-affective process and refers directly to relevant experiences. The semantic differential, on the other hand, looks for the affective meaning that certain predetermined concepts have for a person. The self-confrontation method, however, invites the subject to identify the relevant aspects of his or her situation and is sensitive to any changes over time. Like valuation theory, the Rogerian approach emphasizes the affective properties of the self-concept. Methodologically, this is done by the use of Q sorts or self-sorts (Dymond, 1954). An important difference, however, is that valuation does not treat the self as a unified concept. As already indicated by Akeret (1959), the individual may not have a unified concept of himself or herself but rather may have a positive value of the self in some areas and not in other ones. There is also a similarity between this concept of valuation and Klinger's concept o f current concern, which is defined as "the state of an organism between the time that it becomes committed to pursuing a particular goal and the time that it either consummates the goal or abandons its pursuit and disengages from the goal" (Klinger, Barta, & Maxeiner, 1981, p. 162). There are, however, valuations that are important meaning units and not easily understood in terms of pursuing goals (e.g., a dear memory or a moment of understanding or fascination). Therefore, a variable like probability of success, which is used to rate current concerns, is not applicable to all valuations. T h e S t u d y o f M e a n i n g f u l D r e a m s a n d t h e i r Sequel In this section, the dreams of three individuals are presented as three separate studies where each dream is followed over

THE DREAM IN THE PROCESS OF VALUATION time. The procedure implies that after the formulation of the valuations, each person is invited to select and describe a dream that he or she considers a relevant one, that is, important enough to adopt as part of the valuation system. Here the person is free to choose a dream that he or she considers significant, one that people usually describe as an important dream. First, the person gives a full dream report to the interviewer. This report includes the chronological sequence of the events as the person remembers them. Next, the person is invited to select those parts of the dream report that he or she perceives as the most relevant for the story. These parts are phrased as one or more sequential sentences. They are considered as dream valuations and, like the wake valuations, characterized by the person with the same list of 30 affect terms so that they are represented as additional rows in the matrix. In this way it is possible to study their affective properties with the indices described and to compare them with the wake valuations. In this comparison, index r plays the most crucial role. When one wants to study a dream valuation in the context of the valuation system as a whole, the affective profile of this particular dream valuation is correlated with the profiles of each of the wake valuations. For example, when somebody has 30 wake valuations and l dream valuation, there are 30 correlations, each correlation representing the degree of similarity in the shape of the affective profile between the dream valuation and the various wake valuations. The wake valuation showing the highest correlation is a most relevant one for the interpretation of the dream, containing the most similar affective meaning to the dream. Because in the course of time several self-investigations are performed, changes in the dream valuations can be studied as well: Is the dream later eliminated, substituted, or modified? If it is modified, what is the position of the modified dream in the developing valuation system? All these analyses contribute to the understanding of the personal meaning of the dream.

Study 1 Linda, a woman of 45 years, a university student, contacted a psychotherapist during a period when she felt depressed. She asked for a self-investigation as a means to clarify her life situation. When at the end she was asked for a relevant dream, she told two dreams, a pleasant one and an unpleasant one. She had both dreams many times in the course of the last 10 years, with variations in small details. She considered both of them relevant. The dream report of the pleasant dream was this: Rome: Over wide roads and viaducts I see the city. All domes of churches. Magnificent!Next, I am standing in front of those enormous cathedrals with several high arches. I walk, stride, hover over a stair which leads to nowhere. For a moment I look at a preacher, but then I walk and hover over stairs and bridges. It is all very beautiful and everything is as it should be. Although it is a limited space, still it is infinite to me. The unpleasant dream was told this way: I am sleepingon the couch and I am dead tired. Then the bell rings. I know I have to get up to open the door. I am trying to do so, but I can't manage, because I feelglued to the bed by some kind of chewing gum. Again, the bell rings. Somewhere from the house mother is shouting: "Go and open the door! Hurry up!" I could weep. I would like to go but I really can't. It seems as if my mother's voice has made the gum even tougher and stronger. I don't see her, but I

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know that she is furious. Desparately I keep wrestling and wake up then. For each dream the interviewer then asks for a dream valuation: whether it felt as one total experience or as composed of differing experiences. It is assumed that the dream can be expressed as one valuation when it is felt to be one total experience and as more than one valuation when the successive parts of it are felt to be different experiences. Linda explained that she experienced each dream as one totality. Therefore, each dream was condensed into one valuation expressing the most meaningful part of each dream in Linda's view. The pleasant dream: "Huge buildings, cathedrals, with streets, stairs and many bridges and I walk among them but it feels like hovering." The unpleasant dream: "Somebody rings the bell or calls, I am sure about that, but I can't get up and I am glued with chewing gum to the bed and the struggle wakes me up." (In total, Linda formulated in the first self-investigation 41 valuations, 39 wake valuations and 2 dream valuations.) Four months after the first investigation, Linda and her interviewer decided to do a second one. (Usually a second or subsequent investigation is performed when the person feels that there are significant changes in the valuation system). The second investigation was done in accordance with the described procedure and resulted in 26 valuations. After formulating the wake valuations, Linda finally arrived at the pleasant dream. The interviewer asked her if the dream was still relevant enough to include it again as part of the self-investigation. Looking at the dream valuation as formulated 4 months before, she answered, "The shape of cathedrals, bridges, and walking in a hovering way: That's how I would like to be more often." The remarkable thing here was that Linda did not prefer to include the original dream valuation in the system but decided to include a valuation referring to a wake experience resulting from the dream. The same happened in the case of the unpleasant dream: She preferred not to include the dream valuation again but rather decided to point to a relevant experience from her waking life. She formulated this valuation as a sequence to the dream: "The toughness of the straitjacket still makes me tired." For each of the dream valuations of the first self-investigation (Time 1) and for their subsequent wake valuations in the second investigation (Time 2), the S, O, E and N scores and the highest correlating valuations in the system are presented in Table 3. As Table 3 shows, two kinds of analyses are possible: (a) The dream can be compared with the content of the highest correlating wake valuation in the system at one moment in time (analysis within one system), or (b) the dream can be compared with the content of its subsequent wake valuation at a later moment (analysis between two subsequent systems). Both the within-systems and between-systems analyses indicate that the pleasant dream can be interpreted as symbolizing a need for expression, a need for space where the person can bring out what is living inside. The slight but consistent dominance of S scores over O scores suggests that the S-motive is primarily involved. The chewing gum in the unpleasant dream is to be interpreted as a straitjacket and symbolizes the pressure of an interhal moral restraint or standard. The dream expressed a state where neither her S-motive nor her O-motive was gratified.

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HUBERT J. M. HERMANS

Table 3

Study I: Two Dreams From the Same Person Expressed as Dream Valuations at Time 1, Substituted Wake Valuations at Time 2, and Wake Valuations That Most Highly Correlate Time

Valuation

S

O

P

N

r

Highest correlating wake valuation

S

O

P

N

Writing stories/painting with words

14

9

15

8

In dancing I can express myself: animal spirit

17

8

17

2

I don't like my own strictness but I need it in order to master the chaos in myself

4

0

4

7

I don't dare feel weak and dependent; I don't permit myself any failure

4

1

1

12

Dream 1 Time 1 (dream)

Time 2 (wake) (substituted for dream)

Huge buildings, cathedrals with streets, stairs, and many bridges, and I walk among them but it feels like hovering The shape of cathedrals, bridges, and walking in a hovering way: That's how I would like to be more often

7

11

4

9

17

17

0

.74

4

.80

Dream 2 Time 1 (dream)

Time 2 (wake) (substituted for dream)

Somebody rings the bell or calls, I am sure about that, but I can't get up and I am glued to the bed with chewing gum and the struggle wakes me up The toughness of the straitjacket still makes me tired

0

1

1

6

.75

3

2

2

12

.94

Note. S = affect referring to self-enhancement. 0 = affect referring to contact with the other. P = positive affect. N = negative affect, r = productmoment correlation between two affective patterns.

Study 2 A second study was done with Alice, a 43 year-old w o m a n working part-time as a social worker. Both she and her husband did a self-investigation in a period where there were serious marital problems. In the first investigation, she formulated 46 valuations and reported a d r e a m she had had 4 weeks before: I walked in a small old Dutch town along a canal and was on my way to the train station. There was a sandy wall in the canal. I walked over it so that I could cut a corner, but the sand began to shift and I got buried under the sand. I could just raise my hand above it to keep an opening so that I could breathe. I got very seared. Some children were playing there. They saw it happen but they did not do anything. Alice explained that to her this d r e a m was not one experience but rather different ones with considerable shifts from one part to the other. Therefore, the d r e a m was ordered as four sequential sentences where each sentence, as a valuation, represented a relevant part o f the dream. Twelve months after the first self-investigation, Alice performed a second one, where she formulated 32 valuations. Like the person in Study 1, Alice preferred to include a wake experience instead o f the dream, an insight resulting from thinking about the original dream. The four sequential d r e a m parts o f the first self-investigation (Time 1) and the subsequent insight in the second investigation (Time 2) are presented in Table 4, together with the S, O, P, and N scores and highest correlating valuations. The within-systems analysis shows that, although the husband was not mentioned in any part o f the dream, high to very

high correlations were found with valuations referring directly to the problematic relationship with him. The between-systems analysis shows that at T i m e 2, Alice herself went on to interpret the d r e a m in terms o f the relationship with her husband, w h o m she felt suppressed her. The low S and O scores in combination with the N > P ratio o f all valuations but one show that neither the S-motive nor the O-motive was gratified.

Study 3 A third study was done with Karin, a 35-year-old w o m a n working part-time in an administrative job. She and her husband contacted the therapist during a period o f marital problems, and both did a self-investigation. In this investigation Karin phrased 39 valuations. She gave the following report o f a d r e a m she had had 8 weeks before and that she considered relevant to her life situation: I was with Tim [her youngest son] in a fun fair with several cycle tracks. I was afraid to walk on those tracks. Tim led me by the hand, though. At a given moment we could not go on. We were standing on the roof of a bandstand and he said, "We can jump down here, then we are closer to the exit." He jumped; I was still standing there. I did not have the courage to; then a wide-shouldered man in a tom shirt appeared and said: "Come and stand on my shoulders, then I'll help you get down." At the exit, however, there was a tub with goldfish in it and Charles [her husband] forced me to eat them. I did not want to, but he held my hands behind my back and forced me to eat them. This d r e a m report, with several shifts in the scenery and turns in the story, was ordered by K a r i n as four sequential sen-

THE DREAM IN THE PROCESS OF VALUATION

169

Table 4 Study 2: Four Dream Parts as Valuations at Time 1 and Substituted Wake Valuation at Time 2, With Wake Valuations That Most Highly Correlate Time

Valuation

S

O

P

N

r

Time 1 (dream)

Small old Dutch town with old gables

2

4

8

0

.63

The sand of the wall started to shift; I was not able to stop it and I got buried

I just could raise my hand above it to keep an opening so that I could breathe Those playing children, who saw it, did not do anything

Time 2 (wake) (substituted for dream)

Literally and figurativelyI don't have enough space with John

0

0

0

12

.92

2

1

3

12

.93

0

0

1

13

.98

5

2

2

11

.91

Highest correlating wake valuation I can enjoy things that are not obligatory; doing things only for pleasure John is alwaysable to let me know in a nasty and exacting way what he is expecting me to do, and I am not able to let him know that I can't do so or don't want to The moral: You are an egoist, it is bad to have something for your own; apparently, I must always give or communicate something I blamed John, being an expert, for not having recognized that we needed help, and when I gave indications, that he prevented things I have a kind of disappointment that nothing is left of the things I admired John for

S

O

P

N

3

7

15

0

2

1

0

16

l

l

0

l0

0

0

0

16

3

1

2

10

Note. S = affect referring to self-enhancement. O = affect referring to contact with the other. P = positive affect. N = negative affect, r = productmoment correlation between two affectivepatterns.

tences. In each sentence (dream valuation), she contracted those elements of the dream that she considered as belonging together as the most relevant meaning units (see Table 5). Six months after the first investigation, the second took place. Here Karin formulated 26 valuations. She now used the dream symbols of the original dream for a metaphorical characterization of her present situation. Between the first and the second investigation, she decided to leave the house and live separately, but the husband reacted to that by preventing her from seeing the children. It was the fourth dream part of Time 1 leading to a sequel in Time 2 (see Table 5). We were able to follow Karin further in time because she performed a third investigation, 8 months after the second, where the most relevant aspects of her present life were formulated in terms of 17 valuations. She reported that in the meantime she had the original dream again but now only the last part in a modified version. This was phrased as a modified dream valuation (see Table 5). The within-systems analysis showed that the dream parts had high correlations with certain wake valuations. The fourth dream part, which played the most crucial role, was highly related to a past experience with her parents. Karin still had a bad reminiscence of her father's incestuous behavior toward her and her sister. Her mother, when she detected it, put the full responsibility on the shoulders of Karin and her sister. This led to an extremely negative valuation of her past. It seemed that this past experience was reactualized by the present troubles with her husband, who in the dream forced her to eat the fish against her will. The between-systems analysis showed strong variation in all the indices, S, O, P, and N, which indicates remarkable changes with respect to the latent level of motivation. The most impres-

sive change was revealed when the fourth dream part was followed in time. At Time 1 there was a complete lack of self-enhancement, which did not change much when the subject performed the metaphorical transformation at Time 2. But at Time 3, the modified dream showed a strong S > O ratio, also apparent in the highest correlating valuation. The interpretation of this dream is not simple because of the rich variety and drastic changes in the content of it. In any case, part of the dream c.ovaries with the relationship to her husband: The growing strength of her opposition is reflected in the weakening of the fish and the changing position of her hands. Methodological R e m a r k s a n d C o n t r o l Analyses Index r played a crucial role in the analyses. The highest positive correlation of a dream with a wake valuation was reported. High to very high correlations were indeed found, sometimes near 1.00. The high levels of index r, however, do not necessarily imply that the reported correlations are meaningful ones. The high values of the correlations do not exclude that they simply could have drawn from a random universe of correlations. Given a sample of 16 scales, as is the case in this study, the range in correlations that could be found by chance would be quite large. How do we know that this does not simply point to the correlations at the upper end of a random sampling distribution? To answer this question, I computed within each subject for each dream separately the mean correlation of this dream with all wake valuations within each self-investigation, using Fisher's Z transformation procedure. Treating this mean as the population correlation for this subject, I inspected the confidence interval at the .95 level with limits o f p < .025 at each side. Then

170

H U B E R T J. M. HERMANS

Table 5 Study 3: Four Dream Parts as Valuations at Time I, Substituted Wake Valuation at Time 2, and Subsequent Dream Valuation at Time 3, With Wake Valuations That Most Highly Correlate Time

Valuation

Time l (dream)

Tim [son] took my hand and led me through the fun fair We were standing on the roofofa bandstand and he said, "We can jump down here, then we are closer to the exit" Tim jumped: I did not have the courage to; then a tall wide-shouldered man in a torn shirt appeared and said: "Come and stand on my shoulders, then I'll help you get down" Holding my hands on my back, Charles [husband] forced me to eat the fish, although I did not want to Now I am swallowing all those fish against my will

Time 2 (wake) (substituted for dream) Time 3 (dream)

The fish have become transparent and only a few of them are left; they look jelly-like, at first they were solid fish; and my hands are no longer held on my back either

S

6

0

O

19

8

P

16

3

N

r

4

17

Highest correlating wake valuation

S

O

P

N

I feel responsible for the atmosphere, wherever I am

7

14

9

9

I often feel nervous and anxious

0

8

0

20

17

18

18

0

0

0

0

19

I am taking a firm stand against Charles

11

1

0

20

I feel that I must show Charles that I am his match

17

I

10

5

.76

.74 I am beginning to accept my body as it is; I am satisfied with it

8

16

20

0

.79 Mother accused us that we seduced father

0

0

0

20

.99

3

0

0

20

.86

17

0

5

4

.88

Note. S = affect referring to self-enhancement. O = affect referring to contact with the other. P = positive affect. N = negative affect, r = productmoment correlation between two affective patterns.

I checked the percentage of correlations falling outside this interval, expecting .05 on the basis of chance. For example, the subject of Study 1 had 39 wake valuations and two dreams in her first self-investigation. As already described, each dream was correlated with each of the 39 valuations. The mean correlation of the first dream was - . 0 1 , with an interval between - . 5 1 at the left side of the distribution and .49 at the right side. O f the 39 correlations, 24 were outside the interval, which means a percentage of 62, far from the 5% expected on the basis of chance. The highest positive correlation (.74) was accompanied by a relatively large group of correlations falling outside the interval. This type of analysis was performed for each subject for each dream valuation (and the wake valuations substituted in the subsequent investigations, that is, for all the valuations on the left side of Tables 3, 4, and 5). The m e a n percentage o f correlations falling outside the interval was 60. The lowest percentage was 17 (the first dream part in Table 4) and the highest was 89 (the fourth dream part in Table 5). The analyses showed that in all cases the highest positive correlation was lying outside the interval, far from the confidence limit and accompanied by other correlations. This is an indication that it is highly improbable that the highest correlating valuation was selected from a random distribution of correlations. A n additional way to check the validity of the highest correla-

tion is to compare it with the second highest. When the content of both valuations, highest and second highest, refer to the same theme, this is an indication that the person is using the 16 scales in a systematic and meaningful way. For example, the person of Study 1 dreamed that she was glued to her bed with chewing gum. In her highest correlating valuation (r = .75), she indicated that she felt confined by her own strictness. In the second highest correlation (.74), there is a valuation with a similar theme: "I a m scared to death that when I finish m y study and I can't find work, m y family gets power on me and says 'there, you see" " I n both valuations there is an element of feeling confined or inhibited. Similarly, one can hypothesize that the most extreme negative correlations will show a valuation referring to a different or even opposite theme when comlxtred with the highest or second highest positive correlation. In this example, the chewing-gum dream had a correlation o f - . 5 4 with this valuation: "In dancing I can express m y s e ~ animal spirit" In this concern she expressed freedom instead of confinement. I performed such content analyses for each dream within each subject. The outcomes demonstrated that the valuations with the second highest positive correlation referred to a theme similar to that of the valuation with the highest correlation, whereas the most negative correlation lacked this similarity and had the opposite character instead.

THE DREAM IN THE PROCESS OF VALUATION Another problem confronted in these statistical analyses concerned the possibility of inherent differences between the 16 scales used for the computation of the correlations. These scales were presented to the person in order to characterize her valuations, but certain scales may be consistently rated higher or lower than others. For example, a person could give high scores to unhappiness and low scores to tenderness across all valuations, so that the various scales have different means for this person. This difference between the scales will then invariably produce correlations between the valuations. And the larger these differences are, the larger will be their influence on the size of the correlations. To deal with this difficulty, I compared index r (product-moment correlation) with another measure that is not sensitive to differences in affect scale means, the profiledistance score: the sum total of differences in absolute values across the 16 scales. For example, the person of Study l had in her first investigation 41 valuations. Besides the product-moment correlation, the profile-distance score was computed for each pair of valuations (820 pairs). I then studied the correspondence of the two measures across all 820 observations. The degree of correspondence, expressed by the Spearman rank correlation, was - . 9 3 , which indicates a high correspondence (a high product-moment correlation coincides with a small distance). In this way I compared the product-moment correlations with the profile-distance scores for each self-investigation of each person (seven self-investigations total). The median degree of correspondence was - . 9 3 , with a range from - . 8 7 to - . 9 8 . This generally high correspondence between the two measures leads to the conclusion that the profile-distance score does not show a different overall picture from the product-moment correlation. Thus, when one applies a measure that is not sensitive to extreme scores and large differences in scale means, one arrives at roughly the same results as when the product-moment coefficient is used. Of course, the high correspondence between the two measures does not exclude the possibility that the highest correlation points to a different valuation than does the smallest distance score. However, this is not a serious problem because the highest correlation is not used as an index excluding the information of other high correlations, but rather as representative of a group of high correlations, as can be demonstrated by content analyses. The product-moment correlation coefficient is widely used in psychological research. The arguments presented in this section indicate that index r is a useful measure for the selection of a highly correlated valuation, and I therefore prefer to use it in this type of dream research. (The raw ratings of the first selfinvestigations from Studies 1, 2, and 3 are presented in the Appendix for further computation.) Discussion In these three case studies, there was a high affective commonality between relevant waking experiences and dreams selected by the person as significant. The three subjects perceived in their dreams some of the same affective themes as in their everyday concerns (after being queried about them). The data suggest that telling dreams is strongly a function of people's valuation systems. Once a dream is incorporated into the system, it influences this system over time. This interdynamic relation

171

between wake and dream valuations can be understood by assuming a latent level where basic motives are operating, causing this circular influence at the manifest level. This theoretical representation is in agreement with the idea of a two-level model proposed by thinkers such as Chomsky, Freud, and Foulkes. There may be a high affective correspondence between dreams and waking experiences, although their specific content may be quite different. For example, in Study 2, the person reported a dream in which she was buried by sand and the children who saw it did not do anything. In this dream there was no mention of her husband. But in the most highly correlated waking valuation, her husband was mentioned explicitly. This suggests that the shifting sand that buried her represented the dominating behavior of her husband, and the playing children who did not do anything symbolized lack of recognition by her husband. What these different aspects have in common is that the subject felt her autonomy and self-maintenance to be threatened. Although the manifest content of dreams provides other information than do conceptual wake valuations, at the latent level both are rooted in the same motivational base. The affective modalities (i.e., affective profiles) provide a useful instrument for the study of the implicit affective meaning of dreams and everyday concerns and also function as a concrete tool for the investigation of their interrelation. A remaining question is this: In what special conditions can the method of self-investigation described here be applied, and can one replicate these findings with other people living in other circumstances? Theoretically, the method of self-confrontation should appeal to the self-organizing capacity of the person. The method stimulates the person to organize and articulate his or her world into a differentiated meaningful whole. In the dream investigations described here, there were two moments when this idea received concrete form: when the person selected a dream of personal relevance, and when the dream content was rewritten into a limited series of sequential sentences expressing what the person herself considered most significant. In this way the person was approached as someone capable of self-reflection and as an expert concerning the content of her experiences. This view is inspired by James (1890), who distinguished two qualities of the self, the I and the m e . According to James, the I is the self as knower, and the m e is the self as known. In the self-confrontation method, the person as knower is invited to investigate, in cooperation with the psychologist, herself as known. Clearly, the active, methodological, and weU-structured stimulation of the process of self-reflection within the framework of a dialogical model will help narrow the gap between assessment and change and functions as a bridge between personality psychology and psychotherapy. The self-organizing capacity was also recognized in the use of a between-systems analysis in addition to a within-systems analysis. In the within analysis, the dream was studied as part of the valuation system by using a variety of indices derived from theoretical notions. In this type of analysis, dream interpretation is fed by psychological knowledge and expertise. This analysis typically provides information that adds to the conscious knowledge of person and interviewer, particularly in the case of the highest correlating valuations. In the between-systems analysis, the perspective of the person played a more crucial role: In the second or subsequent self-investigation, it became apparent how the person herself interpreted the dream as

172

HUBERT J. M. HERMANS

a result of incorporating information from the previous selfinvestigation. In this way the dream interpretation is a process realized in the course of time where the active and involved contribution o f the person is combined with the scientific contribution of the psychologist, which leads to a deepening and extending of the person's self-exploration. The approach used in this study was mainly idiographic. This kind of investigation is especially fruitful when one searches for peculiar phenomena and when one wants to follow the person over time (Du Mas, 1955). The price one has to pay is that the results are not highly generalizable. We found particular dream phenomena for three people. The most one can say at this moment is that these phenomena can be detected with some people, but it is unknown to what extent the findings can be generalized. On the other hand, the rare but significant phenomena that are revealed in idiographic investigations may put the researcher on the track to a new finding, which may be found generalizable at some later point in the research program. It may he best to give high priority to studies where idiographic and nomothetic approaches are combined as mutually complementary (Runyan, 1983). In this study, a nomothetic part was included in the reliability and validity studies. I started with research on a collection of people (nomothesis), then studied some people in depth (idiography), and then, comparing the results of the few individuals, moved from the peculiar to the general. Moving back and forth between the nomothetic and the idiographic is a promising way of working. Such a strategy corresponds to the position of the founder o f the concepts o f idiography and nomothesis, Windeiband (1894), who emphasized that the two approaches do not necessarily exclude each other but, rather, include each other and can he applied to the same subjects. References Akeret, R. U. (1959). Interrelationships among various dimensions of the self-concept. Journal of Counseling Psychology,,6, 199-20 I. Angyal, A. (1965). Neurosis and treatment: A holistic theory. New York: Wiley. Bakan, D. (1966). The duality of human existence. Chicago: Rand McNally. Breger, L. (1969). Childrens' dreams and personalitydevelopment. In J. Fisher & L. Breger (Eds.), California Mental Health Research Symposium (Number 3). Sacramento: California Department of Mental Hygiene. Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of affects. Psychometrika, 16, 297-333. Domino, G. (1976). Compensatory aspects of dreams: An empirical test of Jung's theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psycholog); 34, 658--662. Du Mas, E M. (1955). Science and the single ease. Psychological Reports, 1.65-75. Dymond, R. E (1954). Adjustment changes over therapy from self-sorts. In C. R. Rogers & R. E Dymond (Eds.), Psychotherapy and personality change(pp. 76-84). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Eigen, M. (1983). One time and dreams. The Psychoanalytic Review, 70, 211-220. Fishoff, B. (1976). Attribution theory and judgment under uncertainty. In J. H. Harvey, W. J. Ickes, & R. E Kidd (Eds.), New directions in attribution research (VoL 1, pp. 421--452). HiUsdale, N J: Erlbaum. Foulkes, D. (1967). Dream of the male child: Four case studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiat~ 8, 81-97. Foulkes, D. (1971). Longitudinal studies of dreams in children. In J. Masserman (Ed.), Science and psychoanalysis (pp. 48-71). New York: Grune & Stratton. Foulkes, D. (1978). A grammar ofdrearns. Sussex, England: Harvester Press. Foulkes, D., l_arson, J. D., Swanson, E., & Rardin, M. (1969). Two studies of childhood dreaming. American Journal of Orthopsychiat~ 39, 627-643. Hermans, H. J. M. (1976). Value areas and their development. Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger. Hermans, H. J. M. (1985). Stabilityand change in the process of valuation: An idiographic approach. In A. Angleitner, A. Furnham, & G. van Heck (Eds.), Personality psychology in Europe: Current trends and controversies (pp. 23-43). Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger. Hermans, H. J. M. (1987). Self as an organized system of valuations: Toward a dialogue with the person. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, 10-19. Hermans, H. J. M., Hermans-Jansen, E., & Van Gilst, W. (1985). De grondmotieven van het menselijk bestaan: hun expressie in her persoonlijk wuarderingsleven [The basic motives of human existence; their expression in personal valuation]. Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger. James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology (Vol. 1). London: MacMillan.

Klages, L. (1948). Charakterkunde [Characterology]. Ziirich, Switzerland: Hirzei. Klinger, E., Barta, S. G., & Maxeiner, M. E. (1981). Current concerns: Assessing therapeutically relevant motivation. In P. C. Kendall & S. D. Hollon (Eds.), Assessment strategies for cognitive-behavioral interventions (pp. 161-196). New York: Academic Pres~ Kramer, M. (1982). The psychology of the dream: Art or science? Psychiatric Journal of the University of Ottawa, L 87-100. Kruger, D. (1982). The Daseinsanalyticapproach to dreams. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology,, 2, 161-168. LeVine, R. (1966). Dreams and deeds: Achievement motivation in Nigeria. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Merleau-Ponty, M. (1945). PhJnom~nologie de la perception [Phenomenology of perception]. Paris: Gallimard. Merleau-Ponty, M. (1948). Sens et non-sens [Sense and nonsense]. Paris: Nagel. Runyan, W. M. (1983). Idiographic goals and methods in the study of lives. Journal of Personality, 51, 413-437. Tart, C. 1". (Ed.). (1969). Altered states of consciousness. New York: Wiley. Webb, W. B., & Cartwright, R. D. (1978). Sleep and dreams. Annual Review of PsychologTg, 29, 223-252. Windelband, W. (1894). Geschichte und Naturwissenschafi [History and science]. Strasbourg, France: Heitz & Miindel. Winget, C., Kramer, M., & Whitman, R. (1972). Dreams and demography. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal, 17, 203-208.

173

T H E D R E A M IN T H E PROCESS O F VALUATION

Appendix Matrix of Valuation • Affect Table A 1

Raw Ratings of Linda's First Self-Investigation (Study 1) Affect Term Valuation n u m b e r

1

3

5

6

7

9

10

11

13

14

17

20

22

25

26

28

1 4 0 3 5 3 3 1 3 0 3 3 2 2 0 0 0 2 0 1 3 0 4 3 3 4 0 2 I 0 0 3 3 2 0 2 1 0 0

3 1 5 2 1 0 0 0 4 5 0 0 5 2 4 1 3 3 0 2 0 2 4 1 5 0 0 0 3 0 4 1 I 4 3 0 0 0 0

3 0 2 0 0 1 0 3 1 3 1 0 1 1 4 2 5 3 3 4 1 3 1 1 3 1 5 0 3 1 1 0 2 2 3 1 1 2 3

5 0 3 0 0 0 1 4 2 5 0 0 1 1 4 3 4 4 5 5 1 4 0 0 4 1 5 1 3 1 3 1 1 3 4 0 2 3 3

2 0 4 1 0 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 1 3 5 0 5 2 3 2 0 1 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 4 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 0

1 3 0 4 4 3 3 1 1 0 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 4 0 4 3 1 4 0 4 0 2 0 3 3 1 0 2 2 1 1

1 0 5 0 2 0 0 5 0 4 0 0 0 4 5 4 4 5 4 5 0 3 0 0 3 0 5 3 3 1 0 1 1 I 1 1 0 3 0

0 4 0 3 3 2 3 0 1 0 4 2 3 3 1 3 0 1 0 1 4 0 4 3 1 2 0 0 0 2 1 4 4 2 1 2 0 1 1

0 0

2 0

2 0

4 1

2 0

0 2

4 0

0 0

Wake valuation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

5 0 5 1 0 0 0 4 1 5 0 0 4 3 5 2 5 4 3 4 0 3 0 3 4 0 4 0 3 1 4 0 0 4 4 0 0 2 3

3 0 2 0 1 1 1 4 1 3 1 1 1 4 5 4 4 3 3 4 0 3 1 3 3 1 3 1 2 1 2 2 2 3 3 2 1 3 4

5 0 4 0 0 0 0 3 2 4 0 0 3 3 5 2 5 3 5 4 0 4 1 2 4 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 0 4 4 0 2 2 0

1 2 3 4 2 4 4 0 4 1 4 5 5 2 1 3 0 3 0 1 4 0 5 4 4 4 1 4 2 4 3 2 4 4 1 4 4 1 1

3 0 2 0 0 1 1 4 1 3 1 0 1 3 4 2 4 3 4 5 1 3 0 2 3 0 4 1 2 1 1 3 1 3 3 1 2 3 3

4 0 3 1 0 0 0 3 1 5 0 0 3 4 5 1 5 4 0 5 0 5 0 1 3 1 2 0 4 0 5 0 0 5 4 0 0 2 1

4 0 3 2 0 0 0 0 4 3 0 0 5 3 4 4 0 2 0 2 1 3 4 0 5 0 0 0 4 4 2 2 1 4 2 0 0 3 0

5 2 5 4 0 1 2 0 3 5 1 1 4 3 5 1 4 2 3 4 0 2 4 1 5 0 3 0 3 0 4 3 1 4 3 0 0 1 0

D r e a m valuation 40 41

4 0

0 0

5 0

0 4

1 0

4 0

0 1

0 0

Note. Rows represent valuations and c o l u m n s represent affect t e r m s used for the indices S, O, P, and

N.

174

H U B E R T J. M. H E R M A N S

Table A2

Raw Ratings of Alice's First Self-Investigation (Study 2) Affect Term Valuation n u m b e r

1

3

5

6

7

9

l0

11

13

14

17

20

22

25

26

28

0 2 0 1 0 2 1 2 1 1 2 0 0 3 4 2 5 1 3 0 0 5 3 1 3 1 0 0 0 3 3 2 3 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 3 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 0 0 0 3 0 1 0 0 2 0 1 3 2 0 0 0 0 3 2 3 0 4 1 0 4 2 0 1 0 0 3 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 0 3

4 0 0 0 3 0 2 0 0 2 3 4 3 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 4 0 4 3 0 5 4 4 2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 3 2 2 0 1 2

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 3 3 0 2 4 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 2 3 2 2 2 3 0 0 2 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 2 2 0

1 0 0 0 3 0 2 0 0 2 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 0 4 2 0 2 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 1

0 2 2 2 0 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 1 4 5 0 5 3 2 0 0 4 1 0 4 1 0 0 0 2 4 3 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 2 0 0

0 5 4 4

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1

2 0 0 0

0 0 2 2

1 0 0 0

0 2 2 4

Wake valuation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

4 0 0 0 5 0 3 0 0 2 3 4 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 3 0 4 3 0 4 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 1 0 0 4

0 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 5 3 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 0 I 5 1 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 0 3 3 3 1 0 3

4 0 0 0 3 0 4 0 0 3 3 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 4 0 4 1 0 4 4 4 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 3

0 1 3 1 0 5 1 2 1 0 0 0 2 4 4 2 4 1 3 1 1 5 1 0 3 1 0 0 0 3 4 2 3 3 1 1 0 1 0 3 5 1

0 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 2 2 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 2 1 4 2 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 3 0 1 3 l 2 3 4 1 0 2

4 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 4 4 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 4 0 0 0 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 3 1 0 2

3 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 4 2 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 1 3 0 0 2 3 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 3 1 0 2

3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 4 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

D r e a m valuation 43 44 45 46

2 0 1 0

0 0 1 0

2 0 1 0

0 5 4 3

1 0 1 0

4 0 0 0

2 0 1 0

0 0 0 0

Note. Rows represent valuations and c o l u m n s represent affect t e r m s used for indices S,

O, P, and N.

175

T H E D R E A M IN T H E PROCESS O F VALUATION

Table A3

Raw Ratings of Karin 's First Self-Investigation (Study 3) Affect Term Valuation n u m b e r

1

3

5

6

7

9

10

11

13

14

17

20

22

25

26

28

5 5 1 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 0 4 0 1 0 2 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 5 3 5 0 0 5 5 4

0 1 4 ! 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 1 2 4 3 5 5 5 5 5 2 5 5 5 2 0 0 0 0 5 2 0 0 1

0 2 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 4 2 3 3 4 3 4 5 3 5 5 4 5 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 0 0 1

0 1 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 0 4 3 5 3 5 4 3 5 5 4 5 5 4 1 0 0 1 0 5 4 1 0 0

0 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 2 1 4 3 5 5 2 5 5 3 4 5 3 2 0 0 0 0 5 5 0 0 1

5 5 1 5 5 5 5 5 4 2 0 5 1 2 0 3 1 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 5 5 5 0 0 5 5 5

1 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 5 1 5 5 5 4 5 5 1 2 5 4 2 4 5 0 0 1

5 5 2 4 5 5 5 5 5 3 0 5 0 1 0 1 0 0 5 0 1 1 0 0 0 4 5 5 4 5 0 0 5 5 3

0 2 0 5

5 2 1 0

1 0 1 0

5 0 5 0

5 1 5 0

0 5 0 5

4 0 2 0

0 5 0 5

Wake valuation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 5 0 5 1 4 2 5 5 1 5 5 5 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 0 0 0

0 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4 1 5 4 4 4 5 4 1 5 5 4 5 5 3 1 4 0 I 3 4 5 1 0 2

0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 0 5 1 4 2 5 5 1 5 5 4 5 5 5 0 1 0 0 0 4 4 0 0 0

3 5 5 5 5 4 4 3 5 3 0 5 5 4 0 5 2 ! 5 I 1 0 0 0 3 5 4 5 4 4 1 0 5 5 5

0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 1 4 4 5 2 4 5 ! 5 5 5 5 5 5 1 3 1 2 2 4 4 0 0 !

0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 5 1 4 2 5 4 1 5 4 5 5 5 4 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 0 0 0

1 5 4 4 4 0 0 0 1 0 4 0 1 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 0 0 1 3 4 0 0 1 0 5 4 1 5 5

0 3 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 1 2 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 1 0 0 1 0 5 5 0 3 3

D r e a m valuation 36 37 38 39

5 3 5 0

1 0 1 0

Note. Rows represent valuations and

3 0 5 0

4 5 0 5

0 0 4 0

3 0 5 0

4 1 5 0

5 4 5 0

c o l u m n s represent affect t e r m s used for the indices S, O, P, a n d N. R e c e i v e d S e p t e m b e r 24, 1985 R e v i s i o n r e c e i v e d D e c e m b e r 1, 1986 A c c e p t e d J a n u a r y 9, 1987 9