Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-19215-6 - The Divini zation of Caesar and Augustus: Precedents, Consequences, Implications Michael Koortbojian Frontmatter More information

T h e D i vi n i zat i o n o f Ca e sar an d Au g u st u s

This book examines the new institution of divinization that emerged as a political phenomenon at the end of the Roman Republic with the deification of Julius Caesar. Michael Koortbojian addresses the myriad problems related to Caesar’s, and subsequently Augustus’, divinization, in a sequence of studies devoted to the complex character of the new imperial system. These investigations focus on the broad spectrum of forms – monumental, epigraphic, numismatic, and those of social ritual – used to represent the most novel imperial institutions: divinization, a monarchical princeps, and a hereditary dynasty. Throughout, political and religious iconography is enlisted to serve in the study of these new Roman institutions, from their slow emergence to their gradual evolution and eventual conventionalization. Michael Koortbojian is Professor of Roman Art and Archaeology at Princeton University. He is the author of numerous articles on Roman art and Renaissance antiquarianism, and his book Myth, Meaning, and Memory on Roman Sarcophagi was published in 1995. He has been a Fellow of the Warburg Institute, Kings College Cambridge, and the American Academy in Rome.

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T h e D i vi n i zat i o n o f Ca e sar an d Au g u st u s Precedents, Consequences, Implications

Michael Koortbojian Princeton University

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32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10013-2473, USA Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521192156 © Michael Koortbojian 2013 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2013 Printed in the United States of America A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data Koortbojian, Michael. The divinization of Caesar and Augustus: precedents, consequences, implications / Michael Koortbojian, Princeton University pages cm Includes bibliographical reference and index. ISBN 978-0-521-19215-6 (hardback) 1. Emperor worship – Rome. 2. Caesar, Julius – Cult. 3. Caesar, Julius – Art. 4. Caesar, Julius – Monuments. 5. Augustus, Emperor of Rome 63 B.C.–14 A.D. – Cult. 6. Augustus, Emperor of Rome, 63 B.C.–14 A.D. – Art. 7. Augustus, Emperor of Rome, 63 B.C.–14 A.D. – Monuments. I. Title. DG124.K66 2013 937′.07–dc23 2013015611 ISBN 978-0-521-19215-6 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-19215-6 - The Divini zation of Caesar and Augustus: Precedents, Consequences, Implications Michael Koortbojian Frontmatter More information

R.B. M.H.C. T.H.

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CONTENTS

List of Illustrations Preface Abbreviations

I Making Men Gods

page xi xvii xxi 1

Divine Honors for Caesar?

4

Deus and Divus

7

Three Claims

9

Four Assumptions

10

Prospectus

13

II The Question of Caesar’s Divinity and the Problem of His Cult Statue

15

The Problem of Cult Statues

17

Making Divus Julius

21

Mors Honoresque Caesaris

24

Sidus Iulium

27

Cicero’s Evidence

29

Cicero’s Challenge to Antony

31

The Simulacrum of Philippics II

36

The Aedes Divi Iulii and Its Statue

39

Two Visions of the Divus

45

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Contents III Augural Images: Old Traditions, New Institutions

50

The Augurs and Their Competences

50

The Memory of Attus Navius and the Power of His Priesthood

53

Augurs in the Public Eye

56

Imagines Augurales

60

The Lituus and Its Symbolism

63

An Image of the Auspices?

73

IV Romulus, Quirinus, G E N I U S , D I V U S

78

Romulus, Quirinus, and the Statue of Caesar

84

Invictus Quirinus?

88

A Change of Costume

91

V Caesar’s Portrait

94

The Statues and Their Imagery

95

The Portraits

100

Other “Caesars”

106

Typologies and Inconsistencies

110

Some Other Multiply Attested Portraits

112

Historical Circumstances and the Transformation of Types

114

Caesar’s Crown

118

From Republic to Empire

126

VI Auspicious, Propitious, Victorious

129

Worshipping the New Divus

130

Proteros Kaisar

133

The Bringer of Victory

138

Propitius Divus

144

Under the Emperor’s Auspices

146

VII Representation in an Era of Divinization

155

Numen Violatum

156

Public versus Private Cult

158

The Differing Character of Private Honors in the Public Sphere

160

Cult Honors and the Dedication of Sacra Privata

165

Augustan Numen and Numen Augusti

170

The Status and Form of the Shrines

179

The Longevity of Honors

180

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Contents The Status of Statues

182

The Monument of the Aenatores

186

VIII A D U R B E M E T and Its Fate

EX

U R B E : The Imagery of the D I V U S 191

Public and Private Honors ad Urbem

192

Super Ceteros Mortales

193

Nude Statues, in Public and in Private

198

Nudity at Rome, Nudity Outside of Rome

203

The Image of Divus Augustus

211

To Look Like a Divus

217

IX Coda: Reverberations in the East

227

Notes

237

Works Cited

283

Index of Ancient Authors

313

Index of Inscriptions

321

Index of Coins

325

Index of Works of Art

327

General Index

331

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I L L U S T RAT I O N S

I.1. I.2. II.1. II.2. II.3. II.4. II.5. II.6. II.7. II.8. II.9. II.10. II.11. II.12. II.13. II.14. II.15. III.1. III.2. III.3.

Divus Julius: cult statue (augur). RRC 540/2, rev., 36 B.C., page 10 Divus Julius: cult statue (hipmantled). RRC 540/2, rev., 36 B.C., 11 Libertas. RRC 433/1, obv., ca. 54 B.C., 16 Capitoline Triad. RRC 296/1, rev., ca. 112–11 B.C., 18 Enthroned Jupiter statue in Capitoline Temple. RIC II, 70, no. 452, rev., A.D. 71, 18 Terracotta Hercules and Minerva acroterion from the Forum Boarium. Rome, Antiquarium Comunale. Mid sixth century B.C., 22 Victory crowns triumphator. RRC 367, rev., ca. 82, 23 Ferculum with statues in triumphal procession (from Amiternum). Limestone relief. Chieti, Museo Archeologico Nazionale dell’Abruzzo. Claudian, 33 Caesar’s sella and corona. RRC 497/2d, rev., 42 B.C., 35 Apotheosis scene from the Belvedere Altar. Marble. Vatican Museums. 12–2 B.C., 41 View of Aedes Divi Iulii in Forum, 43 Cult statue of Jupiter and Libertas. RRC 391/2, rev., 75 B.C., 45 Algiers cult statue relief. Marble. Algiers, Musée Nationale d’Antiquities. Julio-Claudian, 46 The Julio-Claudian Dynasty. Marble. Ravenna, San Vitale. Claudian, 46 Divus Julius crowned by Augustus. RIC I, 77, no. 173 = RIC2 I, 74, no. 415 = Giard 1976, nos. 555–9, 12 B.C., 47 Torso of Augustus (?) statue. Marble. Cherchel, Musée Archéologique. Augustan, 47 Reconstruction of the Aedes Divi Iulii and its cult statue, 48 Aeneas sacrificing. Rome, from the Ara Pacis, west side. Marble. 13–9 B.C., 55 Augustus with lituus. RIC2 I, 61, no. 275a = BMCRE, I, 106, no. 650, obv., ca. 31–28 B.C., 58 Tiberius with lituus. RPC 83, A.D. 14–37, 58

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Illustrations III.4. Apotheosis of Caesar Claudius Germanicus. Sardonyx. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, Cabinet des Médailles. After A.D. 54, 59 III.5. Minucius Monument. RRC 242/1, rev., 135 B.C., 62 III.6. Numa sacrificing. RRC 334/1, rev., ca. 97 B.C., 62 III.7. Cornificius augur, crowned. RRC 509/2, rev., 42 B.C., 63 III.8. Equestrian Octavian with lituus. RRC 497/1, rev., 42 B.C., 63 III.9. Sulla coin with lituus. RRC 359/1, rev., ca. 84/83 B.C., 65 III.10. Augural implements and trophy. RRC 460/3, rev., 47–6 B.C., 66 III.11. Augural implements. RRC 374/2, rev., 81 B.C., 66 III.12. Genius populi Romani. RRC 428/3, obv., 55 B.C., 68 III.13. Jupiter’s eagle with thunderbolt, lituus, and jug. RRC 428/3, rev., 55 B.C., 68 III.14. Helmeted head of Roma. AR denarius. RRC 285/2, obv., 116/115 B.C., 69 III.15. Jupiter with thunderbolt in Triumph; lituus above. RRC 285/2, rev., 116/115 B.C., 69 III.16. Sulla coin with lituus. RRC 359/1, rev., ca. 84/83 B.C., 70 III.17. Venus. RRC 359/1, obv., ca. 84/83 B.C., 70 III.18. Victory crowns triumphator. RRC 367, rev., ca. 82 B.C., 71 III.19. Roma. RRC 367, obv., ca. 82 B.C., 71 III.20. Antonius as augur. RRC 533/2, obv., 38 B.C., 73 III.21. Vicus Sandaliarius altar. Marble. Uffizi, Florence, 74 III.22. Augural chickens in cage (detail). Marble. Rome, Palazzo Albani del Drago. After A.D. 100, 75 IV.1. Temple Quirinus pediment relief. Marble. Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano delle Terme. A.D. 81–96, 79 IV.2. Temple Mars Ultor pediment relief. Marble. Rome, Villa Medici. A.D. 41–54, 80 IV.3. Sorrento Base (Romulus?). Marble. Sorrento, Museo Correale. Late Augustan, 81 IV.4. “Origins of Rome” painting (Pompeii V,4,13: Naples, Museo Archeologico). Augustan (?), 83 IV.5. Temple of Mars (?) pediment relief with Rhea Silvia and twins. Marble. Rome, Museo Nazionale delle Terme. Trajanic, 83 IV.6. Romulus trophaiophoros from Pompeii (IX,13,5). Fresco (watercolor copy), 90 IV.7. Genius populi Romani, standing. RRC 329/1, rev., 100 B.C., 92 IV.8. Genius populi Romani, seated. RRC 397, rev., 74 B.C., 92 IV.9. Genius populi Romani. Boscoreale silver cup (detail). Paris, Musée du Louvre. 9 B.C., 93 V.1. Apotheosis of Lucius Verus. Marble. Ephesus Monument. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum. A.D. 140/160, 96 V.2. Via Cassia terracotta relief. Rome, Museo Nazionale delle Terme / Palazzo Massimo. Trumviral (?), 97 V.3. Villa Casali relief. Engraving from Piranesi, Vasi, II, taf. 75, 97 V.4. Octavian coin with globe underfoot. RIC2 I, 59, no. 256 = BMCRE I, 100, no. 615, rev., 31–29 B.C., 98 V.5. Temple of Clementia Caesaris. RRC 480/21, obv., 44 B.C., 99 V.6. Tusculum Caesar, frontal. Marble. Turin. Augustan (?), 102 V.7. Caesar. RRC 480/6, obv., 44 B.C., 102 V.8. Caesar, frontal. Marble. Woburn Abbey. Augustan, 102

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Illustrations V.9. V.10. V.11. V.12. V.13. V.14. V.15. V.16. V.17. V.18. V.19. V.20. V.21. V.22. V.23. V.24. V.25. V.26. V.27. V.28. V.29. V.30. V.31. V.32. V.33. V.34. V.35. V.36. V.37. V.38. V.39. V.40. V.41. V.42. VI.1. VI.2.

Caesar, frontal. Marble. Florence, priv. coll. Augustan, 102 Caesar, frontal. Marble. Pantelleria. Claudian, 103 Caesar, profile. Marble. Pantelleria. Claudian, 103 Tusculum Caesar, profile. Marble. Turin. Augustan, 103 Caesar, frontal. Marble. Pisa, Camposanto. Augustan, 104 Caesar, profile. Marble. Pisa, Camposanto. Augustan, 104 Chiaramonti Caesar, frontal. Marble. Vatican Museums. Augustan, 105 Chiaramonti Caesar, profile. Marble. Vatican Museums. Augustan, 105 Caesar, frontal. Marble. Rome, Staderini collection. Augustan, 106 Caesar, profile. Marble. Rome, Staderini collection. Augustan, 106 McClendon Caesar, frontal. Marble. J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu. Augustan, 107 McClendon Caesar, profile. Marble. J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu. Augustan, 107 Arles Caesar. Marble. Arles, Museum. Augustan (?), 108 “Caesar,” frontal. Leiden. Marble. Augustan, 109 Diagram of Pisa/Chiaramonti variants, 110 Caesar, profile. Florence, priv. coll. Marble. Augustan, 111 Caesar, profile. Woburn Abbey. Marble. Augustan, 111 Crassus. Marble. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen. Julio-Claudian, 113 Crassus. Marble. Paris, Louvre. Julio-Claudian, 113 Tivoli “General” (detail), frontal. Marble. Rome, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Museo Nazionale Romano, 114 Tivoli “General” portrait head, frontal. Marble. Vatican Museums, 114 Palazzo Barberini “General,” portrait head, frontal. Marble. Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano delle Terme, 115 Apollonia (Tirana) replica of the Palazzo Barberini “General”: head, frontal. Marble. Tirana, Archeological Museum, 115 Lex Rufrena. Inscribed statue base. Stone. Vatican Museums. Augustan, 116 Caesar divi filius. RRC 535/1, obv., ca. 38 B.C., 116 Divos Iulius. RRC 535/1, rev., ca. 38 B.C., 116 Augustus portrait. Marble. Pontevedra (Spain). Augustan, 117 “Caesar” with corona civica, frontal. Marble. Thasos, Museum. Julio-Claudian, 121 The comet of Divus Julius. RIC I, 84, no. 253 = RIC2 I, 44, no. 37b, rev., ca. 20 B.C. (?), 122 Divus Julius with star atop crown. RIC I, 73, no. 141 = RIC2 I, 66, no. 340, rev., ca. 17 B.C., 122 Tusculum Caesar, back view. Turin, Museum. Augustan, 124 Juba II, profile. Marble. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, 124 Diademed Greek ruler. Bronze. Princeton Art Museum, ca. 275–250 B.C., 124 Divus Julius and Caesar divi filius. RPC 517, obv., ca. 36 B.C. (?), 125 Divus Julius with star. RRC 480/5b, obv., ca. 44 B.C., 132 Breastplate of the Augustus from Prima Porta. Marble. Vatican Museums. Augustan, 137

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Illustrations VI.3. Augustus crowned by Divus Julius. RPC 1650. (Augustan) Claudian reissue, 138 VI.4. Silver Victoriatus. RRC 53/1, rev., ca. 211 B.C., 140 VI.5. Venus proffering the victoriola. RRC 480/3, rev., 44 B.C., 140 VI.6. Victory atop the globe. RIC I, 62, no. 27 = RIC2 no. 254b., ca. 31–29 B.C., 141 VI.7. Octavian proferring the victoriola. RIC2 I, 60, no. 270, rev., ca. 31–29 B.C., 141 VI.8. Octavian portrait with Jupiter’s thunderbolt. RIC2 I, 60, no.270, obv., ca. 31–29 B.C., 141 VI.9. Octavian atop rostral column. RIC2 I, 60, no. 271, rev., ca. 35 B.C., 142 VI.10. Augustus restores rights and laws. Aureus, ca. 29 B.C., 143 VI.11. Augustus as world ruler. Silver cup from Boscoreale. Paris, Musée du Louvre. 9 B.C. (?), 143 VI.12. Germanicus delivers victory to Tiberius. Tiberius sheath, detail. Bronze. British Museum. After A.D. 16 (?), 147 VI.13. Cult statue of DEO AUGUSTO. RPC nos. 221–3, obv. A.D. 22, 150 VI.14. Gemma Augustea. Sardonyx. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum. Augustan, 152 VI.15. Grand Camée de France. Sardonyx. Paris, Bibliotheque National. Tiberian, 152 VI.16. Germanicus on parade before enthroned Augustus. Sardonyx. Florence, Museo Archeologico. Augustan, 153 VII.1. Seated Augustus statue. Marble. Tivoli, Museo Archeologico. After 13 B.C. (?), 164 VII.2. Tivoli site (plan). After NSc 1925. Drawing, 165 VII.3. Ara Pacis, 13–9 B.C. (view), 166 VII.4. Augustus with the flamines. Rome, Ara Pacis, south frieze (detail). Marble. 13–9 B.C., 166 VII.5. Sacro-idyllic painting with shrine from Boscotrecase. Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale. Augustan, 178 VII.6. Shrine of the Vestals. Rome, Forum Romanum, 179 VII.7. Augustus at an outdoor shrine. Belvedere Altar. Vatican Museums. 12–2 B.C., 181 VII.8. Claudius. Marble. Aquilea. Claudian, 184 VII.9. Divus Augustus. Marble. Aquilea. Claudian, 184 VII.10. Divus Augustus portrait (from a cuirassed statue). Marble. Jesi, Pinacoteca Civica, 185 VII.11. Aenatores’ monument: four-stage reconstruction drawing, 187 VIII.1. “Terme Ruler.” Bronze. Rome, Museo Nazionale delle Terme. Second century B.C. (?), 196 VIII.2. Hipmantled man. Bronze. Brindisi. Museo Archeologico Provinciale “Francesco Ribezzo,” 196 VIII.3. Cavenzano “Navarca” statue. Marble. Aquilea, Museo Nazionale, 197 VIII.4. Capua “Narvarca” statue. Marble. Capua, Museo Provinciale Campano di Capua, 197 VIII.5. Delos fragment. Marble. Delos, Archaeological Museum, 197 VIII.6. Tivoli “General” statue. Marble. Rome, Palazzo Massimo / Museo Nazionale Romano delle Terme. Ca. 80 B.C., 197

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Illustrations VIII.7. Via Salaria funerary relief (now lost). Marble, 199 VIII.8. Man wearing Greek himation (from the Villa dei Papiri, Herculaneum). Marble. Naples, Museo Archeologico. Julio-Claudian, 200 VIII.9. Man wearing Greek himation on an Etruscan kline (from Volterra). Marble. Volterra, Museo Etrusco Guarnacci. Ca. 200 B.C., 201 VIII.10. L. Cornelius Pusio portrait. Bronze. Rome, Museo Nazionale delle Terme. Late sixties A.D., 202 VIII.11. C. Cartilius Poplicola. Marble. Ostia, Museo Archeologico. Late republican (Triumviral period), 203 VIII.12. Nude Claudius (from Herculaneum). Bronze. Naples, Museo Nazionale. Claudian, 206 VIII.13. Nude seated Claudius (from Cerverteri). Marble. Vatican Museums. Claudian, 206 VIII.14. Octavian, from Tusculum. Marble. Paris, Louvre, 208 VIII.15. Augustus portrait (from Pergamon). Marble. Istanbul, 209 VIII.16. Genius/paterfamilias (from the house of Vettii, Pompeii), 210 VIII.17. Genius Augusti. BMCRE I, 248, no. 251 = RIC2 I, 163, no. 215, rev., ca. A.D. 64–66, 211 VIII.18. Seated Divus Augustus statue from the Theater of Marcellus. RIC I, 106, no. 20 = BMCRE I, 130, no. 74, rev., A.D. 22–23, 211 VIII.19. Arles Augustus (reconstruction: Boschung). Marble, 212 VIII.20. Arles Apollo relief (from the theater, Arles). Arles, Museum, 213 VIII.21. Nude Divus Augustus (from Herculaneum). Bronze. Naples, Museo Nazionale. Claudian, 214 VIII.22. Enthroned Divus Augustus from the Rostra at Leptis Magna. Marble. Tripoli, Archaeological Museum, 215 VIII.23. Enthroned Claudius from the Rostra at Leptis Magna. Marble. Tripoli, Archaeological Museum, 215 VIII.24. Hipmantled Tiberius from Nemi. Marble. Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, 216 VIII.25. Claudius sacrificing before statues of Divus Augustus and Livia (as Venus). Round altar. Marble. Abellinum, Museo Irpino, 218 VIII.26. Deceased Germanicus and his wife, Agrippina the elder, flanking trophy. Round altar. Marble. Abellinum, Museo Irpino, 218 VIII.27. Dedicant (?) and Antonia the younger (mother of Germanicus). Round altar. Marble. Abellinum, Museo Irpino, 218 VIII.28. Augustus/Diomedes, from Otricoli. Marble. Vatican Museums, 221 VIII.29. Pompeian portrait: Doryphoros model. Naples, Museo Nazionale, 221 VIII.30. Nude citizen from the theater at Venafro. Venafro, Museo Archeologico, 222 VIII.31. Nude citizen from the theater at Venafro. Venafro, Museo Archeologico, 222 VIII.32. Nude young man (“Formia III”). Marble. Formia, Museo Archeologico, 224 VIII.33. Nude man (“Formia II”). Marble. Formia, Museo Archeologico, 224 VIII.34. Nude man (“Formia I”). Marble. Formia, Museo Archeologico, 225

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Illustrations VIII.35. “Augustus Versospi.” Marble. Vatican Museums, 225 IX.1. Roma crowns Augustus. Pergamene cistophoros. BMCRE I, 196, no. 228 = RIC2 I, 131, no. 120 = RPC 2221. Claudian, 230 IX.2. Augustus crowned. Marble. Aprhodisias, Sebasteion, 231 IX.3. Temple of Roma and Augustus with hipmantled emperor. Nicomeidan cistophoros. BMCRE III, 396, no. 1096 = RIC2 II 396; no. 459a. Hadrianic, 232 IX.4. Temple of Roma and Augustus with cuirassed emperor. Nicomedian cistophoros. BMCRE III, 396, no. 1097 = RIC2 II, 396, no. 459b. Hadrianic, 232 IX.5. Emperor crowned by Fortuna (?). Pergamene cisotophoros. BMC Mysia, 142, no. 263. Trajanic, 233 IX.6. Emperor crowned by Fortuna (?) with additional figure (?). Nicomedian cistophoros. BMC Pontus 108, no. 32. Hadrianic, 233 IX.7. Greek imperial funerary monument with hipmantled figure. Marble. Verona, 235

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P R E FAC E

This is a book that has been long in the making. An early exposition of the basic arguments expounded in Chapters I–III and VIII was presented as a lecture at the American Academy in Rome in 1999, and a more concise version in Toronto later that same year. More recently, part of Chapter IV was given as a lecture at the University of Pennsylvania (2010); some aspects of Chapter V at the University of Iowa (2010); portions of Chapter VII at the Columbia University Seminar in Classics (2010); and a version of Chapter VIII at the Roman Art Seminar in London (2011). I am indebted to the audiences on all of these occasions for their stimulating responses. In addition, material related to Chapter VI appeared in “Crossing the Pomerium: The Armed Ruler at Rome,” in The Emperor and Rome, ed. B. C. Ewald and C. Noreña (Cambridge, 2010), and a large portion of Chapter VI was included in an essay entitled “The Bringer of Victory” in Representations of War in Ancient Rome, ed. S. Dillon and K. Welch (Cambridge, 2006). The book’s different chapters constitute relatively independent essays devoted to a sequence of interrelated historical problems. I have endeavored to make plain those interrelationships, with as little repetition as seemed feasible – although a fair amount of redundancy has proven inevitable, in order that each chapter might have some sense of self-sufficiency. In these essays I have tried to offer a wide-ranging investigation of several specific historical phenomena, and in so doing have been compelled to enter fields that are hardly my own. The writings of several scholars have provided much-needed direction, and the exemplary works of four of them – Duncan Fishwick, Jerzy Linderski, John Scheid, and, above all, Stefan Weinstock – deserve special mention, for my debt is profound; indeed, their names might well have appeared more frequently amid the notes than they already do.

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Preface Turning to my own field, I have relied extensively, as shall be clear, particularly in Chapters VII and VIII, on the comprehensive works of Dietrich Boschung, Christopher Hallett, and Brian Rose; it is my hope that they will regard what I have attempted to do as both a compliment and a complement. The bibliography, long enough as it is, makes no pretension to be comprehensive; to have cited it all would have more than doubled the size of a list already unwieldy, which is constantly expanded by new publications that address the topics treated here, and I have tried to take account of as many of these contributions as was possible – some of which reach similar, some dissimilar, conclusions to my own. And many scholars might have been referred to with even more regularity, but I have refrained in order not to further overburden the already abundant citations, with which I have tried not only to acknowledge those to whom I have been directly indebted for specific information or whose ideas I have depended on explicitly, but to signal those contributions that have played an important if only implicit role in the formation of my own views. Citations of work published after 2010, when the manuscript was submitted, are highly selective. My translations of the Latin authors owe much to those of the Loeb Classical Library, and at times – as is the case with all those of the Greek authors – borrow directly; translations of the epigraphic materials are my own. This leaves only the great pleasure of thanking all of those individuals and institutions whose generosity has made the writing of this book possible. For research funds I am grateful to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for three years of support, the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation for a fellowship at the American Academy in Rome, and both The Johns Hopkins University and Princeton University. No scholarly work can be accomplished without libraries. I am much indebted to the following and their staffs: the Library of the American Academy in Rome, the Robarts Library of the University of Toronto, the Sheridan Library of The Johns Hopkins University, the library of the German Archaeological Institute in Rome, and the Marquand and Firestone Libraries of Princeton University. Many friends and colleagues have over the years provided advice, criticisms, and assistance of varying kinds, and I should like to thank in particular Yelena Baraz, Tim Barnes, Seth Bernard, Dietrich Boschung, Christer Bruun, Matteo Cadario, Ted Champlin, Christina Corsiglia, Werner Eck, Jonathan Edmondson, Lisa Fentress, Harriet Flower, Michael Flower, Nicholas Horsfall, Brad Inwood, Barbara Kellum, Ann Kuttner, Daria Lanzuolo, W.-R. Megow, Tim Moore, Josiah Osgood, Clementina Panella, Michael Putnam, Matt Roller, Thomas Schäfer, Susan Walker, and Paul Zanker. Finally, three individuals have, for nearly thirty years, in their very different ways, provided the examples that have shaped all of my scholarly endeavors.

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Preface They are acknowledged by the dedication with profound gratitude for the inspiring intelligence of their scholarship, their enduring friendship, their constant encouragement, and last, but surely not least, their unflagging criticisms. It is no exaggeration to say that I am indebted to them for much if not most of what may be of value in the pages that follow. The flaws are all mine. Princeton, 2013

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AB B R E V I AT I O N S

AA ActaAArtHist ActaClDebrec AE AJA AJAH AJN AJP AnalRom ANRW ANSMN AntCl ArchCl ARG ArtB BA BCH BdA BÉFAR BICS BJb BMC BMCRE BMCRR BSFN BullCom

Archäologischer Anzeiger Acta ad archaeologiam et artium historiam pertinentia Acta classica Universitatis Scientiarum Debreceniensis L ’Année épigraphique American Journal of Archaeology American Journal of Ancient History American Journal of Numismatics American Journal of Philology Analecta Romana Instituti Danici Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt American Numismatic Society Museum Notes L’Antiquité Classique Archeologia classica: rivista della Scuola naz. di Archeologia, pubbl. a cura degli Ist. di Archeologia e Storia dell’arte greca e romana Archiv für Religionsgeschichte The Art Bulletin Bolletino di Archeologia Bulletin de correspondance hellénique Bollettino d’arte Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies of the University of London Bonner Jahrbücher des rheinischen Landesmuseums in Bonn und des Vereins von Altertumsfreunden im Rheinlande Catalog of Greek Coins. British Museum, Department of Coins and Medals, 1873ff. H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum. London, 1965 [1923–36]. H. A. Grueber, Coins of the Roman Republic in the British Museum. 3 vols. London, 1920. Bulletin de la Société française de numismatique Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica comunale di Roma

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Abbreviations CAH CCCA CCG CIL CJ ClAnt CLE CNR CP CQ DFG DialArch EchCl GaR GGA Helbig4 HSCP HTR ICLW IG IGR ILLRP ILS Inscr. It. IRT JdI JRA JRGZM JRS Kleine Pauly LIMC LTUR MAAR MDAI(I) MDAI(M) MDAI(R) MEFR MEFRA MemLinc MGR

Cambridge Ancient History Corpus cultus Cybelae Attidisque, ed. M. J. Vermaseren. Leiden, 1900–. Cahiers du Centre Gustave Glotz Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Berlin, 1862–. Classical Journal Classical Antiquity Carmina latina epigraphica. F. Buecheler, ed. (Suppl., ed. E. Lommatzsch.) 3 fasc. Leipzig, 1895–1926. Corpus Nummorum Romanorum, ed. A. Banti and L. Simmonetti. Florence, 1972–73. Classical Philology Classical Quarterly Deutsches Forschungs Gemeinschaft Dialoghi di Archeologia Echos du monde classique / Classical Views Greece and Rome Göttingische Gelehrte Anzeiger W. Helbig, Führer durch die öffentlichen Sammlungen klassischer Altertümer in Rom. Tübingen, 1963–72. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology Harvard Theological Review D. Fishwick, Imperial Cult in the Latin West. Leiden, 1987–2005. Inscriptiones Graecae. Berlin, 1873–. Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas Pertinentes, ed. R. Cagnat et al. Paris, 1906–27. Inscriptiones Latinae Liberae Rei Publicae, ed. A. Degrassi, 2 vols. Florence, 1965. Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, ed. H. Dessau, 3 vols. Berlin, 1892– 1916; reprint, 5 vols., Chicago, 1979. Inscriptiones Italicae, ed. A. Degrassi. Rome, 1947–. Inscriptions of Roman Tripolitania, ed. J. M. Reynolds and J. B. Ward Perkins. Rome, 1952. Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Journal of Roman Archaeology Jahrbuch des Römisch-germanischen Zentralmuseums, Mainz Journal of Roman Studies Der Kleine Pauly. Lexikon der Antike in fünf Bänden, ed. K. Ziegler and W. Sontheimer. Munich, 1979. Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae, ed. E. M. Steinby. Rome, 1996. Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Instanbul Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Madrid Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Rom Mélanges d’Archéologie et d’Histoire de l’ école Française de Rome Mélanges d’Archéologie et d’Histoire de l’ école Française de Rome, Antiquité Atti dell’Accademia nazionale dei Lincei, Classe di scienze morali, storiche e filologiche. Memorie. Miscellanea greca e romana

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Abbreviations MH MNR

WJA ZAKMIRA

Museum Helveticum Museo Nazionale Romano. Le Sculture, ed. A. Giuliano, 12 vols. Rome, 1979–91. Monuments et mémoires. Fondation E. Piot T. R. S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, I [1951]. Atlanta, 1986. Maison de la Recherche en Sciences Humaines Numismatic Chronicle Notizie degli scavi di antichità W. Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae. Leipzig, 1903–5. Opuscula Romana: acta Inst. Rom. Regni Sueciae Papers of the British School at Rome Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society Revue Archéologique Real-Encyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, ed. A. Pauly, G. Wissowa, and W. Kroll. Stuttgart, 1893–. Revue des Études Anciennes Revue des Études Latines Rendiconti. Classe di lettere e scienze morali e storiche, Istituto lombardo, Accademia di scienze e lettere Rendiconti. Atti della Pontificia accademia romana di archeologia Res Gestae Divi Augusti. The Achievements of the Divine Augustus, ed. P. A. Brunt and J. M. Moore [1967]. Oxford. Roman Imperial Coinage, ed. H. Mattingly and E. A. Sydenham. London, 1923. C. H. V. Sutherland, Roman Imperial Coinage, I: 31 BC–AD 69. London, 1984. Die römischen Inschriften von Tarraco, ed. G. Alföldy. Berlin, 1975. Rivista di filologia e d’istruzione classica Revue Numismatique A. Burnett, M. Amandry, and P. P. Ripollès, Roman Provincial Coinage, 2 vols. London and Paris, 1992. M. H. Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage. Cambridge, 1974. Roman Statutes, ed. M. H. Crawford, 2 vols. London, 1996. Scripta Classica Israelica Studia et Documenta Historiae et Iuris Supplementum epigraphicum Graecum (1923–) W. Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum, 3. Leipzig, 1915–24. Studi e materiali di storia delle religioni Sylloge nummorum graecorum (Denmark) Studi miscellanei. Seminario di archeologia e storia dell’arte greca e romana dell’Università di Roma Symbolae Osloenses Transactions of the American Philological Association Thesaurus Cultus et Rituum Antiquorum, ed. V. Lambrinoudakis and J.-C. Balty, 5 vols. Los Angeles, 2004. Würzburger Jahrbücher für die Altertumswissenschaft Zentrum für die antiken Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes

ZPE

Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik

MonPiot MRR MRSH NC NSc OGIS OpRom PBSR PCPhS RA RE REA REL RendIstLomb RendPontAc RG RIC RIC2 RIT RivFil RN RPC RRC RS SCI SDHI SEG SIG SMSR SNG StMisc SymbOslo TAPA ThesCRA

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