THE BANTU MIGRATIONS ORIGIN The actual origins or the Bantu is shrouded in mystery. However, Bantu is a common term used to refer to the over 400 different ethnic groups of Africa stretching from borders of the Sahara desert to South Africa that have similar languages and to some extent customs. Their movements have been called migrations because they are large scale movements over long distances. It is important however to understand that these movements did not occur all at once. They took place in several phases. The Bantu speaking people were actually part of the Iron Age people from the Middle East areas of Northern Africa. They originally settled along the banks of the Nile River. Later, they moved west across North Africa and occupied some areas in the ancient Saharan grasslands. From there, they moved to the area around Lake Chad, Nigeria and the highlands of Cameroon called the Benue-Cross region. However, some also settled in the great lakes region in east Africa. These people were given the name „Bantu‟ because of the similarities that were noticed in their languages. For example, the prefix „ba-‟ and the suffix „-ntu‟ was actually common among the languages they spoke. CAUSES The drying up of the Sahara grasslands led the groups that practiced agriculture to migrate in search of new fertile land and water for farming. There was a great population increase, causing others to migrate in search for new land. Changes in occupations from agriculture to hunting, herding, and metallurgy. Successive disputes between various tribes led to the migration of some groups. This normally happened when a king died and members of the royal family quarreled about who should succeed. Criminals and formerly enslaves people migrated in order to run away from being punished or killed. Tribal wars caused migrations as defeated tribes ran away from powerful ones for safety and to avoid enslavement. The slave trade contributed to the migrations in order to avoid being attacked and sold as slaves. Some groups or individuals migrated to follow large herds of animals that supported their economy. Another reason that led to the Bantu migrations was that of expansion. Some rulers wanted to expand their kingdoms and therefore caused weaker tribes to migrate to new regions to avoid being conquered. First group Traveled southeast and southwest from the fringes of the Sahara Desert to the regions of the Western and Eastern Sudan (meaning “Land of the Blacks” in Arabic). This was around the 1st to the 3rd Century. They settled here because of the fertile land, minerals, and grazing land. Interaction with other Arab-African Nomadic groups established strong trading ties by the 9th Century

Second group Passed through the Congo Forest, avoided Zaire River, and settled in Katanga or Shaba. This was about the 5th century. They settled here because of the fertile land, good rainfall, minerals, and grazing land. Interacted with the Portuguese in the early 15th Century who introduced them to new crops like, maize, sweet potatoes, and bananas. Third group This group included the Sotho and Nguni who went north east via Tanzania and through the western side of Lake Malawi. They settled in Mashonaland. Here, they were forced out by the Rozwi, Shona and the Karanga. The group went to settle in South Africa. This occurred between 9th and the 14th century. Fourth group Migrated around the 14th century. Settled western side of Lake Malawi. The descendants of this group are the Tumbuka, Nsenga, Kamanga and Tonga of Malawi. Another group of the Shona, Rozwi, and Karanga took a short cut, crossed the Zambezi River and settled in Mashonland.

WAYS OF LIFE Economic The Bantu were agriculturists who grew crops like sorghum, millet, beans, maize, and sweet potatoes. They were pastoralists who kept animals like cattle, pigs, goats. They were hunters who hunted wild game for meat. They were also smelters and also made farming implements Pottery makers, made channel decorated type. Made baskets and mats. Social Lived in small households. Households were made of pole and daga. Roof was thatched with grass. Huts built in a secular form Kraal built in the middle for protection of the cattle. Diet included fish, meat, and vegetables. Bark of the tree used as cloth. Completely an oral cultural with tribal “griot” (gree-yaws) that maintained an oral record of the tribal history and culture

Political Family household under eldest male member. Family formed clans which formed villages. Villages headed by a headman. Villages formed a chiefdom or kingdom. Headed by a chief or king respectively. Religious Believed in a superior being. They called their superior being by different names. Their god would be approached by leaders who were semi-divine. Had different spirits for different problems. Religious ceremonies held on tombs, under the msoro tree or any other sacred place. Cattle and/or other animals would be killed only during such ceremonies. EFFECTS METALLURGY They introduced iron-working and the use of iron tools in the interior of East Africa were at first using stone tools but when iron-smelting was started, there was an increase in food production. The knowledge of iron smelting which the Bantu introduced led to the making of better weapons (bows, arrows and spears) for defense and protection against neighboring tribes. AGRICULTURE The Bantu introduced and increased the knowledge of food and extensive crop cultivation (ie: yams, bananas, beans). Earlier on, the inhabitants of East Africa were food gatherers, but with the introduction of iron tools (hoes and pangas for tilling and clearing the land), food production seriously increased. They introduced subsistence agriculture, whereby they grew enough food for home consumption, and the rest could be kept in case of shortages, or be exchanged in barter trade. LANGUAGE Their movement led to the spread of the Bantu based languages throughout Africa, including the more well known languages of Swahili, Zulu, Xhosa, Mbundu & Lingala. SOCIAL They opened new land to settlement by families and clans in permanent homes and villages based in kinship ties and both Matrilineal and Patrilocal systems. They spread the oral tradition of maintaining tribal histories through “griot” (gree-yaws). POLITICAL They introduced a kin-based system of government whereby the tribal chief acted as the overall ruler, under the guidance of a group of tribal elders. Eventually, as populations grew, bigger tribes and larger states grew with more centralized forms of government with kings ruling over many villages led by tribal chiefs. (ie: Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, Kongo, and the Swahili City-States) © One World Africa (Zambia) 2007, and ELATE (Makerere University) 2009

THE GERMANIC MIGRATIONS ORIGIN The origins of the Germanic tribes are shrouded in mystery. For the most part, the term Germanic is almost entirely a linguistic rather than a cultural term because it refers mainly to the tribal groups in Europe that spoke similar languages that derived themselves from Celtic origins. Archaeologists place the geographical origins of the Germanic peoples in southern Scandinavia or Northern Germany. Their eventual movements are called migrations their large scale movements over long distances. It is important however to understand that these movement did not occur at once. They took place in phases. The Germanic tribes were Iron Age people who settled in the regions north of the Danube River and east of the Rhine River. This region, which remained unconquered by the Roman Empire, saw an influx in migration and aggression from the 3rd and 4th centuries C.E. on into the 9th century. These movements and invasions are well documented, but are still scrutinized for the integrity and historical perspective. It is believed, however, that the Germanic languages probably came into existence as distinctly different languages than the Celtic languages around the 2nd century B.C.E. Yet, in both languages, the word “Germanic” seems to have one of two meanings: either “the fierce man” or, contrarily, “the friendly man.” No one knows for sure which meaning is the most accurate. CAUSES A period of sustained drought, extreme cold, and floods caused agricultural problems leading some groups to migrate in search of new fertile lands. There was a population increase. This created the need for more food and caused others to migrate in search of new land. Occupational changes from nomadic hunters to agricultural pastoralists. Succession disputes in some cases led to migration of some groups. This normally happened when a tribal chiefton died and members of the royal family quarreled about who should succeed him. Encroachment on tribal boundaries by outside nomadic invaders like the Huns as defeated tribes migrated away from powerful enemies for safety. Increasing contact with the Roman Empire and Romanized Celts influenced desires for increased technology for agriculture and warfare. Since most of the Germanic tribes were warrior societies, some may have migrated merely for adventure, exploration, and the thrills of battle. Another reason for the Germanic migrations was that of expansion. As problems developed in the Roman Empire, some Germanic tribes saw the opportunity to expand into the fringes of the slowly declining empire. First group (The Goths: Ostrogoths and Visigoths) Migrated from Scandinavia south into southern Russia around the 3rd Century. They settled here because of the fertile land, good rainfall, and grazing land. Interacted with the Turkish and Persian civilizations and adopted some of the agricultural, domestic, and military technology of these civilizations.

Hunnish invasions in 375 effectively destroyed the Gothic empire and inspired another round of migrations into Rome and southern Gaul (Southern France) Eventually, the Visigoths migrated into Spain and dominated the area until 711. Second group (The Vandals) Migrated from Scandinavia south into the area of Hungary & Slovakia (c. 3rd Century). They joined other Germanic and Alanic tribes and invaded Gaul and then Spain. Pressured by invasions by the Franks and the Goths, the Vandals crossed the narrow Straights of Gibralter and invaded North Africa. Eventually this war of conquest culminated in the establishment of the Vandal civilization around the ancient city of Carthage during the 5th century. Third group (The Franks) Migrated into the areas around Gaul (Modern France) in the 3rd Century. Had very little success against the Roman Legions and settled in areas ceded to them by their Roman allies. Developed from warrior clans into communities with minor kings. Bravely defended Gaul against the Huns, Vandals, and Visigoths. Developed the first great Germanic kingdom under King Clovis in 486. Fourth group (The Lombards and Burgundians) Migrated into the areas of southeastern Gaul (Burgundians) and the northeastern Italian Peninsula (Lombards). Burgundians allied themselves with the Franks around the 4th Century. Lombards developed an independent province around the 5th Century. Both developed into independent Germanic Kingdoms during the Middle Ages. WAYS OF LIFE Economic The Germans developed into good agriculturists. They were pastoralists who kept animals like horses, cattle, pigs, goats. They were hunters who hunted wild game for meat. They were also smelters and also made weapons and farming implements Their economy was based on reciprocity (giving gifts as forms of expression, social relationship, or mutual obligation) instead of trade. Eventually traded with the Romans. Social Lived in small households. Households were grouped into clans. Roof was thatched with grass. Huts built in a secular form Diet included fish, meat, and vegetables. Animal hides and furs used for clothing. Primarily oral cultures with a limited writing system called runic writing.

Political Family household under eldest male member. Family formed into warrior clans which attached themselves to a tribal lord by oaths of loyalty (Called comitatus - a term invented by the Roman historian : Tacitus). Villages were often headed by a chiefton. Villages formed a chiefdom (later into a kingdom). Headed by a tribal chief or king respectively. Religious Tribes and families originally claimed origins back to sacred animals. Individual tribes or clans adopted unique pantheons of gods (sky and storm gods were the highest of these). Their god would be approached by leaders who were shamanistic in nature. Religious ceremonies took place in groves and sometimes near bodies of water. Traditional beliefs indicate a strong sense of nature in Germanic religion. EFFECTS POLITICAL Germanic tribes settled within the boundaries of the former Roman Empire from Britania (Britain) to Gaul (France), Hispania (Spain) to North Africa, and throughout the Italian Peninsula. Germanic people lived in small communities governed by unwritten laws and traditions handed down through tribal chiefs, causing a power shift in the methods of governing (replacing the traditional loyalties to a formal centralized government and standardized laws, which had existed during the Roman Empire). Germanic traditions of loyalty to tribal chiefs and clans led to the developments of small Germanic Kingdoms throughout Europe (leading to the development of Feudalism) ECONOMIC Conflicts between encroaching Germanic tribes and Roman Legions caused the disruption of trade and the decline of cities. As cities declined, many people moved back to the countryside and took up agriculture for personal and local subsistance. LANGUAGE AND WRITING Due to the oral traditions of the Germanic tribes and the lack of desire to learn to read or write, there was a significant decline in learning and knowledge. As Germanic speaking people mingled and inter-married with the former Roman populations, Latin declined and new dialects formed. As a result, by the 800‟s, this mixing created French, Spanish, Italian, and other Latin based languages in Western Europe. RELIGION The Remnants of the Roman Catholic Church survived in Western Europe by creating Christian communities (Monasteries) and eventually converted the Germanic people. ©Richard Hooker(Washington State University) 1996, ©David Holt(Arkansas State University) 2008, and “World History – Patterns of Interaction” by McDougal-Littell, Inc., 2006

THE VIKING MIGRATIONS ORIGIN The origins of the Vikings are shrouded in mystery. Although they have been traditionally connected to the modern people of Scandinavia, there is additional evidence indicating that they were related to the Germanic tribes of the ancient Sarmatians which originally came from the lands between the Black and Baltic Seas. The movement of the early Vikings possibly started in a region of the Sarmatian homelands called Gotland (Land of the Gods). It would be the original movement of these nomadic warriors that gave the Vikings their original name. The Baltic word “Vykti” actually stands for the action of moving towards “God‟s Luck or Wealth.” Eventually, the word Viking would come to mean “Knight of the Gods” or “Knight in search of God‟s Luck.” The Vikings who migrated into western and eastern Europe were chiefly from the regions around Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Their language became the mother tongue of present day Scandinavia, Iceland, and Greenland. By the 9th Century A.D., they had started establishing settlements in northeastern Europe, Britain, France, and other Germanic regions. CAUSES Viking population was outgrowing the agricultural potential of their Scandinavian homelands. Developed occupations as Farmers, Blacksmiths, Shipbuilders, and Toolmakers Decline in trade along the traditional trade routes linking Scandinavia to the Roman Empire, the Baltic Sea, and the Middle East during the 5th Century A.D. required the Vikings to search for new trade partners. Climatic changes during the 5th – 8th Centuries A.D. melted ice packs, allowing the Vikings to begin exploration outside their traditional northern regions. Development of superior naval technologies supported the Vikings efforts to explore and discover new lands. Knowledge of the growing weakness of the Western Roman Empire and the feuding Germanic Kingdoms enticed the Vikings to seek expansion into southwestern and northeastern Europe. Encroachment into Viking territories by Germanic Christians forced the Vikings to either convert or fight fiercely against their religious persecutors. Since the Viking clans were warrior societies, some may have migrated merely for adventure, exploration, and the thrills of battle. First group (Viking Traders in the Roman Empire) Migrated from Scandinavia south along the western European coast to the Mediterranean. This was about the 5th Century A.D. Primary contact was for trade in luxury goods from the Middle East and Asia. Second group (The Invaders of Britian) Migrated from Scandinavia south to the British Isles during the 6th Century A.D. Viking pirates first raided Britain in 787 AD, as recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Raids continued for the next century, with Vikings seizing land all over the British Isles.

Third group (The Slavs and Rus) Migrated into the areas in northeastern Europe in the late 6th and early 7th Centuries A.D. Slavic clans settled along the Volga river and developed strong agricultural centers. Local villages were unified as the “Rus” under the leadership of the Scandanavian King Rurik around 870-880 A.D. “Rus” eventually made trade contacts with the Byzantine Empire and adopt Eastern Orthodox Christianity under Princess Olga and Prince Vladamir. Fourth group (The Invaders of France) Migrated into the areas of southwestern Europe (Kingdom of the Franks) in the 8th and 9th Centuries A.D. Vikings initially came in conflict with the Franks around the 8th Century. The Viking King Rollo was defeated at the Battle of Chartres by the troops of the Frankish King Charles the Simple in 911 A.D. King Charles the Simple granted King Rollo the lands in France eventually known as “Normandy” (Land of the Norsemen) in exchange for loyalty and service against other raiding tribes. WAYS OF LIFE Economic The Vikings developed into good agriculturists. The Vikings were experienced fisherman of the northern seas They were pastoralists who kept animals like horses, cattle, pigs, goats. They were hunters who hunted wild game for meat. They were also smelters and also made weapons and farming implements Their economy was based on long distance sea and land trade . Eventually traded with the Romans, Germanics, and even as far as the Middle East. Social Early tribes were centered on the old system of leidang – fleets where every ship was a unified family of sailor warriors Lived in large households (called “long houses). Households were grouped into clans. Roof was thatched with grass. Diet included fish, meat, and vegetables. Animal hides and furs used for clothing. Primarily oral cultures with a limited writing system. Series of stories called sagas made up the basis of their world views. Social Structure included Freeman, Tradesmen, Blacksmiths, and Slaves.

Political Family household under eldest male member. Family formed into warrior clans which attached themselves to a tribal lord by oaths of loyalty Villages were often headed by a chieftain. Larger political regions were headed by a tribal chief or king respectively. Vikings credited with one of the oldest forms of Parliament (open-air Althing), where free men came to resolve feuds and establish laws for their community. Religious Polytheistic religion based on fertility gods thought to help with food production, daily concerns, and natural dangers. Key gods known as Odin and Thor were worshipped primarily by the aristocratic and warrior elite. Vikings believed that their gods were almost exclusively concerned with the wisdom and warrior like activities of only Slavic people. Contact with Germanic Christians and the Byzantine Empire eventually converted the Vikings to Christianity. EFFECTS POLITICAL Viking traditions of loyalty to tribal chiefs and obligated service to their lords influenced the development of Feudalism in Europe. Viking practice of primogeniture was carried on in Europe as the Vikings and Germanic people inter-married and developed new kingdoms. Viking settlements and alliances with Germanic tribes helped to create strong new kingdoms in Normandy (France) in 911 CE, and Kiev (Land of the Rus) by 890 CE. NAVIGATION The construction and design of Viking longboats or dragonships (drakkar) would influence the adaption of shallower drafts in traditional European ships by the 15th Century. ECONOMY Viking navigation skills allowed them to establish and expand trade routes between Northern Europe, Brittany, Spain, the Mediterranean, and up the Danube and Volga Rivers. The Rus and the Byzantines established trade links between Central Europe and the Mediterranean Sea. MILITARY The long Viking traditions of their warrior society would inspire the Norman Conquest of England in 1066 and the Norman Crusades into the Holy Lands between 1096 – 1213.

© “The Vikings and their Impact,” by Chris Butler, 2006, and “Exploring the World of the Vikings,” by Richard Hall, 2007