Structure of PIE and Proto-Germanic History of the English Language H. Littlefield, Ph.D.
Morphosyntax
Inflection of Nouns Proto-Indo-European Number – Singular – Plural – Dual
Gender
Germanic Number – Singular – Plural – Dual
Gender
– Masculine – Feminine – Neuter
– Masculine – Feminine – Neuter
Classes of nouns
Classes of nouns
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Inflection of Nouns Proto-Indo-European
Germanic
Case
Case
– Nominative
– Nominative
– Accusative
– Accusative
– Genitive
– Genitive
– Dative
– Dative
– Ablative – Locative – Instrumental
– Instrumental
– Vocative
– Vocative
Case: PIE and Germanic PIE singular
plural
OE singular plural
Nominative
*ekwos
*ekwo#s
eoh
Accusative
*ekwom
*ekwons
eoh
e#os
*ekwosyo
*ekwo#m
e#os
e#ona
Dative
*ekwo#y
*ekwobhos
e#o
e#om
Ablative
*ekwo#d
*ekwobhos
---
---
Locative
*ekwoy
*ekwoysu
---
---
Instrumental
*ekwo#
*ekwo#ys
(1)
(1)
Vocative
*ekwe
*ekwo#s
(1)
(1)
Genitive
e#os
(1) Present in Germanic, lost in OE
Exercise: PIE Case (1) Identify the PIE form of the word ‘horse’ that would have been used to form the following sentences. *ekwo# horses’m hooves are cracked. 1. The __________
(Gen, Pl)
Horse *ekwe 2. __________, pull this plow!
(Voc, Sg)
*ekwo# 3. The __________ horsess galloped to the river.
(Nom, Pl)
*ekwobhos 4. They brought sugar cubes for the __________. horses
(Dat, Pl)
*ekwos horse 5. The __________ pulled the plow.
(Nom, Sg)
*ekwons horses 6. She patted the __________ and gave them oats.
(Acc, Pl)
*ekwo# 7. He took the grass from the __________. horse d
(Ablat, Sg)
8. She gave the __________ *ekwo# horse y some hay.
(Dat, Sg)
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Exercise: PIE case (2) horsesys 9. They pulled the tree stump with the _________. *ekwo# (Inst, Pl) horses 10. She ran away from the ___________. *ekwobhos
(Ablat, Pl)
*ekwoy 11. They stood by the __________. horse
(Loc, Sg)
*ekwo# 12. __________! Horsess Come here!
(Voc, Pl)
*ekwosyo horse’s 13. The __________ field is full of hay.
(Gen, Sg)
*ekwoysu 14. That cow next to the __________ horses almost died.
(Loc, Pl)
*ekwom horse 15. They rode the __________ around the paddock. (Acc, Sg) 16. He plowed the field with the __________. horse *ekwo#
(Inst, Sg)
Inflection of Adjectives Proto-Indo-European Number – Singular – Plural – Dual
Gender – Masculine – Feminine – Neuter
Germanic Number – Singular – Plural – Dual
Gender – Masculine – Feminine – Neuter
Inflection of Adjectives Proto-Indo-European Case
Germanic Case
– Nominative
– Nominative
– Accusative
– Accusative
– Genitive
– Genitive
– Dative
– Dative
– Ablative – Locative – Instrumental
– Instrumental
– Vocative
– Vocative
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Inflection of Adjectives Proto-Indo-European
Germanic Two classes – Weak adjectives (Definite nouns) – Strong adjectives (Indefinite nouns)
Germanic Adjectives (Strong and Weak) • Definite nouns – Typical determiners: the, this, that, these, those, possessive pronouns
• Indefinite nouns – Typical determiners: a, some, ø
Germanic Adjectives (Strong and Weak) Definite or Indefinite? 1. I saw a fat cat.
1. Indefinite
2. He put it in the printer.
2. Definite
3. My friend is very nice.
3. Definite
4. I’d like some milk.
4. Indefinite
5. Is that your parrot?
5. Definite
6. This pot is hot.
6. Definite
7. Dogs make great pets.
7. Indefinite 8. Someday I’ll have six goats. 8. Indefinite 9. Give me those two apples. 9. Definite
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Germanic Adjectives (Strong and Weak) Old English Da# go#dan menn
‘the good men’
(weak; definite)
go#de menn
‘good men’
(strong; indefinite)
fla# geognan ceorlas ‘the young fellows’ (weak; definite) geonge ceorlas
‘young fellows’
(strong; indefinite)
‘my good friend’ ‘a good friend’
(weak; definite) (strong; indefinite)
Swedish min goda vän en god vän
Pronouns Proto-Indo-European Number
Germanic Number
– Singular – Plural – Dual
– Singular – Plural – Dual
Person
Person
– First – Second – Third
– First – Second – Third
Pronouns Proto-Indo-European Gender (3rd person) – Masculine – Feminine – Neuter
Case – – – – – – – –
Germanic Gender (3rd person) – Masculine – Feminine – Neuter
Case Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative Ablative Locative Instrumental Vocative
– – – –
Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative
– Instrumental – Vocative
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Inflection of Verbs Proto-Indo-European Person
Germanic Person
– First – Second – Third
Number
– First – Second – Third
Number
– Singular – Plural – Dual
– Singular – Plural – Dual
Inflection of Verbs Proto-Indo-European Voice
Germanic Voice
– Active – Passive – Middle (reflexive)
Classes of verbs – Seven classes
– Active
Classes of verbs – Seven classes
Inflection of Verbs Proto-Indo-European Tense and Aspect – – – – – –
Present Future Perfect Pluperfect Imperfect Aorist
Germanic Tense and Aspect – Present – Past
NOTE: Past tense – Weak verbs (Dental suffix) – Strong verbs (Suppletion)
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Inflection of Verbs Proto-Indo-European Mood – – – – –
Germanic • Mood
Indicative Imperative Subjunctive Optative Injunctive
– Indicative – Imperative – Subjunctive
PIE *uid ‘to see, to know’ Optative
Imperative
Perfective
Middle
Subjective Objective
1sg
uid-iéhm
uóid-mi
uóid-m
uid-mh
2sg
uid-iéhs
uóid-si
uóid-s
uid-sth
3sg
uid-iéht
uóid-ti
uóid-t
uid-tó
1pl
uid-ihmé
uid-més
uid-mé
uid-mésdh
2pl
uid-ihté
uid-thé
uid-té
uid-due
3pl
uóid-ihnt
uid-énthi
uid-ént
uid-ntro
1sg
uóid-oihm
uóid-oh
uóid-om
uóid-omh
2sg
uóid-oihs
uóid-eh
uóid-es
uóid-esth
3sg
uóid-oiht
uóid-e
uóid-et
uóid-eto
1pl
uóid-oihme
uóid-omom
uóid-omo
uóid-omedh
2pl
uóid-oihte
uóid-ethe
uóid-ete
uóid-etdue
3pl
uóid-oihent
uóid-eo
uóid-ont
uóid-ontro
Syntax
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Syntax Proto-Indo-European
Germanic
Free word order
Free word order
Default order: SOV
Default order: SOV
Example:
Example:
ek horna tawido I [this] horn made
Harold him wi› gefeaht Harold him with fought ’Harold fought with him’
Lexicon
Special Germanic Vocabulary Proto-Indo-European Stress – Pitch
Free stress
Germanic Stress – Loudness
Fixed stress – Primary stress on root syllable
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Phonetics and Phonology
Prosody Proto-Indo-European Stress
Germanic Stress
– Pitch
– Loudness
Free stress
Fixed stress – Primary stress on root syllable
Stress in PIE and Germanic Greek
OE
Example
Nom, Sg
pate@r
fæ@der
Father is a nice man
Gen, Sg
patro@s
fæ@der
Father's car
Dat, Sg
patri@
fæ@der
She gave father a gift.
Acc, Sg
pate@ra
fæ@der
He hit father.
Voc, Sg
pa@ter
fæ@der
Father, can I go?
Nom, Pl
pate@res
fæ@deras
Fathers are nice.
Gen, Pl
pate@ro#n
fæ@dera
The fathers’ children
Dat, Pl
patra@si
fæ@derum
We gave tea to the fathers.
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Sound change: Vowels Proto-Indo-European a# ma#ter Latin ‘mother’
o octo
Latin ‘eight’
Germanic o# mo#dor OE ‘mother’
a ahtau Gothic ‘eight’
First Sound Shift: Grimm’s Law Proto-Indo-European Voiceless Stops
Germanic Voiceless fricatives (except when following [s])
p *ped, *pod
f PDE foot
Note: Latin pedem Greek poda
*peisk
PDE fish
Note: Latin piscis
First Sound Shift: Grimm’s Law Proto-Indo-European Voiceless Stops
Germanic Voiceless fricatives (except when following [s])
t
T
*trozdo
PDE thrush
*trei
PDE three
Note:
*ster
Latin tres
PDE star
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First Sound Shift: Grimm’s Law Proto-Indo-European Voiceless Stops
Germanic Voiceless fricatives (except when following [s])
k *kel, *kli-ni-
h PDE hill
Note: Latin culmin
*kerp
PDE herd
*kmtom
PDE hundred
Note: Latin centum
First Sound Shift: Grimm’s Law Proto-Indo-European
Germanic
Voiced Stops
Voiceless stops
b
p
*abel
PDE apple
*beu ‘to swell’
PDE puff
*turba ‘crowd’
PDE thorp (as in Winthrop)
First Sound Shift: Grimm’s Law Proto-Indo-European
Germanic
Voiced Stops
Voiceless stops
d *deik, *deig
t PDE teach
Note: Latin dictare
*dont, *dent
PDE tooth, teeth
Note: Latin dent
*deru ‘wood’
PDE tree
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First Sound Shift: Grimm’s Law Proto-Indo-European
Germanic
Voiced Stops
Voiceless stops
g
k
*ger ‘cry hoarsely’
PDE crow
*genu, *gneu ‘knee’
PDE knee
Note: Latin genuflectere
*gwen ‘woman’
PDE queen
First Sound Shift: Grimm’s Law Proto-Indo-European
Germanic
Voiced Aspirated Stops
Voiced stops
bh
b PDE break
*bhreg Note: Latin fractus
PDE blow
*bhle# Note: Latin flare
*bher
PDE bear
Note: Latin ferr
First Sound Shift: Grimm’s Law Proto-Indo-European
Germanic
Voiced Aspirated Stops
Voiced stops
dh
d
*dheigho
PDE dough
*dho#
PDE do
*dhur
PDE door
Note: Latin fores
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First Sound Shift: Grimm’s Law Proto-Indo-European
Germanic
Voiced Aspirated Stops
Voiced stops
gh
g
*ghol ‘bitter’
PDE gall
*ghosti ‘stranger’
PDE guest
Note: Latin hostis
*gher ‘want’
PDE greed
The First Sound Shift: Grimm’s Law (Summary) Voiceless stops ––> Voiceless fricatives
Voiced stops ––> Voiceless stops
Voiced aspirated stops ––> Voiced stops
(Except following [s])
p t k
––> f ––> T ––> h
b d g
––> p ––> t ––> k
bh dh gh
––> ––> ––>
b d g
Exercise: Grimm’s Law Apply Grimm’s law to the PIE roots; and fill in the chart.
PIE Root
Sounds
OE
PDE
k ––> h; dh ––> d
___o# h _d__
hood
2. *sab (juice)
b ––> p
___æ___ s p
sap
3. *rebh (to cover up)
bh ––> b
r b ___i___
rib
4. *ghrem (angry)
gh ––> g
g __ r i __ m __
grim
g ––> k
__ r e#o __ k
reek
k ––> h; d ––> t
h t __we __
whet
1. *kadh (to shelter, cover)
5. *reug (vomit; smoke) 6. *kwed (to sharpen) 7. *dhelbh- (to dig,excavate)
dh ––> d; bh –> b
d l __ b __e__
delve
8. *gleubh- (to cut)
g ––> k; bh ––> b
__ k __ l i __ b
cleave
9. *rendh (to tear up)
dh ––> d
__ r e __ n __ d
rend
10. *webh (weave)
bh ––> b
w e __ b __
web
ø
__ s __ m eo __u r
smear
11. *smer (grease, fat)
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Exercise: Grimm’s Law II (Part 1) Apply Grimm’s law; use the meanings of the roots to help find the PDE spelling.
Sounds
PDE
*spyeu- (to spit)
PIE Root
ø
spew
*pú:lo- (rotten)
p ––> f
foul
bh ––> b
brew
*bhreu- (to be boiling, fermenting)
*gembh- (tooth, peg, bolt)
g ––> k; bh ––> b
comb
*ruk- (wrinkle)
k ––> h
rough
*spre(n)g- (to scatter, strew)
ø; g ––> k
sprinkle
*kerp(ost)- (fruit)
k ––> h; p ––> f
harvest
*medh(u)- (wine)
dh ––> d
mead
Exercise: Grimm’s Law II (Part 2) The words listed here are cognate words from Latin and Greek that have been borrowed into English. Because these cognates do not come from Germanic languages, they do not show the sounds changes found in Grimm’s Law (although they may show other sound changes). For each cognate, write in the appropriate PIE root from Part 1.
PIE Root
Cognates and Definitions
*spyeu-
sputum: expectorated matter, especially from the air passages
*spre(n)g-
intersperse: to place something at intervals
*pú:lo-
purulent: containing pus
*kerp-(ost)
carpel: ovule-bearing structure in an angiosperm that comprises the innermost whorl of a flower
*spre(n)g-
sparse: scattered and few, not thickly grown or settled
*bhreu-
ferment: to undergo fermentation; to be in a state of agitation or intense activity
Exercise: Grimm’s Law (Part 3) PIE Root
Cognates and Definitions
*bhreu-
fervent: very hot, glowing; great intensity of feeling
*spre(n)g-
asperse: V: sprinkle
*kerp-(ost)
schizocarp: dry compound fruit that splints at maturity into several indehiscent one-seeded carpels
*ruk-
ruga: a fold, wrinkle
*medh-(u)-
amethyst: purple or bluish-violet stone (from a ‘against’ + methy ‘wine’: lit. remedy against drunkeness
*bhreu-
fervor: intensity of feeling or expression
*kerp-(ost)
parthenocarpy: production of fruit without fertilization (bananas set fruit by parthenocarpy and without pollination)
*bhreu-
effervescence/effervescent: bubble, hiss, and foam as gas escapes
*pú:lo-
pus: thick opaque usually yellowish-white fluid matter
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Exercise: Grimm’s Law (Part 3) PIE Root
Cognates and Definitions
*kerp-(ost)
carpogonium: egg-bearing portion of the female reproductive organ in some thallophytes (as red algae)
*spre(n)g-
disperse: cause to break up
*ruk-
rugate: covered with wrinkles
*kerp-(ost)
mesocarp: part of a fruit
*ruk-
rugose: covered with or full of wrinkles
*pú:lo-
putrid: being in a state of putrefaction; rotten
*bhreu-
fervid: very hot, buring
*spre(n)g-
spark: small particle of a burning substance thrown out by a body in combustion or remaining when combustion is nearly completed
Verner’s Law • Irregularities noticed after Grimm’s Law – Voiceless stops [p, t, k] ––> fricatives [f, T, h] but sometimes voiced stops [b, d, g] appeared – [r] appeared where [s] should appear
• Verner’s Law
[p, t, k] ––> [s] ––> when the following are true:
[b, d, g] [r]
– Surrounded by voiced sounds – Preceded by an unaccented syllable
Verner’s Law PIE *patér ‘father’ *bhráter ‘brother’
[p, t, k] ––> [b, d, g] [s] ––> [r] Surrounded by voiced sounds Preceded by an unaccented syllable
Grimm’s Verner’s Germanic p ––> f
t ––> d
bh ––> b t––> T
OE fæder OE bro#Dor
*dukón ‘drew’
d ––> t
k ––> g
OE tugon
*dekás ‘group of ten’ *snusá ‘daughter-in-law
d ––> t
k ––> g s ––> r
Gothic tigus OE snoru
t ––> d
OE snidon
t ––> d
OE hund
*sniton ‘cut’ *kmtóm ‘100’
k ––> h
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Most important features distinguishing Germanic languages “Strong” versus “weak” adjectives Dental suffix for the past tense Two tense verbal system: past and present Unique Germanic vocabulary Fixed stress Vowel shift First Consonant Shift: Grimm’s & Verner’s Laws
Exercise: PIE to Germanic (1) Compare the data from the Germanic languages with the non-Germanic ones. Identify the Germanic characteristic that is best illustrated in the data set.
Feature
Germanic
Non-Germanic
Old English Vowel shift: bo#g ‘shoulder, bough’ a# ––> o# bo#c ‘beech tree, book’ fo #da ‘food, fodder’
PIE *bha #ghu ‘elbow, shoulder’ *bha #go ‘beech tree’ *pa# ‘food’
Old English Grimm’s sittan ‘to sit’ Law: cna#wan ‘known’ Voiced stops scrapian ‘to scrape’ German Strong & junge Kerle ‘young fellows’ Weak die jungen Kerle ‘the young Adjectives fellows’ PDE Dental suffix I called It seemed
Latin sede#re ‘to sit’ ignarus ‘unknown’ scribere ‘to scrape, write’ French jeunes mecs ‘young fellows’ les jeunes mecs ‘the young fellows’ Spanish llamé ‘I called’ pareció ‘it seemed’
Exercise: PIE to Germanic (2) Feature Strong & Weak Adjectives Two-tense system: past & present
Germanic Old English se#o ealda ga#r ‘the old spear’ eald ga #r ‘(an) old spear’ PDE I praise I praised
German halten ‘hold’ Fleisch ‘meat’ Weib ‘wife’ Grimm’s Law: Old English bla #wan ‘blow’ voiced dohtor ‘daughter’ aspirated geollu ‘gall, (lit. yellow)’ stops Strong & Old English pæt go #de scip ‘the good ship’ Weak go#d scip ‘(a) good ship’ Adjectives Unique Germanic vocabulary
Non-Germanic French la vieille lance ‘the old spear’ une vieille lance ‘an old spear’ Latin lauda #bo# ‘I shall praise’ lauda #vi # ‘I have praised’ lauda #veram ‘I had praised’ lauda #vero# ‘I shall have praised’ French Spanish gloss tenir tener ‘hold’ viande carne ‘meat’ femme mujer ‘wife’ Proto-Indo-European *bhle # ‘blow’ *dhug´te#r ‘daughter’ *ghol ‘gall’ Spanish el bueno buque ‘the good ship’ un bueno buque ‘a good ship’
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Exercise: PIE to Germanic (3) Feature
Germanic
Old English thu#ma ‘thumb’ hleonian ‘to lean’ fearh ‘young pig’ PDE hópe hópeless Stress shift hóper hópefulness hópefully hópewell (town name) Old High German Vowel shift: dank ‘gratitude’ o ––> a naht ‘night’ gastiz ‘guest’ Grimm’s Law: Old English gnagan ‘to gnaw’ voiced widuwe ‘widow’ aspirated bro#Dor ‘brother’ stops Grimm’s Law: Voiceless stops
Vowel shift: a# ––> o#
Old English wo #d ‘mad, possessed’ mo #r ‘moor’
Non-Germanic Latin tume #re ‘swollen part’ clinare ‘to lean’ porcus ‘pork’ French borrowings hóspital hospitálity hospítible hospitalíze hospitalizátion hóspice PIE *tong ‘feel’ *nokwt ‘night’ *ghosti ‘stranger’ Sanskrit ghnanti ‘they strike’ vidhava# ‘widow’ bhra#ta# ‘brother’ PIE *wa #t ‘mad’ *ma # ‘damp’
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