Refrigeration Drives Sustainable Development State of the Art - Report Card 2007 – 20th Anniversary of the Montreal Protocol, 10th Anniversary of the Kyoto Protocol

International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR)

R e friger at i on Dr i v es S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p m en t S t at e of the Ar t – Repor t C ar d

Contents Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. The Role of Refrigeration in Sustainable Development 1.1. Social dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2. Economic dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3. Environmental dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Achievements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. Reductions in refrigerant emissions . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. Research on and development of alternative refrigerants . 2.3. Reductions in energy consumption . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4. Achievements in refrigeration technology applications . . 2.4.1. New developments in the cold chain . . . . . . . 2.4.2. New developments in air conditioning . . . . . . 3. Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Reductions in refrigerant emissions . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Reductions in energy consumption . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3. Research on and development of alternative refrigerants .

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3.4. Research on and development of new refrigeration technologies 3.5. Developing countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4. Conclusion . . . . Presentation of the IIR Presentation of UNEP References . . . . . .

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Copyright and Disclaimer “The information provided in this document is based on the current state of art and is designed to assist engineers, scientists, companies and other organizations. It is a preliminary source of information that will need to be complemented prior to any detailed application or project. Whilst all possible care has been taken in the production of this document, the IIR, its employees, officers and consultants cannot accept any liability for the accuracy or correctness of the information provided nor for the consequences of its use or misuse. Any opinions expressed herein are entirely those of the authors. For full or partial reproduction of anything published in this document, proper acknowledgement should be made to the original source and its author(s). No parts of the book may be commercially reproduced, recorded and stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means (mechanical, electrostatic, magnetic, optic, photographic, multimedia, Internet-based or otherwise) without permission in writing from the IIR.» Copyright © 2007 IIR/IIF–UNEP. All rights reserved.

THE ROLE OF REFRIGERATION IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

R efriger at i on Dr i v es S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p men t Foreword The scope of refrigeration is far-reaching. Refrigeration plays an essential role in sustainable development since it has applications and offers benefits embracing a huge range of fields we all encounter in our daily lives, particularly in the food, health and indoor environment fields. Refrigeration stakeholders have significantly reduced the negative environmental impact of ozonedepleting refrigerants for 20 years and their contribution to the projected recovery of the ozone layer during the 2060-2075 period is undeniable. However, many challenges still remain, especially regarding global warming mitigation in the areas in which decreasing the energy consumption of refrigerating systems must be intensified. Reducing the gap between industrialized and developing countries in terms of the availability of refrigerating equipment and knowledge is also a priority. As part of the contribution to the World Summit on Sustainable Development, the Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE) of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the IIR jointly produced a sectoral report called “Industry as a Partner for Sustainable Development – Refrigeration” in 2002.1 In the report, various industrial organizations took stock of progress towards sustainable development in the refrigeration and air-conditioning sector and outlined future challenges and actions to be taken – a sort of industry “report card”. The present report is a brief update of that report card, produced on the occasion of the 20th Anniversary of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.

This report card also highlights emerging areas, for example natural refrigerants, further energy efficiency improvements, developments in making the supply chain more efficient, in-kind efforts to adapt building architecture to reduce the need of air conditioning, magnetic and absorption solar refrigeration, and so on. Developing countries with their globalizing economies are being mainstreamed in the development process. The refrigeration industry will continue to expand and technologically upgrade. At the same time it would continue to contribute to meeting Millennium Development Goals including environmental sustainability.

1. The Role of Refrigeration in Sustainable Development The essential role of refrigeration in sustainable development may be appreciated through its social, economic and environmental dimensions.

1.1. Social dimension The impact of the refrigeration and air-conditioning sector on the social dimension of sustainable development has numerous facets:

Executive Summary One industry that never lags behind in its contribution to the social, economic and environmental pillars of sustainable development is Refrigeration. This report card of the achievements and challenges is not only impressive but an inspiring saga of the modern age. The refrigeration industry is an indicator of the development of the country. Employing 2 million people worldwide, the refrigeration industry has made a monumental contribution to improving health and life expectancy of the Earth’s citizens. The annual sale of 200 billion USD of refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment tells only one side of the story. The other side is the continued reduction of emission of refrigerants and energy consumption. Side improvements are clearly demonstrated through technology evolution in this sector. The elimination of ozone-depleting refrigerants and reducing climate change impacts are unprecedented successes to protect the stratospheric ozone layer and the global climate system.

• The refrigeration sector generates jobs: – the refrigeration sector employs more than 2 million people worldwide,1 particularly in the industrial, commercial and service fields. It requires highly skilled staff. • Refrigeration is indispensable to human life: – in the food sector, refrigeration contributes to reducing post-harvest losses and supplying safe, wholesome foods to consumers by enabling perishable foods to be preserved at all stages from production to consumption; – in the health sector, refrigeration is employed for vaccine storage, cryotechnology is used in surgery and superconductivity in scanners. • Air conditioning contributes to social development: – comfort air conditioning creates environments enabling work to be performed in hot and hu-

IIR-UNEP - Refrigeration Drives Sustainable Development - 2007

SECTOR OF ACTIVITY

NUMBER OF EQUIPMENT AND PLANTS IN SERVICE

Domestic refrigeration

1.3 billions units (a)

Commercial refrigeration Supermarkets

477 000 units (b)

Industrial refrigeration Cold storage

350 million m3 (c)

Air conditioning (air-cooled systems)

340 millions units (d)

Air conditioning (water chillers)

1.1 millions units (d)

Refrigerated transport Marine containers Reefer ships Refrigerated railcars Road transport Merchant marine Liquefied gas tankers

850 000 units (e) 1 250 ships (f) 80 000 units (e) 1 150 000 units (g) 30 000 ships (e) 255 units (h)

Mobile air conditioning Passenger cars and commercial vehicles and buses

450 million (i)

Heat pumps

130 million (j)

(a) IPCC/TEAP Special Report: Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System. (b) UNEP2 (Sales area of over 500 m2). (c) IARW, 2006 (IIR estimations). (d) BSRIA, 2006 (IIR estimations). (e) UNEP2 (IIR Estimations). (f) UNEP2 (Ships larger than 280 m3). (g) CARRIER TRANSICOLD, 2006 (IIR estimations). (h) IIR 19th Informatory Note on Liquefied Natural Gas, http://www.iifiir.org/en/doc/1100.pdf, 2006. (i) CCFA: Comité des constructeurs français d’automobiles and SMMT, 2004 (IIR estimations). (j) Halozan H, Rieberer R. Energy-efficient heating and cooling systems for buildings, Bulletin of the IIR, 2004-6 www.iifiir.org/en/web-files.php?rub=3, 2004.

1.2. Economic dimension From an economic point of view, the role of refrigeration in many industrial processes and in cutting-edge technologies should be stressed: • Refrigeration is necessary for the implementation of many current or future energy sources: – cryogenic processes make it possible to liquefy natural gas – which is a more environmentally friendly energy source than other fuels – thus enabling for its production and transportation; – in the same way, liquefying hydrogen is a promising option for cars in the future; – thermonuclear fusion, which is a promising sustainable way to produce energy, requires refrigeration technologies. • Many industrial processes could not operate without refrigeration: – the petro-chemical and pharmaceutical industries need refrigeration, as it is used to control and moderate many types of reactions; agri-food processes also require refrigeration;

IIR-UNEP - Refrigeration Drives Sustainable Development - 2007

– heat pumps, whose operation is based on refrigeration technologies, are frequently used as an energy-efficient way of producing heat. • Many cutting-edge technologies require refrigeration technologies: – the quality of products manufactured in the information-technology and biotechnology sectors is increasingly dependent on high-quality indoor environments made possible by advanced airconditioning; – the production and transport of cryogenic fuels (mainly liquid hydrogen and oxygen) as well as the long-term storage of these fluids is necessary for space industry. The figures shown in the table above prepared by the IIR highlight refrigeration’s role: today, there are about 1300 million household refrigerators (more than 80 million are produced annually), 340 million air-conditioning units, and 350 million m3 of cold-storage facilities operating worldwide. Total annual sales of refrigeration, air-conditioning and heat-pump equipment are more than 200 billion USD, this being roughly about one third of the automobile industry’s annual sales (excluding commercial vehicles). All these data and figures show that the use of refriger-

THE ROLE OF REFRIGERATION IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

mid regions. It also maintains suitable conditions for the reliable use of essential facilities such as hospital operating theatres and patient rooms.

R efriger at i on Dr i v es S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p men t

ation is increasing regularly and will no doubt continue to increase in the future.

ACHIEVEMENTS

1.3. Environmental dimension The contribution of refrigeration to the environmental aspect of sustainable development is important as is shown by the role of refrigeration technologies: – in maintaining biodiversity thanks to the cryopreservation of genetic resources (cells, tissues, and organs of plants, animals and micro-organisms); – in enabling the liquefaction of CO2 for underground storage and in making it possible to envisage the separation of CO2 from fossil fuels in power stations in the future, thanks to cryogenics; – in new and more sustainable sources of energy. However, the adverse environmental effects of refrigeration must also be addressed. At an environmental level, the impact of refrigeration is twofold due to: • atmospheric emissions of certain refrigerant gases used in refrigerating installations. These emissions arise due to leaks occurring in insufficiently leak-tight refrigerating installations or during maintenance-related refrigerant-handling processes, and depending on the refrigerants concerned, can have an impact on: – ozone depletion (chlorinated refrigerants: CFCs and HCFCs); – and/or global warming, by exerting an additional greenhouse effect (fluorinated refrigerants: CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs). • the energy consumption of these refrigerating installations contributes to CO2 emissions – and consequently to global warming – and reduces global energy resources. It should be remembered that refrigeration (including air conditioning) accounts for about 15% of worldwide electricity consumption.3 The global-warming impact of refrigerating plants is the following: – about 20% of this impact is due to direct emissions of fluorinated refrigerants (fluorocarbons); – about 80% of this impact results from indirect CO2 emissions originating in the production of the energy which is used by these plants (generally electricity).3 Thanks to the Montreal Protocol that was adopted

in 1987, 191 countries (as of March 13, 2007) have committed themselves to measures designed to protect the ozone layer. This protocol calls for the gradual phase-out and total banning of CFCs followed by HCFCs, with a longer time frame for Article-5 (developing) countries. The objective of the Kyoto Protocol, which entered into force in 2005, is to reduce, in 39 developed countries, emissions of 6 greenhouse gases by at least 5% between 1990 and 2008-2012. HFCs are among these 6 greenhouse gases. Consequently, efforts implemented by refrigeration stakeholders in order to combat global warming focus on two facets: • reduction in direct emissions of fluorocarbons in the atmosphere thanks to better containment of refrigerants, refrigerant charge reduction and development of alternative refrigerants with negligible or no climate impact; • reduction in energy consumption thanks to increasing energy efficiency of refrigerating plants; this is an important facet since the related global warming impact is four times higher than that of direct emissions.

2. Achievements Recent achievements of the refrigeration sector within the framework of sustainable development are the following:

2.1. Reductions in refrigerant emissions Among refrigeration stakeholders’ recent achievements within the framework of sustainable development, the most significant is the reduction in the production and consumption of ozone-depleting refrigerants (CFCs and HCFCs) which since 2000 is reversing the previously ever-rising chlorine concentration in the stratosphere. According to a 2007 EPA report, “the six-mile-high ozone layer that shields the Earth from harmful solar rays is on the road to recovery, but challenges remain…It appears to be recovering because of reduced emissions of ozone-depleting substances. Antarctic ozone is projected to return to pre-1980 The Ozone Hole www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov levels by 2060 to 2075”.4

IIR-UNEP - Refrigeration Drives Sustainable Development - 2007

has been achieved, but much remains to be done; • during disposal of equipment, recovery of the refrigerant, and recycling or reclaiming whenever possible (or destruction if this is not possible). At all these stages, progress has been achieved in terms of training standards.

Refrigeration is probably one of the few sectors that has in the last 20 years embraced second-generation technology that uses no Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS). This has been made possible through cooperation between developing and developed countries through the Montreal Protocol, through funding of new technology by the Multilateral Fund, and through international cooperation between organizations such as FAO, UNDP, UNFCCC, UNICEF, UNIDO, the World Bank, WHO, the IIR, UNEP and many others. The reductions in emissions of ozone-depleting refrigerants achieved through the gradual phaseout of CFCs and HCFCs within the framework of the Montreal Protocol have also greatly contributed to the mitigation of climate change. A recent study performed by the National Academy of Sciences demonstrates that, in 2010, the level of reductions achieved thanks to the Montreal Protocol will equate 5 times the reductions target of the Kyoto Protocol by 2008-2012 in terms of the impact on the climate.5 Emissions-reducing initiatives are applied throughout the life cycle of a plant: • during the design and manufacturing phases, manufacturers’ Research & Development departments focus on optimizing plant tightness and reducing the refrigerant charge and the length of piping used in the circuits in order to reduce emissions and to facilitate maintenance and servicing during plant operation; • during installation of the plant, stringent qualitative procedures are applied to an increasing extent, particularly with regard to containment of the refrigerant; • during maintenance and servicing, the emphasis is on plant tightness thanks to regular controls and systematic refrigerant recovery whenever maintenance or repairs are performed. Thanks to training and certification of installers, owners and operators in the handling of refrigerants and raising of their awareness of the environmental dimension, considerable progress IIR-UNEP - Refrigeration Drives Sustainable Development - 2007

Display cabinet

Much R&D has focused on secondary refrigerants. Two-phase secondary fluids have been developed: solid-liquid (called ice slurries) or vapour-liquid refrigerants such as CO2. These new secondary refrigerants, called Phase-Change Materials (PCMs), are not only environmentally friendly, they also increase the energy efficiency of indirect refrigerating systems thanks to their high thermal energy density and to other features. The IIR – via its working party Phase-Change Materials and Slurries for Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, which has run 5 workshops since 1999 – is very active in promoting this promising technology. In the field of reduction in refrigerant loads, much has been done regarding the design optimization of refrigeration system components, especially the development and design, optimization of plate exchangers. Nanotechnologies offer new promising perspectives in this field (see “challenges”). Globally, the impact of CFC, HCFC and HFC emissions on ozone depletion and global warming has decreased in a striking manner, as demonstrated by several indicators: decreased production of these refrigerants (weighted according to their respective impacts on these two phenomena) starting in 1988 and

ACHIEVEMENTS

EPA 4

A good example of achievements aiming at reducing refrigerant emissions is the continuous development of indirect refrigerating systems, especially in commercial refrigeration (supermarkets), where the refrigerant emissions ratio is one of the highest in the whole refrigeration sector. These systems, which use a secondary circuit with a heat-transfer fluid (commonly called secondary refrigerant), make it possible to lower refrigerant loads by 75-85%, thus greatly limiting the risk of leakage. Leakage rates in commercial refrigeration have recently been reduced in many European countries and the USA from 35% to an average of 18% per year in supermarkets.6

R efriger at i on Dr i v es S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p men t

ACHIEVEMENTS

1989, and the diminishing percentage of these refrigerants in total greenhouse-gas emissions.

Ammonia’s physical properties make it very energyefficient as a refrigerant. It has zero ozone-depleting and negligible global-warming effects. Although it is acutely toxic at relatively low concentrations, deaths from exposure to ammonia are extremely rare, principally because it has an unpleasant smell even at very low, safe concentrations. The advent of the screw compressor, which overcomes the high discharge temperature problems, and the introduction of plate-type heat exchangers containing very low volumes of refrigerant, make it possible to design very simple low-charge ammonia systems.21 Due to its environmentally friendly characteristics, this refrigerant may be considered for wider use provided that safety issues and staff training are well handled. • Carbon dioxide (CO2) Carbon dioxide is one of the classic refrigerants which had fallen into almost complete disuse but which is currently making a spectacular comeback, thanks in particular to its very good environmental properties (ODP = 0; GWP = 1). The major objections to the use of carbon dioxide as a refrigerant are its low critical point and its high operating pressure compared with other refrigerants. Nevertheless, carbon dioxide, as a refrigerant, can be used in 2 distinct ways:

ODP/GWP weighted Fluorocarbon Production 1980-2004 - AFEAS 7

2.2. Research on and development of alternative refrigerants The refrigeration sector’s initiatives in the field of alternatives to ozone-depleting refrigerants (CFCs and HCFCs) and greenhouse refrigerants (CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs) are also an important breakthrough. Among non-HFC refrigerants developed to replace fluorocarbon refrigerants, the focus is above all on natural refrigerants: ammonia, carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrocarbons. • Ammonia Ammonia has been established as the pre-eminent industrial refrigerant for over 125 years and is used in a wide variety of applications throughout the world, especially in the industrial field. Ammonia is being introduced in indirect systems in commercial fields and air-conditioning chillers.

– as a supercritical refrigerant operating on a transcritical cycle, evaporating in the subcritical region and rejecting heat at temperatures above the critical point in a gas cooler instead of a condenser8; a very significant number of developmental efforts are directed towards applications such as automotive air-conditioning and heat-pumping applications; the high operating pressures of CO2 put different constraints on the design of conventional components such as heat exchangers and compressors; – as a low-stage refrigerant in a cascade system using a more conventional refrigerant such as HFC, ammonia or hydrocarbon in the high-temperature stage (see figure below). Cascade carbon dioxide systems have been in use since 2000 and have developed quickly since 2004. Today 130-140 such installations exist in European supermarkets and around 150 are used in agrifood processes (freezing) and ice rinks.1 CO2 is now being adopted as a solution in retail applications (e.g. small commercial applications such as beverage vending machines) and is approaching market application in the field of mobile air conditioning. CO2 is also used as a volatile secondary fluid at low or medium temperatures with pump circulation to avoid transcritical cycles.

IIR-UNEP - Refrigeration Drives Sustainable Development - 2007

• Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons are natural substances which have excellent thermodynamic properties and good miscibility properties with inexpensive mineral oil. They have zero ODP, negligible GWP and inherently good efficiency. They are highly flammable and this restricts the way in which they can be used. The two main hydrocarbons used as refrigerants are isobutane (in refrigerators) and propane (in small commercial appliances and residential heat pumps).

2.3. Reductions in energy consumption Initiatives aimed at reducing energy consumption have led to measures that cover all phases in the life cycle of refrigerating equipment: • during the design phase: features enabling refrigerating system and component performance to be enhanced; • during installation and commissioning: application of stringent plant acceptance procedures taking into account measurement of the energy consumption of a plant; • during maintenance and servicing: application of stringent operating procedures. Quality procedures are increasingly including training followed by proficiency-based certification of technicians and installers. This process needs to be more widely applied and the harmonization of certification standards also needs to be expanded. Standardization provides a means of obtaining objective benchmark performances of equipment. Appliance performances can thus be reliably measured, and labelling can be used to provide potential purchasers with information enabling them to choose, if they so wish, an appliance that may initially be more expensive but will be less expensive in the long term thanks to energy savings. The US approach in this respect is noteworthy: government/industry partnerships have led to large energy savings. Certification programmes provide the means by which manufacturers test and assign energy efficiency ratings to air conditioners and heat pumps. IIR-UNEP - Refrigeration Drives Sustainable Development - 2007

In any project aiming at cutting the energy consumption of an installation, 2 parallel approaches should be followed: – optimizing the overall refrigeration system, in particular by choosing the most efficient technology; – optimizing each component of the system bearing in mind the energy efficiency of the whole installation. Good examples illustrating energy savings achieved thanks to energy-efficient technologies are heat pumps and trigeneration. • Heat pumps are an efficient tool to reduce CO2 emissions. By comparing heat delivery by means of heat pumps with conventional methods, i.e. burning fossil fuels, one can easily show that in heat pumps, primary energy consumption can be at least halved. The 130 million heat pumps currently in use enable 1300 TWh/y of heating to be produced and reduce CO2 emissions by 130 Mt per year.10 The application of heat pumps is now substantial in the residential/commercial sector in some countries, but is still low in industry and agriculture and negligible in the transport sector. The potential for reducing CO2 emissions assuming a 30% share in the building sector using technology presently (1997) available is about 6% of the total worldwide CO2 emissions of 22 000 Mt/y. With future technologies, up to 16% seem possible in residential, commercial and induswww.stiebel-eltron.co.uk trial applications.10 • Trigeneration (Combined Cooling, Heat and Power) has considerable benefits from an energy stand-

Trigeneration principles www.trigemed.com

ACHIEVEMENTS

CO 2 refrigeration plant AXIMA Refrigeration

The rating known as SEER (Seasonal Energy Efficiency Rating) has been adopted by the US government and applies to home and commercial equipment as a minimum ratio.1 In Europe, energy labelling of new refrigerators has brought about significant energy savings; average energy savings of 15% have been achieved in new refrigerators purchased between 1992 and 1995 in Germany, and similar energy savings are being achieved in neighbouring countries.9

ACHIEVEMENTS

R efriger at i on Dr i v es S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p men t

point. It makes it possible to totally or partially utilize the heat rejected to ambient as waste heat generated during electrical power production and use part of it in refrigerating applications. The development of high-performance absorption plants will enhance the benefits of trigeneration plants.

the 1960s. In the 1990s, this COP had risen to about 3.3. Today, it has increased to approximately 4.1 According to ACEE, in the US, the energy consumption of a typical new refrigerator (in 2005) with automatic defrost and a top-mounted freezer was 3-4 times less than that of its ancestor manufactured in 1973.12

Regarding refrigeration system components, significant progress in terms of energy efficiency has been achieved thanks to the advent or optimization of components such as:

2.4. Achievements in refrigeration technology applications

• Compressors – scroll compressors, which were commercially produced for air conditioning until the early 1980s, achieve high efficiency levels due to their very high volumetric efficiency during the compression process; they are also very reliable thanks to their limited number of moving parts; – variable-speed drive technology and improved control systems enable to minimize the energy loss resulting from part-load running; – the use of superfeed technology for rotative compressors (screw, scroll, rotary, centrifugal with at least 2 wheels) makes it possible to increase the COP by 5-25% for refrigerating applications between –5°C and –40°C. • Heat exchangers – plate heat exchanger design produces high thermal efficiency and allows maximum heat recovery and low operating costs; – evaporative condensers have a number of environmental and economic advantages such as lower energy consumptions than that of air condensers and lower water consumption than that of lost-water condensers.11 – air coolers are increasingly supplied with devices limiting heat and water vapour diffusion during defrost. • Expansion devices Electronically controlled expansion valves, even if they are more costly, are more and more widely used because they are more energy-saving than conventional thermostatic expansion valves.

Alongside the optimization of refrigerating equipment, tangible progress has been made at the level of refrigeration applications that promote social and economic development. Two examples are presented here: the cold chain and air conditioning.

2.4.1. New developments in the cold chain New developments in the cold chain can be highlighted; increasing importance is now attached to issues such as: – cleanability of equipment in order to prevent the contamination of foods; – flexibility of equipment: examples of this are multicompartment and multi-temperature refrigerated vehicles; – regulation of ambient conditions: examples are controlled atmosphere for the preservation of fruit and vegetables, or clean rooms in the food industry; – interface management: complying with the cold chain in refrigerated areas (cold stores, refrigerated transport vehicles, display cabinets) is well mastered; however, it is more difficult to limit temperature rises at interfaces. Valuable development in design and operation (codes of practice) has been achieved; – traceability of foods: traceability of temperatures during the cold chain is part of the concept of traceability; new advances in RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) make the technology more useful to food and pharmaceutical processors in

Several figures provide striking evidence of achievements in the field of energy savings. The coefficients of performance (COPs) of refrigerating equipment are constantly being enhanced, but much remains to be done in this field. An excellent example illustrating such progress is commercial refrigeration. The mean COP of installations (for a temperature lift of 30 K) was roughly 2.5 during IIR-UNEP - Refrigeration Drives Sustainable Development - 2007

The Cold Chain

Time-temperature indicators, (TTI), which are simple, inexpensive devices generally in the form of self adhesive labels attached to the products, measure both time and temperature and integrate them in a single visible result for the consumer.13

Fresh-Check TTI www.cerig.efpg.inpg.fr

2.4.2. New developments in air conditioning New developments in air conditioning and heating systems can also be stressed. The amount of energy consumed annually by heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems typically ranges from 40-60% of the overall energy consumption in a building, depending on the building’s design, climate, function, and condition.14 The goal of environmentally sound HVAC systems is to meet occupants’ needs through the most efficient and environmentally positive means at the lowest initial and life-cycle costs. Heating and cooling needs are affected by the performance of interrelated building systems and characteristics, including passive solar design elements. The basic idea of passive solar design is to allow daylight, heat and airflow into a building only when beneficial. The objectives are to control the entrance of sunlight and airflows into the building at appropriate times and to store and distribute the heat and cool air so it is available when needed. Many passive solar design options can be achieved at little or no additional cost. Passive solar cooling strategies include cooling load avoidance, shading, natural ventilation, radiative cooling, evaporative cooling, dehumidification and ground-coupled cooling. Indoor air quality (IAQ) affects building occupants’ health, comfort and productivity; it has therefore received increased attention in recent years. New developments related to ventilation, source control of potentially harmful air contaminants, humidity management and filtration/air cleaning have occurred. An integrated approach is required for successful application of these strategies. IIR-UNEP - Refrigeration Drives Sustainable Development - 2007

3. Challenges Sustainable-development-driven challenges confronting the refrigeration sector in years to come will be numerous; they include the expanding of actions that have already been implemented (focused on in Section 2).

3.1. Reductions in refrigerant emissions The IIR highlights that the objective in this domain is to reduce refrigerant leakage by 30% by 2020. Achieving this goal involves actively pursuing actions aiming at improving refrigerant containment, intensifying R&D on promising technologies in terms of refrigerant load reductions and generally giving priority to the proper maintenance of refrigeration plants. • Regarding refrigerant containment, efforts must focus on mobile air conditioning and commercial refrigeration, each of which represents roughly 1/3rd of the total equivalent CO2 direct emissions of the whole refrigeration sector.15 Efforts in the commercial refrigeration sector aimed at decreasing the leakage ratio are to be pursued, especially through the optimization of indirect refrigerating systems and further development of PCMs such as ice slurries and CO2 as secondary fluids. Regarding mobile air conditioning (MAC), the high volume of emissions results from the increasing proportion of new vehicles equipped with air conditioning which is estimated to have risen, in Europe for example from 10% in 1985 to 85% in 2005.16 It is estimated that about 20% of the refrigerant charge in MAC systems is released into the atmosphere annually. Developmental efforts made to improve tightness and reduce the refrigerant loads of airconditioning equipment must be intensified. In terms of greenhouse gas emissions, recent air-conditioning systems have an impact which is far lower than that of the air-conditioning systems before 1995, due to the shift in many countries from CFC-12 to HFC-134a which has a GWP which is 1/6th of that of CFC-12. R&D is now focusing on the design of CO2 air-conditioning systems, since CO2 has a negligible GWP. Other options considered include HFC-152a (GWP = 120) and R-290, a hydrocarbon with a lower GWP (20) but with even higher flammability. Chemical companies are working on the development of new ultra-low-GWP refrigerants currently under testing. According to these companies, these refrigerants are expected to offer a comparable performance to that of HFC-134a. These developments are boosted by the adoption of the new “F-gas” European Directive 2006/40 on emissions from mobile air-conditioning systems which bans F-gases with a GWP higher than 150 (such as HFC-134a) as of 2011 in new cars.

CHALLENGES

tracing and tracking their products through the supply chain. However, further development has to be achieved, especially concerning the cost of this technology; – consumer information: labelling temperatures, thermometers attached to display cabinets or refrigerators, labelling the energy consumption of household appliances exemplify this.

CHALLENGES

R efriger at i on Dr i v es S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p men t

• Refrigerant charge reduction seems a promising way both to reduce refrigerant emissions and to improve the energy efficiency of systems. As an example, the use of microchannel heat exchangers makes it possible to reduce the total system load from approximately 200 g of R-290 refrigerant (hydrocarbon) in conventional systems to less than 130 g. The analysis and construction of new prototypes indicate that in the next step it could be possible to go below 50 g/kW at 1 kW, as the ability to design lower load heat exchangers as well as to use compressors with less oil and higher void fractions makes it possible to reduce the load from the experimental baseline of 130 g to less than 60 g without drastically redesigning any system components.17 In this case, reducing the load also contributes to the increasing of the safety of the system. The IIR has decided to launch a working party on refrigerant charge reduction due to the very important potential benefits of this technology. • Proper maintenance and servicing of refrigerating plants – coupled with optimized design – is naturally a priority as it contributes to a reduction in refrigerant emissions. Efforts made in terms of awareness and training of technicians must be pursued and should focus on generalizing certification programmes. In Europe, the new F-gas Regulation on certain fluorinated gases which entered into force in July 2007 will contribute to this objective. It restricts handling of fluids and equipment to certified operators, who are responsible for the proper recovery of fluorinated gases. It also reinforces the frequency of controls for leakage (4 per year for plants containing more than 300 kg of refrigerant). A top priority is also the recovery, the recycling, the regeneration or the destruction of refrigerants used in refrigeration plants following standardized procedures.

The aforementioned aim of improving energy efficiency depends on reinforcing R&D in the following sectors: – improving the energy efficiency of vapour-compression refrigeration systems, with priority given to those using CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs ; – developing efficient alternatives to vapour-compression refrigeration technology (see Section 3.4). Concerning the first point, a certain number of achievements should be mentioned: • Improving the energy efficiency of vapour-compression systems is related to that of their various components. In this sense, the very recent development of oil-free compressors offers important opportunities; the elimination of oil has the Magnetic-bearing potential to significantly imcentrifugal compressors - Turbocor prove heat exchanger performance and will allow engineers to design a new generation of heat exchangers that go beyond flat-tube technology, with much smaller flow channels. Advantages include better reliability, increased compactness and improved performance.18 • Strengthening the performance of insulation materials is a top-priority. As an example, roughly 2/3rds of the energy consumption of a cold room results in losses through the sides.19 In this field, nanotechnologies offer promising perspectives; the thermal resistance of open porous insulating material increases when its effective pore size decreases. This well established principle creates the opportunity for nanoporous materials to be used as the ‘core material’ for extremely effective vacuum insulation panels. P.Stroppa/CEA www.cite-sciences.fr

• Making training available to all refrigeration practitioners is a vital action in this field, particularly in developing countries with needs that will increase in the years to come (see Section 3.5). Training must be extended to all staff levels (maintenance and servicing staff, engineers, decision-makers).

3.2. Reductions in energy consumption The IIR considers that the objective in this domain is to reduce energy consumption by 20% by 2020. The achievements aiming at decreasing the energy consumption of refrigeration systems described in Section 2.2 are one milestone, but much remains to be done in this area.

Image obtained with a tunnel effect microscope (IBM) www.cite-sciences.fr

The environmental benefits of the strategies implemented have to be evaluated using an objective measure of environmental merit. This measure must take into account the overall environmental impact throughout the life cycle of the refrigerating system. Thus, concerning the greenhouse effect, the following concepts should be widely applied:

IIR-UNEP - Refrigeration Drives Sustainable Development - 2007

– TEWI (Total Equivalent Warming Impact) takes into account not only direct but also indirect emissions – due to the energy consumption of the refrigerating system – of greenhouse gases attributed to refrigerating plant; – LCCP (Life Cycle Climate Performance) enables more comprehensive evaluation since it covers all emissions throughout the life cycle of the installation (from “cradle to grave”).

further development to raise the capacity above the current limit of roughly 15 kW. Some specialists believe that domestic refrigerators could be available within a few years, even if high costs will restrict development to a niche market, until success trickles down to a broader market. The IIR is very active in promoting this very promising technology thanks to its Working Party on Magnetic Cooling created in 2004. (See www.mcwp.ch)

3.3. Research on and development of alternative refrigerants

• Absorption and adsorption cooling systems, which are often fuel-fired, are a practical means of providing both commercial and industrial cooling without imposing a major drain on a developing electric infrastructure and therefore a major drain on the limited developmental capital available to most developing countries. Absorption-based air conditioning, in the form of large absorption chillers for major commercial-building or industrial applications, is the most widespread application of these technologies today. Low energy efficiency is still the major drawback of this technology. Further development and simplifications are needed in order to enable this technology to be more widely applied.1

3.4. Research on and development of new refrigeration technologies Some promising refrigeration technologies using nonvapour-compression technology could undoubtedly play important roles in ensuring sustainable development. Key research focuses include: • Magnetic refrigeration The principle of magnetic cooling is based on the magnetocaloric effect: magnetocaloric materials heat up when they are positioned in a magnetic field and cool down to a lower temperature than their initial temperature when this field is removed. For many years, these materials operated only at extremely low temperatures in intense magnetic fields which could only be generated by superconducting magnets. Materials containing gadolinium and manganese, capable of operating at room temperatures with more powerful permanent magnets, have emerged over the past few years. Magnetic refrigeration has a number of benefits (expected coefficients of performance of 6-12, no greenhouse gas emissions, no noise, simple maintenance, potential use over a very wide temperature range (–260°C to +40°C) but this technology requires IIR-UNEP - Refrigeration Drives Sustainable Development - 2007

• Solar refrigeration is technology that should be given priority to when choosing sustainable development options in developing countries. The major advantage of solar refrigeration is that it can be designed to operate independently of a utility grid. There are three approaches that use solar energy to provide refrigeration below 0°C: – Photovoltaics involve the direct conversion of solar radiation to direct current electricity using semi-conductive materials that can be used to operate a motor which is coupled to the compressor of a vapour- compression refrigeration system; Maintaining solar panels in Mali www.un.org

– Solar mechanical refrigeration uses a conventional vapour-compression system driven by mechanical power that is produced with a solar-driven heat power cycle (usually a Rankine cycle); – Absorption refrigeration, which can be considered as a “heat-driven” system that requires minimal mechanical power for the compression process. Of these three solar refrigeration concepts, photovoltaic-based vapour-compression appears to be the most viable solar refrigeration technology,

CHALLENGES

R&D regarding natural refrigerants (ammonia, CO2, hydrocarbons) — which have a negligible environmental impact — is to be actively pursued. Widening uses and increasing energy efficiency should be aimed at. Ammonia could gain ground in medium-capacity applications. It remains to be seen if ammonia can secure a significant share of the air-conditioning market. Safety issues must be considered in this perspective. Potential applications of CO2 are numerous. One important obstacle to overcome is the cost of the construction of refrigerating equipment suitable for the high pressures involved when CO2 is used. The IIR regularly organizes conferences on natural refrigerants in order to improve the technologies and widen the uses. It also disseminates information through proceedings, guides and various documents.

R efriger at i on Dr i v es S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p men t

CHALLENGES

especially for small-capacity portable systems located in areas not near conventional energy sources (electricity or gas). The solar mechanical refrigeration would require tracking solar collectors to produce high temperatures at which the heat power cycle efficiency becomes competitive. For each of these two concepts, much remains to be done in terms of efficiency of the solar panels/ collectors and the cost of equipment.20

Many other applications of superconductivity have been recently developed or are in design phase. Most of these projects require international teams to handle the current developmental challenges of such unique research on the cutting edge of many cryogenic superconductivity, refrigeration and instrumentation technologies. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) www.mritoday.net

• Desiccant technology includes a broad spectrum of systems providing cooling, dehumidification, and ventilation in order to control the quality of the indoor environment in the industrial and commercial sectors. But many production and technical issues still have to be addressed. • Many other technologies that will promote sustainable development are being developed or are the focus of research projects, in particular: – Thermoacoustic refrigeration which is a technology that uses high-amplitude sound waves in a pressurized gas to pump heat from one place to another; – Thermoelectric cooling which uses the Peltier effect to create a heat flux in the junction between two different types of materials; – Air-cycle refrigeration, which uses one of the simplest but relatively low-efficient cycles; – Stirling-cycle refrigeration which can produce high efficiency comparable to those of the vapour-compression cycles but which are difficult to scale up in large sized installations. • Cryogenics is a field encompassing all refrigeration technology used to achieve temperatures below 120 K (–150°C) down to less than 1 K, and has paved the way to a huge range of sustainable-developmentpromoting applications. Superconductivity is one of the most promising cryogenic technologies. The largest routine application of superconductivity in medical research is Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) tomography, which has considerably renewed medical radiology in the last 15 years. Large-scale applications require giant superconducting magnets. CERN (Centre Européen de Recherches Nucléaires/European Centre for Nuclear Research) is now operating superconducting capacities to produce the very large electric fields needed to accelerate particles. Also at the CERN, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which has just been launched, will give access to the high energies needed to test the fundamental theories concerning particles. For controlled fusion, which could provide access to an essentially infinite source of energy, a new tokamak, ITER, is now in design phase.

ITER Project www.iter.org LHC: Dipoles and cryogenic supply lines http://press.web.cern.ch

Cryomedicine comprises two domains: cryobiology, in which cryocooling is used for preservation, and cryosurgery, in which cryocooling is used for destructive purposes. In between these two extremes, cryotherapy makes use of cold as an antiinflammatory treatment in the fields of rheumatology and functional re-education. Cryomedicine and its cryosurgical component are making, and will continue to make, a valuable contribution to sustainable development, not only in the health sector, but also from sociological and economic standpoints; the efficacy of cryosurgery is not its only benefit: it is also easy to use, safe and does not induce complications. Besides these benefits, it is important to bear in mind that the initial investment cost of cryosurgical equipment and maintenance costs are relatively low.1

3.5. Developing countries The gap between developed and developing countries remains wide. A striking example is the number of domestic refrigerators manufactured annually: only about 1/3rd of these appliances were for developing-country markets even though 80% of the global population lives in developing countries. The priority actions to implement in developing countries are1:

IIR-UNEP - Refrigeration Drives Sustainable Development - 2007

• Reduction of post-harvest losses Perishable foodstuffs represent 31% of the total volume of foods consumed in developing countries. In developing countries, only 1/5th of perishable foodstuffs is refrigerated, meaning that high losses are incurred following harvest, slaughter, fishing, milking, then during transportation and finally during sale.1 Refrigeration is one of the most effective tools enabling loss reduction to be achieved. However, economic aspects should be dealt with. • Development of cold chains Ensuring both food quality and safety to more than 5 billion inhabitants of developing countries thanks to the setting up of effective cold chains is a major challenge for the refrigeration sector. • Technology transfer One avenue for enhancing developing country initiatives is through the sharing of developed-country industrial technology, know-how and information, including standards and certification programmes. One illustration of a need in terms of technology transfer is the huge lack of regeneration and refrigerant destruction plants in developing countries.

4. Conclusion The use of refrigeration will continue to expand worldwide, especially in developing countries, because it is vital to life. However, the environmental impacts, both on the ozone layer and on global warming, are important. The refrigeration sector has already helped mitigate global warming by applying the Montreal Protocol, but also thanks to improved technologies and important international cooperation. It must continue its efforts, through international scientific and technological cooperation and the dissemination of information. The International Institute of Refrigeration, through its working parties, its conferences and its publications, and the United Nations Environment Programme, through its responsibility in implementing the Montreal and the Kyoto Protocols, will continue to work together to address the challenge of sustainable development.

• Education and training Not enough basic education for refrigeration technicians and installers is available at the moment, resulting in insufficient maintenance, causing high leakage of refrigerant and other plant anomalies. Education is the cornerstone of development in all aspects of refrigeration: design, installation, running and maintenance of refrigerating equipment.

CONCLUSION

• Strengthening of structures It is important to define a ministry in charge of handling refrigeration policy at national level. Trade organizations and associations play an indispensable role in federating refrigeration stakeholders. A stateapproved, neutral, authoritative national refrigeration association is also necessary. An interministerial and interprofessional organization such as a national refrigeration council can play an important role in defining refrigeration plans that include inventories of existing equipment and a long-term developmental plan.

IIR-UNEP - Refrigeration Drives Sustainable Development - 2007

PRESENTATION OF THE IIR

R efriger at i on Dr i v es S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p men t

Presentation of the IIR

The International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR) is a scientific and technical intergovernmental organization enabling pooling of scientific and industrial know-how in all refrigeration fields on a worldwide scale. The IIR’s mission is to promote knowledge of refrigeration technology and all its applications in order to address today’s major issues, including food safety and protection of the environment (reduction of global warming, prevention of ozone depletion), and the development of the least developed countries (food, health). The IIR is committed to improving quality of life and promotes sustainable development. Members of the IIR include developing and industrialized Member Countries (there are now 61). Member Countries take part in IIR activities via the commission members they select. There are also other IIR members: corporate or benefactor members (companies, laboratories, universities…) or private (individual) members. The IIR provides its members with tailored services meeting a wide range of member-country, national and international organization, decision makers’, researchers’ and refrigeration practitioners’ needs. Most important services are: • networking with specialists and experts worldwide; • access to the IIR’s Web site (www.iifiir.org) which provides a wide range of services and information; • the Fridoc database specialized in the full spectrum of refrigeration fields (over 80 000 entries and growing); • conferences and congresses; • working parties and workshops; • training designed to meet users’ needs; • publications: – the Bulletin of the IIR – the International Journal of Refrigeration: this journal is focused on new technology – the Newsletter of the IIR – technical books and manuals – conference and congress proceedings – IIR Informatory Notes on major current refrigeration-related issues.

IIR-UNEP - Refrigeration Drives Sustainable Development - 2007

Presentation of UNEP

UNEP, established in 1972, is the voice for the environment within the United Nations system. UNEP acts as a catalyst, advocate, educator and facilitator to promote the wise use and sustainable development of the global environment. The UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE) helps governments, local authorities and decision-makers in business and industry to develop and implement policies and practices focusing on sustainable development. The Division works to promote sustainable consumption and production, the efficient use of renewable energy, adequate management of chemicals and the integration of environmental costs in development policies. It coordinates activities through: •The International Environmental Technology Centre - IETC (Osaka, Shiga), which implements integrated waste, water and disaster management programmes, focusing in particular on Asia. • Production and Consumption (Paris), which promotes sustainable consumption and production patterns as a contribution to human development through global markets. • Chemicals (Geneva), which catalyzes global actions to bring about the sound management of chemicals and the improvement of chemical safety worldwide. • Energy (Paris), which fosters energy and transport policies for sustainable development and encourages investment in renewable energy and energy efficiency. • OzonAction (Paris), which supports the phase-out of ozone depleting substances in developing countries and countries with economies in transition to ensure implementation of the Montreal Protocol. • Economics and Trade (Geneva), which helps countries to integrate environmental considerations into economic and trade policies, and works with the finance sector to incorporate sustainable development policies. UNEP DTIE activities focus on raising awareness, improving the transfer of knowledge and information, fostering technological cooperation and partnerships, and implementing international conventions and agreements. For more

PRESENTATION OF UNEP

information, see www.unep.fr

IIR-UNEP - Refrigeration Drives Sustainable Development - 2007

R efriger at i on Dr i v es S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p men t References 1. IIR, Report on Refrigeration Sector Achievements and Challenges, 2002. 2. UNEP, Report of the Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee, 2006. 3. IIR, Statement by the IIR, 11th Session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Framework Convention on Climate Change, Montreal, Canada, December 9, 2005.

REFERENCES

4. EPA, Achievements in Stratospheric Ozone Protection, www.epa.gov/ozone/2007stratozoneprogressreport.html. 2007. 5. Velders G, Andersen S, Daniel J, Fahey D, McFarland M. The importance of the Montreal Protocol in protecting climate, 2007. 6. IPCC/TEAP Special Report, Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System: Issues related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons, 2005. 7. AFEAS, Production and Sales of Fluorocarbons, www.afeas.org/production_and_sales.html, 2007. 8. Bullard C. Transcritical CO2 Systems – Recent Progress and New Challenges, Bulletin of the IIR, 2004-5. 9. Lebot B. L’étiquetage énergétique est-il un bon moyen de diminuer les consommations d’énergie ? AFF-AICVF, 1998. 10. Halozan H ; Rieberer R. Energy-efficient heating and cooling systems for buildings, Bulletin of the IIR, 2004-6. www.iifiir.org/en/web-files.php?rub=3, 2004.

11. IIR, 18th Informatory Note on Refrigerating Technologies: Evaporative Cooling and Legionella, a Risk which can be Prevented by Using Good Practices, www.iifiir.org/en/notes.php?rub=1, 2006 12. ACEEE (American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy), Consumer Guide to Home Energy Savings, 2005. 13. IIR, 3rd Informatory Note on Refrigeration and Food: Temperature Indicators and Time-Temperature Integrators, www.iifiir.org/en/notes.php?rub=1, 2004. 14. Public Technology Inc. US, Green Building Council: Sustainable Building Technical Manual: Green Building Design, Contruction and Operations. 15. Palandre L, Zoughaib A, Clodic D, Kuijpers L. Estimation of the world-wide fleets of refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment in order to determine forecasts of refrigerant emissions, 2003. 16. ADEME. Automobile Air-conditioning, Its Energy and Environmental Impact, 2003. 17. Hoehne M, Hrnjak P.S. Charge minimisation in hydrocarbon systems, Proceedings of the 6th IIR Gustav Lorentzen Conference, Glasgow, Scotland, 2004. 18. Radermacher R. Researching Beyonds Refrigerants, www.appliancemagazine.com/print.php?article=1546&zone=1& first=1, 2006. 19. Azzouz A, Gossé J, Duminil M. Experimental determination of cold loss caused by opening industrial coldroom doors, International Journal of Refrigeration, 16, No.1, 1993. 20. Klein S A, Reindl D. T. Solar Refrigeration, ASHRAE Journal, Vol. 47, No. 9, www.ashrae.org/content/ASHRAE/ ASHRAE/PDF/20058309533_886.pdf, 2005.

21. IIR, 2nd edition of Ammonia as a Refrigerant, 2007 (to be published).

IIR-UNEP - Refrigeration Drives Sustainable Development - 2007

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International Institute of Refrigeration

United Nations Environment Programme

International Institute of Refrigeration 177 Bd Malesherbes - 75017 Paris France E-mail: iif-iir@iiÄir.org Tel: +33 1 42 27 32 35 Fax: +33 1 47 63 17 98 www.iiÄir.org

UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics OzonAction Branch 15 rue de Milan - 75441 Paris Cedex 09 France E-mail: [email protected] Tel: +33 1 44 37 14 50 Fax: +33 1 44 37 14 74 www.unep.fr/ozonaction