Journal of In-Service Education

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Teacher education and training in Japan Judith M. Lamie To cite this article: Judith M. Lamie (1998) Teacher education and training in Japan, Journal of In-Service Education, 24:3, 515-534, DOI: 10.1080/13674589800200055 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674589800200055

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Journal of In-service Education, Vol. 24, No. 3, 1998

TEACHER EDUCATION IN JAPAN

Teacher Education and Training in Japan JUDITH M. LAMIE University of Birmingham, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT This paper is divided into three sections. The first is an overview of English education in Japan. It reviews the development of English education, and the demands of a curriculum innovation which radically refocused the teaching of English: the New Revised Course of Study: emphasis on oral communication. The second is an outline of teacher education and training in Japan, with particular recourse to in-service education. The final section is a description and evaluation of a specific government-sponsored overseas in-service education and training (INSET) programme for Japanese junior and senior high school teachers of English. It concludes that such programmes are necessary to change teachers’ attitudes, beliefs and methodology, and enable them to deliver the revised curriculum effectively.

Introduction In Japan, schools and the curriculum are undergoing reform, one principal target being the teaching of English. A government commission was appointed in 1984, by the Japanese Ministry of Education Science and Culture (Monbusho) to assess the educational system against developed world norms. Its conclusion was that it was “out dated, uncreative, rigid and inhibiting” (Monbusho, 1985, p. 9). To improve the situation, a curriculum innovation was proposed, the outcome of which was the New Revised Course of Study: emphasis on oral communication (NCROS), (Monbusho, 1989), to be phased into schools by 1994. Teachers were to teach towards communicative competence. The NRCOS demanded a language emphasis, a resource utilisation and a classroom teaching style which were all in diametric opposition to those used before it. It was difficult to see how teachers could make the major adjustments necessary to deliver it without extensive retraining. Problems were compounded for the teachers by the fact that university-bound high school students would continue to sit for examinations based on the old formal grammar/structure literacy-centred curriculum while being taught a new curriculum aiming for communicative oracy. 515

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This paper reviews the development of English teaching in Japan, and the demands of the NRCOS. It presents an overview of teacher training provision, specifically in-service education and training (INSET), and outlines a specific government-sponsored overseas teacher training programme. It concludes that such programmes are necessary to change teachers’ attitudes, beliefs and methodology, and enable them to deliver the revised curriculum effectively. Section 1: Education in Japan Historical Perspective Japan’s islands are separated from mainland Asia by the 110 miles of the Korean Strait. As early as the first century BC, Korean merchants were crossing the strait to trade in Japan. This trading link became stronger over the succeeding centuries. It was not only goods that traders brought with them, but also ideas, particularly from China and from religions centring on Buddhism, and they brought a means of writing down spoken language – a script. Until the sixth century, Japanese was a spoken language only, but the introduction of the ideographs of Chinese gave the nation a pathway to literacy and eventually to literature. The Japanese first encountered the English language when William Adams, an Englishman, landed in Kyushu, southern Japan, in 1600. It was to be as late as 1872, however, 5 years after the Meiji Restoration, that Japan started a national education system, which included foreign language education at secondary school. One major aspect of the society that existed and was reinforced during the period of self-assumed isolation of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was its hierarchical structure – a clear indicator of the persistent feudalism that informed Japan. Japan remains intensely hierarchical. This fact is particularly clear when we examine the Japanese educational system. The educational system is a highly centralised one. The Japanese Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture (Monbusho), established in 1871, the year before the national education system was introduced, has “the duty of promoting and disseminating education. It is responsible for carrying out government programs and services concerning education” (Monbusho, 1997, p. 6) and for the purpose of performing its functions it is divided into six bureaux (Table I). Decisions about curriculum content and design, about classroom resources, teacher training and, to a great extent, subject methodology rest entirely with Monbusho.

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Table I. Monbusho functions (Monbusho, 1997, pp. 10-11).

English Teaching Japanese school children begin to study English in their first year at junior high school (age 13 – 15), and the majority continue for a further 3 years. Compulsory schooling actually ends at 15, although over 90% of school leavers go on to higher education at senior high school (age 16-18). The courses at senior high school include general educational courses and specialised subject courses. Although other languages, such as French and German may be offered at a senior high school the vast majority of students take English as their foreign language option. As Monbusho (1994, p. 2) itself states, “English is taught to practically all students the reason is that some knowledge of English is thought vital for Japanese people in one way or another [and furthermore that] each school makes it a required subject”. It is also present in the university entrance examination and examinations play an important part in education in Japan. 517

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Curriculum Monbusho lays down national curriculum standards for all school levels from kindergarten to upper secondary. Broad guidelines for the objectives and standard contents of each school subject are specified in the Course of Study. At a conference for Japanese teachers of English and native speaker language assistants in 1986, Monbusho acknowledged its failings with the teaching of English and pointed to a number of factors which, in its opinion, were preventing the teaching of English from being successful. These were: [ a lack of exposure to spoken English; [ a lack of confidence in communicating in English; [ large class sizes; [ difficult teaching materials; [ adherence to traditional teaching methods. To these could be added, although Monbusho did not: [ an examination structure which values grammatical factual learning above spoken language knowledge and confidence. Monbusho also announced its own view of the basic principles that should lie at the heart of the teaching of English. These were: [ to listen to as much authentic English as possible; [ to read as much living English as possible; [ to have as many chances to use English as possible; [ to extend a cultural background knowledge; [ to cultivate a sense of international citizenship. What is particularly important about them as principles is that English teaching is seen to have two main thrusts: [ the acquisition of the language itself; [ developing knowledge of the cultures (because English is the mother tongue in a great many different cultures) which support it. The key terms in the language acquisition part of the proposition are ‘authentic’, ‘living’ and ‘use’; these aspects of English had never been afforded such importance before. In 1987 Monbusho proposed a curriculum innovation in the teaching of English in their high schools which embodied both the sets of factors and principles listed above. The proposal was for a shift away from long established grammar-translation curriculum content and classroom practice towards spoken ‘communicative competence’ – a shift from literacy to oracy, a shift from a fact/memory-centred methodology towards something that approximated to a language in use theory. The official documentary outcome of the proposal was the NRCOS which passed through the Japanese Parliament in March 1989.

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Table II. Senior high school course of study outline for English.

New Revised Course of Study: emphasis on oral communication In the 1989 NRCOS the overall objectives for both junior and senior high school English courses are identical and make it clear that literacy alone will no longer be sufficient and that languages must be taught in relation to the culture which supports them: To develop students’ basic abilities to understand a foreign language and express themselves in it, to foster a positive attitude toward communicating in it, and to deepen interest in language and culture, cultivating basic international understanding. (Monbusho, 1989, p. 98) The course of study for senior high school students (Table II) is structurally much more complicated than that for junior high, though the philosophy underlying it is comparable. It is divided into seven subjects: English 1, (4), English 11 (4), Aural/Oral Communication A (2), Aural/Oral Communication B (2), Aural/Oral Communication C (2), Reading (4) and Writing (4). The numbers in brackets represent the number of lessons per week and students must take at least one of the three aural/oral courses during their 3 years at senior high school. The overall objective for the whole senior high school course is for students to be able to “express themselves” in English and for teachers themselves to “heighten interest in language and culture, and to deepen international understanding” (Monbusho, 1994, p. 4). As far as teachers 519

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are concerned, and the Ministry perceived, the most challenging new subjects for senior high schools, long dedicated to the preparation of students for university entrance examinations, are the three Aural/Oral Communication courses. Teachers may well have felt that Monbusho was encasing them inside a linguistic and cultural stockade that they had not got the resources to contend with. This was something the Ministry was attempting to rectify with aids in the resourcing of the new Course and the retraining of its teachers. Resourcing In accordance with the provisions of the School Education Law, all schools in Japan are required to use textbooks in the classroom teaching of each subject. Textbooks to be used in schools must either be those authorised by the Minister of Education, or those compiled by Monbusho itself. Following the revision of the Course of Study the textbooks themselves were reviewed and the result for senior high school in particular was a flooding of the market by texts claiming to have communicative competence as their main objective. Teachers found themselves struggling to cope with the new textbook revisions, and the NRCOS, in the hope that the two would be mutually beneficial. However, a strict grade quota system still existed, and as Fullan (1991) states: an approved textbook may easily become the curriculum in the classroom, yet fail to incorporate significant features of the policy or goals that it is supposed to address. Reliance on the textbook may distract attention from behaviours and educational beliefs crucial to the achievement of desired outcomes. (p. 70) This situation has been confirmed by Japanese high school teachers taking part in the overseas training programme, outlined in section three. The first, in 1995, in an assignment investigating the use of authentic materials in the teaching of English in Japan, wrote: From the perspective of the development of CLT and the materials based on communicative methodology, I must say that there needs to be a lot of improvement in the methodology and the materials in Japan. The constraint, that teachers in Japan have to use the authorised textbooks which are based on the structural approach, is one difficult factor in improving the methodology. The second, in 1998, when giving a presentation concerning the teaching of writing in senior high school, stated: A gap exists between the Revised Course of Study itself and the activities presented in the writing texts. White (1991) suggests that in any curriculum revision process two vital elements are essential at Stenhouse’s (1975) consultation and training level for a smooth transition between old and new. First of all, there should be clear definitions of the aims and objectives of the innovation, 520

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and secondly, an assurance that all those involved in the process understand the proposals and their classroom implications. Monbusho attempted to achieve the former in its statement of the factors preventing the success of the teaching of English. With its failure to provide adequate resources, achievement of the latter would hinge on initial and, particularly, in-service training provision. Section 2: Teacher Education and Training Educational change depends on what teachers think and do – it’s as simple and as complex as that. (Fullan, 1982, p. 107) Initial Teacher Training All current Japanese teachers must, under the Educational Personnel Certification Law of 1949, hold relevant teaching certificates and in high schools these certificates apply to specific subject areas. There are three classes of teaching certificate: advanced, first and second. There are two routes into teaching: the first is by a 2-year course at a junior college, and the second is by a 4-year course at a university. An English teacher in a senior high school must hold at least a first class certificate for which she needs a Bachelor’s degree. This is only obtainable from a university. In addition, trainee teachers must have at least 2 weeks of teaching practice in a local school. To fulfil this requirement students often go back to the school in which they were themselves educated. Japanese teachers today, like any teachers, are the product of their own education and training. The education and training that Japanese teachers have received in the past and which they still receive is not at all like those received by teachers in the United Kingdom. The focus in initial teacher training is firmly on the theory (the majority of which is traditional), with limited practical experience. A survey of 100 Japanese high school teachers of English (Lamie, 1998) showed that a significant number of teacher trainees received no training in communicative language teaching methodology (77%), classroom management (93%) or general educational practice (58%). When asked to comment on this fact one teacher (Teacher A) stated: When I started teaching I started with methodology of grammar translation method. I just copied the teachers who taught me English in my high schools and who showed me how to teach on teaching practice. Two weeks teaching practice (70% of questionnaire respondents had 2 weeks teaching practice; a further 26% had between 3 and 6 weeks; and 4% had between 7 and 9 weeks) is a short period in a 2- or 4-year course, and the nature of the practice does not give prospective teachers a great deal of opportunity to test out a range of methods. In the majority of cases, a 521

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mentor teacher ‘helps’ the trainee with a teaching plan for each lesson which in reality means that he or she effectively writes it. In a 2-week placement, the trainee probably only teaches four or five lessons; the rest of the time is spent in observation. A result is that teachers trained in this way have a tendency to perpetuate the methodological status quo. This situation was echoed by teachers responding to the question: How far has your teaching changed since you began teaching? (Lamie, 1998): When I began teaching I taught English focusing on the grammar translation. At the beginning of my teaching I taught the way I was taught. When I started to teach I didn’t know how to teach. The University Professor had not experience in junior or senior high school as an English teacher. On teaching practice one English teacher became my supervisor and taught me very interesting methodology about teaching English. Teacher A continued by stating: after three years teaching I went to the United States for an intensive course for English in Texas for two months and a half and from that experience I thought I should teach more spoken English. Once again other teachers were in agreement on the need for in-service training: Two British Council summer seminars in Tokyo have changed me a lot. These taught me the importance of having a theory and how to realise the objectives that I have. So now I don’t hesitate to try new things to develop my teaching. With the Tsukuba in-service training I began to think about introducing listening and speaking practice. I think studying in Britain changed me a lot. Teachers should have more time for training and refreshment. Therefore, with the content of Initial Teacher Training courses being on traditional theory, teachers attempting to fulfil the requirements of the revised curriculum and teach towards ‘communicative competence’, with a focus on ‘authentic’, ‘living’ and ‘use’, would need to rely on in-service provision. In-service Education and Training

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Table III. Examples of Monbusho INSET provision.

In Japan, in-service education was first mentioned in the Educational Civil Servant Special Act of 1949 (Monbusho, 1949). The professional development of teachers comes under the wing of the Local Education Support Bureau (see Table I) and is covered by the National Public Service Law, the Local Public Service Law and the Law on Special Regulations for Public Service Employees in Education. INSET sponsored by Monbusho is provided to people recommended by each Prefectural board of education and who are expected to become leaders or teacher consultants in each local district. It is not compulsory, although teachers may feel obliged to take part in an INSET scheme if asked to by their school Principal (above them on the educational hierarchy). Major types of INSET implemented by the Ministry are described in Table III.

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Other Forms of INSET The Prefectural government appoints public school teachers and, therefore, have major responsibility for providing INSET opportunities. Local boards are staffed by teacher consultants who are experienced teachers. They are available for consultation, class visits, demonstration teaching and lectures. In addition, each prefecture has an educational research and training centre. Each year, the Prefectural government give a limited number of teachers (50 – 100 depending on the size of the prefecture) 1-year’s paid leave for advanced training at universities and educational research institutions. These teachers are usually middle level teachers who are expected to become teacher consultants. Besides the formal INSET opportunities organised by the government, there are numerous organisations and study groups initiated and organised by the teachers themselves. In some cases, all the teachers of a region become members of a training and study organisation and participate in its activities, which include school visits, study groups, development projects and an annual conference, such as the English Language Forum, which took place in the Chiba prefecture in November 1997. Another type of INSET is the alumni organisations of teacher training institutions. The centres of the alumni organisations are usually what are known as the attached schools (fuzoku). These are responsible for teaching practice for student teachers and provide research material for college faculties. An important event for the local teachers is the open day or research demonstration given by the attached school. An example of one such school is that attached to the University of Hiroshima, Hiroshima-fuzoku. The third type of non-governmental INSET consists of national associations, such as the Japan Association for Language Teaching (JALT). JALT focuses on the improvement of language teaching and learning in Japan. It has an international membership of more than 3800 and 37 local branches or chapters. It produces journals, organises local seminars and holds an annual national meeting. The focal point for the 1998 JALT Conference is classroom applications of theoretical developments in language teaching. INSET provision in Japan is summarised in Table IV. There are, therefore, a variety of opportunities open to teachers in Japan to take part in in-service activities. The benefits from taking part are numerous and varied, as the following example of an overseas in-service training programme illustrates.

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Table IV. Summary of INSET provision in Japan.

Section 3: The 12-Month Overseas Programme Background As early as 1979, Monbusho had set up 2-month programmes in both America and Britain which aimed specifically at improving participating teachers’ own language skills in English and to develop their teaching techniques. Teachers embarking on these programmes were enabled to study in a country where English is the mother tongue. The hope was that by putting them into a totally English speaking environment their knowledge of the language and their confidence with it would be increased. As far as classroom practice was concerned, Monbusho expected that by giving teachers the opportunity to listen to lectures, attend seminars and visit schools they would acquire new ideas about teaching methods. It was assumed that these ideas would be more conducive to developing student oracy in line with the NRCOS than the ones the teachers had been previously using. In 1988 the 2-month duration of these overseas courses was lengthened to 6 months and in 1990 it was lengthened again to a full year. Programme Aim The 12-Month Overseas Programme began at the University of Birmingham in 1990. To date, almost 100 teachers have taken part in the course. The participants are either junior or senior high school teachers, with experience in the classroom ranging from 5 to 20 years. The aim of the programme is three pronged: (1) to improve the participants’ abilities in the basic skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking; (2) to provide the participants with the ability to justify, on theoretical and educational grounds, teaching for ‘communicative competence’ in English, and for them to recognise the potential in a range of methods and

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resources beyond the textbook for developing communicative English in their students; (3) to give participants an understanding of traditional and contemporary British culture in order for them to be able to take part in and appreciate life in Britain to the full. Programme Content The programme begins in April and is divided into six phases or sections. Phases 1 and 4 are 10 weeks each and phases 2, 3, 5 and 6 are 5 weeks each. Each phase has specific objectives (see Table V). The programme is essentially practical. With an awareness on the part of the Programme Director that professionals with a great deal of experience are being dealt with (as asserted by Dadds, 1997), the teachers are not allowed to be mere passive receivers of knowledge, but are encouraged to be active and vocal participants. The programme attempts to put into practice Stallings (1989) declaration that teachers are more likely to change if they:

[ Learn by doing – try, evaluate, modify, try again [ Link prior knowledge to new information [ Learn by reflecting and solving problems [ Learn in a supportive environment – share problems and successes. (p. 4) There are, inevitably, some moments of straightforward knowledge transmission, but these are kept to a minimum. For the most part the programme is built around seminars and workshops. Teachers are also given the opportunity expand knowledge gained in Microteaching sessions on the University of Birmingham campus with their peers, by visiting British schools and not only observing classes, but also an taking active part in lessons themselves.

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Table V. Academic programme: phase 1.

The evaluation collection procedures are designed to gather two types of information: (1) information relating to the programme: suitability of programme content and aims; fulfilment of individual course objectives; (2) information pertaining to the participants themselves: changes in attitude and methodology as a result of the course. Programme Evaluation On their arrival, participants are asked, in individual tutorials with the programme director, to offer their personal objectives for the coming year. If an objective is mentioned by a significant number that is not currently in the programme the director attempts to incorporate it. For example, in 1990, at the beginning of the programme, there was limited potential for the teachers to develop computer assisted language learning (CALL) skills. However, with the development of CALL in Japan and the increased number of schools with computer laboratories, it has since become an integral part of the programme with courses offered, such as, CALL, and Using the Internet in the Classroom. All courses offered on the programme, and approved by the Ministry of Education, are evaluated in two ways. The first is informal on-going evaluation. All participants are encouraged to voice any concerns they have about any course to either the course tutor or programme director. If it is within the power of the tutor to adapt the course there and then, this is done. The second type of evaluation is a more formal written questionnaire. After each course participants are asked to complete a form designed to evaluate individual elements of the course. They are asked to score each element on two 5-point (A to E) scales, ‘interesting’ and ‘useful’. The highest score on each scale are A (‘very interesting’ or ‘very useful’), and 527

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the lowest score E (‘not at all interesting’ or ‘not at all useful’). Participants are also invited to make constructive comments about the course. These evaluations are then collated and passed onto the lecturer responsible for the course and the programme director. As a result, action points are made and the courses adapted accordingly for the following year (see Table VI). In addition, an overall programme evaluation takes place at the end of the year.

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Table VI. Individual course evaluation and action points (1997).

Participant Evaluation Programme evaluation by participants is important, but equally important for the effectiveness of the course is evaluation of the participants. To measure changes in the participants themselves two questionnaires are given at the beginning and the end of the programme. The methodology (15 questions) and attitude (30 questions) questionnaires, extracts from which can be seen in Table VII, are based on Telford’s (1970) scales for organisation and methods, and attitudes and beliefs, respectively. They cover information on the following areas: Aims; Organisation; Grammar; Materials; Vocabulary; Skills; Language in Use; and Testing. 528

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Table VII. Methods and attitudes scale.

Results from the Methodology Questionnaire given to the participants on the 1996 – 97 programme showed that methodological changes had taken place in all recorded cases. Scores for individual sections were given on a scale from 1 to 5 (traditional [T] to progressive [P]: terms used as benchmarks only). The most marked development was in the area of Organisation and Classroom management (questions 2, 5 and 6), as illustrated in Table VIII, an extract of the Methodology Questionnaire results.

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Table VIII. Extract from Methodology Questionnaire results (Teachers X, Y and Z).

Due to the compulsory use of textbooks and as previously mentioned their focus on the grade quota system, Japanese Teachers of English have more control over the organisation of a class than the specific content. This lack of control gives them limited scope for change in what is actually taught, although how it is taught may be adapted and altered. Nevertheless, in spite of the constraints placed on them the teachers showed a comprehensive shift away from a singularly grammar translation approach [T] to an awareness of resources and methods beyond the prescribed textbook [P].

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Table IX. Extract (questions 1-10) from Attitudes and Beliefs Questionnaire results (Teachers X, Y and Z).

Stenhouse (1975) argues that curriculum innovation has not only to deal with the problem of changing client-user practices, but must also concern itself with the client-user attitudes and that it is in the attempt of performing this latter task that most difficulty is met. In principle the changing of practice is a comparatively straightforward matter of retraining and time. The changing of attitude, however, might mean the uprooting and replanting of an entire landscape of long-established assumptions.

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Table X. Attitudes and Beliefs Questionnaire: individual change pattern (Teacher X).

Results of change with regards to the Attitudes and Beliefs Questionnaire initially appeared limited (Table IX), however, on closer inspection of individual change patterns a discernible shift was evident in all cases away from the singularly traditional approach. For example, with Teacher X, who displayed a 9% shift, a further analysis of the data revealed a 67% move from traditional to more progressive beliefs Table X. The findings are particularly relevant because, even though a number of researchers state that practice can change before attitudes (Huberman & Miles, 1984; Guskey, 1986; Fullan & Hargreaves, 1992), to achieve any long-term alteration of classroom behaviour change must occur in beliefs. The results of the 12-Month Programme at the University of Birmingham has shown a change in beliefs. A change in practice is destined to follow.

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Conclusions In-service provision in Japan is varied. It ranges from large-scale national programmes to individual school or teacher research projects. It is able to appeal to a variety of teachers with varying needs, experience and interest. It is still, however, largely voluntary. Although a Principal or a Vice-Principal is legally entitled to order a teacher to enrol in a course, this is rarely if ever put into practice. It is theoretically possible, therefore, that a teacher can go through her entire career without attending any professional development courses. Results from the 1998 Survey (Lamie, 1998) indicate that there is still a great need, and desire, for more training provision (64% of teachers had received no INSET on language teaching methodology). The INSET course at the University of Birmingham is under constant evaluation and revision. It strives to take into account the requirements of the Ministry, the needs of the individual teachers themselves, and the ever changing educational and social situations in Japan. From the participants’ evaluations it would appear to be succeeding. The teachers who have taken part in the INSET programme at the University of Birmingham have all demonstrated alterations in their attitudes, beliefs and methodology. You may agree with the five elements that Joyce & Showers (1980) advocate (theory, demonstration, practice, feedback, and coaching) or place your affiliation closer to Fullan & Hargreaves (1992) who focus on the final aspect: coaching. Whichever factor you concur with it is certain that teacher education, development and support is imperative if curriculum development and change in the classroom is to occur. If the Japanese Ministry of Education wants to succeed in the implementation of its educational reform, and the continuing personal and professional development of its teachers it must look towards the teachers themselves. It is with them that all success in educational reform lies. Correspondence Judith Lamie, Japanese Secondary Teachers’ Programme, EISU, School of Humanities, Westmere, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom ([email protected]). References Dadds, M. (1997), Continuing professional development: nurturing the expert within, British Journal of In-service Education, 23, pp. 31- 38. Fullan, M.G. (1982) The Meaning of Educational Change. New York: Teachers College Press. Fullan, M.G. (1991) The New Meaning of Educational Change. London: Cassell.

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Fullan, M.G. & Hargreaves, A. (1992) Teacher Development and Educational Change. London: Falmer Press. Guskey, T.R. (1986) Staff development and the process of teacher change, Educational Researcher, May, pp. 5-12. Huberman, M. & Miles, M. (1984) Innovation Up Close: how school improvement works. New York: Plenum. Joyce, B. & Showers, B. (1980) Improving in-service training, Educational Leadership, 37, February, pp. 379-385. Lamie, J.M. (1998) General Survey Questionnaire: 100 junior and senior high school teachers of English in Japan, PhD thesis, University of Birmingham. Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (1949) Educational Civil Servant Special Act, Chapter 3. Tokyo: Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (1985) Report from the Ad hoc Council on Education. Tokyo: Rinkyoushin. Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (1989) The New Revised Course of Study: emphasis on oral communication, in Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (1994) Handbook for Team-teaching. Tokyo: Gyosei Corporation. Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (1994) Handbook for Team-teaching. Tokyo: Gyosel Corporation. Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (1997) Monbusho. Tokyo: Ministry of Education. Stallings, J.A. (1989) School achievements effects and staff development: What are some critical factors? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association cited in M. Fullan & A. Hargreaves (Eds) Teacher Development and Education Change. London: Falmer Press. Stenhouse, L. (1975) An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development. London: Heinemann. Telford, T. (1970) An investigation into the relationships between the attitudes and practices of junior school teachers, MEd thesis, University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in L. Cohen (Ed.) (1976) Educational Research in Classroom and Schools.- a manual of materials and methods. London: Harper & Row. White, R. (1991) Management in ELT. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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