Tabbner’s Nursing Care Theory and Practice

Gabrielle Koutoukidis Kate Stainton Jodie Hughson sample proofs © Elsevier Australia

6TH EDITION

Tabbner’s Nursing Care Theory and Practice 6TH EDITION Gabrielle Koutoukidis Dip App Sci (Nurs), BNurs (Mid), Adv Dip Nurs (Ed), MPH, Dip Business, Voc Grad Cert Business (Transformational Management), MRCNA Head of Strategic & Business Development, Faculty of Health Science & Community Studies, Holmesglen Institute, Melbourne, Victoria

Kate Stainton Dip App Sci (Nurs), BN (Mid), Grad Dip Nurs (Education), MA Hlth Sc (Nurs) Clinical Nurse Specialist, Newcastle Private Hospital, Newcastle, New South Wales

Jodie Hughson MPH, Grad Cert Health Promotion, RN Community Services Manager, Metro South, Anglicare Southern Queensland, Queensland

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Sydney, Edinburgh, London, New York, St Louis, Toronto Churchill Livingstone is an imprint of Elsevier Elsevier Australia. ACN 001 002 357 (a division of Reed International Books Australia Pty Ltd) Tower 1, 475 Victoria Avenue, Chatswood, NSW 2067 This edition © 2013 Elsevier Australia 5th edition 2009. 4th edition 2005. 3rd edition 1997. 2nd edition 1991. 1st edition 1981. This publication is copyright. Except as expressly provided in the Copyright Act 1968 and the Copyright Amendment (Digital Agenda) Act 2000, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted by any means (including electronic, mechanical, microcopying, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without prior written permission from the publisher. Every attempt has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright, but in some cases this may not have been possible. The publisher apologises for any accidental infringement and would welcome any information to redress the situation. This publication has been carefully reviewed and checked to ensure that the content is as accurate and current as possible at time of publication. We would recommend, however, that the reader verify any procedures, treatments, drug dosages or legal content described in this book. Neither the author, the contributors, nor the publisher assume any liability for injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any error in or omission from this publication. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data ______________________________________________________________________________ Koutoukidis, Gabrielle. Tabbner’s nursing care : theory and practice / Gabrielle Koutoukidis ; Kate Stainton ; Jodie Hughson. 6th ed. 9780729541145 (pbk.) Includes index. Nursing – Textbooks. Stainton, Kate. Hughson, Jodie. 610.73 ______________________________________________________________________________ Publisher: Libby Houston Developmental Editors: Elizabeth Coady and Jane Coulcher Project Coordinator: Natalie Hamad Edited by Sybil Kesteven Proofread by Tim Learner Picture research by Karen Forsythe Illustrators: Trina McDonald and Rod McLean Cover and internal design by George Creative Index by Robert Swanson Typeset by Midland Typesetters, Australia Printed in China by China Translation and Printing Services

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Contents Contributors Reviewers

xi xiii

Foreword Publisher’s dedication Preface

xv xvi xvii

Acknowledgments Text features

xviii xx

Unit 1 The evolution of the nursing profession Chapter 1 Nursing: Historical, present and future perspectives Jodie Hughson What is nursing? Nursing—the profession Influences on nursing

3 4 13 19

Chapter 2 Legal and ethical aspects of nursing care Kalpana Raghunathan Introduction Legal aspects of nursing practice Areas of legal liability in nursing Legal issues in the nursing specialties Ethical aspects of nursing

22 23 23 26 32 34

Chapter 3 Nursing research Leah East Nursing research Evidence-based practice Research methods The research process Proposal writing for research approval How is research utilised in practice? The enrolled nurse and nursing research

41 42 42 44 45 51 55 56

Unit 2 The contemporary healthcare environment Goetz Ottman

Chapter 6 Communication Jodie Hughson Components of the communication process Levels of communication Elements of the communication process Factors that influence the communication process Forms of communication Assertiveness to enhance communication Therapeutic communication Skills to facilitate therapeutic communication Communicating with children, adolescents and older adults Communicating with clients’ relatives, friends and significant others Barriers that interfere with therapeutic communication Culturally safe communication Clients with special requirements Complications in nurse–client relationships Communication within the healthcare team

77 78 79 80 84 85 86 88 89 92 97 98 98 99 100 103 106 107 107 111 112 113 114 115 120 122

Chapter 7 Leadership and management Gabrielle Koutoukidis

Chapter 4 Systems of healthcare delivery Introduction Components of a healthcare system

Chapter 5 Health promotion, education and wellness Marguerite Hoiby and Kate Stainton Concepts of health and wellness Models of health and wellness Variables influencing health beliefs and practices Impact of acute and chronic illness on client and family Health promotion Prerequisites for health Goals and targets for Australia’s and New Zealand’s health in the 21st century The role of the nurse in health promotion The nursing process in health promotion and health education

61 62 62

The nurse as a leader and manager Models of nursing care delivery Leadership styles

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127 128 128 129

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Contemporary leadership theories Management The nurse as a delegator Preparing nurse leaders for the future

131 132 134 135

Child health services Needs of infants and children Chapter 11 Growth and development: Late childhood through to adolescence Preadolescence Growth and development of the preadolescent Adolescence Growth and development of the adolescent Issues in adolescence Cultural diversity Health risks Health promotion Nursing implications

199 200 200 201 201 208 210 211 213 213

Chapter 12 Growth and development from the younger adult through to the older adult Christine Baker Emerging adulthood Growth and development in early adulthood Health risks/problems Growth and development in middle-aged adults Health risks/problems Cultural diversity Health promotion Implementing the nursing process

217 218 218 220 223 225 226 227 227

Chapter 13 Older adulthood Carol Barbeler Ageism Growth and development Health risks/problems Cultural aspects of ageing Health assessment and promotion Care settings Nursing care of the ageing person Implementing the nursing process

230 231 232 236 240 241 241 244 244

Margaret Webb

Unit 3 Health beliefs, cultural diversity and safety Chapter 8 Cultural diversity in Australia and New Zealand Robyn Williams Introduction What is culture? Culture and wellbeing Effective communication Culture, the individual and their profession Cultural diversity and clients’ experiences of the system Culture in practice Chapter 9 Indigenous health Robyn Williams Overview Indigenous health before colonisation Indigenous health after colonisation Social determinants of Indigenous health Indigenous health and the living environment Major government responses to Indigenous health challenges Indigenous health, capacity and resilience

141 142 142 146 149 150 152 154 159 161 162 163 164 164 165 168

Unit 4 Nursing care throughout the life span Chapter 10 Theories of growth and development: Conception through to late childhood Andree Gamble Conception Development of the placenta, membranes, liquor and cord Intrauterine development and growth Transition to extrauterine life Theories of development Growth and development Growth and development of the infant Health risks/problems Growth and development of the child Health risks/problems Factors influencing growth and development Cultural diversity Health promotion Paediatric nursing care

173 174 174 176 177 178 180 182 185 185 190 191 193 193 194

194 196

Unit 5 Critical thinking and reflective practice Chapter 14 Critical thinking, problembased learning and reflective practice Introduction Critical thinking Problem-based learning Reflective practice

251 252 252 253 254

Chapter 15 Components of the nursing process Gillianne Meek An overview of the nursing process

259 260

Valerie Zielinski

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Chapter 16 Documentation and reporting skills Cindy Stainton Purpose of documentation Legal and ethical considerations Documentation guidelines and principles Reporting

270 271 272 272 279

Unit 6 Health assessment Chapter 17 General health assessment Shyamala Munusamy

287

Guidelines for conducting a general health assessment Assessment techniques Routine shift assessment Diagnostic investigations Recording and reporting Teaching considerations Clinical handover Advance health directives

288 295 297 298 298 298 298 299

Chapter 18 Vital signs Amy Dearsley Guidelines for taking vital signs Body temperature Steps in obtaining an accurate measurement of body temperature Pulse Respiration Pulse oximetry—measuring oxygen saturation Blood pressure Chapter 19 Admission, transfer and discharge processes Louise Alexander Types of admission Reactions to admission The admission process Admitting the client to the mental health unit Admitting a child to a healthcare facility Admitting an adolescent to a healthcare facility Discharge planning

301 302 302 306 311 315 319 320 332 333 333 337 340 340 343 343

Unit 7 Basic healthcare needs Chapter 20 Infection prevention and control Teresa Lewis

Healthcare-associated infection is preventable Nature of infection Microorganisms Infection prevention and control in practice

359 360 360 361 368

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Chapter 21 Hygiene and comfort Carmel Duff Factors affecting personal hygiene Skin and skin care Bathing and showering Hair care Eye, ear and nasal care Mouth care Nail care Hygiene summary Promoting comfort Bed making Comfortable positioning

393 394 394 396 403 405 407 409 410 410 413 419

Chapter 22 Medications Adriana Tiziani Pharmacology Pharmacokinetics Pharmacodynamics Nursing care and administration of medications Systems of measurement Administering medications Monitoring the effects of medications Safe handling of hazardous substances Safe storage, administration and disposal of medications Medications and the older adult Continuation of medication after discharge

425 426 429 432 433 441 445 461 461 465 465 465

Unit 8 Health promotion and psychosocial and physiological nursing care Chapter 23 Oxygenation Kylie Porritt Structure of the respiratory system Scientific principles of ventilation and respiration Structure of the cardiovascular system Circulation of blood Structure of the lymphatic system Factors affecting the respiratory system Pathophysiology related to the respiratory system Specific disorders of the respiratory system Factors affecting the cardiovascular system Pathophysiology related to the circulatory system Specific disorders of the circulatory system Diagnostic tests Cardiovascular diagnostic tests Nursing a client with a respiratory and/or cardiac system disorder The client with an artificial airway Nursing a client with an artificial airway

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The client with thoracic drainage tubes Nursing a client with a chest drain Nursing practice and oxygen administration Chapter 24 Meeting fluid and electrolyte needs Katie Piper Homeostasis Fluid balance Electrolyte imbalances Nursing assessment of client with fluid and/or electrolyte needs Intravenous therapy Understanding acid–base balance Chapter 25 Rest and sleep Carol Barbeler Physiology of sleep Sleep disorders Factors leading to sleep disturbances Assessing sleep patterns Sleep-promotion measures

521 523 524 533 534 538 541 542 546 551 555 556 559 561 561 563

Chapter 26 Movement and exercise Susan Lanyon

The physiology of movement Body mechanics Disease processes that influence body mechanics Development of movement and exercise through the life span Overweight and obesity in Australia and New Zealand The benefits of physical activity Principles of muscle movement in exercise Assessment of movement, mobility and the musculoskeletal system Diagnosis of a musculoskeletal disorder Nursing care of the individual with a musculoskeletal disorder Treatment of bone injuries and musculoskeletal disorders General treatment of musculoskeletal disorders Ambulation after prolonged immobilisation Walking aids Complications associated with reduced mobility

568 569 570 570 572 574 574 576 578 581 581 582 583 585 586 588

The integumentary system Wound healing Types of wounds Wound management

607 609 612 613 623 626 634

Chapter 28 Nutrition Lucinda Brown Nutrition overview Nutrition assessment Nutrients Diets to meet client needs Nursing practice and nutritional needs Common disorders associated with nutrition

643 644 645 650 651 655 659

Chapter 29 Urinary elimination Susan Brown 670 671 The urinary system Alterations in urinary system functioning 673 Manifestations of urinary system disorders 673 Changes to voiding patterns 674 Specific disorders of the urinary system 680 Incontinence 682 Catheters 685 Specialist urology nursing activities 689 Chapter 30 Bowel elimination Susan Brown The digestive system Disorders of the digestive system

696 697 707

Chapter 31 Pain management 718 Fundamentals of pain 719 720 Pain management across the life span Nursing interventions for a client experiencing pain 727 Yangama Jokwiro

Chapter 32 Sensory abilities Suzanne McArthur

Classification of sense organs The eye The ear Disorders of the eye Specific disorders of the eye Disorders of the ear

736 737 739 741 744 748 755

Chapter 33 Neurological health

Chapter 27 Skin integrity and wound care Greer Hosking

Pathophysiological effects and major manifestations of skin disorders Specific disorders of the skin Care of the individual with a skin disorder Pressure injuries Leg ulcers Burn injuries Surgical wounds

594 595 597 598 599

Fiona Skene and Gabrielle Koutoukidis

The function and structure of the neurological system Pathophysiological influences and effects of disorders of the nervous system Assessing neurological status

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Diagnostic tests Specific disorders of the nervous system Care of the client with a nervous system disorder Care of the unconscious client

774 777 786 790

Chapter 34 Endocrine health John Elias Structure and function of the endocrine system Endocrine disorders Care of the client with an endocrine disorder

802 803 808 821

Chapter 35 Reproductive health Christine Baker

The male reproductive system Disorders of the male reproductive system Nursing interventions in male reproductive health The female reproductive system Disorders of the female reproductive system Assessment and diagnostic tests Women’s health promotion Contraception Disorders of reproduction Sexual abuse Survivors of torture and trauma Child sexual abuse Sexually transmitted infections

831 832 833 839 839 840 847 849 850 853 854 854 855 855

Chapter 39 Behavioural and social aspects of disability Trevor Skerry 931 Definitions of disability 932 Conceptual models of disability 933 Classifications of disability 933 Historical background 934 The philosophy of inclusion and normalisation 935 Responses to disability 938 Person-centred planning 939 Family caregiving—impact and support 942 Health promotion: disability prevention 944 Chapter 40 Acute care Michelle Hall Scope of practice Where is acute care delivered? Impact of acute illness Acute disorders Clinical pathways Karen Stilo

Chapter 36 Palliative care Jacqui Allen Death and dying Palliative care Person- and family-centred palliative care Multidisciplinary palliative care Symptom management Loss and grief Care of the dying Care of the bereaved Support for the nurse

863 864 865 866 866 867 871 871 873 874

Chapter 37 Mental health Finbar Hopkins Concepts of mental health and mental illness The provision of care Historical perspectives and mental healthcare Care of clients with specific emotional or behavioural challenges Legal and ethical aspects of mental health nursing Ethical issues and dilemmas

876 877 886 890 893 910 911

948 949 949 950 951 959

Perioperative care Surgery Preoperative care Intraoperative phase Postoperative care

963 964 964 967 974 979

Chapter 42 Emergency care Jennifer Jennings

Introduction Recognising and responding to an emergency Changes in vital signs Basic life support Applying the principles of emergency care Defibrillation with the automated external defibrillator Post-resuscitation care In hospital code documentation Staff debriefing Managing specific emergency situations Cardiac emergencies

991 992 993 994 996 996 999 1000 1001 1002 1002 1003

Chapter 43 Maternal and newborn care

Chapter 38 Rehabilitation nursing Aims and characteristics of rehabilitation

918 919 920 924 926 928

Chapter 41 Perioperative nursing

Unit 9 Healthcare in specialised practice areas

Kate Stainton

Philosophy of rehabilitation Adjustment to disability The rehabilitation team The process of rehabilitation Planning and implementation Culturally relevant care

ix

916 917

Kate Stainton

Pregnancy

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Prenatal care and preparation Labour Postnatal care

1012 1013 1017

Chapter 44 Community-based care Anne Moates

Community healthcare Community health nurse role Models of care in community health Issues for community health nurses in home care The nursing process and community nursing

1030 1031 1033 1034 1035 1036

Remote and rural Australia Health and illness patterns in rural and remote Australia Remote area and rural nursing Effective healthcare service delivery in remote settings Stress related to working in a remote health context Access to health services in rural and remote areas Credits Index

Chapter 45 Rural and remote care Robyn Williams and Gabrielle Koutoukidis

Introduction

1040 1041

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Contributors The publisher and editors would like to thank all past and present contributors and reviewers. Louise Alexander BNur, Postgrad Cert (Psych Nurs),

PGC (Education), MEd (PET) Lecturer, Bachelor of Nursing (Mental Health), Holmesglen Institute, Victoria, Australia Jacqui Allen RN, BA (Hons), MPsych

Lecturer in Nursing, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia Christine Baker MNsg, Grad Dip Ad & Voc Ed,

BHlthSc, Dip VET, Cert IV TAE, Cert Sexual Health, MRNCA Senior Educator, Nursing Programs, Swinburne University, Victoria, Australia Carol Barbeler RN, BNur (Post-reg), M Appl Gerontol, Dip Training & Assessment Educator, Nursing and Aged Care, GippsTAFE, Victoria, Australia Lucinda Brown RN, MPH, Grad Dip Health Sci

Lecturer, Deakin University, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Victoria, Australia Sue Brown BHlthSc, MHlthSc, GCert (TT) (Vic), DN

(La Trobe), RN Nurse Consultant: Life in Place

Andree Gamble RN, BN, Postgrad Dip Adv Clin Nurs (Child Health), Postgrad Cert Prof Educ & Training, Grad Cert Clin Simulation, M Nurs Sci, Cert IV TAA, Dip Bus Lecturer, Bachelor of Nursing, Holmesglen, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Michelle Hall BN, Grad Cert (Health Prof Ed), Cert IV

(TAE) Teacher, Nursing, Health Science and Biotechnology Department, Holmesglen, Melbourne, Victoria Marguerite Hoiby RSCN, RN, Cert Spinal Injuries & Rehab Nursing, Cert Op Room Nursing, Grad Dip Educ Admin, Grad Dip Bus Quality & Risk Manager, Linacre Private Hospital, Victoria, Australia Lead Auditor Quality Management Systems (ISO) & Reproductive Technology Accreditation Committee (RTAC) British Standards International Aged Care Assessor Aged Care Accreditation Standards & Accreditation Australian Sessional Trainer, Skills Training Australia, Knox, Victoria, Australia Finbar Hopkins RN, RMN, RM, BA Sciences (Nurs), Grad Dip (Women’s Health), MA Lecturer in Nursing, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Greer Hosking RN, ONC, BEd, Cert IV Training and

Amy Dearsley RN/RM

Assessment

Educational specialist, Laerdal Australia Jodie Hughson MPH, Grad Cert Health Promotion, RN Carmel Duff RN, Grad Dip Adv Nurs (Education)

Lecturer in Nursing, Deakin University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Community Services Manager, Metro South, Anglicare Southern Queensland, Australia Jennifer Jennings RN, BN, Grad Dip (Adv Clin

Leah East BN, RN (Hons), PhD

School of Nursing and Midwifery, University of Western Sydney, New South Wales, Australia John P Elias BSc (Hons), PhD

Human Bioscience Lecturer, Holmesglen Bachelor of Nursing, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Practice), GCHPE, Grad Cert Health Prof Educ, GCCS, Grad Cert Clinical Simulation Yangama Jokwiro BSc (NS), MSc (Physiology) Bioscience Lecturer, Holmesglen Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

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Contributors

Gabrielle Koutoukidis Dip App Sci (Nurs), BNurs (Mid),

Adv Dip Nurs (Ed), MPH, Dip Business, Voc Grad Cert Bus (Transformational Management), MRCNA Head of Strategic & Business Development, Faculty of Health Science & Community Studies, Holmesglen Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Curriculum Development, Careers Australia, Victoria, Australia Fiona Skene RN, M Multimedia, MEd, affiliate of

ANNA (Australasian Neuroscience Nurses’ Association) Trevor Skerry MEd, Grad Dip Adult Ed, Grad Dip

Susan Lanyon RN, CCRN, Grad Dip Midwifery, BT/BA

Teacher of Nursing, Holmesglen Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Teresa Lewis RN, Cert Intensive Care Nurs (Post-reg),

Cert Infect Control Nurs (Post-reg) Infection Prevention and Control Manager, Newcastle Private Hospital, New South Wales, Australia Member Australasian College of Infection Prevention & Control (ACIPC) [previously Australian Infection Control Association (AICA)]

Health Counselling, B Special Ed, Dip Teaching Lecturer, School of Health Sciences, RMIT University, Victoria, Australia Board Member, Australian Society of Intellectual Disabilities (ASID) Cindy Stainton RN, Crit Care Cert, Postgrad Dip Health Service Management, MRCNA Nurse Director, Western Australia Country Health Service, Great Southern, Western Australia, Australia Kate Stainton Dip AppSc (Nurs), BN (Mid), Grad Dip

Suzanne McArthur RN, BEd (La Trobe), Postgrad Dip

Crit Care Nurs (Austin), Cert IV TAA Nursing Course Coordinator; Diploma of Nursing, Advance TAFE, Bairnsdale, Victoria, Australia Member, Australian Wound Management Association Member, Moderation Delivery Committee Certificate IV/Diploma in Nursing, Victoria, Australia Gillianne Meek RN, BSc (Hons), MN Team Leader, Waiariki Institute of Technology, Rotorua, New Zealand Anne Moates RN, Midwife, MCHN, M Pub Health,

MEd, B AppSci (Nurs), Grad Dip Adv Nurs (Child, Family and Community Nursing), Grad Dip Adv Nurs (Neonatal Intensive Care Nursing), Grad Cert Nurs (Educ) Senior Educator, Health and Nursing, Chisholm Institute, Victoria, Australia

Nurs (Education), MA Hlth Sc (Nurs) Clinical Nurse Specialist, Newcastle Private Hospital, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia Karen Stilo RN, BN, Grad Cert Perioperative Nursing, Dip TAA Teacher in Diploma of Nursing, Holmesglen Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Adriana Tiziani BSc, DipEd, MEdSt, RN Course Director, Postgraduate Studies in Wound Care, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria Nursing Teacher, Health Science and Biotechnology Department, Holmesglen Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Shyamala Munusamy BHSc (Nursing), Adv Dip Nurs (Neuroscience), Dip Nurs (Singapore), Cert IV TAA

Margaret Webb BNurs, RM, MEd (AWE), Grad Dip (FTE), AdvDip (Business) Project Manager, Department of Education and Training, Queensland Executive Director, MW Projects Queensland, Australia

Goetz Ottman PhD

Robyn Williams BA, RN, Grad Dip Ed, MPET

Lead Researcher, Uniting Care Community Options/ Deakin University Research Partnership, Victoria, Australia

Course Coordinator, Bachelor Health Science, School of Health, Charles Darwin University, Northern Territory, Australia

Katie Piper RN, MN, BN Lecturer, Holmesglen Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Kylie Porritt RN, MNSc, PhD

Research Fellow, The Joanna Briggs Institute, University of Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

Valerie Zielinski RN, RM, PhD, BEd, MEd Admin, FRCNA Clinical Coordinator and Teacher (Nursing), FACTS (Future Aged Care Learning Solutions), Geelong, Victoria, Australia

Kalpana Raghunathan RN, MHuman Resource Mgt,

MDevelopment Studies, BSociology, BN, Dip BusMgt, Dip Community Development

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Reviewers Terri-Jayne Bissell RN, IPN, MN (Adv Clin Ed), BHSc,

Cert (Crit Care), Cert (High Dependency), Cert IV (TAA) School of Nursing, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Dianne Cheeseman Grad Dip Educ (N), BNur, RN, RCHN, Dip BTTM, MRCNA Teacher, Nursing/Aged Care/Health Studies, Metropolitan South Institute of TAFE, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Ali Drummond BNSc

Indigenous Nurse Advisor, Nursing and Midwifery Office, Queensland Health, Queensland, Australia Jeff Harding BAppSc Advanced Nursing (Nurs Ed), Cert IV TAA RNRPL Coordinator Teacher, Department of Health Services, Swinburne TAFE, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Janet Kerswell Unnasch RN, Grad Dip MH, Cert IV TAA Guest Nursing Lecturer for Institute of Continuing and TESOL Education, The University of Queensland (ICTE-UQ)

Ellie Kirov BSc (BiolSc) (Hons), PhD Lecturer, School of Natural Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Western Australia Lecturer, Health Studies, Perth Institute of Business and Technology, Perth, Western Australia Anoni Morse BA, RN, Paed Cert, AMH Cert Teacher, Health Services North West, Tasmanian Polytechnic, Tasmania, Australia Teresa Sargent BN, RN Registered Nurse, Wesley Private Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Clarissa Spencer RN

Teacher, Western Institute of TAFE, New South Wales, Australia Kay Syminton-Foley DipComN, ADN, BN, Postgrad Dip HSc, RN Senior Academic Staff Member, Waikato Institute of Technology, Hamilton, New Zealand Mandy Williams RN (UK & NZ), MHSc Health Prof Ed Blended Learning Coordinator, Waiariki Institute of Technology, Rotorua, New Zealand

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Foreword Over the years the role and function of the enrolled nurse has expanded to become the nurse professional you see today, employed in all healthcare settings across Australia and New Zealand. Very different indeed from 1979 when Nurse ‘Ray’ Tabbner was compelled to sit down to write the first Tabbner—Nursing Care: Theory and Practice— replacing the original Handbook for Nursing Aides. The enrolled nurse of the twenty-first century, like their registered nurse colleague, is a very different creature from their colleague of those bygone days. The differences are immense. To start with, today’s enrolled nurse has a significantly expanded educational preparation. Over the years even the title has evolved from that of ‘nursing aide’ to today’s ‘enrolled nurse’. ‘Enrolled nurse’ is a title protected by legislation, as are ‘registered nurse’, ‘midwife’ and ‘nurse practitioner’. This legislation is monitored and supported by the Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia to protect those needing healthcare and health education. With the course now being delivered at diploma level it is necessary to have comprehensive depth to the content and I believe the sixth edition of Tabbner’s Nursing Care is an all-encompassing teaching tool. I see it being used both in the classroom and the workplace for many years to come. The content is inclusive of all facets of the life span in a health and health promotion context in metropolitan, rural and remote settings. The text has been concisely and clearly set out to guide the undergraduate nurse and their educators as they traverse the enrolled nurse course. From that solid underpinning the knowledge gained will support those articulating to advanced diploma level, thus expanding the career pathways within enrolled nursing.

Over the years previous editions of Tabbner’s Nursing Care have been used in many countries to educate the enrolled nurse (however titled). I foresee future generations of nurses gaining from this edition a wealth of the knowledge, skills and techniques so essential to being a professional healthcare provider. As people avail themselves of the content in Tabbner’s Nursing Care sixth edition it will become apparent how much critical thinking has gone into the development of this edition. All who use this book can only be enlightened. It has been developed in a clear and concise manner to make it extremely user friendly and easy to assist with study. The authors and editors must be thanked for their efforts in doing this. This text will energise and educate the enrolled nurse of the future. Someone who must be thanked and recognised is Nurse Ray Tabbner. All those years ago she had the courage and foresight to establish the educational journey that enrolled nursing has since taken, culminating now in this sixth edition. It is wonderful to see that her work continues to be recognised in the title of this publication and I thank the authors, Gabrielle Koutoukidis, Kate Stainton and Jodie Hughson, for this body of work. The sixth edition of Tabbner’s Nursing Care is testimony to the journey of the enrolled nurse, past, present and future. Maryanne Craker President National Enrolled Nurse Association of Australia

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Publisher’s dedication Alice Ray Tabbner 25 December 1919–13 December 1994 Ray (as she preferred to be known) Tabbner was born in Birmingham, England. After working in the St John Ambulance in World War II where she said she ‘became engrossed in nursing’, she completed her training as a nurse in the 1940s. She moved to Australia in 1948 and worked in a number of Sydney hospitals before settling in Melbourne. Ray established a career in nursing education in 1953 taking on the role of Tutor at the recently established Melbourne School of Nursing. In 1954 she successfully completed her Sister Tutors Diploma through the College of Nursing Australia and remained a Tutor at the school until 1961 when she was awarded the Inaugural Nurse Scholarship in Geriatrics from Mount Royal Hospital. In consequence of receiving this award, Ray was appointed to the position of Deputy Matron of Geriatric Nursing at Mount Royal. She later established the Nursing Aides course at the Fairfield Hospital in Melbourne under the leadership of Vivian Bulwinkel, and in 1973 was appointed Deputy Director Nursing (Education), one of three executive positions at the Royal Melbourne Hospital. An innovative educator and mentor, Ray Tabbner was one of the first nurses to call for the establishment of ‘Nurse Banks’ in Australia to ensure flexibility in the nursing workforce for those nurses wishing to pursue family or other interests while pursuing their chosen profession. She was also a great advocate of ongoing training to ensure nurses could maintain flexibility in their lives and return to nursing with confidence.

In 1975 she was appointed Principal Teacher at the Melbourne Nursing Aides School (later renamed Melbourne School for Enrolled Nurses), a position she occupied until 1978 when she retired to write. Originally entitled The Handbook for Nursing Aides, it was later renamed Nursing Care: Theory & Practice, and since the publication of the first edition in 1981, it has become known and loved by generations of nursing students as simply Tabbner’s. An article published in 1973 in the Melbourne Sun described her as being ‘as flighty as your average banker. Her dark hair has streaks of steel grey and the creases in her dazzlingly white nurse’s uniform would slice bread’. However, students from the 1950s to the 1970s remember her with great fondness and warmth. Ray Tabbner was said to be very approachable and a welcome relief from many ‘military style’ nurse educators. She taught everything from Anatomy & Physiology to Bandaging and Nursing Care and made a great impression on her students. As one student from 1955 put it, ‘Everything Miss Tabbner said, I learned’. The Tabbner name has become synonymous with Enrolled Nurse/Registered Nurse Division 2 education not only throughout Australia — the influence of her name extends via this publication to New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the Middle East, Africa and the West Indies. This sixth edition of Tabbner’s Nursing Care is dedicated to her memory and her contribution to nurse education.

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Preface The sixth edition of Tabbner’s Nursing Care is a significant revision which reflects the scope of practice in contemporary enrolled nursing practice while still retaining the strengths of previous editions that have made it an essential resource for enrolled nursing students and their facilitators.

The role of the enrolled nurse The enrolled nurse is an essential member of the healthcare team, providing client-centred nursing care which includes recognising what is normal and abnormal in assessing, intervening and evaluating individual health and functional status. Enrolled nurses’ responsibilities also include providing support and comfort, assisting with activities of daily living to enable clients to achieve their optimal level of independence, and providing for the emotional needs of clients. Where state and territory law and organisational policies allow, enrolled nurses may administer prescribed medicines or maintain intravenous fluids, in accordance with their educational preparation. Enrolled nurses are required to be informationtechnology literate, with specific skills in the application of healthcare technology. Enrolled nurses demonstrate critical and reflective thinking skills in contributing to decision making, which include reporting changes in health and functional status and individual client responses to healthcare interventions. Enrolled nurses work as part of the healthcare team to advocate for and facilitate the involvement of clients, their families and significant others in planning and evaluating care and progress towards health outcomes. The role also requires them to act as preceptors for students and other healthcare workers. Career opportunities for enrolled nurses are expanding and include: acute care; perioperative, emergency, intensive and coronary care; aged care; rehabilitation; community and mental health nursing, and general practice settings. In addition, enrolled nurses work in specialty areas such as nursing education, diabetes education, continence management, dementia management, lactation consultancy, workplace safety and wound care. There are also increasing opportunities for enrolled nurses to move into management positions.

Sixth edition of Tabbner’s Nursing Care As a new editorial team, we have ensured a holistic, personcentred approach to client care throughout the textbook, allowing students to appreciate the skill and scope required to be a competent enrolled nurse. All chapters have been completely revised with a focus on critical thinking and problem solving and national registration requirements have been addressed where appropriate. Four new chapters have been included to highlight a range of contemporary nursing issues: • Leadership and management • Older adulthood • Acute care • Rural and remote care. The new full colour internal design enhances photos and illustrations to provide clear and meaningful visual aids to learning. The sixth edition has been carefully developed to align with the Diploma of Nursing in the HLT07 National Health Training Package for the enrolled nursing student. It provides a contemporary approach to nursing practice and is an invaluable teaching resource. The text provides the theoretical knowledge on the care that clients may require in a range of healthcare settings and offers special features to enhance student learning of the material. This edition is a culmination of the efforts of many nursing academics and professionals who are passionate about the education of enrolled nurses and the important role they play in healthcare settings. We are grateful for their enthusiasm and support throughout the writing process. As the new editing team of Tabbner’s Nursing Care 6E we would like to acknowledge Rita Funnell and Karen Lawrence, the editors of the fourth and fifth editions of Tabbner’s, for their invaluable work and major contribution to the education of enrolled nurses. In addition we would like to thank the team at Elsevier for their hard work and perseverance in ensuring the publication of this edition. Gabby Koutoukidis Kate Stainton Jodie Hughson

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Acknowledgments I was delighted to be invited as an editor again for Tabbner’s 6E and to have the opportunity to do this alongside two very good friends of mine – Kate and Jodie – whom I thank so much for coming on this journey with me. This sixth edition is the culmination of work by many writers and nursing educators and I would like to thank all contributors—especially to both nursing teams at Holmesglen for jumping at the chance to write chapters— sometimes with very short timelines! I would also like to acknowledge all the nursing students and teams I have worked with over the years who have inspired in me a passion for teaching and ensuring best nursing practice. Gabby Koutoukidis

This edition has been an epic adventure which has consumed many hours of my spare time! I thank my husband Stuart for listening, advising and his patience. I thank my children for their interest and understanding. I  also thank the Elsevier team for all the hard work in getting this edition to publication. Nursing is an art: and if it is to be made an art, it requires an exclusive devotion as hard a preparation as any painter’s or sculptor’s work; for what is the having to do with dead canvas or dead marble, compared with having to do with the living body, the temple of God’s spirit? It is one of the Fine Arts: I had almost said, the finest of Fine Arts. Florence Nightingale

I hope this edition of Tabbner’s prepares future nurses well! Jodie Hughson

To my husband, Anthony, and children Ben, Alex and Maddy, thank you so much for your understanding and support. Now you can have the study back, Anthony, and the kids can stop wondering if they are going to get fed! To my co-editors, authors and the team at Elsevier thank you for all your knowledge and hard work. Kate Stainton

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Standard steps for all nursing procedures/interventions These are the essential steps that must be done consistently with each client contact in order to deliver responsible and safe nursing care.

Before the procedure Step 1 • Mentally review the steps of the procedure beforehand • Discuss the procedure with your instructor/supervisor/ team leader, if required • Confirm correct facility protocols/safe operating procedures Step 2 • Check the order in the chart, client’s nursing/medical history • Review handover report to assess specific instruction or need of client • Gather equipment/supplies. If using a procedure trolley, ensure it is cleaned • Perform hand hygiene Step 3 • Introduce yourself to the client and/or family • Gain client consent to perform the procedure • Check the client’s identification, using two identifiers. When verifying identity, get client to verbalise name and check against identification band as well as relevant documentation • Explain the procedure to the client in terms they can understand • Assess client to determine whether intervention is still appropriate • Identify teaching needed and describe what the client can expect Step 4 • Provide privacy • Keep yourself safe, e.g. raise the bed to appropriate working height • Provide adequate lighting for the procedure • Arrange supplies and equipment

During the procedure Step 5 • Perform hand hygiene • Put on gloves following standard precautions as appropriate • Place on eyewear, mask and gown as appropriate • Ensure client safety and comfort throughout procedure Step 6 • Promote client independence and involvement if possible • Assess client tolerance to the procedure

After the procedure Step 7 • Dispose of used supplies and sharps appropriately. Remove eyewear and other protective equipment and discard or store appropriately • Remove gloves (if worn) and perform hand hygiene • Clean used equipment and store appropriately Step 8 • Make the client comfortable and inform them of how the procedure went, or of any results/values • Restore the bed height, tidy the bed and surrounding area. Place call bell and personal items within reach • Perform hand hygiene Step 9 • Record and document assessment findings, details of the procedure performed and the client’s response • Report abnormalities as required • Reassess client to ensure there are no adverse effects/ events from the procedure. (References: deWit S (2009) Fundamental Concepts and Skills for Nursing, 3rd edn. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, reproduced with permission; and Perry AG, Potter PA and Elkin MK (2012) Nursing Interventions & Clinical Skills, 5th edn. St Louis: Mosby Elsevier.)

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Text features Learning Outcomes assist students to focus on key information in each chapter

CHAPTER 26

Movement and exercise Susan Lanyon

Key Terms are listed at the beginning of each chapter and defined within the text

Learning Outcomes Learning Outcomes Lear O Learning

Chapter Focus introduces the key concepts in each chapter

• Assess clients for impaired mobility and activity intolerance • Assist in plann planning and implementing nursing care plans for clien clients with a musculoskeletal disorder • Accor A ding to specified role and function, perform the According nursing ng activi ities described in this chapte chapter safely and activities ac accura accurately in the clinical environment

At the completion of this chapter and with some further reading, students should be able to: • Define fine the key terms Defi • Describe and implement the principles of good posture osture and body mechanics • Describe the role of the musculoskeletal system in n the he l i off movement regulation • Describe how joints are involved in movement Key Terms • State differences between isotonic, isometric and active and passive exercise muscle atrophy isokinetic exercise arthrography rthrography weight and obesity obesi overweight • Describe and define range of movement (ROM) benign tumours orthostatic or postural ved in • Identify and demonstrate joint movements involved body mechanics hypotension ROM exercises contractures and ankylosis osteoclasts and osteoblasts • Define obesity and describe how variables such ass crutch-walking gait osteogenic sarcoma family values and diet influence adult obesity dangling osteomyelitis • Describe how older adults may benefit from exercise deep vein thrombosis osteoporosis • Identify and describe the complications associated with (DVT) plantar flexion (footdrop) immobility and implement appropriate preventive haematopoiesis PRICE: prevention, rest, measures health and wellbeing ice, compression and • State the influences and effects associated with hypostatic pneumonia elevation disorders of the musculoskeletal system Movement Mov and exercise | Chapter 26 569 isotonic/isometric/ pursed-lip breathing • Identify the major musculoskeletal system disorders isokinetic exercise range of movement (ROM) that impact movement and exercise metastatic bone tumours • Describe the major manifestations of musculoskeletal system disorders CH CHAPTER CHA HAP APTER APTE APT PTER TER R FOCUS FOC • Briefly describe the specific disorders of the Movement andinexercise are essential components for restoring, maintaining and enhancing e physical and psychomusculoskeletal system outlined this chapter social As society e health. government and • Define the diagnostic tests that may be usedbecomes to assess increasingly sedentary in both work and home environments, health agencies are researching and evaluating the eff effects ffects of inactivity on health, health disease processes, ageing and musculoskeletal function morbidity. y Research R suggests that despite the rising trend in health conditions related rela to obesity and immobility, the commencement of an exercise program can retard and even reverse the pro progression of conditions such as osteoporosis, heart disease, diabetes mellitus and the effects ffects of ageing. eff The human body is ideally suited to movement. Regular exercise promotes health, feelings of wellbeing and prevents illness throughout the life span. Exercise is made possible by the muscular, skeletal and nervous systems. These interconnected systems work together to make movement possible and for most human movement they must function effectively for optimal physical performance. Disease processes that disable one or more of these systems may inhibit or restrict mobility. To ensure mobility and exercise are maximised and maintained, allied health teams should devise care plans to meet individual needs and abilities based on the specific strengths and disabilities of each client in their care. Healthcare workers are in a unique position to educate and support clients to make lifestyle changes for improvement in health and prevention of disease. Effective and timely health promotion can significantly contribute to long-term client health and potentially reduce disease progression and hospital re-admission. For those with recurring mobility issues, nurses and allied health professionals can support the transition to mobility aids and promote independence and quality of life on discharge to home or an assisted facility. Nurses who promote and encourage mobility and movement play a significant role in the client’s healthcare experience. This important contribution can have a lasting impact on the client’s recovery and rehabilitation and benefit society with its positive outcomes.

Key Terms

CHAPTER FOCUS

LIVED EXPERIENCE

Lived Experiences are taken from actual clinical situations to help students understand a particular health experience from the point of view of clients, their families or nurses and other health professionals.

CLINICAL INTEREST BOX 26.2 Self-care behaviours and exercise • Make the most of opportunities for exercise—use stairs, park a kilometre away from work or walk to work once or twice a week, walk faster and use lunchtimes for exercise • Choose an enjoyable physical activity • Plan 3–4 exercise activities per week • Before starting exercise sessions, ensure medical clearance if in a high-risk group

Clinical Interest boxes offer information on developmental considerations, cultural aspects of care, current research and client teaching

• Alternate different types of exercise to keep interest up; for example, Pilates followed by weight-training sessions then walking or bike riding

LIVED L LIVE LIV IIVE VED ED DE EXPERIENCE XPE XPERIENCE

• Invite a friend to walk or join a health club or gym

I found as I was getting older that I wasn’t as flexible seizing up and I decided to take positive flexible as I used to be. My joints were se function. Keeping active with swimming and cycling allows allow me to keep moving without putting action to prevent loss off function. pressure on painful joints. I haven’t felt this good in years. Felicity, 65 years

• Build up exercise sessions to avoid over-exertion

Nursing care plan 26.2

Clinical Scenario Box 27.1 Mr Darcy, an 88-year-old man, was discharged from hospital following admission for a urinary tract infection. As he has no family, Mr Darcy was taken home by hospital transport and was escorted into his home where he lives alone, and placed in a lounge chair. Two days later, a nurse from hospital in the home did a follow-up visit on Mr Darcy. On arrival the nurse found Mr Darcy still sitting in the lounge chair; he had not moved from the chair since his arrival at home, 2 days prior. He had been incontinent of both urine and faeces. Mr Darcy made minimal eye contact and was not able to give coherent answers to questions.

A client with a musculoskeletal disorder Nursing action

Rationale

Preparation of environment

Promote an area conducive to rest including pillows for elevation and bed cradle for air circulation around injured limb or newly applied cast

Specific equipment acquisition

Ensure availability of equipment that is requested to enhance joint mobility and repair, e.g. CPM machine, traction equipment, plaster, mobility assistance aids

Prevention of potential problems related to immobility

Air or padded mattress to protect pressure areas Bedsides to enhance client protection from falls Antiembolic stockings to reduce risk of DVT Plan of breathing exercises to reduce stasis of secretions

Client comfort

Analgesia for client comfort Placement of articles within easy reach to prevent straining Call bell within reach to reduce anxiety and feelings of isolation Hot/cold packs to reduce pain and inflammation

• What other allied health professionals would you include in your care of Mr Darcy?

Nutrition

Plan diet for optimal healing including proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals and ensuring adequate hydration and caloric needs

• What specialised wound dressing regimen will Mr Darcy require and what are the expected outcomes?

Allied health referral

Specialist advice for mobility aids, ROM exercises and assistance for posturing and mobilisation to promote independence and rehabilitation

While assisting Mr Darcy, the nurse noted a large lesion on his sacrum. Mr Darcy was transferred to an acute care facility where surgical debridement took place, identifying a stage IV pressure injury on his sacrum. • What would be the recommendation for care for Mr Darcy?

• Before Mr Darcy is discharged, what additional assessments will he require? Will you recommend that he is discharged back to his own home?

Clinical Scenarios provide context for practice and include questions for student reflection

(Crisp & Taylor 2009; Farrell & Dempsey 2011; Gulanick & Myers 2010)

Nursing care plans provide comprehensive examples of a step-by-step guide to patient care within a specific scenario

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Procedural Guidelines use a step-by-step format emphasising the use of the nursing process and include rationales for each step

Procedural Guideline 27.2: Shortening a drain tube Review and carry out the standard steps for all nursing procedures/interventions Action

Rationale

Follow the steps described in the guideline for dressing a wound, up to and including cleaning the wound

The stab wound is cleansed to remove exudate, thus preventing contamination

Using the stitch cutter, remove any suture securing the tube in the wound

Enables the tube to be rotated, if necessary, and shortened

If the tube is round, gently rotate it

Rotation of the tube frees any adherent granulation tissue

Withdraw the tube the prescribed length, e.g. 1.25 cm

Tube must only be shortened the prescribed length, to allow the wound to heal from within

Secure tube with sterile safety pin below level of planned cut

Prevents tube from slipping into the wound

Cut off excess tube

Prevents it pressing on the wound

Place and secure a clean dressing or pouch over the tube

Protects the skin from irritation from wound drainage

A gauze dressing is generally placed between the pin and the skin, and another dressing or pouch placed over the tube

Protects the skin from irritation

Remove and discard gloves and towels

Prevents cross-infection

Assist the client to reassume a comfortable position

Promotes comfort

Remove and attend to the equipment appropriately. Perform hand hygiene

Prevents cross-infection

Report and document the procedure

Appropriate care can be planned and implemented

References and Recommended Reading encourage further reading within each chapter topic

Summary

Summary S ummary

The Summary highlights the key points in the chapter content Review Questions assist students with comprehension and review of the chapter content

Palliative care is a speciality area of nursing. Nurses are valuable members of the multidisciplinary palliative care team and provide care to individuals with a life-limiting illness and their families. Palliative care takes place in many different settings, and many people prefer to die at home. In palliative care contexts, dying is a natural process and people who are dying should be empowered to live life p as fullyy as possible within the limits of their illness. The

Review Questions Re Review Questions 1 2 3 4 5

Critical Thinking Exercises stimulate the student to think critically and problem solve

palliative care team aims to meet physical, psychological and spiritual needs that arise for clients at the end of their life and to support the client’s family. Quality palliative care and symptom management has the person and their family at the centre of care. Nurses are an important part of the multidisciplinary team supporting a ‘good death’ for clients in the home and inpatient settings.

References Refer Refe efer errence ences ences nc s and Recommended Recom Reading di

Berger AM Shuster JL Von Roe

Critical Thinking Exercise C Critical Cri r Thinking Exercises 1

1

2

3

4

Maher D & Hemmin Hemming L (2005) Understanding p family: holistic a assessment in palliative care of Community N Nursing 10:318–22 McLean Heitkamper Heitkampe M, Ross Staats C, Harringt (2008) Palliative care. In: Brown D & Edward Lewis’s Medical– Medical–Surgical Nursing, 2nd edn. Sydney, pp 153–67 153– Mooney D (2009) U Understanding loss, death an In: Crisp J & T Taylor C (eds) Potter & Perry’s F Tay of Nursing, 3rd edn. Elsevier, Sydney, pp 498 New Zealand Ministry of Health (2001) The New Palliative Care Strategy. Online. Available: ww nz/moh.nsf/pagesmh/2951 O’Connor M (2008) Palliative care in the commu D & van Loon A (eds) Community Nursing in Blackwell Publishing, Oxford Old JL & Swagerty D (2007) A Practical Guide to Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Hagerstown, Smith M (2002) Spiritual issues. In: Lugton J & K Palliative Care: the nursing role. Churchill Liv Stein-Parbury J (2009) Patient and Person: interp nursing, 4th edn. Elsevier, Sydney Tiziani A (2010) Havard’s Nursing Guide to Drug Elsevier, Sydney Varcarolis E & Halter M (2010) Foundations of P Mental Health Nursing: a clinical approach. W Philadelphia Victorian Department of Human Services (2011) Palliative Care Program. Online. Available: w gov.au/palliativecare/index.htm Woodruff R (2004) Palliative Medicine, 4th edn. University Press, Melbourne World Health Organization (2008) Cancer Pain R Palliative Care. Report of a WHO Expert Com Technical Report Series No 804. WHO, Gene Available: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_ A http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO O_

References and Recom

Berger AM, Shuster JL, Von Roenn JH (2006) Principles and Practice of Palliative Care and Supportive Oncology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Hagerstown MD List three (3) major functions of a multidisciplinary palliative care tea team. Birks M & Chapman Y (2009) Complementary therapies in T C (eds) Potter & Describe how you could provide a warm, caring environment for a d dying resident in an aged-care facility.nursing practice. In: Crisp J & Taylor F Nursing, 3rd edn. Elsevier, Sydney, Perry’s Fundamentals of Nursing, List five (5) physical symptoms associated with incurable illness. pp 700–817 Brown Jrcomfortable E (2007) Supporting the Child and the Family in What nursing actions could help an emaciated client whose pain is controlled but who cannot get physically Paediatric Palliative Care. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, in bed? London Describe five (5) ways you can promote a sense of wellbeing in the partner of a client who is dying in Chaplin the acute-care hospital J & Mitchell D (2005) Spiritual issues. In: Lugton J & setting. McIntyre M (eds) Palliative Care: The Nursing Role, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Edinburgh, pp 169–99 Cheraghi M, Payne S, Salsali M (2005) Spiritual aspects of end-of-life care for Muslim patients: experiences from Iran, International Journal of Palliative Nursing 11:468–74 Cicero JK (2007) Waking Up Alone: Grief and Healing. Author House, Bloomington IN D’Avanzo C (2007) Mosby’s Pocket Guide to Cultural Health Assessment, 4th edn. Mosby Elsevier, St Louis In what ways does the culture in busy acute care hospitals impact on the experience of clients who are dying? How does it deWit S (2009) Fundamental Concepts and Skills for Nursing, In what ways does the culture in busy care for tthe client who is dying3rdand edn. WB Saunders, St Louis their family in impact on their family members? How might nurses improveacute the circumstances Egan G (2010) Exercises in Helping Skills: A manual to this setting? accompany the skilled helper. A problem-management and not curable. Reflect on your own values, The specialist has just told you that you have a brain tumour that is inoperable and n opportunity-development approach to helping, 9th edn. attitudes and beliefs and consider what changes would happen in your life as a result of this prognosis. What would you need Learning, Belmont CA Brooks/Cole Cengage to help you cope? If you were living in a rural area 2 hours drive from the nearest city, could you easilyErsek access services M, health Irving G, Botti Mto(2008) Pain management. In: Brown meet your needs? & Edwards H (eds) Lewis’s Medical–Surgical Nursing, 2ndhospice edn. Elsevier, Sydney, pp 121–52 Joe, 72, has lung cancer. He has been admitted to the hospice today. He has been a frequent visitor to the day centre Foyle L & Hostad J (2007) Innovations in Cancer and Palliative over the last few months, and several staff members have noted his positive attitude and how well he seems to have been Care Education. Radcliffe Publishing, Abingdon, Oxford coping physically and emotionally. Joe’s condition has deteriorated now and he is not expected to live for more than a few more Kübler-Ross E (1969) On Death and Dying: What the dying have days. He is alert but extremely agitated at the moment. Margaret, his wife, can’t understand this anxiety because he has been to teach doctors, nurses, clergy, and their own families. so calm throughout his illness. She and his three daughters are finding his agitation very distressing. Consider factors Scribner, Newthat Yorkmay be related to Joe’s anxiety. How would you explore his agitation with him? Which other health professionals may to be M (2002) Transcultural Nursing Leininger Mneed & McFarland consulted? Concepts, Theories, Research and Practice, 3rd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York Tracey, 22 years old, has just died from leukaemia. You have been nursing Tracey for the past 2 weeks in the hospice and you che. Litwak K (2009) Somatosensory function, pain, and headache. developed a caring relationship with her over this period. On hearing that Tracey has died, you experience sense ofPorth loss.C & Matfin G (eds) Pathophysiology, In:aMattson Reflect on your feelings. How might this experience influence your ability to nurse? 8th edn. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp 1225–60

Online O Onlin nl nlin ine e Res R Re Resources esource ourcess ource

Online Resources National Association for Loss and Grief (Australl www.nalag.org.au/ National Association for Loss and Grief (NZ): ww w Palliative Care Australia: www.palliativecare.org. www.palliativecare.org.

National Association for Lo

Online Resources provide useful web links related to the chapter content

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CHAPTER 40

Acute care Michelle Hall

Learning Outcomes

CHAPTER FOCUS

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SCOPE OF PRACTICE

WHERE IS ACUTE CARE DELIVERED?

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sample proofs © Elsevier Australia

950

Unit 9 | Healthcare in specialised practice areas

Table 40.1 | ICUs can be classified as: General ICU

Those that care for both medical and surgical clients

Combined ICU

Combined ICUs where an ICU is combined with an HDU and/or coronary care unit

Paediatric ICU

Specialises in care of paediatrics

Neonatal ICU

Specialises in care of neonates

Speciality ICU

Examples are cardiothoracic, neurological or oncology

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sample proofs © Elsevier Australia

Acute care | Chapter 40

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Clinical Scenario Box 40.1 Rebecca’s acute care experience About 2 years ago Rebecca started experiencing intense headaches which culminated one day in her passing out at work. She worked as a nurse and her nurse unit manager put her in a wheelchair and took her around to the emergency department of the hospital that she worked in. This was the beginning of 2 months of being admitted and discharged from hospital five times. She had all the tests done, MRI, CT, blood test and even a lumbar puncture and no doctor could tell Rebecca why her head felt like it was going to explode. When admitted to the wards, she felt that once the nurses realised that they were caring for a fellow nurse, they treated her differently to other clients. Treatments didn’t get explained as it was assumed that she understood what was happening. No one explained to her the reasoning behind all the tests she was having. For Rebecca, one of the scariest experiences was when she had a drug reaction; she thought she was going to die. On her last admission one of the nurses looking after her suggested she see an osteopath and get her back and neck looked at. Rebecca took her advice and achieved some relief. Two years on and what started as an acute episode has turned into a chronic pain issue. Rebecca has had to change jobs and work part-time as the chronic pain causes her constant exhaustion. This has had a major impact on her life and she has had to modify her lifestyle to manage the pain she experiences every day.

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Clinical Scenario Box 40.2 Rebecca’s acute care experience: the family’s perspective When Rebecca started experiencing headaches I thought nothing of it; she has suffered from migraines since a young age. Then suddenly they escalated and she had to be admitted to hospital multiple times. I cannot explain the sense of helplessness I felt as her mother. I felt I should have been able to make it all better. It was very frustrating that the doctors could not give us any answers; they didn’t listen to her when she said it wasn’t a migraine. One of the worst moments for me was receiving a phone call from my sister who was visiting Rebecca when she had the drug reaction. My sister thought Rebecca was going to die. Another moment that stands out for me was being ordered from her room as nurses rushed in. No one told me what was going on. I found out later she had been given too much morphine and had a dangerously low respiratory rate. Two years on and I am proud of how Rebecca deals with the pain; most people have no idea that she has pain every day. It is lucky that I am a casual worker so I can take time off when Rebecca needs to be taken to hospital; I don’t know what would happen if I had to work full-time. Lisa, mother of Rebecca

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sample proofs © Elsevier Australia

952

Unit 9 | Healthcare in specialised practice areas

Pathophysiology ɨF
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CLINICAL INTEREST BOX 40.1 Risk factors in the development of cellulitis t
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Venous insufficiency or stasis Lymphoedema Surgery Diabetes mellitus Malnutrition Substance abuse Presence of another infection Compromised immune system Trauma Intravenous drug use Radical mastectomy with axillary dissection (Farrell & Dempsey 2011)

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sample proofs © Elsevier Australia

Acute care | Chapter 40

menstrual bleeding may be slightly increased: they should contact their doctor if it increases significantly. Men should shave with an electric razor to reduce the risk of cuts and soft-bristle toothbrushes should be used. Contact sports should be avoided while taking anticoagulation drugs (LeMone et al 2011).

Pulmonary embolism Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a major cause of mortality and morbidity (Otair et al 2009). For 25% of clients who suffer a PE the first clinical symptom is death (Farley et al 2009). The risk factors associated with the development of a PE are very similar to those for a DVT (see Clinical Interest Box 40.2). Clinical manifestations The clinical manifestations of PE may include chest pain, chest wall tenderness, palpitations, back and shoulder pain,  upper abdominal pain, syncope, haemoptysis, dyspnoea and painful respirations (Farley et al 2009). Pathophysiology PE involves obstruction of a section of the pulmonary artery tree by a thrombus or embolism (Sheares 2011). This thrombus or embolism forms in the venous system or right side of the heart (Farrell & Dempsey 2011) and commonly originates in the leg or pelvic vein (Sheares 2011). Diagnostic tests Diagnosis of PE can be difficult because of the non-specific symptoms that are manifested (Otair et  al 2009). If the

CLINICAL INTEREST BOX 40.2 Risk factors associated with DVT t
t
t
t
t
t
t
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953

clinical manifestations indicate the possibility of PE (chest pain, chest wall tenderness, palpitations, back and shoulder pain, upper abdominal pain, syncope, haemoptysis, dyspnoea and painful respirations) (Farley et al 2009), then a D-dimer test may be ordered; if this test is positive then more investigations are required to confirm the diagnosis. Table 40.2 outlines investigations for diagnosis of PE. In recent years the computed tomography pulmonary angiogram (CTPA) has replaced pulmonary angiograms in the diagnosis of PEs (Sheares 2011). This type of CT evaluates slices as narrow as 1.0 mm (Farrell & Dempsey 2011) allowing for accurate visualisation of a PE by enabling visualisation of the pulmonary arteries (Sheares 2011). The main disadvantages of the CTPA are that the client Table 40.2 | Investigations for diagnosis of pulmonary embolism $IFTU
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Farrell & Dempsey 2011; Sheares 2011

sample proofs © Elsevier Australia

954

Unit 9 | Healthcare in specialised practice areas

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Table 40.3 | Emergency management of pulmonary embolism Nasal oxygen

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Insertion of intravenous lines

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ECG

Provides continuous monitoring for arrhythmias and right ventricular failure

Medications

May include digoxin glycosides, diuretics, enoxaparin, heparin and antiarrhythmic agents. Sedatives may be administered to relieve anxiety

Blood tests

Include serum electrolytes, full blood count, haematocrit and arterial blood gases

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Farrell & Dempsey 2011

Clinical manifestations $MJFOUT
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956

Unit 9 | Healthcare in specialised practice areas

Prerenal failure

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sample proofs © Elsevier Australia

Acute care | Chapter 40

Medical management

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The investigations required depend on the individual and the results of the health assessment (Murphy & Byrne 2010). Once a diagnosis is made the medical aim is to restore chemical balance and prevent complications to allow the kidney to repair itself (Farrell & Dempsey 2011). If there is a known cause it is treated and eliminated. For some clients dialysis is required (see Ch 29).

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957

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Figure 40.3 Causes of postrenal failure (Blakeley 2008)

Nursing care When caring for the client with ARF the nurse needs to closely monitor fluid balance. This can be done by commencing the client on a strict fluid balance and daily weighing regimen, ensuring that the client is weighed at the same time on the same scales and in the same clothes every time. The nurse should also monitor the client for signs of oedema and any difficulty in breathing (Farrell & Dempsey 2011). Clients with ARF are at increased risk of infection and skin breakdown, therefore the nurse should ensure asepsis when caring for these clients and meticulous skin care to prevent skin breakdown (Farrell & Dempsey 2011).

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The client with ARF needs education to identify complications of fluid volume excess such as increased weight or oedema. Educate to avoid nephrotoxic agents for at least 1 year post ARF. The client will need to avoid stress and infection (LeMone et al 2011). (See Table 40.4.)

Sepsis Sepsis is an infection of the blood stream that spreads quickly and can be difficult to diagnose (Dellacroce 2009). For a diagnosis of sepsis to be made the client must have a known infection and systemic inflammatory reaction syndrome (SIRS) (see Clinical Interest Box 40.3).

Table 40.4 | Differences between acute renal failure and chronic renal failure Acute renal failure

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958

Unit 9 | Healthcare in specialised practice areas

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The most common sites of infection that lead to sepsis are infections in the bloodstream, skin, respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract and genitourinary tract (Schub & Schub 2011). Gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria are the usual causative agents; however, the infection can also be due to fungi, viruses and protozoa (Farrell & Dempsey 2011).

Clinical manifestations Clinical manifestations include fever, peripheral oedema, hypotension, tachycardia, tachypnoea and hot flushed skin (LeMone et al 2011). Risk factors for the development of sepsis include cauterisation, invasive devices, certain surgery, urinary tract infections, appendicitis, diverticulitis, Crohn’s disease, cholecystitis, renal disease, prostatitis, meningitis and complicated obstetric delivery (Schub & Schub 2011). Older adults, children and immunosuppressed clients are at an increased risk of sepsis progressing to severe sepsis and septic shock (Schub & Schub 2011).

Pathophysiology Sepsis develops when the body is unable to contain a localised infection, enabling the infective agent to enter the blood stream (Dellacroce 2009). The associated SIRS can impair the clotting cascade, causing systemic inflammation, vasodilation and capillary leakage which contributes to hypotension and can lead to organ failure (Whitehead 2010). Sepsis can develop into severe sepsis. Severe sepsis involves all the clinical features of sepsis but has the added complication of organ dysfunction (Dellacroce 2009) (see Table 40.5). When a client is diagnosed with severe sepsis there is a 30–35% chance of death (Whitehead 2010).

One of the major complications of severe sepsis is hypotension. When a client remains hypotensive in spite of adequate fluid resuscitation, the client has progressed into septic shock (Dellacroce 2009). Septic shock is a life-threatening condition, with 1400 people worldwide dying each day (Gerber 2010). After diagnosis of septic shock, 30% of clients will die within the first month and 50% within 6 months (Gerber 2010). See Clinical Scenario Box 40.3.

Diagnostic test As soon as sepsis is suspected blood cultures should be taken, ideally prior to the commencement of antibiotic

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Acute care | Chapter 40

therapy. The cultures should be taken from all lumens of central and peripheral lines (Dellacroce 2009).

Medical management Oxygen therapy should be commenced at high-doses to stabilise oxygen saturations (Steen 2009). Fluid resuscitation which includes both colloids (albumin and packed red blood cells) and crystalloids (normal saline and Ringer’s lactate) is commenced, with the aim of maintaining blood pressure greater than >100 systolic blood pressure (SBP) (Dellacroce 2009). Urine output is monitored with a goal of >0.5 mL/kg/hr and it is recommended that a urinary catheter be inserted (Steen 2009). Broad-spectrum intravenous antibiotics are commenced until an infective agent is identified; these should be commenced within 1 hour of the diagnosis (Steen 2009). The client’s serum lactate levels may need to be measured as increased levels indicate progressing disease (Steen 2009).

Nursing care The best treatment for sepsis is prevention, which all nurses must aim to achieve by being diligent with handwashing and the use of aseptic technique and standard and additional precautions.

CLINICAL PATHWAYS A clinical pathway is best described as a multidisciplinary, locally approved plan of care for a client based on guidelines and, wherever possible, evidenced for a particular client group (Duffy et al 2011). The clinical pathway was introduced in the 1980s in the USA to meet the needs of healthcare professionals and improve quality of care for clients (Duffy et al 2011). The main aim is to encourage standardisation of care for all clients (Neuman et  al 2009) with similar requirements throughout a specific time frame by providing clinical standards and expected outcomes (D’Entermont 2009; Neuman et al 2009). The development of clinical pathways combines an evidence-based approach, with local policy and procedure and current practice to develop a process map which in

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turn is developed into a pathway (Day 2009). The pathway enables less variation and more transparency in client care (Vanhaecht et al 2009). Clinical pathways are most advantageous when client outcomes are predictable, thus ensuring that the client receives relevant clinical interventions and assessments (Allen et  al 2009). While clinical pathways cannot be used for all clients, in 80% of cases a clinical pathway is indicated (Duffy et al 2011). Pathways provide a daily care plan for the client, and include guidelines on assessment, treatment, activities of daily living, nutrition, education, referrals to be made and discharge planning (D’Entermont 2009). The novice nurse can find pathways especially helpful by providing a guide as to what is expected of the client on any given day (D’Entermont 2009). However, it is not just the novice nurse who benefits from clinical pathways; even the most experienced nurse will encounter client conditions they are unfamiliar with and the pathway will enable them to provide the most appropriate care for these clients. Clinical pathways can form all or part of the client’s medical records (Duffy et al 2011). At the end of a shift, providing there has been no variation from the pathway, the nurse responsible for the client’s care signs off that all expected outcomes and interventions have been met. When a variation from the plan has occurred the nurse is expected to document this in the client’s progress notes. Studies have shown that clinical pathways improve client outcomes, promote decision making and may lead to shorter hospital stays and reductions in readmission (Allen et  al 2009). Shorter hospital stays are achieved as clinical pathways act as an organisational device by encouraging proactive interventions and the use of relevant resources for the client (Allen et  al 2009). However, not all clients are appropriate for clinical pathways. Clinical pathways are not effective when care needs to be flexible, such as with the care of the client post cerebrovascular accident (Allen et  al 2009). Clinical pathways can never replace professional clinical judgment (D’Entermont 2009).

Summary This chapter has presented some common and not so common conditions the enrolled nurse may encounter when working in the acute, aged or community care sectors. It has explored the area of acute care provided in venues other than hospitals and presented an introduction

to clinical pathways. There are many acute conditions the enrolled nurse will come across, in various settings, and this introduction, along with further reading, provides a general introduction to a broad range of conditions that may be seen in acute settings.

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Review Questions 1 You suspect your client has cellulitis. What are the common sites the infection originates from? 2 Which two (2) conditions are included under the term venous thromboembolism? 3 Identify the major risk factors associated with the development of a DVT. 4 What does a positive D-dimer test indicate? 5 Outline the treatment of a client who has been diagnosed with a pulmonary embolism. 6 Describe diverticulitis. 7 List the clinical manifestations of diverticulitis. 8 What is a preceding factor for the development of Guillain-Barré syndrome? 9 Explain the pathophysiology of Guillain-Barré syndrome. 10 Provide a cause of each stage of acute renal failure. 11 What two (2) conditions must be present for a diagnosis of sepsis? 12 What are the common sites where a sepsis infection originates? 13 Define the term clinical pathway. 14 What is the main aim of clinical pathways? 15 For what clients are clinical pathways most appropriate?

Critical Thinking Exercises 1

You are looking after a client who has been admitted post a myocardial infarct. He is recovering post CABG surgery. Your client is the main income earner in his family and has three young children at home. a

Identify physical issues for this client.

b Identify psychological issues for this client. c 2

List appropriate ongoing care including allied healthcare that this client will require.

You receive handover from the morning nurse on one of your clients who is expected to be discharged this afternoon. Your client is a 39-year-old female admitted with a DVT who has responded well to treatment and will be transferred to the care of HITH. The nurse handing over to you reports that this morning the client complained of slight back and shoulder tip pain which was resolved with paracetamol. All paper work has been completed and the client is waiting for her discharge medications before she can leave. When you enter the client’s room, you find her pale and complaining of dyspnoea and chest pain. a

What is your first action going to be?

b What do you think has happened? c

What sign did the morning nurse miss?

d What diagnostic tests need to be done?

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References and Recommended Reading Allen D, Gillen E, Rixson L (2009) Systematic review of the effectiveness of integrated care pathways: what works, for whom, in which circumstances? Integrated Journal of Evidence-based Healthcare 7:61–74 Anderson CM, Overend TJ, Godwin J et al (2009) Ambulation after deep vein thrombosis: a systemic review, Physiotherapy Canada 61(3):133–42 Arnetz JE, Winblad U, Höglund AT et al (2010) Is patient involvement during hospitalisation for acute myocardial infarction associated with post-discharge treatment outcomes? An exploratory study, Health Expectations 13(3):298–311 Bacon S (2009) Understanding venous thromboembolism, Practice Nursing 20:334–41 Blakeley S (ed) (2008) Renal Failure and Replacement Therapies. Springer, London Carter K (2010) Identifying and managing deep vein thrombosis, Primary Health Care 20(1):30–8 Cegarra-Navarro JG, Wensley AKP, Sànchez-Polo MT (2011) Improving quality of service of home healthcare units with health information technologies, Health Information Management Journal 40(2):30–8 Collins S (2009) Deep vein thrombosis—an overview, Practice Nurse 37(9):23–5 Day R (2009) Developing care pathways for hospice and neurological care: Evaluating a pilot, British Journal of Neuroscience Nursing 5(2):79–84 Davidson JE (2009) Family-centred Care. Meeting the needs of patients’ families and helping families adapt to critical illness, Critical Care Nursing 29(3):28–35 Dellacroce H (2009) Surviving sepsis: the role of the nurse, RN 72:16–21 D’Entermont B (2009) Clinical pathways: the Ottawa hospital experience, Canadian Nurse 105:8–9 Department of Health, Victoria (2012) Hospital in the Home. Online. Available: http://health.vic.gov.au/hith/ Dougherty CM & Thompson EA (2009) Intimate partner physical and mental health after sudden cardiac arrest and receipt of an implantable cardioverter defibrillator, Research in Nursing & Health 32:432–42 Duffy A, Payne S, Timmins F (2011) The Liverpool Care Pathway: does it improve quality of dying? British Journal of Nursing 20(15):942–6 Eagar SC, Cowin LS, Gregory L et al (2010) Scope of practice conflict in nursing: A new war or just the same battle? Contemporary Nurse 36(1–2):86–95 Eron LJ (2009) Cellulitis and soft-tissue infections, American College of Physicians ITC1:1–16 Farley A, McLafferty E, Hendry C (2009) Pulmonary embolism: identification, clinical features and management, Nursing Standard 23:49–50 Farrell M & Dempsey J (eds) (2011) Smeltzer & Bare’s Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 2nd edn. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Broadway, NSW Gerber K (2010) Surviving sepsis: a trust wide approach. A multi-disciplinary team approach to implementing evidencebased guidelines, Nursing in Critical Care 15(3):141–51 Gould A, Ho KM, Dobb G (2010) Risk factors and outcomes of high-dependency patients requiring intensive care unit admission: a nested care-control study, Anaesthesia & Intensive Care 38(5):855–61 Harvard Women’s Health Watch (2011) Diverticular disease prevention and treatment, Harvard Women’s Health Watch 18:4–5

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Haultain R, Weston K, Rolls S (2011) Realising enrolled nurses’ full potential, Kai Tiaki Nursing New Zealand 17(1):28–9 Hsu C, O’Connor M, Lee S (2009) Understanding of death and dying for people of Chinese origin, Death Studies 23(2):153–74 Kelly MA & McKinley S (2010) Patient’s recovery after critical illness at early follow up, Journal of Clinical Nursing 19(5–6): 691–700 LeMone P, Burke KM, Dwyer T et al (eds) (2011) MedicalSurgical Nursing. Critical Thinking in Client Care. Pearson, Frenchs Forest, NSW Lipman M (2011) Diverticulitis reconsidered, Consumer Reports on Health 23:11 Lugg J (2010) Recognising and managing Guillain-Barré syndrome, Emergency Nurse 18(3):27–30 Martin JM, Hart GK, Hick P (2010) A unique snapshot of intensive care resources in Australia and New Zealand, Anaesthesia & Intensive Care 38(1):149–58 Morrison R (2006) Venous thromboembolism: scope of the problem and the nurse’s role in risk assessment and prevention, Journal of Vascular Nursing 24(3):82–90 Murphy F & Byrne G (2010) The role of the nurse in the management of acute kidney injury, British Journal of Nursing 19(3):146–52 Nankervis K, Kenny A, Bish M (2008) Enhancing scope of practice for the second level nurse: A change process to meet growing demand for rural health services, Contemporary Nurse 29(2):159–73 Neuman MD, Archan S, Karlawish JH et al (2009) The relationship between short-term mortality and quality of care for hip fractures: A meta-analysis of clinical pathways for hip fracture, Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 57(11):2046–54 O’Connor T (2010) Providing intensive care, Kai Tiaki Nursing New Zealand 16(4):15–17 Own C, Hemmings L, Brown T (2009) Lost in translation. Maximizing handover effectiveness between paramedics and receiving staff in the emergency department, Emergency Medicine Australasia 21:102–7 Otair H, Chaudhry M, Shaikh S et al (2009) Outcome of patients with pulmonary embolism admitted to the intensive care unit, Annals of Thoracic Medicine 4(1):13–16 Pritchard J (2010) Guillain-Barré syndrome, Clinical Medicine 10(4):399–401 Rogers J (2010) Risk assessment and treatment of venous thromboembolism, Emergency Nurse 18(8):24–6 Royal District Nursing Service (RDNS) (2011) Who We Are. Fact Sheet. Online. Available: www.rdns.com.au/media_ and_resources/media/Documents/2011%20Royal%20 District%20Nursing%20Service%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf Ruan X, Liu HN, Couch JP et al (2010) Recurrent cellulitis associated with long-term intrathecal opioid infusion therapy: A case report and review of the literature, Pain Medicine 11(6):972–6 Schub E & Schub T (2011) Sepsis and Septic Shock. CINAHL Information Systems Sheares K (2011) How do I manage a patient with suspected acute pulmonary embolism? Clinical Medicine 11(2): 156–9 Schub T, Caple C, Pravikott D (2011) Guillain-Barré Syndrome. CINAHL Information Systems Skott C & Lundgren SM (2009) Complexity and contradiction: home care in a multicultural area, Nursing Inquiry 16(3): 223–31 Steen C (2009) Developments in the management of patients with sepsis, Nursing Standard 23(48):48–55

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Vandall-Walker V (2010) The work of family members: pushing our boundaries, Dynamics 21(2):39 Vanhaecht K, De Witte K, Panella M et al (2009) Do pathways lead to better organized care processes? Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 15:782–8 Warise L (2010) Update: Diuretic therapy in acute renal failure—a clinical case study, MEDSURG Nursing 19(3):149–52 Whitehead S (2010) Sepsis alert: recognition and treatment of a common killer, EMS magazine 39(6):29–37 Williams TA, Knuiman MA, Finn JC et al (2010) Effects of an

episode of critical illness on subsequent hospitalisation: a linked data study, Journal of the Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland 65:172–7 Yaklin KM (2011) Acute kidney injury: an overview of pathophysiology and treatments, Nephrology Nursing Journal 38(1):13–19

Online Resource Royal District Nursing Service: www.rdns.com.au

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