Seminario Bioenergía, Coyhaique 2012
SUSTAINABLE BIOMASS POTENTIALS FOR FOOD-FEED-FUELS IN THE FUTURE. - HOW CAN BIOREFINERY CONCEPTS AND BIOENERGY FIT INTO A CHANGE FROM 100 PERCENT FOSSIL DEPENDENCY TOWARDS A 100 PERCENT RENEWABLE ENERGY FUTURE?
Jens Bo Holm-Nielsen & Simas Kirchovas Head of Centre for Bioenergy and Green Engineering, Department of Energy Technology Aalborg University, Dinamarca
[email protected] ABSTRACT Biomass sources as Woodchips – Wood pellets, Straw – Bio pellets, animal manure, farm-by products and new cropping systems are integrated in our society’s needs. The mindset for shifting from fossil fuels based economies into sustainable energy economies already exist. Bioenergy utilization systems has for many years been forming the basis for the change together with wind and solar energy. These resources still contains great potentials for energy supply chains in increasing areas of Europe and the World. Biomass sustainability issues could be solved by developing the international sustainability criteria. The sustainability criteria agreed internationally could be realized as a tool to secure the positive impacts of bioenergy and to foster the international trade. This study investigates the developments by national and international bodies of biomass standardization and certification systems and analyzes the biomass verification procedure in more detail. Belgium is taken as a case example for analysis. There is a need for action to solve the issues as sustainable bioenergy targeted policy developments, lack of cooperation within industry, governments, standardization bodies, NGO’s and other key stakeholders that stagnate the processes possessed in use of biomass. Keywords: bioenergy potential, sustainability criteria, certification. INTRODUCTION By increasing forces there have been debates the last decade how sensitive biomasses for all kind of purposes are. Food, Feed, Fuel for energy, heating and cooling, fire and construction purposes are among the most important biomass end uses. The biomass resources worldwide depending on use could be finite or non-finite resources. The areas from where it can be used for energy and food/feed are consisting of commercially exploited forestry and agricultural land areas. It is important that when biomass is harvested, nature conservation is taken very seriously into consideration. The future biomass utilization has been critically researched and discussed for the last decade and the global biomass potential for energy sectors reveal the range of 196 – 530 EJoule. This potential shall be utilized using the sustainability criteria and indicators for sustainable bioenergy. However, there is no internationally agreed mandatory standard for bioenergy and various organizations are using overlapping indicator sets. This paper comprises of two main parts, firstly the biomass resource potential studies are analyzed including forecasts. Secondly, sustainability criteria’s and indicators are discussed followed by a case example of certification and verification procedure.
BIOMASS AS A RESOURCE WORLDWIDE Biomass is biodegradable products, wastes and residues of biological origin from agriculture, forestry and aquaculture. Biomass comes from a wide range of raw materials that include wood, agricultural crops, by-products of wood processing, manure and the organic fraction of waste products [1; 2]. Biomass as a form of renewable energy has the advantage that it can be easily stored, transported and utilized with a flexible load and applications at the place and time of energy needed. This makes the biomass unique among other renewable energy options. According to the [3] biomass can be either renewable or non-renewable. To determine the biomass either renewable or non-renewable the following Figure 1 with five criteria system can be used.
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Figure 1: The criteria for renewable biomass [3]
Importantly, all five conditions should comply with nature conservation regulations in the concerned country or region, apply a sustainable management in the production of the biomass and should keep the carbon stock levels non-declining. Otherwise, where none of these conditions applies, the biomass is considered as non-renewable [3]. The next steps of critical review on biomass potentials are its long-term availability and demand for the energy sectors throughout the world. The global net primary production (NPP) of biomass is estimated to be 2280 EJ [4]. In 2007 only 50 EJ of biomass contributed to global energy use of 470 EJ, mainly in the form of traditional non-commercial biomass [5]. Currently the world consumes nearly 500 EJ of primary energy annually [6; 7] and the future projections of primary energy consumption indicate a range of 601 - 1041 EJ by the year 2050 [8]. Simultaneously, projections of biomass potentials for energy production show a range of 50 - 1500 EJ by the year 2050 [9]. The high biomass potential ranges emerge because of different methods used to represent determining factors – such as demand for food, land, soil and water constraints, biodiversity and nature conservation requirements, and other sustainability issues [6]. There is also doubt on the quality of present studies as the dynamics of important insights to determine the biomass potentials have been studied in less detail. For instance, the competition for water resources with other economic sectors; human diets and alternative protein chains; the demand for wood products and many others factors have been included only to a limited extent [9]. Despite the fact that recent biomass potential studies do not include the dynamics of all-important insights, these studies reveal the potential of biomass for energy production. The important factor for considering the biomass production potentials and scanning the regions of the world for potential suppliers of biomass fuels is the world‘s land distribution by the employment. The Table 1 presents the total global land area and agricultural area as well as arable land, forest and permanent meadows and pastures expressed in million hectares and as a percentage of total area. Additionally, the definitions of land types are provided at the upper part of the table. The biomass resources, currently available for producing energy, can be classified into woody biomass, agricultural sources and bio wastes [5]. In this report emphasis is on woody biomass and agricultural sources. Agriculture and forestry are the biggest sources of biomass around the globe and they account for 38% and 31% of the
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total world‘s area respectively [10; 11]. Further section of this report puts emphasis on these two sources of biomass. Notably, one can use Table 1 to indicate the particular potentials of biomass in the world. As the agricultural land indicates the energy crops potentials like new plantations, arable land includes the residues potentials of straw, forest area the woody biomass potentials, and permanent meadows and pastures show the potential to expand the biomass production to these lands by new cropping systems. Agriculture and forestry resources Agricultural resources World agricultural land accounts for 38% of the total world‘s land area (Table 1). The biomass from agriculture originates from two different sources: growing energy crops and agricultural residues. In Table 1 we see that regions as Asia (54%), Central America (51%) and Oceania (52%) have the biggest area of agricultural land area and the highest potential for biomass from agricultural residues and from growing energy crops. According to [11], the arable land shifting from food and feed towards mixed food and feed and energy farming will gradually occur and from Table 1 we can see that Asia (16%), European Union (26%) and Northern and Central America (12%) have the biggest area of arable land and the highest potential for that paradigm change. Furthermore, the land areas, devoted for permanent meadows and pastures (permanent grasslands) have the potential to employ the energy farming and continents as Asia (35 %), Africa (31 %) and South America (26 %) have the highest potential for this employment. Currently, the amount of land devoted for growing biofuels is 0.5% of the total world’s recorded agricultural land area and only 0.19% of the total world‘s area [12; 14]. In Figure 2 it can be seen that increase of total land area devoted for energy crops to 0,38%, 0,85%, 1,54% and 3,07% would increase the current share of biomass production (45 EJ) to 90 EJ, 180EJ, 360EJ and 720EJ respectively [15].
Table 1: The land distribution by employment area in World, continents, European Union, Denmark, United Kingdom and Russian Federation in 2007. [12]
More realistically, the biomass potential from growing energy crops could amount to the range of 120 - 330 ej yr-1, that is between 24 - 66 % of current primary energy consumption [6; 15]. Furthermore, the amount of agricultural residues were estimated to be 36 ej yr-1 in 2005 [7] and projected to reach 55 – 72 ej yr-1 by 2050 [16]. The global agricultural bio-mass potential including energy cropping, plantations and agricultural residues could range between 175 ej - 402 ej by the year 2050.
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Forestry resources World forests account for 31% of the total world‘s land area (table 1). The biomass from forest originates from two different sources: the biomass from wood and residues (logging residues, processing, wood wastes). The forest availability for biomass depends on factors as: forest area protection and accessibility [17]. The existing forests may be used only partially for energy supply because of economical, various ecological, and social reasons [18]. Depending on forest functions, see figure 3, a percentage of total world‘s forest area must be excluded as biomass resources for energy. This covers protection, conservation and social services areas. Other areas, which account for 77 % of total world‘s forest area, as production, multiple use, other and unknown should be considered as a potential areas for biomass production for energy [10]. However, the percentage may differ from region to region.
The agricultural land employment and primary energy consumption 720EJ
3,07%
World´s land area devoted for energy crops
360EJ
1,54%
180EJ
0,85%
90EJ
0,38% 0,29%
45EJ 0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
140%
160%
The share of current primary energyconsumption (500 EJ)
Figure 2: The agricultural land employment and primary energy consumption
In Table 1 we see that Northern (33%), Central (35%) and South (47%) America, European Union (37%) and Russian Federation (49%) have the biggest land area dedicated for forests and so the highest potential for woody biomass production.
Figure 3: Designated functions of world’s forests, 2010 (%), [19]
The future projections of forest biomass potentials vary in literature depending on different time frames, data inputs, calculation methods and other factors. The calculation method, which compares the future demand and supply of the wood products, could likely reveal more realistic results. Calculations, based on demand and supply method performed
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by [4] show the wood biomass potentials by the year 2050. These calculations are based on projected demand for industrial round wood and wood fuel and the supply of wood from forests, forest plantations and trees outside forests (TOF) by the year 2050. The results show that the potential of biomass from the forest wood, after the demand for industrial wood is met to be 0 - 93 EJ yr-1; and the potential biomass from wood residues to 21 - 35 EJ which include wood harvest residues (22 %), process residues (39 %) and wood wastes (39 %) [4]. Based on these results the global biomass potential from wood, including forest wood and wood residues, could amount to around 21 - 128 EJ by the year 2050. The evaluation of studies lead to the assumption that the realistic biomass potential including agricultural and forest biomasses range between 196 – 530 EJ by the year 2050. This assumption is in line with other projections of 200 - 500 EJ of biomass harvestable for energy, including wastes. The Table 2 summarizes the bio-mass resources potentials and includes the projection of primary energy consumption in 2050.
Table 2: Summary of bioenergy potentials worldwide in 2050.
The bulk of this potential comes from the specialized energy crops grown on surplus agricultural land, which is defined as land that is no longer required for food production due to increased efficiency. The highest regional biomass potentials are: sub-Saharan Africa, Caribbean and Latin America, Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russian Federation, Republic of Belarus, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan) and Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania), North America and East Asia [11]. SCREENING OF INTERNATIONAL SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS’ SETS The biomass use for energy purposes is critical as it is a renewable and multipurpose source of energy and can reduce the CO2 emissions. But the use of biomass for energy does not imply that the harvest, production and conversion processes are sustainable. For assessing biomass sustainability the sustainability criteria’s are important prerequisites and these assessments require the critical sustainability criteria’s/indicators that would secure the sustainable biomass utilization. The biomass sustainability relies on factors as environmental, economic and social balances within harvest, production, conversion and utilization systems. The complexity of factors and systems become more heterogeneous because of particular sites, projects and sources of biomass. Currently, there is no consensus on the sustainability criteria but the global debate on this issue shows progress. EU is working on developing the set of criteria but still there is uncertainty when these criteria could reach the market. The initiatives as by EURELECTRIC, which is the organization of power producing industries in EU, show the importance and initiative to develop the criteria at the end of 2011 [20] to reach the EU target of 20 % of renewable energy sources by 2020. Sustainability certification systems Certification is the process whereby an independent third-party assesses the quality of management in relation to a set of predetermined requirements [21]. The requirements or standards are mostly formulated as criteria that have to be fulfilled for the certification of a product or production process [22]. Commonly, certification systems have two main
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elements: (1) rules how the certification process shall be performed and (2) standards and accreditation procedures [21]. Standards define the aim of certification and characterize the process or product specific requirements to be fulfilled for certification [22]. The requirements are usually translated into three or four sustainability elements: the sustainability principles, criteria, indicators and verifiers. The simplified framework for certification is presented in Figure 3. The indicators and verifiers are used for operational and measurement purposes of criteria. Indicators are defined as measurable parameters, which characterized a system by reduction of complexity and integration of information [21]. A verifier is defined as data or information that enhances the specificity or the ease of assessment of an indicator. Verifiers are used for indicator assessment and the control of the fulfillment of sustainability criteria [22].
Figure 3: The framework for the certification scheme
Indicators can be management rules or description of the procedures. Management rules describe a sustainable production process by providing the information on allowed or prohibited measures and how these measures have to be performed. Similar to management rules, procedure descriptions give guidelines on how a certain process has to be performed on a whole process chain. This system ensures traceability of a product by the reporting that covers all steps of the product chain. This is also called as Chain of Custody [22]. The basis for chain of custody mechanism for tracing materials within an organization and between organizations in the supply chain is to implement and verify control mechanisms for each organization in the chain. In order to implement a chain of custody, an organization needs to put in place several procedures, covering requirement for documented procedures, processing, system records, etc. [23]. Forest certification systems Forest certification systems are closely related to biomass sustainability and are considered the most relevant for developing biomass certification systems [24]. Practice shows that to maintain sustainability of biofuels one should use the feedstock from sustainably managed forests. For example biomass certification system Green Gold Label has approved a list of forest certification systems and the feedstock for biofuel production is considered according to that list. However, only 8% of world forests and 45% of the EU forests are certified today [2] and the industry interest in feedstock are usually under the uncertified forest areas [25]. The first forest certification system was launched in 1993 by non-profit organization Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) with the coalition of Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) and other leading environmental organizations [26]. Since then, there are a growing number of certification schemes and the competition for the global acceptance is increasing. Forest certification schemes vary in many factors: the criteria and indicators of a scheme can maintain different aspects;
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national schemes can be site specific; it can be developed for a certain forest types (e.g. tropical, natural, plantations) and; global schemes that attempt to cover all aspects in different contexts. The most accepted global certification schemes worldwide for forest certification are PEFC and FSC which cover 231 and 134 million ha of world’s forests respectively (27; 28; 29). Other schemes e.g. Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI), Canadian Standard Association (CSA) sustainable forest management scheme, The Australian Forest Standard (AFS) with Australian Forest Certification Scheme (AFCS) and Malaysian Timber Certification Council (MTCC) etc., cover less area worldwide and table 3 shows mentioned schemes and their certified forest areas worldwide. It is clear that area of certified forests has increased during the last 3 years (Table 3). We can see that forest area certified by different standards is increasing in different rates. PEFC increase was 11 and FSC 18.4 million ha in the last three years. This could be explained by differences in public acceptance of schemes as FSC is a strong player in development of sustainability standards where PEFC system by using metastandard approach is relying on existing standards [29]. 3.1.2. Biomass certification for energy applications The present initiatives of various governmental and non-governmental bodies attempt to develop certification schemes for bioenergy and have created a wide net of them worldwide. The schemes vary depending on various factors, the type of feedstock, country and the product certifiable. There is no doubt that the number of schemes is increasing rapidly. The studies of [29] show that during the period of 2007 and 2009 the number of certification initiatives for bioenergy has almost doubled. This fact concerns the biomass traders because a wide net of certification systems can create the obstacles for biomass trade [29; 30; 33; 34]. When there is no consensus on the sustainability standards for biomass for energy the producers and users of biomass should assure the sustainability with voluntary schemes for being able to comply with the sustainable energy targets.
Table 3: Forest certification standards and area certified in year 2008 and 2011
Review of sustainability indicator sets: The present initiatives by governmental bodies and international organizations on developing the sustainability criteria are more voluntary but show progress in the processes. Every organization or governmental body has developed different set of criteria. Table 4 provides the sustainability criteria from seven different bodies. The literature surveys on sustainability criteria performed by [35] under BEFSCI initiative, [36] and [37], lead to the number of 44 sustainability criteria. Table 5 summarizes these sustainability criteria by three groups, Environmental, Economic and Social criteria’s, and provide the short explanation of the criteria. Recently, Global Bioenergy Partnership (GBEP) has released a set of voluntary, practical and science based sustainability indicators with the aim of helping countries to assess and develop sustainable production and use of bioenergy [38]. This is the first global, government level consensus on sustainability indicators for bioenergy, however remains voluntary. The set of 24 indicators divided into three pillars Environmental, Social and Economic is devoted for all kinds of biomasses. The list of indicators shall now be tested in market conditions for revealing the real applicability options. Nevertheless, this indicator set lack the inclusion of indirect land use change indicators GBEP shall improve it over time. This is the first step towards the Global consensus on sustainability indicator set, however further harmonization is needed.
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The next chapter gives a case example of the wood pellet certification process form the Belgian governmental and company’s GDF SUEZ experience. A case example of wood pellet certification process The European Union policy – in accordance with international agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol – has set up renewable energy target of 20% by 2020 by promotion of biomass use in the power, heat and transport sectors. According to the European Renewable Energy Directives, European Governments encourage the green power by granting support mechanisms under the form of green certificates or feed-in tariffs. The empirical evidence from Belgium shows that use of certification systems reduced the country’s CO2 emissions about 3.7% in 2006 from system related electricity production [39]. The Belgian certification system is using the Green Certificates obligations and the penalty for the non-achieved share of green power. The five Green certificates mechanisms are running in Belgium based on two different accounting principles: based upon the energy balance and use of fossil energy all along the supply chain that is then subtracted from the number of granted Certificates; and based upon the avoided fossil CO2 emissions with respect to a reference being the combined cycle power plant. The verification procedure on the suppliers of biomass is applied to evaluate the emissions from the production of biomass fuels. Belgian authorities make an audit to each biomass supplier within 6 months after the biomass has been first fired. The audit must study the sustainability of biomass origin and detail the energy balance of the whole supply chain. This includes: energy for pelleting the wood and transportation of final product up to the site. Importantly, if the biomass originates not from secondary product but from primary one, then the energy consumption for planting, fertilizing, harvesting etc. must be taken into account [40]. The procedure of certification allows informing a potential supplier of all requirements made by the client concerning: - The technical product specifications (chemical composition, physical properties), - The sustainability criteria for being accepted within the client. All this is concentrated in one document entitled “Biomass Supplier Declaration” (6 pages). This document is signed by a representative of the producer and is verified and stamped by a certified inspection body before being delivered to the Belgian authority [40]. In Belgium, for each producer, a local independent inspectorate analyses the global supply chain, and independent body accepted by Belgian authorities gives the approval of the analysis. Next chapter gives the conclusions of the study. The biomass resources reveal the potentials for energy sector amounting to 196-530 Ejoule in 2050. However, more detailed assessments of potentials could lead to reduced or increased amounts of available biomass for energy purposes. For example, the promotion of degraded lands could add up to the potentials and increased food demand could lead to the decreased potentials. Nevertheless, the bioenergy will play a big role in the future energy mix. The sustainability concerns of biomass utilization is being addressed by sustainability certification schemes which are mainly voluntary initiatives developed by industry, governments and international organizations.
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CONCLUSIONS 1. Bioenergy potentials could be explored in more detail by mapping world land areas by the employment. 2. Agricultural land possess tremendous potentials of bioenergy and these could be realized by increased efficiencies within food and feed production chains. 3. Bioenergy (in forms of liquids, gases and solids) will play a significant role in the future renewable energy mix. Future bioenergy potential studies reveal the amount of 196-530 EJoule in 2050, including forest and agricultural sources. 4. The sustainability assurance of bioenergy is being developed by voluntary initiatives. Combining forces of the governments, society, industry and international organizations would boost the criteria development to the next level. 5. Further harmonization of bioenergy standards is highly important. For reaching the global consensus on the bioenergy sustainability concerns continuous research focused on sustainable land use management is recommended. NOTES: Further research on the basis of this report is being performed. The focus is on finding the practical solution for energy producing companies to address the sustainability issues. The time of release is expected at the end of 2011. REFERENCES [1] Intelligent Energy Europe (2009). Energy From Field Energy Crops – A Handbook for Energy Producers Finland, Jyväskylä Innovation Oy & MTT Agrifood Research, 6-7. Accessed 2010 08 10: http://www.encrop.net/GetItem. asp?item=digistorefile;138610;730¶ms=open;gallery [2] European Commission (2010). Report from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament: sustainability requirements for the use of solid and gaseous biomass sources in electricity, heating and cooling, 3. Accessed 2010 08 10: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/renewables/transparency_platform /doc/2010_report/com_2010_0011_3_ report.pdf [3] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (2006). Annex 18: Definition of Renewable Biomass, 1-2. Accessed 2010 07 10: http://cdm.unfccc.int/EB/023/eb23_repan18.pdf [4] Smeets Edward M.W., André P. C. Faaij, Iris M. Lewandowski, Wim C. Turkenburg (2006a), A bottom-up assessment and review of global bio-energy potentials to 2050, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 33:56106, 87-92. on sustainability requirements biomass producers and users are advised to join the harmonization processes by sharing the experiences learned during certification development and implementation processes. The box 1 below highlights the main concluding aspects of the report. [5] SLU (Svetlana Ladanai, Johan Vinterbäck) (2009), Global Potential of Sustainable Biomass for Energy. Swedish University of Energy and Technology, Report 013, 14-17. [6] IEA Bioenergy (2009), BIOENERGY – A SUSTAINABLE AND RELIABLE ENERGY SOURCE: A review of status and prospects. Accessed 2010 07 19: http://www.globalbioenergy.org/uploads/media/0912 _IEA_Bioenergy_-_MAIN_REPORT_-_Bioenergy_-_a_sustainable_and_reliable_energy_source._A_review_of_status_ and_prospects.pdf , 6-7, 17-26. [7] Gregg J S and Smith S G (2010), Global and regional potential for bioenergy from agricultural and forestry residue biomass. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 15, 241-262. [8] (UN) United Nations Development Program, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Energy Council (2000), World Energy Assessment: Energy and the challenge of sustainability, 338. Accessed 2010 08 05: http://www.undp.org/energy/activities/wea/drafts-frame.html [9] André Faaij, Veronika Dornburg (2008), Assessment of global biomass potentials and their links to food, water,
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biodiversity, energy demand and economy, Main report 31-33 and Supporting Document 13-16. [10] FAO (2010), Global Forests Resources Assessment 2010. Key Findings. 3-4, 6, 10. Accessed: 2010 07 30: http://foris.fao.org/static/data/fra2010/KeyFindings-en.pdf [11] Holm-Nielsen J.B., M. Madsen, P.O. Popiel (2006), Predicted Energy Crop Potentials for Bioenergy, Worldwide and for EU-25. World Bioenergy 2006, Conference on Biomass for Energy. 5, 7-9. [12] FAOSTAT (2010), FAO Statistics Division 2010. Accessed: 2010 07 19: http://faostat.fao.org/site/377/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=377#ancor [13] FAOSTAT (2010a), Metadata, concepts and definitions, glossary (list). Accessed 2010 0913: http://faostat.fao.org/site/375/default.aspx [14] World Bioenergy Association (WBA) (2009), WBA Position Paper on Global Potential of Sustainable Biomass for Energy, 1-4 Accessed 2010 08 05: http://www.worldbioenergy.org/system/files/file/WBA_PP1_Final%202009-11-30.pdf [15] Holm-Nielsen J B, Kirchovas S and Setobele M C (2010), Biomass resource potentials and international sustainability indicators. A back-ground report for impact assessment on increased use of biomass in DONG Energy’s power and heat production.(On request) [16] Smeets Edward, André Faaij, Iris Lewandowski (2004), A quickscan of global bio-energy potentials to 2050, An analysis of the regional availability of biomass resources for export in relation to the underlying factors, Report NWS-E-2004-109, 52, 57-61. [17] Smeets Edward M. W. and André P. C. Faaij (2006), Bioenergy Potentials from Forestry in 2050, An assessment of the drivers that determine the potentials, Climatic Change (2007) 81:353-390. [18] Metzger J O and Hüttermann A (2008), Sustainable global energy supply based on lignocellulosic biomass from afforestation of degraded areas. Naturwissenschaften 96:279-288, 284-286. [19] FAO, (2010a), Designated functions of the world’s forests. Accessed 2010 07 20 : http://www.fao.org/ forestry/20170-0-0.jpg [20] EURELECTRIC (2010). Sustainability Criteria for Solid & Gaseous Biomass, Position Paper Accessed 20100826, http://www.laborelec.be/pages_files/BM_Sust%20Crit%20Solid%20Biomass-May%202010-Final.pdf [21] Dam, J van, Junginger, M, Faaij, A, Jurgens, I, Best, G, Fritsche,U (2008), Overview of recent developments in sustainable biomass certification—Annex documents. Accessed 30052011: http://www.bioenergytrade.org/downloads/ieatask40certificationpaperannexesdraftforcomm.pdf [22] Lewandowski I., A.P.C. Faaij (2006), Steps towards the development of a certification system for sustainable bioenergy trade, Biomass and Bioenergy 30 (2006) 83–104 [23] Dam J. van, M. Junginger and A.P.C. Faaij (2010) -background document-, From the global efforts on certification of bioenergy towards an integrated approach based on sustainable land use planning, Utrecht University, The Netherlands. [24] BTG (2008), Sustainability Criteria & Certification Systems for Biomass Production. Netherlands, BTG Biomass Technology Group BV. [25] Ryckmans Yves (2011), Personal communication, May 2011. (Minutes of the meeting on request) [26] Perera P. and Vlosky R.P. (2006), A History of Forest Certification, Louisiana Forest Products Development Center, Working Paper #71. Accessed 04042011: http://www.unecefaoiufro.lsu.edu/certificate_eccos/documents/2003-2006/ ce03_001.pdf
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[27] PEFC (2011), Programme of Endorsement of Forest Certification schemes, website. Accessed: 31-03-2011: http:// www.pefc.org/ [28] FSC (2011), Forest Stewardship Council, website. Accessed 31-03-2011: http://www.fsc.org/index.html [29] Dam J. van, M. Junginger and A.P.C. Faaij (2010), From the global efforts on certification of bioenergy towards and integrated approach based on sustainable land use planning, Utrecht University, The Netherlands. [30] Ladanai S. and Johan V. (2010), Certification Criteria for Sustainable Biomass for Energy, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Upsala 2010. [31] SFI (2011), Sustainable Forestry Initiative, website, Accessed 04042011: http://64.34.105.23/PublicSearch/MainSearch.aspx?AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1 [32] AFS (2011), Australian Forest Standard, website, Accessed 04042011: http://www.forestrystandard.org.au/ [33] Junginger, M., van Dam, J., Zarrilli, S., Ali Mohamed, F., Marchal, D., Faaij, A. (2010). Opportunities and barriers for international bioenergy trade. Manuscript submitted for publication in Energy Policy, May 2010. [34] Schubert R. and Blasch J. (2010), Sustainability standards for bioenergy – A means to reduce climate change risks?, Energy Policy, 38, 2797-2805. [35] FAO (2010b), Sustainability Aspects/Issues Addressed under the Initiatives Reviewed under the Bioenergy and Food Security Criteria and Indicators (BEFSCI), Last Update: 2010 02 01. Accessed 20100906: http://www.fao.org/bioenergy/20531-1-0.pdf [36] Thomas Buchholz, Valerie A. Luzadis, Timothy A. Volk (2009), Sustainability criteria for bioenergy systems: results from an expert survey, Journal of Cleaner Production 17 (2009) S86–S98. [37] Mirja Mikkila, Osmo Kolehmainen, Timo Pukkala (2005), Multi-attribute assessment of acceptability of operations in the pulp and paper industries, Forest Policy and Economics 7 (2005) 227– 243. 230. [38] GBEP (2011), THE GLOBAL BIOENERGY PARTNERSHIP AGREES ON A SET OF SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS FOR BIOENERGY, Global Bioenergy Partnership, Rome, Tuesday 24 may 2011. Accessed 30052011: http://www.globalbioenergy.org [39] Van Stappen F., Marchal D., Ryckmans Y., Crehay R., Schenkel Y. (2007). Green certificate mechanisms in Belgium: a useful instrument to mitigate GHG emissions. Proceedings of the 15th European Biomass Conference and Exhibition, Berlin (Germany), 7 – 11 May 2007, 3046-3051. [40] Ryckmans Y., André N. (2007). Novel certification procedure for the sustainable import of wood pellets to power plants in Belgium. Proceedings of the 15th European Biomass Conference and Exhibition, Berlin (Germany), 7 – 11 May 2007, 2243-2246. [41] EU Directive (2009), DIRECTIVE 2009/28/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 23 April 2009, on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC [42] NTA 8080 (2009), Sustainability criteria for biomass for energy purposes, Dutch Technical Agreement, Ref. nr. NTA 8080:2009 en [43] RTFO (2011), Carbon and Sustainability reporting within the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation, Technical Guidance Part One, Renewable Fuels Agency, Version 4.0 March 2011. [44] LABORELEC (2011), Initiative Wood Pellets Buyers Sustainability criteria for solid biomass in large scale power plants, GDF SUEZ, March 2011. Accessed 30052011: http://www.laborelec.com/pages_files/2011-03-16-WG%20SustainabilityYves%20Ryckmans.pdf
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[45] ISCC (2010), Sustainability Requirements for the Production of Biomass, International Sustainability and Carbon Certification, Accessed 20042011: http://www.jordan-associates.com/ISCC202SustainabilityRequirements_en_eng.pdf [46] GBEP (2011), GBEP Sustainability Indicators, Global Bioenergy Partnership, Accessed 30052011: http://www.globalbioenergy.org/fileadmin/user_upload/gbep/docs/2011_events/12th_TF_ Sustainability_WashingtonDC_17-20_May_2011/GBEP_sustainability_indicators.pdf [47] Forest Stewardship Council (2009), Mitigating Climate Change Through Responsible Forestry. Accessed 2010 07 10: http://www.fsc.org/fileadmin/web-data/public/document_center/News/2009_11_Mitigating_ Climate_Change_-_COP15.pdf [48] CIDA Environment Advisor, Elmer Mercado, EnP (2008), Lessons learned on integrating Environmental Sustainability Cross-Cutting Theme in CIDA Projects in the Philippines: Output of CIDA Project Partners Environmental Forum, 4. Accessed 2010 09 23: http://www.pcco.org.ph/downloadables/KM/Environment/08-06-04_FINALVERSION_ LessonsLearned.pdf
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