MAJLIS SUKAN NEGARA MALAYSIA CAWANGAN KEJURULATIHAN UNIT SPKK
UNIT SKIM PERSIJILAN KEJURULATIHAN KEBANGSAAN
SPORT SCIENCE NOTES LEVEL III
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EDISI 2012 UNIT PENDIDIKAN SAINS KEJURULATIHAN CAWANGAN KEJURULATIHAN MAJLIS SUKAN NEGARA MALAYSIA
ISI KANDUNGAN BIL
MUKA SURAT
1) MAKLUMAT AM KURSUS SAINS SUKAN TAHAP III
2
2) UNIT 1 FALSAFAH SUKAN
12
3) UNIT 2 SUKAN DI MALAYSIA
22
4) UNIT 3 ANATOMI DAN FISIOLOGI SUKAN
34
5) UNIT 4 ASAS BIOMEKANIK
72
6) UNIT 5 LATIHAN DAN PERSEDIAAN FIZIKAL
90
7) UNIT 6 PEMAKANAN SUKAN
132
8) UNIT 7 KOMPETENSI KEJURULATIHAN
185
9) UNIT 8 PSIKOLOGI SUKAN
210
10) UNIT 9 TINGKA LAKU MOTOR
254
11) UNIT 10 KECEDERAAN DAN PERUBATAN SUKAN
261
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SKIM PERSIJILAN KEJURULATIHAN KEBANGSAAN (SPKK) MAKLUMAT AM KURSUS SAINS SUKAN TAHAP III
1. PENGENALAN Kursus Sains Sukan merupakan salah satu komponen di bawah Skim Persijilan Kejurulatihan Kebangsaan (SPKK). SPKK adalah satu program pembangunan kejurulatihan yang seragam dan berterusan dan antara lain ialah untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan jurulatih dalam ilmu kejurulatihan khususnya aspek sains sukan ke arah memajukan lagi prestasi atlet demi kecemerlangan sukan untuk negara.
2. PENDAFTARAN DAN PEMBAYARAN KURSUS TAHAP III Setiap peserta yang telah mendaftar bagi kursus dikehendaki membayar yuran sebanyak RM 250.00 ( peserta baru ) dan RM 50.00 ( mengulang). Sekiranya peserta tidak menjelaskan yuran maka tidak boleh menduduki peperiksaan. 3. KANDUNGAN KURSUS Kursus Sains Sukan Tahap III meliputi masa selama 42 jam serta mengandungi topik - topik seperti berikut ;-
BIL
TOPIK
3
JAM
1
Falsafah Sukan
2
2
Sukan Di Malaysia
1
3
Kompetensi Sukan
4
4
Anatomi & Fisiologi
6
5
Latihan dan Persediaan Fizikal
9
6
Psikologi Sukan
4
7
Tingka Laku Motor
3
8
Biomekanik
4
9
Perubatan Sukan
3
10
Pemakanan Sukan
3
11
SEMINAR
3
Jumlah
42
4. PERLAKSANAAN KURSUS
a. Kelas akan berjalan selama tujuh (7 ) hari. b. Sesi persediaan seminar akan diberikan selama 5 hari. Setiap kumpulan yang telah diagihkan bebas untuk menjalankan perbincangan. c. Sesi seminar dan peperiksaan melibatkan 1 hari menjadikan jumlah keseluruhan 7 hari d. Tenaga pengajar adalah terdiri daripada instruktur yang dilantik oleh Lembaga Kejurulatihan Kebangsaan. e. Sebab perkara-perkara yang tidak dapat dielakkan sekiranya ada perubahan Jadual dan Instruktur maka akan diberitahu kepada peserta. 5. PENILAIAN
5.1
UJIAN OBJEKTIF ( 50%) Di akhir kursus satu ujian objektif akan dijalankan. Ujian ini mengandungi 50 soalan objektif dan masa ujian ialah 11/4 jam.
5.2
SEMINAR ( 10 %) 5.2.1
Semua peserta diwajibkan mengambil bahagian dalam satu seminar yang akan diadakan pada akhir kursus dan topik yang akan disediakan dan perbincangkan ialah seperti berikut :a. b.
c. d.
Persediaan Fizikal (Suaian Fizikal untuk sukan) Psikologi Biomekanik – Persediaan atau Pembetulan Teknik Sukan (Kemahiran ) Perubatan Sukan
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e. f. 5.2.2
Periodisasi Nutrion
Tujuan Seminar ialah untuk melihat :a. b. c. d. e. f.
Kerjasama dalam kumpulan Perancangan strategi Pengurusan masa Kemampuan melakukan penyelidikan Kemampuan menyediakan kertas kerja Kemampuan dan keyakinan jurulatih berhadapan audien
5.2.3
Peserta akan dibahagikan kepada 6 kumpulan (6 orang setiap kumpulan) dan akan bekerjasama menyediakan kertas kerja untuk seminar serta perbentangan.
5.2.4
Persediaan Kumpulan adalah seperti berikut: a) Persediaan Persembahan dalam Power Point b) Edaran Kertas Kerja bagi semua peserta. c) Kertas Kerja dalam Words bukan power Point. d) Kertas Kerja untuk Panel. e) Topik yang dipilih adalah yang boleh disembahkan dalam masa yang diberi. Contoh Tajuk bagi Periodisasi ialah Persediaan atlet dalam Fasa Pertandingan dalam aspek Kekuatan sahaja. f) Setiap ahli Kumpulan harus mengambil bahangian dalam persembahan.
5.2.5
Setiap kumpulan akan membentangkan kertas masing-masing selama 20 minit dan 5 minit lagi untuk sesi soal jawab.Setiap peserta dalam kumpulan dapat membentangkan sekurangkurangnya 3 minit.
5.2.6
Penilaian pembentangan akan dibuat oleh panel yang dilantik oleh Cawangan Kejurulatihan MSN.
5.2.7
Aspek-aspek yang akan dinilai adalah seperti berikut :-
PEMARKAHAN SEMINAR BIL 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
NAMA PESERTA
SUKAN
5
NO.K.P
FORMAT KERTAS KERJA (Markah Kumpulan) FORMAT KESELURUHAN SUSUNAN MAKLUMAT BAHASA PENYUNTINGAN
(20%)
5% 5% 5% 5%
PEMBENTANGAN LISAN (Markah Individu)
(80%)
KANDUNGAN
(40%)
KETEPATAN FAKTA
10%
KESESUAIAN `ADEQUANCY´ / MEMENUHI KEPERLUAN SUSUNAN MAKLUMAT
10%
PENYAMPAIAN
10% 10% (20%)
SUARA
5%
KEYAKINAN
5%
GAYA
5%
MULTIMEDIA
5%
RESPON TERHADAP SOALAN GAYA INTERAKSI KEUPAYAAN WACANA KEUPAYAAN MEMAHAMI SOALAN KETEPATAN JAWAPAN
2
1
(20%) 5% 5% 5% 5%
6
3
PESERTA 4 5
6
7
JUMLAH KESELURUHAN
(100%)
JUMLAH KESELURUHAN
PERATUSAN MARKAH (10%)
/ 100
5.2.8
Kertas Kerja hendaklah bertaip Double – Spacing dan sekurangkurangnya satu salinan hendaklah diserahkan kepada panel sebelum pembentangan.
5.3 PROJEK ASPEK PRAKTIKAL KAJIAN (30%) 5.3.1
Setiap peserta akan diwajibkan menyediakan satu projek / kajian padang bertaip berdasarkan salah satu dari aspek berikut ;a. b.
c. d. e.
f.
Pemakanan Latihan Fizikal Perubatan sukan Ujian padang – parameter fisiologi Psikologi Biomekanik – Persediaan atau Pembetulan Teknik Sukan Kemahiran.
5.3.2
Cara pemilihan tajuk / aspek akan ditentukan oleh peserta sendiri berdasarkan satu-satu tajuk/aspek Praktikal Kajian Sukan masingmasing, contohnya, Tajuk yang dipilih:Tajuk: Sukan Hoki: Peningkatan Latihan Anerobik semasa Musim Pertandingan. Perbincangan: Masaalah yang dihadapi oleh pemain sendiri dalam pasukan. Posisi. Boleh beri Data. Cara Mengatasi masaalah. Jenis Latihan. Kajian berkaitan Bukti. Cadangan untuk mengaplikasikan bagi pasukan sendiri.. Projek boleh dibuat dalam format Thesis. Tetapi lebih kepada Kualitatif daripada Kuantitatif. Format Thesis- Pendahuluan, Tujuan dan Objektif ,Makluman tentang tajuk,Skop Kajian,Batasan Kajian,Kajian-kajian Berkaitan,Perbincangan,Cadangan,Bibiligrafi.
5.3.3
Projek ini harus disampaikan kepada penyelaras semasa datang untuk VIVA. 3 bulan selepas kursus.
5.3.4
Format Susunan Buku Laporan Projek adalah seperti di lampiran. - Kertas Kerja hendaklah bertaip Double – Spacing , Fonts 12 dan Huruf ROMAN. - Tidak Kurang daripada Tiga Ribu (3,000) patah perkataan.
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- 1 original dan 2 salinan OrIginal – Kulit Hard Cover warna maroon. 2 Salinan – Boleh fotostat dan Comb Binding. Naskah original akan disimpan oleh pihak Majlis Sukan Negara Malaysia.
5.3.5
Penilaian untuk kajian ini adalah berdasarkan aspek-aspek berikut :-
BIL
ASPEK
PERATUS
i
Isi kandungan
10%
ii
Format dan Stail Penulisan
10%
iii.
Aspek praktikal Kajian
20%
iv
Kajian Berkaitan
30%
iv
Rumusan dan Cadangan
20%
v
Rujukan
10%
Jumlah
100%
5.4 VIVA 5.4.1
Semua peserta akan dikehendaki menghadiri satu sesi Viva yang akan diadakan sekurang-kurangnya 3 bulan selepas kursus.
5.4.2
Peserta yang gagal menghadiri Viva setelah dipanggil akan diberikan tempoh satu tahun selepas kursus untuk mengikutinya atau Viva berikutnya diadakan selepas tempoh itu.
5.4.3
Mana-mana peserta yang gagal menghadiri Viva dalam tempoh yang diberikan akan dianggap gagal keseluruhan kursus.
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5.4.4 BIL
1
PENILAIAN SESI VIVA MARKAH PENUH VIVA ADALAH 10 DAN MARKAH LULUS ADALAH 5 BAHAGIAN
MARKAH
PENGETAHUAN (SUKAN SPESIFIK) 1.2 UMUM (Pengenalan sebagai Jurulatih)
1
1.3 KHUSUS (Berkenaan Sukan) PENGETAHUAN SAINS SUKAN 2.1 ANATOMI & FISIOLOGI 2
5 2.2 BIOMEKANIK 2.3 PSIKOLOGI 2.4PERUBATAN SUKAN 2.5 LATIHAN FIZIKAL
3
SISTEM LATIHAN
3
4
PENGURUSAN SUKAN
1
JUMLAH MARKAH
10
9
MARKAH YANG DIPEROLEHI
6. KEPUTUSAN a. Keputusan hanya akan diumumkan kepada peserta yang telah selesai menjalani semua bentuk penilaian. b. Markah lulus untuk setiap komponen penilaian ialah KOMPONEN
MARKAH
MARKAH LULUS
Ujian Objektif
50
25
Seminar
10
5
Projek
30
15
Viva
10
5
100
50
Jumlah
c. Markah LULUS keseluruhan ialah 50% 1. Sijil boleh diambil dari pihak MSNM setelah diumumkan kepada peserta.
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LAMPIRAN
KURSUS SAINS SUKAN TAHAP III SKIM PERSIJILAN KEJURULATIHAN KEBANGSAAN (SPKK) FORMAT SUSUNAN BUKU LAPORAN PROJEK ASPEK PRAKTIKAL KAJIAN
KULIT BELAKANG ( Hard Cover) Warna Maroon BIBLIOGRAFI
ISI PROJEK LAPORAN PEMERIKSA (Ditaip seperti Format KANDUNGAN HELAIAN TAJUK KULIT HADAPAN ( Hard Cover) Warna Maroon
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SUKAN OLAHRAGA
PERSEDIAAN FIZIKAL
KULIT HADAPAN (HARD COVER) WARNA MAROON
DISEDIAKAN OLEH :ZAWAWI ZAKARIA KOD KURSUS 3(1)2012
KURSUS SAINS SUKAN TAHAP III SKIM PERSIJILAN KEJURULATIHAN KEBANGSAAN (SPKK) SUKAN OLAHRAGA PENINGKATAN LATIHAN KEKUATAN KAKI UNTUK ATLET LOMPAT JAUH
HELAIAN TAJUK
LAPORAN PEMERIKSA (DITAIP SEPERTI FORMAT YANG DILAMPIRKAN)
PROJEK ASPEK PRAKTIKAL KAJIAN INI DISEDIAKAN BAGI MEMENUHI KEPERLUAN KURSUS SEBAGAI SALAH SATU ASPEK PENILAIAN 1 (Muka Surat)
2 ( Muka Surat)
BIBLOGRAFI (Akhir) Muka Surat
FORMAT INI DITAIP DALAM BUKU LAPORAN PROJEK
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LAPORAN PEMERIKSA (LAPORAN INI DIISI OLEH PEMERIKSA / PENILAI)
BIL
ASPEK PENILAIAN
1 2 3 4 5 6
PERATUS
ISI KANDUNGAN FORMAT DAN STAIL PENULISAN ASPEK PRAKTIKAL KAJIAN KAJIAN BERKAITAN RUMUSAN DAN CADANGAN RUJUKAN JUMLAH
MARKAH
10 % 10 % 20 % 30% 20 % 10 % 100%
KOMEN PEMERIKSA
Markah (30%)
……………………………………… ( TANDATANGAN PENILAI) NAMA:……………………………………… TARIKH :………………………………. “ If someone feels that they had never made a mistake in their life, then it means they had never tried a new thing in their life.” KANDUNGAN TAHAP III UNIT 1 SPORTS PHILOSOPHY 13
Coaching ethics The Olympic spirit UNIT 2 SPORTS IN MALAYSIA Malaysia in the international sports arena Malaysia’s achievements Success in other world level competitions UNIT 3 ANATOMY AND SPORT PHYSIOLOGY Hormone and exercise. Thermoregulation Altitude Training Training for aerobic and anaerobic power UNIT 4 SPORT BIOMECHANIC Common technique analysis approach Qualitative video analysis of sports skill Capturing and editing procedure Compilation procedure UNIT 5 TRAINING AND FITNESS Application of per iodization in sports Speed training Agility and coordination Quickness Sport – specific requirerement for speed, agility, quickness (SAQ) programme Fundamental of functional strength training Power training for sports Plyometric training Physical fitness testing procedure
UNIT 6 SPORT NUTRITION Planning your nutrition for training Nutrient requirement for athletes Nutrition tactics Nutritional issues and challenges 14
Assessment of nutritional status Food quality and safety UNIT 7 COACHING COMPETENCIES Risk management Developing top level athletes Planning an international sport competitions Presentations skills Decision making in sports UNIT 8 SPORT PSYCHOLOGY Team Building & Cohesion) Test & Measurement in Sport Psychology) Plan and Application of Mental Skills Program in training UNIT 9 MOTOR BEHAVIOR Augmented Feedback in Learning Kinematic Feedback and other Feedbacks Retention and Transfer of Learning Conditions of Practice Facilitating Learning and Performance UNIT 10 SPORTS MEDICINE Rehabilitation of sports injury Medical conditions in athletes Medical preparedness for competition and travel “ History stands witness to the fact that those who cut theirs country’s throat end up cutting their own “ “ Believing everybody is dangerous but believing nobody is more dangerous”
UNIT 1 15
SPORTS PHILOSOPHY
16
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Coaching ethics 1.1.1
Fair play
What do we mean by 'fair play' and 'level playing field'? In ethics, the concept of fairness involves treating everyone equally and impartially. 'Fair play' is usually understood to mean using only tactics that are in accord with the spirit of the sport. A 'level playing field' is a situation in which competitors are required to follow the same rules and are given an equal ability to compete. This means that no matter what the rules are, as long as they are applied equally and impartially the playing field is still level. If drugs (or any currently-illegal tactics) were allowed, as long as everyone had equal access to them the sport would still be fair. If some sportsmen did not want to use legal drugs for health or moral reasons, they would be at a disadvantage, but it would be seen as their own fault. The Five Ideals of Fair Play
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Respect the rules Respect the officials and their decisions Respect your opponent/s Give everybody an equal chance to participate Maintain your self-control at all times
1.1.2 Sportsmanship Sportsmanship is simply good character when participating in sports. It is about respect for opponents, officials, teammates, coaches and the games itself (Martens, 2004). Thus it is imperative to develop good character. Three steps to coach for character. Step 1 – Identify the principles of character Step 2 – Teach the principles of character Step 3 – Provide opportunities to practice Moral values Be respectful
Be responsible
Be caring
Actions in sport • Be respectful of the game & its rule and traditions • Be respectful of your opponents • Be respectful of the officials • Be respectful in victory and defeat • Prepare yourself to do your best • Be punctual for practices and games • Be self-disciplined • Be cooperative with your teammates • Help your teammates play better • Support teammate in trouble • Be generous with praise, stingy with critics
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• • • • • • •
Be honest
Be fair
Be a good citizen
• • • • • •
Play for the team, not yourself Play by the spirit of the rules Be loyal to the team Play drug free Admit to your own mistakes Treat other players as you wish to be treated Be fair to all players, including those who are different Give other players an opportunity Play to win within the rules Be a good role model Strive for excellence Give back to the sport Encourage teammates to be good citizens
Source: Martens (2004), page 59. 1.1.3 The Olympic Spirit The Olympic Spirit: “Not to win but to take part” The Olympic spirit is best expressed in the Olympic Creed: "The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part, just as the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The essential thing is not to have conquered but to have fought well." The Olympic Games give us the chance to celebrate our shared humanity, and the object of the competitors should be to express this humanity by performing fairly and honestly to the best of their natural ability. The Olympic spirit can be seen in all those who compete in the Games, not just in those who win the medals. This spirit can be seen in athletes from poorer parts of the world, who have little chance to develop their skills or gain experience, but who do the best they can with limited resources, and who represent their country with pride and dignity. In the spirit of the Olympics, the most important thing is to have taken part fairly, and to have done one's best. This is what the Olympic Games are really about, and some might say it's what life is really about as well. What do you think?
Word
Example sentence
Meaning
celebrate
The Olympic Games give us the chance to celebrate our shared humanity.
to mark a special occasion, or to praise or highlight something special, with festive events
conquer
Athletes say they have to conquer their fears and doubts in order to perform at their best.
to defeat or achieve victory over someone or something
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creed
The Olympic Creed always appears on the scoreboard during the Opening Ceremony.
A set of basic beliefs and principles
dignity
Even though she wasn't the winner of her event, she did her best and performed with dignity.
a sense of pride and self-respect
essential
One of the essential qualities of a great athlete is belief in his or her own ability.
of the greatest importance; absolutely necessary
fairly
It's essential that athletes perform fairly, referees rule fairly, and judges score fairly.
(to do something) with honesty; without cheating or bias
humanity
What do you think people mean when they talk about our 'shared humanity' or the 'human spirit'?
the fact or condition of being human; positive qualities we share, such as benevolence
object
The object of athletes should be to perform to the best of their ability.
the thing you want to get or achieve; what you aim to do
perform
Most athletes perform better in front of a crowd, possibly because of adrenalin.
to carry out an activity for which one has trained, such as a sport
spirit
The Olympic spirit is shown when spectators applaud all the competitors, not just the winners.
a special attitude or feeling associated with something
struggle
Every athlete has to struggle against difficulties such as injuries and defeats.
to try hard, esp. when faced with difficulties or challenges
take part
Over 10,000 athletes will take part in the next Olympic Games.
to join in (an activity); participate
Source: http://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/sports-olympics-spirit.htm.Retrieved on 16 September 2008
1.2 Sport and athletes’ character building 1.2.1 Negative aspect in sport and ways to overcome it People engaged in sports are less likely to indulge in bad habits. Since a sportsman makes lots of effort and time in order to get good performance, they will not have much spare time to consider indulging in bad habits, such as gambling, committing crime or taking drugs etc.
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Gambling through sports is gaining more and more popular now. As a matter of fact, once soccer betting was legalized, more people are engaged in this activity. Indeed, many people wanted to use sports as a way to gain money but end up in losing it . Lots of money is being “invested” in this undesirable activity, and as a result, new social problem is triggered in society. Moreover, it may cause corruptions between the soccer team members and the gambling company. Sports Gambling All nation in the world are familiar with major addictions such as narcotics, alcohol, and tobacco. Society has spent countless millions of dollars warning about these substances, however another addiction that receives far less attention is gambling. In America, gambling has a major impact on the college campuses across the country, so much so that the executive director of the N.C.A.A., Cedric W. Demsey, in his 1997 “State of the Association” address called gambling the most serious threat facing intercollegiate athletics. Gambling in sport has among others two major impacts. First, gambling on sports just like casino gambling is addictive. Secondly, gambling on sports has hurt the integrity of sports. Because gambling on sports is causing negative consequences for athletes, and games, all government should ban all gambling on sports, and steps should be taken to decrease the prevalence of illegal and Internet gambling. Brochures and advertisement on the negative impacts that sports gambling cause should be readily available to the general public.
.
.
Drugs in sports Drugs have been used for centuries by athletes in an attempt to improve sport performance. In fact, the breakdown of ancient Olympic Games was caused by political interference as well as drug. In more recent time, any substance that athletes believe might influence performance has been used, often in very high dosages and with disastrous effects. A cyclist, Linton was the first death of doping from using caffeine a century ago followed by another cyclist, Knud Jensen, the Danish 100 km time trial team who collapsed and died in Rome Olympic in 1960 after taking nicotinic titrate (drug used to increase the supply of blood to the leg muscles). In 1961, an inquiry into drug taking in Italian soccer revealed that 8 out of the 36 first division players tested had been taking amphetamines (Beashel & Taylor, 1992). Ben Johnson was tested positive with anabolic steroids at the Seoul Olympic in 1988. Coach is responsible for his athletes and is respected by the athletes, as such he can be a valuable medium for drug education and help reduce drugs use in sport by: a. being a good model b. communicate own belief to athletes about negative effect of drug use c. practice sound coaching principles and provide information on effectiveness of training on sport performance
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d. provide accurate, unexaggerated and relevant information about the harmful effects of drugs e. discourage athletes from sharing medications for what may appear to be similar complaints f.
discourage smoking and remind of passive smoking
g. discourage alcohol drinking and never use alcohol as reward h. finding out the reasons why athletes use drugs Violence in sport Violence in sports can incorporate or be influenced by a wide range of activities, from trash talking- to unruly fan behavior to deliberate physical assaults to fighting. Athletes have become a major part of society countries around the globe. Athletics play an important role in shaping our characters and our values. While most athletes do this in a positive way there is a percentage that have a negative effect on people lives. Unfortunately there are people in this world that use violence as a way of being in control. Some men or women need to feel in control, like they are in charge. There was a quote that I came across that stated, "Sports often encourage people to define their relationship with others in terms of domination." In fact many historians tend to believe that an increase in spectator violence coincides with the commercialization of sports. Spectator violence An example of spectator violence is sport hooliganism. A hooligan is a disorderly and noisy person who behaves in a violent and destructive way. He go to matches to engage in aggressive and violent behavior before, during and after the game. 1.2.2 The formation of leadership quality through sport Leadership means (Martens, 2004): a. knowing how to chart a course, to give others direction b. developing social and psychological environment (team culture) as well physical environment The culture is created through selecting, motivating, rewarding, retaining and unifying members of the team, which includes assistants, players, parents and others. Excellent coach (leader) provides team vision and translates it into reality. Coach develops environment that ensures maximum opportunity for athletes to achieve success and consequently team success. Many people argue that sport can build leaders, but nobody has investigated exactly how this might occur (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). The following approach can help develop leadership quality: a. coaches appointed athletes to leadership positions
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b. new players became involved with older peers through increasingly challenging competition c. parents mentored players on complex cognitive sport issues and decision making d. players maintained good relationships with peers and gained their trust e. parents supported sport involvement and activities (through monetary support, encouragement, and moral support) f. coaches provided an excellent training environment to help develop skill
1.3 Current issues 1.3.1 Ergogenic aids What are Ergogenic Aids? Erogenic aids consist of substance, drugs, procedures and even devices that are intended to improve athletic performance. Some of these substances are naturally occurring, easily available and completely legal while others are manufactured, illegal, or banned by many sporting organizations. Many athletes, coaches, politicians and fans feel the use of certain substances is unethical in sports. Ergogenic aids can be classified into five categories: a. Nutritional Ergogenic Aids i. carbohydrates, muscle glycogen and muscle glycogen super compensation ii. proteins, vitamins and iron iii. water and electrolytes b. Pharmacological Ergogenic Aids i. amphetamines ii. caffeine iii. anabolic steroids c. Physiological Ergogenic Aids i. oxygen ii. blood doping d. Psychological Ergogenic Aids i. hypnosis ii. covert rehearsal strategies iii. stress management procedures e. Mechanical Ergogenic Aids i. extrinsic biomechanical aids ii. physical warm-up 1.3.2 Winning versus sporting spirit
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“Athletes First, Winning Second” (The motto of the American Sport Education Program, Weinberg & Gould, 2007). Every decision make by a coach should be based on what is judge as the best for athletes, and second on what may improve the athlete’s or team’s chances of winning. The above motto is hard to implement as many administrators demand coaches to practice “Winning First, Athletes Second”. This happens because administrators have their own objectives or are pressured by others. Usually, coaches who help young people become better humans but fail to win are considered losers and often are displaced or fired. In sport, the objective of every athlete and coach must be winning within the rules of the game. Emphasis on winning should not be on the winning itself but on the striving to win. In addition winning must be matched with sportsmanship. Athletes must demonstrate sportsmanship (simply good character when participating in sports) when striving to win. According to Martens (2004), athletes must have respect for opponents, officials, teammates, coaches and the games itself. “The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part just as the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The essential thing is not to have conquered but to have fought well” (Barron de Coubertin, founder of the modern era of the Olympic Games, Martens, 2004: page 57) 1.3.3 Aggression in sport Any form of behavior (physical or verbal) directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment (Baron & Richardson, 1994). For an act to be considered aggression, it must meet four criteria (Gill, 2000): a. it is a behavior b. it involves harm or injury c. it is directed toward a living organism d. it involves intent Sport specific aggression determinants Athletes behave aggressively because (Weinberg & Gould, 2007): a) someone has committed aggression against them b) the opposition has annoyed them c) they are highly ego oriented and have a low level of moral development d) they want to show how tough they are e) they believe it is part of their role f) they feel group pressures to be aggressive Strategies to control aggression in sport and physical activity settings
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Situations of aggression • athletes are frustrated – losing, perceive unfair officiating , are embarrassed, are physically in pain, playing below their capabilities or poorly, overemphasis on winning
Strategies for coaches • Coaches should be sensitive to detecting and controlling aggression • Detect causes of frustration, remove athlete from the situation at the first signs of aggression • Teach athletes skills to control their emotions and their reactions to frustration (eg. Simulate frustrating conditions to allow players to practice emotional control strategies under pressure) • Use modeling and reinforcement approaches • Learn appropriate behavior; differentiating aggression from appropriate, intense or assertive play • Learn to resolve conflicts and disputes in a nonviolent fashion (meet, record facts, express feelings, aims to resolve, outline necessary changes, develop action plan & have follow up on the plan)
1.3.4 Other issues a) b) c) d)
Media and its effects on sport Commercialization in sport Doping in sport Other issue as suggested by participants
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THOUGHT FOR THE DAY FOR COACHES “The game doesn’t progress through an accumulation of many championships or tournaments, but through continuous development of original ideas” “Tomorrow’s success is founded on today’s preparation” “The tragedy of coaching young players focuses on the fact that many coaches may know a lot about the game, but they don’t know their young pupils” “Youth prefer to be stimulated instead of being instructed” “Moving step by step, you may travel great distances” “Too much drill will kill” “Coaches who don’t apply new remedies should expect to suffer new troubles” “Poor performance at short term doesn’t mean that the long term objectives can not be accomplished” “You can help a player a lot by correcting him, but more by encouraging him” “There is no greater power on the playing field than the player’s intelligence” “The genuine coach generate ideas and opens the mind of his players. His far reaching task is to let the others think, instead of thinking for them” “The coach or player who doesn’t learn from defeat, will always be a beginner” “When the coaches of today tend to teach the way they were taught in the past, how we can expect progress” “The player who runs has to think, and the one who thinks has to run” “Only a coach who has got enough brain can be simple” “Mastering a skill doesn’t mean that the player knows to use it in precise moment during the game” “The development of the game is so fast these days that the coach who says it can’t be done is generally interrupted by someone doing it”
26
“If you win, you need not have to explain. If you lose, you should not there to explain”
UNIT 2 SPORTS IN MALAYSIA
27
Introduction A discussion on the sporting achievements of Malaysia would not be complete if we do not flash back to the history of our participation and the golden moments achieved by our athletes in international meets. From the ’50s through the ’70s, badminton, athletics, soccer, hockey and weightlifting were among the sports which had contributed to the good name of our country in the SEA Games, Asian Games, Commonwealth Games, and the Olympics. Past athletes of the bygone era, to name a few, badminton legend Eddy Choong, Malaysia’s most outstanding sprinter M.Jegathesan, 110m hurdler Ishtiaq Mobarak, soccer giants ”Rajabola’ Ghani Minhat and ’Supermokh’ Mokhtar Dahari, cycling champions Daud Ibrahim and Ng Joo Ngan, hockey Olympian Ho Koh Chye, international tenpin bowler P.S. Nathan, and track queen of the ’70s Marina Chin and the ’Bionic Lady’ heptathlete Zaition Othman, were all household names. From the ’80s onwards, the new generation of sportsmen and sportswomen in badminton, tenpin bowling, squasy,aquatics, and wushu continued to do our country proud in international competitions. Names like, Razif and Jailani, the Sidek brothers (badminton), M.Kumaresan (cycling), Shalin Zulkifli (tenpin bowling), Lim Keng Liat (swimming), Nicol David (squash), Lim Chong Wei (badminton), Bryan Nickson (diving), and Chai Fong Yin (wushu) are all synonymous with our sporting achievements and our capacity to accept challenges at the world level reflecting our spirit of ’Malaysia Boleh’ Malaysia in the international sports arena - Participation & Achievements SEA Games The Southeast Asian Games (also known as the SEA Games),is a biennial multi-sports event involving participants from the member countries of Southeast Asia. Originally, the SEA Games was called SEAP Games or in full, the Southeast Asian Peninsula Games. Thailand, Laos, South Vietnam, , Burma ( now Myanmar) ,Malaya (now Malaysia) Singapore were the founding members that agreed to the formation of the ‘SEAP Games Federation Committee’ (SGF) in 1958. Currently there are 11 nations that are members of the SEA Games Federation. In 1959, Bangkok, Thailand, hosted the first SEAP GAMES. Up to 2007, the SEA Games had been contested 24 times and members of the SGF took turns to organize the event. Malaysia played host in 1965, 1971, 1977, 1989, and 2001. The outstanding achievements by our athletes in the 21st SEA Games in 2001 is of great historical significance for Malaysia. The 111 gold medals won by our athletes represent the highest number of gold ever achieved by our national contingent in the SEA Games. This figure surpassed the 67 gold medals won by the 1989 SEA Games contingent.
28
Malaysia - participation and achievements in SEA Games (1959-2007)
No
Year
Venue
1 2
1959 1961 1963
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981
Bangkok Rangoon (Cancelled) Cambodia K. Lumpur Bangkok Rangoon K Lumpur Singapore Bangkok K Lumpur Jakarta Manila
12 13 14 15 16
1983 1985 1987 1989 1991
Singapore Bangkok Jakarta K Lumpur Manila
17 18 19 20 21 22
1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003
23
2005
Singapore Chiangmail Jakarta B.S Begawan K Lumpur Hanoi & HCM City Manila
24
2007
25
2009
Nakhon Ratchasima Vientiane
Malaysia’s achievement G S B
Host Country Thailand Burma
8 12
Malaysia Thailand Burma Malaysia Thailand Malaysia Indonesia Philippine s Thailand Indonesia Malaysia Philippine s Thailand Indonesia Brunei Malaysia Vietnam Philippine s Thailand
15 16
11 16
% Gold Medal won
Placin g
34 44
No. of gold medal s at stake 67 79
11.94 15.19
3/6 3/7
Ttl
33 23 16 41 30 27 25 18 16
36 29 24 43 35 49 42 23 27
29 43 39 55 49 51 43 59 31
98 95 79 139 114 127 110 100 74
135 143 146 143 161 176 190 227 225
24.44 16.08 10.96 28.67 18.63 15.34 13.16 7.93 7.11
2/7 3/6 4/6 2/7 3/7 4/4 4/7 5/7 4/7
16 26 36 67 36
25 28 41 58 38
40 31 67 76 65
81 85 144 201 139
209 255 348 302 326
7.66 10.20 10.34 22.19 11.04
6/8 4/8 4/8 2/9 4/9
43 31 55 57 111 44
45 49 68 45 75 42
65 69 75 42 85 59
153 149 198 144 271 145
317 334 438 230 392 445
13.56 9.28 12.56 24.78 28.32 9.89
5/8 4/10 3/10 2/10 1/11 5/11
61
50
64
175 444
13.86
4/11
68
52
96
216 477
14.23
2/11
Laos
An analysis from the table shows that: 1. The Malaysian contingent has always done well when the SEA Games is hosted in Malaysia. 2. Except for the 9th SEA Games in 1977 in Kuala Lumpur, the Malaysian Contingent has always won over 20% of the gold medals in contention, when Malaysia hosted the Games.
29
3. When the host country is either Indonesia or Thailand, the domination by the host country is so strong that the chance for Malaysia to win more gold medals is reduced. Asian Games Also known as Asiad , the Asian Games is the biggest sports competition in the continent of Asia. This multi-sports event is held every four years attracting top sportsmen and sportswomen from the all the member countries. The Asian Games is organized under the regulations of the Asia Olympic Council OCA) with supervision by the International Olympic Council (IOC). According to its history, the Asian Games was mooted by Dutt Sondhi, India’s IOC representative. He put forth the idea during the Olympics Games in 1948 held in London. As a result, the Asian Games Federation was formed and it was decided to have the first Asian Games in India with New Delhi as the host city in 1951. The first time Malaysia participated was in the second Asian Games held in Manila, Philippines in 1954. In the 1966 Asian Games in Bangkok, our national track and field team won 5 gold medals. This achievement proved that the 60s were the golden era of Malaysian athletics. Among the well known athletes were M.Jegathesan, Natashar Singh, Rahim Ahmad, Cheryl Dorall, R. Subramaniam, M.Rajamani, and Ishtiaq Mobarak. In the 2006 Asian Games in Doha, Malaysia won 42 medals. To date, this was the best achievement so far in terms of medal haul by our contingent in the Asian Games.
Malaysia’s achievements in Asian Games 1954-2006
YEAR 1951 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010
VENUE New Dehli Manila Tokyo Jakarta Bangkok Bangkok Teheran Bangkok New Dehli Seoul Beijing Hiroshima Bangkok Busan Doha Guanzhou
MEDALS 0 0 0 0 2 4 7 5 5 1 0 1 2 1 1 0 0 5 2 2 4 2 5 10 6 8 8 17
0 3 8 6 7 4 3 3 5 4 13 14 16 17
TOTAL DNP* 0 3 14 18 13 5 6 4 10 8 19 29 30 42
* Did Not Participate
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Commonwealth Games Starting from the first meet in 1930 until the fourth in 1950, the competitions were known as the British Empire Games. Later, due to further historical developments, the name was changed to British Empire & Commonwealth Games (1954) and then again renamed British Commonwealth Games (1966). Finally, in 1978 the name Commonwealth Games was adopted and has remained until today. Malaysia’s achievements The history of Malaysia’s involvement in the Commonwealth Games ( British Empire Games then) started in 1950 when Auckland,New Zealand hosted the second Games. Malaysia participated only in the weightlifting event. The four weightlifters showed outstanding performance and won a medal each in their respective events. In Perth, Australia,1962, Malaysia took part in 4 sports, namely, athletics, swimming, cycling and weightlifting. Malaysia’s only achievement came from weightlifting which secured one bronze medal from the featherweight event. In all the Commonwealth Games which Malaysia took part between 1970-1990, badminton continuously gave excellent performance and contributed medals to our achievements. In 1994, Malaysia sent athletes for 8 sports in the Commonwealth Games held in Victoria, Canada. Once again, our badminton players helped Malaysia’s medal collection by winning 6 medals (2G,2P,2B). The seventh medal came from our traditional contributor, weightlifting, which contributed a bronze, Malaysia’s achievements in the Commonwealth Games 1950-2006 YEAR
1950 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010
VENUE
Auckland, New Zealand Vancouver, Canada Cardiff, Wales Perth,Australia Kingston, Jamaica Edinburgh,Scotland Christchurch,N.Zealand Edmonton, Canada Brisbane, Australia Edinburgh,Scotland Auckland,New Zealand Victoria, Canada Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia Manchester, UK Melbourne.Australia
G
MEDALS S
2 0 0 0 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 10 7 7
1 0 2 0 2 1 0 2 0 2 3 14 9 12
Total B
1 0 0 1 1 1 3 1 1 0 2 12 18 10
4 0 2 1 5 3 4 4 2 DNP* 4 7 26 34 29
*Did Not Participate
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1998 was a historic and challenging year for Malaysia for being the host country for the XVI Commonwealth Games which was held in Kuala Lumpur. Malaysians had the opportunity to witness and assess the performance of our national athletes who were trained under the Program Jaya ’98. The National Sports Council of Malaysia launched this 4-year plan project in 1994 to prepare our national athletes for international competitions with the KL Comonwealth Games as the climax. The Malaysian contingent won 10 Gold medals , 14 Silver, and 12 Bronze. With this best ever Commonwealth Games medal haul, Malaysia was ranked 4th in the overall positions of the participating teams. This achievement has remained Malaysia’s best ranking in all the Commonwealth Games it has taken part in. Names like Sapok Biki (boxing), G. Saravanan (athletics), Hamidon Hidayat (weightlifting), Nuruhuda Baharin (shooting), and the rhythmic gymnastic team members began to receive public attention in Malaysia when they each won a gold medal for their sports. In the 2002 Manchester Games, badminton, our traditional medal contributor, won 3 gold medals. Weightlifting contributed another 3 gold medals through Amirul Hamizan who also set three new records.
Sports that contributed to Malaysia’s medal tally. (1998 KL Commonwealth Games) No
Sport
Achievement G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Athletics Badminton Lawn Bowl Boxing Cycling Rythmic Gimnastics Hockey (Men) Shooting Weightlifting
1 3 2 1 1 1 1
S 4 1 1 1 1 1 1
B
1 1 2 3 3
Olympic Games The Olympic Games is the biggest sporting event in the world. This multi- sports gathering takes place every four years. The top teams and athletes representing their countries come together in this meet and compete in the tradition enshrined in the Olympic spirit. The first modern Olympics was held in Athens, Greece, in the year 1896. Twelve nations represented by their 500 athletes competed . Malaysia first took part in 1956 when the Olympic Games was held in Melbourne,Australia. The Malaysian contingent consisted of 33 athletes who competed in 5 sports, hockey, weightlifting, athletics, swimming, and shooting. In this first international Olympic outing, the national hockey team managed a creditable 9th placing out of 12 teams.
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The national soccer team created history when it successfully went through the qualifying rounds and played in the Munich Olympic in 1972. Malaysia has taken part in all the Olympic Games so far except for the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow, USSR, where Malaysia along with many other countries boycotted the Games for political reasons. If not for this boycott, our national soccer team would have seen action for the second time in the Moscow Olympics. Until today, so far all the medals won by Malaysia in the Olympics came from the badminton players. In the 1992 Olympics in Barcelona, Spain, badminton doubles pair, Razif and Jailani Sidek became the first two Malaysian sportsmen to win a medal each when they won the bronze medal. In Atlanta, 1996, another badminton doubles pair, Cheah Soon Kit and Yap Kim Hock captured the silver medal in the Olympics. National player Lim Chong Wei won the silver in the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Achievements in Olympic Games No 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
8
Year/Venue 1956 Melbourne,Australia 1964 Tokyo, Japan 1968 Mexico City,Mexica 1972 Munich,Germany 1992 Barcelona,Sepanyol 1996 Atlanta,USA 2004 Athens, Greece 2008 Beijing, China
Sport Hockey (Men)
Athlete
Athletics 200m
M Jegathesan
Semifinal -21.4s
Athletics 200m
M Jegathesan
Semifinal
Soccer
National team
Badminton (Doubles) Badminton (Doubles)
Razif Sidek Jailani Sidek Cheah Soon Kit Yap Kim Hock
Qualified for final round Bronze medal
Swimming 100m Breast Stroke Cycling (Kerin) Badminton Archery -3man-Team -Individual
Achievement 9/12 placing
Silver medal
Lim Keng Liat
Entered Semi final
Josiah Ng
Entered final round
Lim Chong Wei
Silver medal
Marbawi, CS Cheng & Khalmizan CS Cheng
Entered 1/4final Entered Top 8
Success in other World Level Competitions Besides the achievements in regional competitions and the Olympic Games, Malaysian sportsmen and sportswomen had also shown outstanding performances in many other international meets. Our national badminton team had won the Thomas Cup, the supremacy of world -class badminton, 4 times. Also, Malaysian badminton players had won numerous singles and doubles titles in tournaments such as the All England and World GP Circuit.
33
Eddy Choong was the first Malaysian player to win the All England singles title in 1953. Subsequently, other Malaysian players too recorded great success in other years when they captured the singles and the doubles titles in competitions all over the world. After Hafiz Hashim who became the All England champion in 2003, no other Malaysian player has recaptured the prestigious title. In their All England debut in 2006, doubles pair Tan Boon Heong-Koo Keen Kiat emerged as champions. However, in the 2008 Beijing Olympics, the much expected pair failed to perform to general expectation. Apart from having qualified and participated in a few Olympics, the best performance so far by our national hockey team was the 4th placing in the 1975 World Cup tournament held in Kuala Lumpur. In that semi-final match India defeated Malaysia . Another historic achievement by our national hockey team was when they emerged silver medallists in the 1998 Kuala Lumpur Commonwealth Games. In tenpin bowling, since the time of P.S.Nathan, Malaysian bowlers were highly regarded by players from other countries. In 2005, our bowlers captured 24 international titles and this increased to 32 the following year. Shalin Zulkifli is synonymous with the success of Malaysia in the international bowling arena. Without doubt, in the ’90s, tenpin bowling outshone other sports in Malaysia with Shalin’s success after success in winning titles both in national and international competitions. Her fantastic performances at international level had injected great interest in bowling among the younger potential players in Malaysia. As an example, in 2005, Esther Cheah achieved the distinction of being the youngest female bowler ever to win the World Tenpin Bowling Competition. In the same year, Malaysian bowlers captured 24 international titles and went on to win 32 titles in 2006. Apart from badminton and tenpin bowling, squash has also made Malaysia proud in international sports competitions. In 1998, at the age of 15 ,Nicol David was crowned the World’s Women Junior Squash champion. With that historic achievement, she became the youngest player to win the prestigious world title. This ‘squash queen’ went on to chalk up more success and set an invincible record in Asia when she won the Asia championship five times (1998,2000,2002,2004 and 2006). In 2005, at the age of 22, she became the youngest female player to win the Women’s World Open in Hong Kong. In 2007, with her consistent outstanding performance in all the competitions she added 8 WISPA titles to her name. Conclusion Malaysia has yet to a win an Olympic gold medal, be it from an individual athlete or from a team event. Malaysia is not lacking in terms of training facilities. Also, we have various incentives for athletes who achieve excellence in their sports. In coaching, where local expertise is lacking, the national sports associations with the financial assistance of the National Sports Council of Malaysia, has engaged foreign coaches to train our elite and potential athletes. From time to time, ambitious development programmes and training projects have been carried out to win the elusive Olympic gold medals. Malaysia has a rich sports history and it is important for us to learn about the lives and struggles of our past and present world-standard sportsmen and sportswomen. We have
34
to made an in-depth comparison of our training system with that of the successful countries. This will enable us to gain an insight into the effort required to reach sporting excellence of international standard. Also, an understanding of the struggles and sacrifices by sports legends, both local and foreign, can serve as a motivation and help our future national athletes to scale greater heights in international meets. “MALAYSIA BOLEH” References: 1. Mohd Salleh Aman (2004) Sukan Dalam Masyarakat Malaysia, Penerbit Univ. Malaya,K Lumpur,Malaysia. 2. L.B.Ooi (200) Way of the Champions, Percetakan Solai Sdn Bhd, P.J. Malaysia. 3._________ (1998), Sukan Komanwel Dari Hamilton ke Kuala Lumpur (1930-1998), Arkib Negara Malaysia. 4 .C.J.Chong,E.S.Tan (1995),Legends of the Flame,Pan Pacific Publications, Sinapaore. 5. J.Johari,S.Ishak,A.R.A.Ghaffur,(1995),JAGUH MAKSAK,Penerbitan MAKSAK Malaysia. 6. http://en.wikipedia org/wiki Southeast Asia Games rtrvd 10.10.2008 Examples of outstanding achievements by Malaysian athletes in international competitions No
Name (year born)
Sport
Year & Competition
1
Eddy Choong (1930)
Badminton
All-England 1953, 1954,1956,1957
Athletics 200m 2
M.Jegathesan (1943)
100m 4x100m 200m
3
Mohd.Razif Sidek
Badminton
35
International achievement Singles champion 4 times.
All-England 1952,1953,1954 Olimpic Games 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico
Doubles champion 3 times
Asian Games 1966 Bangkok As above
Gold medal
Asian Games 1962 Jakarta Olimpic Games 1992 All England 1982 1983,1989
Gold medal
Entered semifinals Entered semifinals
Gold medal
Bronze medal Champions Runners-up
(1962) & Mohd.Jailani Sidek (1963)
4
Lee Chong Wei ( 1982 )
Badminton
5
Ishtiaq Mubarak (1948 )
Athletics 110m Hurdles
6
7
8
M.Rajamani (1943)
Daud Ibrahim (1947)
Athletics 400m
Cycling
Cycling (sprint) Josiah Ng (1980)
World Cup 1982,1988,1990,1991 1986,1987 World GP 1986,1989,1991 Commonwealth Games 1990 1998 Commonwealth Games 2007 Indonesia Open 2008 Beijing Olimpic Games Olimpic Games 1968 Mexico 1972 Munich 1976 Montreal 1973 ATF,Seoul 1974 ATF Manila Asian Games 1974 Teheran 1966 Bangkok SEA Games 1965 (200m,400m,800m & 4X100m) Asian Games 1966 Bangkok, 200m 4X100m Asian Games 1970 Bangkok SEA Games 1971 KL Commonwealth Games 1974 Christchurch Olympic Games 1972 Munich 2002 Commonwealth Games Manchester
(sprint)
Champions Runners-up Champions Champions Goldmedal Champion Silver medal
Entered semifinals Gold medal Silver medal Silver medal Bronze medal 4 Gold medals (all new records) Gold medal Bronze medal Gold medal 5 gold medals participant participant Final 5th position -3rd
2004 World Cup, Mexico
9
Lim Keng Liat ( )
(keirin) (sprint)
6th Athens Olympic Games 11th 2004
Swimming 100m b/s
1998 Asian Bangkok
50m b/s 100m b/s
Silver medal 2002 Commonwealth Bronze medal Games Manchester
36
Games Gold medal
Entered semifinals 100m b/s 10
11
12
Nurul Huda Abdullah ( )
Swimming
Daniel Bego (1990)
Swimming 100m kk-k
Shalin Zulkifli (1978)
TP Bowling
2004 Olimpic Athens - SEA Games 1985 Bangkok 1987 Jakarta
Games,
14
15
Amirul Hamizan Ibrahim ( 19 )
Nicol David (1983)
Bryan Nickson (1990)
World Junior Bowling Mexico 1994 Manila 1997, Incheon 1998 -World Masters London 2001 Grand Slam Asia Singapore 2003
Weightliftin 2002 Commonwealth g (56 kg) Games Manchester 2001 World Women Junior Squash Kej. Skuasy Asia 1998,2000,2002, 2004,2006 Kej.Terbuka Wanita Dunia 2005,2006,2007 Kej. Skuasy Terbuka di 5 buah negara 2005 Ranking Dunia 20062008 2004 Olimpik Athens Diving -World Meet 2008 Olimpik Beijing
37
-5
new
World Junior Meet 2006 Brazil Silver medal Olimpic Games 2008 Beijing 1994 Asian Games, Hiroshima 2 Gold
- 2004 World Ranking -2004 Masters Open in 4 countries 13
7 Gold 7 Gold records
Bronze Gold Gold Champion Champion Ranking No 2 Champion 3 Gold records)
(3 new
Champion 5 X Johan Johan3 kali 5 X Johan No. 1
Youngest M’sian athlete 7th- qlfd for Beijing. participant
Examples of outstanding achievements by Malaysian teams in international competitions No 1
Sport Hockey (Men)
Year 1975
1972
Competition Best performance 3th World Cup in 4th position Kuala Lumpur 16th Commonwealth Silver medal Games in KL Junior World Cup 4th position Ipoh Munich Olympics Qualified and played in Munich.
1980
Moscow Olympics
1998
2
3 4 5
6
Hockey (Men Junior) Soccer
1979
Qualified to play in Moscow but joined in boycott of the Games. Commonwealth Gold medal for Team Event
Rythmic 1998 Gymnastics 4X100m relay 1966 team 1952 Badminton 1955 (Men) 1967 1992 2006 2007
KL Games Asian Games Bangkok Thomas Cup Thomas Cup Thomas Cup Thomas Cup Asian Games All-England
Tenpin Bowling 1994 (Women) 1995
Sukan Asia ,Jepun Kej Boling Dunia di AS
Gold medal (trios) Silver medal
Beijing Olympics
Enterend ¼ finals
in Gold medal Champion –first time Champion Champion Champion Champion (doubles) Champion (doubles)
Tenpin Bowling (Men) 7
Archery -3-man Team
2008
Players win, players lose, players prepare, players practice,players get hurt but players get up. No matter what the outcome is , players play.
“ Everyone thinks of changing the world but no one thinks of changing himself ”
UNIT 3 38
ANATOMY AND SPORT PHYSIOLOGY
Hormones and Exercise There are many physical, mental, and physiological benefits to regular exercise. One category of benefits is the impact that exercise has on many of your body's hormones.
39
Hormones are chemical messengers within your body that affect almost all aspects of human function. Growth Hormone •
Stimulates protein synthesis (muscle tone/development), and strength of bones, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage.
•
Decreases use of glucose and increases use of fat as a fuel during exercise. This helps to reduce body fat and to keep blood glucose at a normal level which helps you to exercise for a longer period of time.
•
Release of growth hormone from the pituitary gland in the brain is increased with increasing aerobic exercise time, especially more intense exercise such as interval training.
Endorphins
• •
•
An endogenous upload from the pituitary gland that blocks pain, decreases appetite, creates a feeling of euphoria (the exercise high), and reduces tension and anxiety. Blood levels of endorphins increase up to five times resting levels during longer duration (greater than 30 minutes) aerobic exercise at moderate to intense levels and also during interval training. After several months of regular exercise, you develop an increased sensitivity to endorphins (a higher high from the same level of endorphins), and endorphins that are produced tend to stay in your blood for a longer period of time. This makes longer duration exercise easier (you're feeling no pain) and it causes your exercise high to last for a longer period of time after exercise.
Testosterone •
•
•
An important hormone in both males and females for maintaining muscle tone/volume/strength, increasing basal metabolic rate (metabolism), decreasing body fat, and feeling self-confident. It's produced by the ovaries in females and by the testes in males. Females have only about one tenth the amount of testosterone that males do, but even at that level in females it also plays a role in libido and intensity of orgasms. Production of testosterone in females begins to decline as a woman begins to approach menopause and in males it begins to decline in his forties. Blood levels of testosterone increase with exercise in both males and females beginning about 20 minutes into an exercise session, and blood levels may remain elevated for one to three hours after exercise.
Estrogen
•
The most biologically active estrogen, 17 beta estradiol, increases fat breakdown from body fat stores so that it can be used and fuel, increases basal metabolic rate (metabolism), elevates your mood, and increases libido. This
40
•
hormone is at much higher blood levels in females, but the ovaries begin to produce less of it as a woman begins to approach menopause. The amount of 17 beta estradiol secreted by the ovaries increases with exercise, and blood levels may remain elevated for one to four hours after exercise.
Thyroxine (T4) •
•
A hormone produced by the thyroid gland, Thyroxine increases the metabolic rate ("metabolism") of almost all cells in the body. This increase in "metabolism" helps you to feel more energetic and also causes you to expend more calories, and thus is important in weight loss. Blood levels of thyroxine increase by about 30% during exercise and remain elevated for several hours afterward - this period of time is increased by an increase in intensity and/or duration of exercise. Regular exercise also increase thyroxine levels at rest.
Epinephrine • • •
A hormone produced primarily by the adrenal medulla that increases the amount of blood the heart pumps and directs blood flow to where it's needed. Stimulates breakdown of glycogen (stored carbohydrate) in the active muscles and liver to use as fuel. It also stimulates the breakdown of fat (in stored fat and in active muscles) to use as fuel. The amount of epinephrine released from the adrenal medulla is proportional to the intensity and duration of exercise.
Insulin (adrenaline) •
• •
•
An important hormone in regulating (decreasing) blood levels of glucose ("blood sugar") and in directing glucose, fatty acids (fat), and amino acids (protein) into the cells. Insulin secretion by the pancreas is increased in response to a rise in blood sugar and/or amino acids (protein) as is often the case after a meal. Typically, the larger the meal, or the greater the quantity of simple sugars consumed, the larger the insulin response. An excessive insulin response causes fat production within the cells - thus, insulin is sometimes called the "fat hormone". Many overweight people's cells develop a resistance to insulin so that it takes more insulin to have the same effect. This creates a situation where blood levels of insulin are higher than normal. This condition is often improved by losing weight and daily aerobic exercise. Blood levels of insulin begin to decrease about 10 minutes into an aerobic exercise session and continue to decrease through about 70 minutes of exercise. Regular exercise also increases a cell's sensitivity to insulin at rest.
Glucagon
41
•
• •
A hormone that is also secreted by the pancreas, but it's job is to raise blood levels of glucose ("blood sugar"). When blood sugar levels get too low, glucagon is secreted and causes stored carbohydrate (glycogen) in the liver to be released into the blood stream to raise blood sugar to a normal level. It also causes the breakdown of fat so that it can be used as fuel. Glucagon typically begins to be secreted beyond 30 minutes of exercise when blood glucose levels may begin to decrease. So, next time you're exercising, think about all the wonderful things that are happening to your hormones. It might even make you want to do more exercise!
ENDORPHINS Endorphin is a type of hormone which is also a natural painkiller: a substance in the brain that attaches to the same cell receptors that morphine does. Endorphins are released when severe injury, or high aerobic activity occurs, often abolishing all sensation of pain and creating a sense of euphoria. Types of Endorphins. • Beta-endorphins are produced by the pituitary gland and are believed to produce a greater "high" than the other types of endorphins. The betaendorphin is generally believed to provide a considerable amount of natural pain relief. Some scientists believe it is due to beta-endorphins that some people who experience a traumatic injury, such as the loss of a limb, experience little or no immediate pain. •
Alpha-endorphins have been studied since the 1970's, but little is known about how they affect the body. Some research suggests that alphaendorphins may stimulate the brain in ways similar to amphetamines and others claim that they may help treat anaphylactic shock and similar conditions.
•
Gamma-endorphins have also been researched since the 1970's, but most of the information on how the substance affects the body is pure speculation. Some studies show that they have antipsychotic effects on patients suffering from disorders such as schizophrenia, while others show that they may help regulate blood pressure.
How Do Endorphins Work? Endorphins act by locking into receptors in the nervous system for chemicals that transmit pain messages to the brain. Once the endorphin, or the "key", is in the "lock," pain causing chemicals are prevented from transmitting their messages (Rathus and Nevid 2003). Endorphins interact with the opiate receptors in the brain to reduce our perception of pain, similar to the drugs morphine and codeine. The body's release of endorphins, however, does not lead to addiction like morphine and codeine might. Releasing Endorphins The release of endorphins is different based on each individual. Certain foods such as chocolate and chili peppers can lead to enhanced production of endorphins. Laughter is thought to release endorphins into the brain. Strenuous
42
exercise, exposure to ultraviolet light, massage therapy, and acupuncture can also activate endorphin production. Effects of Endorphins General Effects "Reduce pain and anxiety and increase the feeling of well being. They stimulate the immune system, and they help you learn. They reduce appetite for drug and alcohol seeking behavior. Endorphins also affect our reaction to light and darkness." Pain Relief "The brain responds to pain signals by producing and activating morphine-like hormones called endorphins. This pain relief effect lasts for about 30 hours (longer than known analgesics), and without side effects when given frequently." Training for Aerobic and Anaerobic Power General Principles of Training
• •
Individuality: any training program must consider the specific needs and abilities of the individual for whom it is designed Specificity: adaptations to training are highly specific to the nature of the training activity and should be carefully matched to an athlete’s specific performance needs
•
Reversibility: training programs must include a maintenance plan to ensure that the gains from training are not lost
•
Progressive overload: the training stimulus must be progressively increased as the body adapts to the current stimulus
•
Hard / easy: programs must alternate high-intensity workouts with low-intensity workouts to help the body recover and achieve optimal training adaptations
•
Per iodization: the gradual cycling of specificity, intensity, and volume of training to achieve peak levels of fitness for competition
Aerobic Power •
•
The rate of energy release by cellular metabolic processes that depend on the involvement and availability of oxygen Maximal aerobic power is the maximal capacity for aerobic resynthesis of ATP
Anaerobic Power •
The rate of energy release by cellular metabolic processes that function without the involvement of oxygen
43
•
Maximal anaerobic power is the maximal capacity of the anaerobic system to produce ATP
Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training Programs • •
Programs are designed along a continuum Anaerobic power is represented by the ATP-PCr system and anaerobic glycolytic system, while aerobic power is represented by the oxidative system
Short sprints
ATP-PCr system
Longer sprints, interval training
Glycolytic system
Longer distance Oxidative system Interval training
44
Variables to Manipulate for Interval Training • •
Rate of the exercise interval Distance of the exercise interval
•
Number of repetitions and sets during each training session
•
Duration of rest or active recovery interval
•
Type of activity during the active recovery interval
•
Frequency of training per week
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Blood Lactate Concentration in a Single Runner After a Single Set of 5 Repetitions of Interval Training at 3 Different Paces
Types of Training • •
Interval training Continuous training
•
Interval-circuit training
Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training Key Points • •
Training programs are designed to train one or more of the three metabolic energy systems Interval training consists of repeated bouts of high- to moderate-intensity exercise interspersed with periods of rest or reduced-intensity exercise
•
Exercise intensity and recovery rate can be monitored with a heart rate monitor
•
Interval training is appropriate for all sports
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•
Continuous training has no rest intervals and can vary from LSD training to highintensity training
•
Fartlek training is an excellent activity for recovering from several days of more intense exercise
•
Interval-circuit training combines interval training and circuit training into one workout
Objective of Aerobic and Anaerobic Training Aerobic (endurance) training •
Improved central and peripheral blood flow
•
Enhances the capacity of muscle fibres to generate ATP
Anaerobic training • •
Increased short-term, high-intensity endurance capacity Increased anaerobic metabolic function
•
Increased tolerance for acid–base imbalances during highly intense effort
Endurance Muscular endurance: the ability of a single muscle or muscle group to sustain highintensity repetitive or static exercise Cardio respiratory endurance: the entire body’s ability to sustain prolonged, dynamic exercise using large muscle groups Evaluating Cardio respiratory Endurance VO2max •
•
Highest rate of oxygen consumption attainable during maximal exercise VO2max can be increased by 10-15% with 20 weeks of endurance training
Increases in VO2max With Endurance Training Flick equation: VO2 = SV × HR × (a-v)O2 diff
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Changes in VO2max With 12 Months of Endurance Training
Cardiovascular Adaptation to Training • •
Heart size Stroke volume
•
Heart rate
•
Cardiac output
•
Blood flow
•
Blood pressure
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•
Blood volume
Percentage Differences in Heart Size Among Three Groups of Athletes Compared With Untrained Group
Heart Size (Central) Adaptation to Endurance Training Key Points • •
The left ventricle changes significantly in response to endurance training The internal dimensions of the left ventricle increase as an adaptation to an increase in ventricular filling secondary to an increase in plasma volume and diastolic filling time
•
Left ventricular wall thickness and mass increase, contractility
49
allowing for greater
Measuring Heart Size: Echocardiography
Changes in Stroke Volume With Endurance Training
50
Stroke Volume Adaptations to Endurance Training Key Points
• •
Endurance training increases SV at rest and during sub maximal and maximal exercise Increases in end-diastolic volume, caused by an increase in blood plasma and greater diastolic filling time (lower heart rate), contribute to increased SV
•
Increased ventricular filling (preload) leads to greater contractility (Frank-Starling mechanism)
•
Reduced systemic vascular resistance (after load)
Heart Rate Adaptations to Endurance Training Resting • •
Decreases by ~1 beat/min with each week of training Increased parasympathetic (vagal) tone
51
Sub maximal •
Decreases heart rate for a given absolute exercise intensity
Maximal •
Unchanged or decreases slightly
Changes in Heart Rate With Endurance Training
Heart Rate Recovery • •
The time it takes the heart to return to its resting rate after exercise Faster rate of recovery after training
•
Indirect index of cardio respiratory fitness
•
Prolonged by certain environments (heat, altitude)
•
Can be used as a tool to track the progress of endurance training
52
Changes in Heart Rate Recovery With Endurance Training
Cardiac Output Adaptations to Endurance Training Q = HR x SV
• •
Does not change at rest or during sub maximal exercise (may decrease slightly) Maximal cardiac output increases due largely to an increase in stroke volume
Changes in Cardiac Output With Endurance Training
53
Cardiac Output Adaptations Key Points
• • •
Q does not change at rest or during sub maximal exercise after training (may decrease slightly) Q increases at maximal exercise and is largely responsible for the increase in VO2max Increased maximal Q results from the increase in maximal SV
Blood Flow Adaptations to Endurance Training Blood flow to exercising muscle is increased with endurance training due to: • •
Increased capillarization of trained muscles Greater recruitment of existing capillaries in trained muscles
•
More effective blood flow redistribution from inactive regions
•
Increased blood volume
•
Increased Q
54
Blood Pressure (BP) Adaptations to Endurance Training •
• •
Resting BP decreases in borderline and hypertensive individuals (6-7 mmHg reduction) Mean arterial pressure is reduced at a given sub maximal exercise intensity (↓ SBP, ↓ DBP) At maximal exercise (↑ SBP, ↓ DBP)
Blood Volume (BV) Adaptations to Endurance Training • •
•
BV increases rapidly with endurance training Plasma volume increases due to: –
Increased plasma proteins (albumin)
–
Increased antidiuretic hormone and aldosterone
Red blood cell volume increases
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•
Haemoglobin increases
Increases in Total Blood Volume and Plasma Volume With Endurance Training
Blood Flow, Pressure, and Volume Adaptations to Endurance Training Key Points •
•
Blood flow to active muscles is increased due to: – ↑ Capillarization –
↑ Capillary recruitment
–
More effective redistribution
–
↑ Blood volume
Blood pressure at rest as well as during sub maximal exercise is reduced, but not at maximal exercise
Blood Flow, Pressure, and Volume Adaptations to Endurance Training Key Points •
Blood volume increases
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•
Plasma volume increases through increased protein content and by fluid conservation hormones
•
Red blood cell volume and haemoglobin increase
•
Blood viscosity decreases due to the increase in plasma volume
Respiratory Adaptations to Endurance Training Key Points • •
Little effect on lung structure and function at rest Increase in pulmonary ventilation during maximal exercise •
↑ Tidal volume
•
↑ Respiratory rate
•
Pulmonary diffusion increases at maximal exercise due to increased ventilation and lung perfusion
•
(a-v)O2 difference increases with training, reflecting increased extraction of oxygen at the tissues
Adaptations in Muscle to Endurance Training
•
Increased size (cross-sectional area) of type I fibres Transition of type IIx → type IIa fiber characteristics
•
Transition of type II → type I fiber characteristics
•
Increased number of capillaries per muscle fiber and for a given cross-sectional area of muscle
•
Increased myoglobin content of muscle by 75% to 80%
•
•
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Increased number, size, and oxidative enzyme activity of mitochondria
Change in Maximal Oxygen Uptake and SDH Activity With Endurance Training Gastrocnemius Oxidative Enzyme Activities of Untrained (UT) Subjects, Moderately Trained (MT) Joggers, and Highly Trained (HT) Runners
Adapted, by permission, from D.L. Costill et al., 1979, "Lipid metabolism in skeletal muscle of endurance-trained males and females," Journal of Applied Physiology 28: 251-255 and from D.L. Costill et al., 1979, "Adaptations in skeletal muscle following strength training," Journal of Applied Physiology 46: 96-99. Adaptations in Muscle With Training Key Points • •
Type I fibers tend to enlarge Increase in type I fibers and a transition from type IIx to type IIa fibers
•
Increased number of capillaries supplying each muscle fiber
•
Increase in the number and size of muscle fiber mitochondria
•
Oxidative enzyme activity increases
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•
Increased capacity of oxidative metabolism
Metabolic Adaptations to Training •
Lactate threshold increases due to: – Increased clearance and/or decreased production of lactate
– Reduced reliance on glycol tic systems •
Respiratory exchange ratio decreases due to: –
•
Increased utilization of free fatty acids
Oxygen consumption (VO2) –
Unchanged (or slightly reduced) at submaximal intensities
– VO2max increases – Limited by the ability of the cardiovascular system to deliver oxygen to active muscles Changes in Lactate Threshold With Training
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Changes in Race Pace With Continued Training After VO2max Stops Increasing
Increased Performance After VO2max Has Peaked Once an athlete has achieved her genetically determined peak VO2max, she can still increase her endurance performance due to the body’s ability to perform at increasingly higher percentages of that VO2max for extended periods. The increase in performance without an increase in VO2max is a result of an increase in lactate threshold. Limiting Factors to VO2max & Endurance Performance
•
Four factors limiting VO2max – Respiration (pulmonary diffusing capacity)
–
•
O2 diffusion
•
Ventilation
Central circulation
•
Cardiac output; Increasing Q contributes to the ability to increase VO2max.
•
Arterial blood pressure
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• –
–
Hemoglobin concentration
Peripheral circulation •
Flow to non exercising regions
•
Muscle blood flow
•
Muscle capillary density
•
O2 diffusion
•
Muscle vascular conductance
•
O2 extraction
•
Hb – O2 affinity
Muscle metabolism •
Enzymes and oxidative potential
•
Energy stores
•
Myoglobin
•
Mitchondria – size and number
•
Muscle mass and fiber type
•
Substrate delivery
Cardiac Output
• •
Increasing Q contributes to the ability to increase VO2max Ability to increase Q brought by redistribution of blood from the non-exercising tissue/organ region (mainly splanchnic and spleen)
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Cardio respiratory Endurance and Performance • •
It is the major defense against fatigue Should be the primary emphasis of training for health and fitness
•
All athletes can benefit from maximizing their endurance
Adaptations to Aerobic Training Key Points
• •
Although VO2max has an upper limit, endurance performance can continue to improve An individual’s genetic makeup predetermines a range for his or her VO2max and accounts for 25-50% of the variance in VO2max
•
Heredity largely explains an individual’s response to training
•
Highly conditioned female endurance athletes have VO2max values about 10% lower than their male counterparts
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•
All athletes can benefit from maximizing their cardio respiratory endurance
Summary of Cardiovascular Adaptation to Chronic Endurance Training
Adapted, by permission, from Donna H. Korzick, Pennsylvania State University, 2006.
Muscle Adaptations to Anaerobic Training • •
Increased muscle fiber recruitment Increased cross-sectional area of type IIa and type IIx muscle fibers
Energy System Adaptations to Anaerobic Training • •
Increased ATP-PCr system enzyme activity Increased activity of several key glycolytic enzymes
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•
No effect on oxidative enzyme activit
Changes in Creatine Kinase (CK) and Myokinase (MK) Activities With Anaerobic Training
Performance in a 60 s Sprint Bout After Anaerobic Training
Anaerobic Training Key Points
64
• •
Anaerobic training bouts improve both anaerobic power and anaerobic capacity Increased performance with anaerobic training is attributed to strength gains
•
Increases ATP-PCr and glycolytic enzymes
Specificity of Training and Cross-Training • • •
To maximize cardiorespiratory gains from training, the training should be specific to the type of activity that the athlete usually performs Cross-training is training for more than one sport at a time Gains in muscular strength and power are less when strength training is combined with endurance trainin
THERMOREGULATION
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Definition Thermoregulation refers to the mechanisms and control systems used by the body to balance thermal inputs and thermal losses so as to maintain its core temperature nearly constant. Description In a healthy individual, the temperature of the core of the body is regulated by feedback control mechanisms that maintain it nearly constant around 98.6°F (37°C) throughout the day, week, month or year. This thermoregulation is efficiently coordinated by the central nervous system (CNS) as long as the temperature of the surroundings ranges between 68°F (20°C) and 130°F (54°C). The body increases and lowers its core temperature using a temperature control system that works like a thermostat. Increased body temperature activates mechanisms promoting heat loss, and lowered body temperature activates mechanisms enabling the accumulation or production of heat. Such a system is called a feedback control system, because it uses as input the total or partial output of the system, meaning that the consequences of the process dictate how it will go on further. A feedback system has three components: sensors that register the change, a control center that receives the signals of the sensors, and an effector mechanism, meaning a pathway for the commands of the control center when it responds to the information received from the sensors. In thermoregulation, the control center is located in the hypothalamus, a tiny cluster of brain cells located in the brain just above the pituitary gland. It also contains the key temperature sensors. Other sensors, located all over the body, record whether the body temperature is too high or too low. There are three main effector mechanisms involved in thermoregulation. The first is the vaso-motor system, which consists of the nerves that act on vascular smooth muscle to control blood vessel diameter; the second is provided by metabolic effectors, which are substances produced by the body to increase its activity. The third main effector mechanism is provided by the sweat glands. The vasomotor system is responsible for two physiological responses called vasodilation and vasoconstriction. The first increases blood flow in the tissues and the second decreases it. Heat production, also called thermogenesis, is the result of several different body functions. One of them is the action of the thyroid gland, located in the neck. Hormones released by this gland increase the body's metabolism, meaning the activity of the body. Increased production of heat is thus achieved by increasing the metabolic processes in which energy is released in the form of heat. Other producers of heat are the skeletal muscles, the liver, the internal organs, and the brain. Muscles play a major role in thermogenesis. Because of their weight, they are able to produce very large amounts of heat very rapidly during increased physical activity. Digestion also results in an increased production of heat. Heat is lost from the body in four different ways: by conduction, convection, evaporation, and radiation. Heat loss by conduction occurs because there is a gradient between the body temperature and the temperature of the surrounding environment. When the external temperature is lower, heat flows from the body to the colder external
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environment. The body also loses heat by evaporation, mainly through sweating. This mechanism occurs especially during phases of increased heat production, for example during physical exercise. The sweat glands are controlled by cholinergic impulses through the sympathetic nerve fibers. During intensive sweating, up to one liter of sweat may be formed. When the humidity of the environment is higher, heat loss through sweating is easier. When the body needs to accumulate heat, adrenergic impulses restrict the blood flow through the skin, with the result that the skin becomes an insulator, thus decreasing heat loss to a minimum. The body can also lose heat by convection, through the circulatory system. With this mechanism, heat flows from each cell to the surrounding extracellular fluid (ECF) and afterwards to the circulating blood. Heat loss is modulated by the amount of blood that circulates through the body surface. The high flow occurring through the sub-cutaneous area and the skin transfers the heat carried by the blood to the environment through the body surface. Finally, the body can lose heat by simply radiating it away. Several conditions can influence body temperature, such as exercise, the time of day, the environmental temperature, digestion and the level of water consumption. For example, body temperature varies in the narrow range between 36.5°C and 37.5°C. It slightly increases during the day, reaching a peak between 6:00 to 10:00 p.m. and a low between 2:00 and 4:00 a.m. This diurnal variation depends on the body activity throughout the day. Diurnal variations do not change in persons that work at night and sleep during the day and they also occur when fever is present. Fever reaches a peak in the evening, and decreases during the night so that, in the morning, even a very sick person may have an almost normal temperature. Body temperature changes are also more intensive in young people than in older people. Physical activity also increases body temperature, in some cases very significantly. For example, the average body temperature of marathon runners may increase to 39–41°C. The feedback control system responsible for thermoregulation is very complex, but overall, it can be summarized as follows: When the surroundings are hot or when the body is vigorously exercising: • • • • • • • • • • • •
The body core temperature starts to rise. This increase in temperature is detected by heat sensors in the body. These sensors send signals to the CNS. The CNS stimulates the sweat glands. This increases the production of sweat. And this activates the evaporation of sweat. Which promotes heat loss by evaporation. The CNS also signals the vasomotor system to dilate the capillaries underlying the skin. Vasodilation occurs and the capillaries become larger. More blood flows underneath the skin surface. Which promotes heat loss by conduction, radiation, and convection. The body core temperature returns to normal.
When the surroundings are cold or when the body is resting: • •
The body core temperature starts to drop. This is detected by cold sensors in the body.
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• • • • • • • • • •
These sensors send signals to the CNS. The CNS slows down the activity of the sweat glands. This lowers the production of sweat. And it decreases the evaporation of sweat. Which reduces heat loss by evaporation. The CNS also signals the vasomotor system to constrict the capillaries underlying the skin. Vasoconstriction occurs and the capillaries become narrower. Less blood flows underneath the skin surface. This reduces heat loss by conduction, radiation, and convection. The body core temperature returns to normal
Function The major function of thermoregulation is to help maintain homeostasis, meaning the stability of the body's internal environment. A wide variety of body systems and organs interact to maintain the body's internal environment (the immediate surroundings of cells) constant in response to changes that occur either in the conditions of the external environment or in the conditions of the internal body environment. Thermoregulation is one of these essential homeostatic mechanisms. Role in human health Thermoregulation is of the utmost importance in maintaining health, because human life is only compatible with a narrow range of temperatures. Core temperature changes of the order of 3°C will not interfere with physiological functions, but any variation outside that range has very serious effects. For example, at 28°C, the muscles can no longer respond, at 30°C, confusion occurs and the body can no longer control its temperature, at 33°C, loss of consciousness occurs, at 42°C, the CNS breaks down with irreversible brain damage, and at 44°C, death occurs, the result of the body proteins starting to denature. Common diseases and disorders • Fever—Increase in body core temperature. Fever is not an illness but a natural reaction to a number of illnesses. • Hyperthermia—Overheating of the body caused only by an external factor, as for example a hot environment, or a hot bath. • Hypothermia—A low body temperature, as caused by exposure to cold weather or a state of low temperature of the body induced by decreased metabolism. • Hypothyroidism—Hypothyroidism refers to a condition in which the amount of thyroid hormones in the body is below normal. Since the thyroid hormones are important in thermoregulation, hypothyroidism affects the body's capacity to control temperature.
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KEY TERMS Acetylcholine — Neurotransmitter produced by an enzyme in the body that stimulates muscle tissue. Adrenaline — A hormone produced by the adrenal medulla that causes vasodilation of the small arteries in muscle and increases cardiac output. Adrenergic — Substance that has an effect similar to that of adrenaline. Antagonist — A substance that cancels or counteracts the action of another. Capillaries — The smallest vessels of the body. Central nervous system (CNS) — One of two major divisions of the nervous system. The CNS consists of the brain, the cranial nerves and the spinal cord. Cholinergic — Substance that has an effect similar to that of acetylcholine. Conduction — Heat transfer by means of molecular agitation within a material without any motion of the material as a whole. If one end of a metal piece is at a higher temperature, then heat will be transferred down the piece toward the colder end. Convection — Heat transfer by motion of a fluid when the heated fluid is caused to move away from the source of heat, carrying energy with it. Dermis — Layer of connective tissue underlying the skin. Contains smooth muscle tissue, nervous tissue and blood vessels. Endocrine glands — Glands that secrete substances which are released directly into the bloodstream and that regulate metabolism and other body functions. Endocrine system — The system of glands in the body that secrete their hormones directly into the circulatory system. Enzyme — A type of protein produced by the body that speeds up chemical reactions. Some enzymes regulate certain functions due to their ability to change their activity by modifying their structure.
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Extracellular fluid (ECF) — The fluid found outside of the cells and between the cells in body tissues. Feedback system — A feedback system uses as input the total or partial output of the system. Feedback systems are used to control and regulate processes. They use the consequences of the process (for example, too much or too little produced) to regulate the rate at which the process occurs (decrease or increase the rate of the process). Homeostasis — Stability of the body's internal environment, achieved by a system of integrated control systems activated by feedback systems. Homeostasis is thus the maintenance of a constant internal environment (the immediate surroundings of cells) in response to changes occurring in the conditions of the external environment and the conditions of the internal body environment. Hormone — A naturally occurring substance secreted by specialized cells that affects the metabolism or behavior of other cells possessing receptors for the hormone. Hypothalamus — The hypothalamus is a tiny cluster of brain cells just above the pituitary gland, that is involved in the regulation of body temperature. Metabolic effectors — Substances, such as hormones, that can increase the metabolism of the body or of a target organ. Metabolism — The sum of all the physical and biochemical processes occurring in the body to produce what is required to maintain life. This includes the transformation of nutrients into energy and the use of energy by the body. Nervous system — The entire system of nerve tissue in the body. It includes the brain, the brainstem, the spinal cord, the nerves and the ganglia and is divided into the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the central nervous system (CNS). Peripheral nervous system (PNS) — One of the two major divisions of the nervous system. The PNS consists of the somatic nervous system (SNS), that controls voluntary activities and of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), that controls regulatory activities. The ANS is further divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. Radiation — Heat transfer that occurs by the emission of electromagnetic waves which carry energy away from the emitting object. Thermogenesis — Production of heat.
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Thermoregulation — Regulation of body temperature so as to maintain it nearly constant at 98.6°F (37°C). Thyroid gland — A butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the neck on both sides of the windpipe. It controls the rate at which the body produces energy from nutrients. It secretes the hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) which increase the rate of metabolism and cardiac output. Vasoconstriction — The decrease in the internal diameter of a blood vessel resulting from tightening the smooth muscle located in the walls of the vessel. Vasoconstriction decreases the blood flow. Vasodilation — The increase in the internal diameter of a blood vessel resulting from relaxation of the smooth muscle located in the walls of the vessel. Vasodilation increases the blood flow. Vasomotor system — The neural systems which act on vascular smooth muscle to control blood vessel diameter. BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION Since you are a warm-blooded animal, your body attempts to keep its internal temperature constant. Human life is only compatible with a narrow range of temperatures: Temperature (C) Symptoms 28
muscle failure
30
loss of body temp. control
33
loss of consciousness
37
normal
42
central nervous system breakdown
44
death*
( by irreversible protein "denaturation", or unfolding; once their shape changes, they cease to function properly.) As we will see in the next section, you are constantly generating heat, and so your body must take active steps to lose that heat. The following table illustrates the power cost of various common activities: Activity
Energy Cost (Cal/m 2 hr)
sleeping
35
sitting
50
working at a desk
60
71
standing
85
washing & dressing 100 walking (3 mph)
140
bicycling
250
swimming
350
running
600
Approximately 80 % of these costs is waste heat. The other side of this coin is cold weather: your body must then work to stay warm. The mechanisms which either are used by your body or affect its function are "conduction", "convection", "radiation" and "evaporation". Conduction is the flow of heat energy from regions of warmer temperature to regions of cooler temperature. Acclimation to Cold Nonacclimated Early vasoconstriction Late vasodilation
Acclimation Early onset of cold induced vasodilation
Low peripheral temperature
Low peripheral temperature
Shivering (increase BMR 2-3X)
Nonshivering thermogenesis
Inadequate delivery of heat to periphery
Adequate periphery
delivery
of
heat
to
the
Factors Affecting Thermal Acclimation Age Both infants and elderly have lessened ability to acclimatize to heat or cold Body size and shape. The surface area to weight ratio will affect the level of acclimatization attainable Body composition Subcutaneous adipose deposits insulate the core and make it more difficult to dissipate heat in hot or easier to retain heat in the cold
Cold Stress The body attempts to increase and conserve body heat by rerouting circulation and shivering Vasoconstriction causes the blood to pool internally to conserve organ heat
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Shivering causes the temperature to increase due to muscular activity Individuals respond to cold stress by increasing muscular activity, wearing more clothes, or heating their living space
Adapting to Climate Extremes Humans and many other mammals have unusually efficient internal temperature regulating systems that automatically maintain stable core body temperatures in cold winters and warm summers. In addition, people have developed cultural patterns and technologies that help them adjust to extremes of temperature and humidity. In very cold climates, there is a constant danger of developing hypothermia, which is a life threatening drop in core body temperature to subnormal levels. The normal temperature for humans is about 98.6 ° F. (37.0 ° C.). Hypothermia begins to occur when the core body temperature drops to 94° F. (34.4° C.). Below 85° F. (29.4°C.), the body cools more rapidly because its natural temperature regulating system (in the hypothalamus) usually fails. The now rapid decline in core body temperature is likely to result in death. However, there have been rare cases in which people have been revived after their temperatures had dropped to 57-60° F. (13.9-15.6° C.) and they had stopped breathing. In extremely hot climates or as a result of uncontrollable infections, core body temperatures can rise to equally fatal levels. This is hyperthermia. Life threatening hyperthermia typically starts in humans when their temperatures rise to 105-107° F.
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(40.6-41.7° C.). Only a few days at this extraordinarily high temperature level is likely to result in the deterioration of internal organs and death. Body size and shape are significant factors in how efficiently an individual responds physiologically to cold and hot climates. Two 19th century naturalists, Carl Bergmann and Joel Allen, formulated rules concerning these factors. Bergmann's Rule In 1847, the German biologist Carl Bergmann observed that within the same species of warm-blooded animals, populations having less massive individuals are more often found in warm climates near the equator, while those with greater bulk, or mass, are found further from the equator in colder regions. This is due to the fact that big animals generally have larger body masses which result in more heat being produced. The greater amount of heat results from there being more cells. A normal by-product of metabolism in cells is heat production. Subsequently, the more cells an animal has, the more internal heat it will produce. In addition, larger animals usually have a smaller surface area relative to their body mass and, therefore, are comparatively inefficient at radiating their body heat off into the surrounding environment. The relationship between surface area and volume of objects was described in the 1630's by Galileo. It can be demonstrated with the cube shaped boxes shown below. Note that the volume increases twice as fast as the surface area. This is the reason that rrelatively less surface area results in relatively less heat being lost from animals. Polar bears are a good example of this phenomenon. They have large, compact bodies with relatively small surface areas from which they can lose their internally produced heat. This is an important asset in cold climates. In addition, they have heavy fur and fat insulation that help retain body heat. Allen's Rule In 1877, the American biologist Joel Allen went further than Bergmann in observing that the length of arms, legs, and other appendages also has an effect on the amount of heat lost to the surrounding environment. He noted that among warm-blooded animals, individuals in populations of the same species living in warm climates near the equator tend to have longer limbs than do populations living further away from the equator in colder environments. This is due to the fact that a body with relatively long appendages is less compact and subsequently has more surface area. The greater the surface area, the faster body heat will be lost to the environment. This same phenomenon can be observed among humans. Members of the Masai tribe of East Africa are normally tall and have slender bodies with long limbs that assist in the loss of body heat. This is an optimal body shape in the hot tropical parts of the world but would be at a disadvantage in subarctic regions. In such extremely cold environments, a stocky body with short appendages would be more efficient at maintaining body heat because it would have relatively less surface area compared to body mass.
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We lose heat to the surrounding environment in several ways, as shown in the illustration above on the right. However, simple radiation is the process that is responsible for most of the loss, except in hot dry climates where evaporative cooling, or sweating, can be more significant. Cold Climate Responses Many people living in freezing climates drink alcohol to warm themselves. This increases blood flow to the body extremities, thereby providing a feeling of warmth. However, it results only in a temporary warming and can speed up the loss of heat from the vital internal organs, resulting in more rapid death from hypothermia. A much more effective cultural response to extremely cold temperatures is the use of insulating clothing, houses, and fires. People all over the world also adapt by limiting outdoor activities to warmer times of the day. In some societies, sleeping in family groups with bodies pushed up against each other is also done in order to minimize heat loss during the cold months of the year. When the environment is very cold, life can depend on the ability of our bodies to reduce heat loss and to increase internal heat production. As Bergmann and Allen observed, the human physiological response to cold commonly includes the evolution of more massive, compact bodies with relatively less surface area. Shivering can also cause a short-term warming effect. The increased muscle activity in shivering results in some heat production. There are three additional important types of biological responses to cold conditions found among humans around the world: 1. increased basal metabolic
rate 2. fat insulation of vital organs 3. change in blood flow patterns Different populations usually develop at least one of these important adaptive responses to consistently cold conditions. People living in harsh subarctic regions, such as the Inuit (Eskimo) of the far northern regions of the western hemisphere and the Indians of Tierra del Fuego at the southern end, traditionally consumed large quantities of high calorie fatty foods. This significantly increases the basal metabolic rate, which, in turn, results in the production of extra body heat. These peoples also wore heavy clothing, often slept in a huddle with their bodies next to each other, and remained active when outdoors.
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The Ju/'hoansi of Southwestern Africa and the Aborigines of Australia usually respond physiologically to the cold in a different way. Thick fat insulation develops around the vital organs of the chest and abdomen. In addition, their skin cools due to vasoconstriction at night. As a result, heat loss is reduced and the core body temperature remains at normal levels. However, the skin feels very cold. This response would not be adaptive if the Kung and the Aborigines lived in consistently freezing environments because the concentration of body heat in their torsos would allow the loss of fingers, toes, and other appendages from frostbite. Their physiological adaptation is to environments that rarely stay below freezing long and that do not have abundant high calorie fatty foods.
Hot Climate Responses Adapting to hot environments is as complex as adapting to cold ones. However, cold adaptation is usually more difficult physiologically for humans since we are not subarctic animals by nature. We do not grow dense fur coats nor do we usually have thick layers of fat insulation like polar bears. The effect of heat on our bodies varies with the relative humidity of the air. High temperatures with high humidity makes it harder to lose excess body heat. This is due to the fact that when the moisture content of air goes up, it becomes increasingly more difficult for sweat to evaporate. The sweat stays on our skin and we feel clammy. As a result, we do not get the cooling effect of rapid evaporation. In dry hot weather, humidity is low and sweat evaporates readily. As a result, we usually feel reasonably comfortable in deserts at temperatures that are unbearable in tropical rain forests. The higher the desert temperatures, the more significant of a cooling effect we get from evaporation. This relationship between relative humidity and air temperature is quantified below. When the apparent temperature is in the light yellow range, heat exhaustion and cramps are likely for humans. In the bright yellow range, life threatening heat stroke is likely. While evaporative cooling is very effective in dry climates, there is a major drawback. That is the rapid loss of water and salts from the body through sweat. This can be fatal in less than a day if they are not replaced. It is common to lose a quart or more of water through sweating each hour in harsh summer desert conditions. Commercial "sport drinks" are designed to help people in these situations rehydrate and replenish lost mineral salts. It is easy and inexpensive to create your own equivalent drink without the unnecessary food coloring and sugar that the commercial drinks often include to make them more appealing to customers. Most people have the ability to physiologically acclimatize to hot conditions over a period of days to weeks. The salt concentration of sweat progressively decreases while the volume of sweat increases. Urine volume also reduces. In addition, vasodilation of peripheral blood vessels results in increased heat loss through radiation. Vasodilation also causes flushing, or reddening, of the skin since more blood is close to the surface.
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NOTE: Sweating is not only a mechanism for getting rid of excess body heat. Our sweat contains a number of different substances, including pheromones that can have powerful affects on the hormone systems of others who are physically close to us. Researchers at the Monell Chemical Senses Center in Philadelphia have shown that pheromones in the sweat of men can cause an increase in the amount of luteinizing hormones released from a woman's pituitary gland at the base of her brain. This in turn can shorten the time until the next ovulation. Subsequently, human male pheromones are now being considered as potential future fertility drugs for women. Pheromones released by sisters and other women living together can cause a synchronization of their menstrual cycles. It is likely that human males also respond subconsciously to female pheromones in a way that affects their reproductive systems.
PRINCIPLES OF EXERCISE In developing an effective physical fitness program, you must adhere to basic exercise principles, regardless of your fitness level. These principles can best be remembered by the acronym "PROVRBS." • •
•
•
• • •
PROGRESSION - The intensity and duration of exercise must gradually increase to improve the level of fitness. REGULARITY - A regular fitness program requires exercising the four components of fitness at least 3 times a week. The four components are: cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, and flexibility. OVERLOAD - In order to obtain a training effect, the work load of each exercise session must exceed normal demands placed on the body. Find your one rep max lift for each exercise, then set the amount of weight used during each exercise at a level that will cause muscle failure with 8-10 repetitions. VARIETY - Variety is the key to a lasting program because it relieves boredom and increases motivation and progress. Your muscles' "memory cells" will stop growing if you don't shock them occasionally with a change in your routine. RECOVERY - Alternating muscle groups every other day, or alternating hard and easy days for each component of fitness, allows muscle repair and growth. Recovery can help avoid burn-out and injury. BALANCE - Overemphasizing one component of fitness inhibits your overall progress. Include all four of the components on a regular basis to achieve proper balance. SPECIFICITY - Plan your training towards your specific goals. For example, increase your 2 mile run time using specific cardiorespiratory activities such as interval training
“We cannot prepare the future for our youth but we can certainly prepare our youth for the future”
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“In a day , when you don’t come across any problema, you can be sure that you are travelling in a wrong path”
UNIT 4 SPORT BIOMECHANIC
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Common Technique Analysis Approach In biomechanics of sports, the two most common technique analysis approaches are the qualitative and quantitative methods. 1. Qualitative Analysis
From a sports biomechanics perspective
•
to identify and correct faults in skill execution using a minimum of measurements = Qualitative Video Analysis
This method is a systematic watching and thoughtful judgment of the quality of human movement so as to provide the most proper intervention to pick up sports performance. To successfully analyze a movement, the very first step is to formulate one or more questions regarding the movement. The following general questions might be included: 1. Is the movement being performed through a suitable range of motion (ROM)? 2. Is the movement being performed with enough force? 3. Is the sequencing of body movements suitable for completing of the skill?
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4. Why is the javelin thrower not getting better distance? Besides, more definite questions might take account of these: 1. Is release of the handball taking place at the instant of full elbow extension? 2. Is there hyper trunk extension taking place during the execution of the shot? Once one or more questions have been recognized, the following step in analyzing human movement is to collect data. The most commonly data collected by teachers and coaches is qualitative visual or ocular observation data. In order to acquire the best observational data, it is practically to plan ahead as to the optimal distance (s) and viewpoint (s) from which to make the comments. Breaking down a whole motion of performing a particular skill into phases will provide the teachers or coaches with a more logical frame by frame study. 2. Quantitative Analysis
•
Describing and explaining performance skills using measurement systems in biomechanics = Quantitative Video Analysis
The advancement of technology resulted in the ability to record, display and evaluates dynamic movements both kinematically and kinetically. Quantitative biomechanical analysis methods employ a wide range of data collection instruments to observe, capture and evaluate athletes’ performance. These instruments include high-speed cameras, force platforms, electromyography (EMG) and electro-goniometers. High-speed cameras offer teachers, coaches and sports biomechanists especially with the capability to capture and record complex movements sequence. Once the sequence of motion is captured, the location of the body markers of the athlete are eventually converted into coordinates using a digitiser. During digitizing, kinematic data such as displacements, velocities and accelerations of the recorded motion are obtained. Force platforms or force plate are examples of dynamometers normally used nowadays to measure the ground reaction forces (GRF). The electrical energy collected in the strain gauge, the transducers in the force plate will then transfer kinetic energy into electrical energy. This electrical energy is then recorded in an analogous form of force (Newton). Electromyography provides information on athletes’ muscular activities by recording changes in the electrical potential of a muscle during contracting or relaxing. These signals will record indications of the electrical activity of a particular muscle. Electro-goniometer provides instantaneous and reliable way of obtaining kinematic data on joint angular movements. The data obtained will eventually provide a good insight of angular movement characteristics and flexibility of joint segments before any further diagnosis, rehabilitation or exercise prescription being made. Qualitative Video Analysis of sports skill:
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1. SILICOCOACH Pro - videoing
Introduction Silicon COACH Pro software is designed for teachers, coaches, sports scientist or biomechanist to provide meaningful feedback for their athletes or subjects. Capture a video with a well planning procedure (Figure 1).
Build Module
Capture Module
View Module
Figure 1 : A well planning procedure
Videoing Procedure: 1. A chalkboard or piece of paper with the name of the new person should be displayed in front of the camera. 2. A proper number of fingers to indicate the trial number if the movements are recorded repeatedly. 3. Determine and plan the best angle of a movement to be capture. 4. The plane of any movement will need to be perpendicular to the camera. 5. Lighting should be shown from behind the camera side towards the event. 6. A one meter scaling rod need to be put in the field of view. Once the scaling rod has been videotape, you cannot adjust the zoom or focus on the camera. 7. The camera should be place at a distance from the subject. The image size should be as large as possible. 8. Use the manual focus to avoid the camera focusing on an unwanted object in the background or foreground as the subject moves. 9. Use a high shutter speed to capture a clear image 10. As the shutter speed increases, less light is allowed to reach the videotape, causing the image to turn dark.
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11. Spot lights is required to achieve the necessary lighting levels to video indoors with a high speed shutter.
12. Record at least 2 minutes of videotape prior to videotaping any activity that you want to analyze. When taping be sure to record plenty of tape prior to and after the period of interest. Capturing and editing procedure Equipments: 1.
Digital Video Camera
2.
Silicon COACH Pro software
3.
Computer
Procedures : 1. Use the ‘folder list’ to specify the folder where to save the file 2. Select the folder into which to capture the movie. 3. Locate video footage that intended to capture on the video source. 4. Select the ‘CAPTURE ‘ tag. Use the controls to operate the camera. 5. Click the ‘START’ button. Be aware there may be a 1-2 second delay for the system to start. 6. Once completed capturing, click the STOP button to stop the capturing process. ‘Esc’ key can be used for the same purpose. 7. You can trim down the unwanted video clips.
8. The movie name will now appear in the File list. The movie can be viewed by double clicking on it in the File list or select PLAY after a Right Mouse Click. Compilation Procedure Part 1: Building the presentation 1. In the Presentation Builder screen click on the Template button. A list of templates will appear. 2. Double click on the ‘Short – 2’ template to load the template into the presentation Grid.
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Note: how the movies in the Movie Column are called View 1 and View 2. (Click expand all at the top of the presentation area to see video file place holders). 3. The first series of screen set-ups in each of these templates are called Single Play (Double click the green icons to access these options) and the lower series of screen set-ups are under Single Manual or Dual Manual control. 4. If you replace View 1 with a movie called XXX avi the full path to the movie appears in the Presentation area only when you roll your mouse over the video icon, e.g. C:\silicon COACH\Demos\Dive\XXX,avi. 5. To change the movies from the defaut ‘View 1’, and ‘View 2’ place-holders, drag your new movie over the first occurrence of the one you want to replace (e.g. ‘View 1’) Your new movie will replace all occurrences of the ‘View 1’ place-holder. 6. to create own templates. Click on the ‘Screen Set-up’ button. Drag the set-up you desire onto the presentation area. The new set-up will always be added to the end of the list.
Part 2: Using the screen tools 1. Capture a video All of our products include integrated video capture for analog and digital video. This means you can use siliconCOACH to capture through standard video capture cards, or Firewire cards (IEEE 1394) that support Direct X 8 or later (see Hardware Requirements). The video capture interface allows you to capture Analog or Digital Video and save it as a movie file on your computer. The movies can be "trimmed" to remove unwanted footage or compressed to speed up transmission over the Internet. The interface is intuitive yet powerful enough to give you the flexibility you need to deal with different formats and hardware specifications.
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2. Drawing Buttons
The following table illustrates the drawing and measurement tools that are available. Icon
Button Name
Click this to...
Straight line tool
Draw a straight line
Arrowed line tool
Draw an arrowed line
Freehand tool
Draw a non-linear line
Curved line tool
Draw a curved line
Horizontal line tool
Draw a horizontal line
Vertical line tool
Draw a vertical line
Point marker tool
Track a point of interest
Oval tool
Use the oval shape to enclose an area of interest
Rectangle tool
Use the rectangle shape to enclose a area of interest
Grid tool
Add a grid over a person to get reference points
Normal angle tool
Calculates an angle between any three points
Vertical angle tool
Measure the angle relative to a vertical line
Horizontal angle tool
Measure the angle relative to a horizontal line
Set Scale
Set the scale
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Discrete Measurement Calculate a distance between any two points Continuous Measurement
Determine the change in distance of an object across a number of frames
3. Build a presentation
Silicon COACH uses a unique presentation builder which uses template designs to dramatically speed up the process between video capture and analysis. To create a presentation, open a template and simply drag the movies into the placeholders. A presentation template is simply a presentation with predefined screen set-ups that you can drop movies into. As you become more proficient and discover your own presentation needs, you can develop your own presentation templates. For even more speed and ease of use you can use the 'Quick Present and Play’ feature. After you finish capturing your video, the software automatically loads that captured video into a Presentation and starts playing it for you, giving you and your athlete or client feedback in a matter of seconds.
4. Customize screen setups
The screen setups are the building blocks of a presentation. The characteristics of a screen setup can be changed simply be clicking on it and selecting a new option. Two movies can be overlaid to highlight differences in technique. The overlaid movie can be scaled and moved to achieve the best alignment. To speed up the assembly of a presentation, you can select a screen set-up that will automatically pair the movies you wish to use. You can display one, two or four movies on the screen at the same time. You can also display the movies in the two screen setup-ups in a way that best suits the movement you are analyzing. In all cases, the movies are scaled in such a way that the original aspect ratio is maintained. This means that the images aren't distorted and that an accurate analysis can be conducted. Further
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more, all the movies can be synchronized to a common event (for example ball strike or ground contact), so that the videos will play through that key point in time together.
Number Two Screen Description of Movies Orientation Only one movie is visible. The frame height and width of the movie is scaled so that each frame is completely visible.
1
2
2
Sample Screen (click for larger image)
None
Vertical
The two movies will be shown side by side and the frame height and width of each movie is scaled so that each frame is completely visible.
The two movies will be shown side by side but only the central portion of the movie will be visible. The movie is at full height to allow you to get a larger view of an activity that is tall but not very wide.
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2
Horizontal
2
Overlay
The two movies will be shown one above the other but only the central portion of the movie will be visible. The movie is at full width to allow you to get a larger view of an activity that is wide but not very tall. The two movies are shown with one on top of the other. The amount of transparency can be altered to highlight specific points
The four movies will be shown side by side and the frame height and width of each movie is scaled so that each frame is completely visible.
4
5. Split fields (50 or 60 Hz for PAL/NTSC)
One of the major advantages of silicon COACH Pro is its ability to extract 50 PAL/60 NTSC images per second (Hz), out of original digital video. This is essential to accurately analyse fast or complex movements. The images below highlight this feature. In the first series of images at 50Hz the impact of the ball on the racquet is evident in the forth image, however, in the 25Hz footage this key point is not clear. At 50 Hz Pal or 60 Hz NTSC
(click for larger image) At 25 Hz Pal or 30 Hz NTSC
(click for larger image)
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6. Watch the presentation Once you have created your presentation you can then watch it in the Presentation viewer. Here you will also find a large selection of control, drawing and measurement tools.
(click for larger image)
7. Flip images Movies can be flipped horizontally, which is useful when comparing left and righthanded athletes, or when assessing their general symmetry. In the two-screen example below the right hand movie in the second image has been flipped so that a comparison between the technique of the left and right limbs can be performed.
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(click for larger image)
(click for larger image) 8. Use drawing and measurement tools
A full range of tools are available to enhance your analysis of a person’s technique. These tools allow you to draw over a movie to highlight points of interest and measure key variables such as distances, speeds and angles, including angles from a vertical or horizontal reference line. Your analysis can be saved as a movie file as you go. It can then be played back, saved to disk, CD, or sent over the Internet. The saved file incorporates the movie with your drawings, measurements and any verbal comments you add using your microphone.
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9. Zoom tool
silicon COACH Pro has a zoom tool. This tool displays a small window that zooms in on the portion of the screen where you have positioned the cursor. There are a number of zoom levels available. The zoom window can also be stretched and repositioned.
10. Blend function
The blend tool allows you to select a reference image and then advance the movie so that each frame is blended with the reference image. Now you can visualize two frames from the SAME movie at the same time. This helps you assess how much a person has moved from the position they were in when you initially turned the Blend option on.
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11. Overlay images
A movie can be overlaid on top of another to highlight differences in technique. The overlaid movie can be scaled and moved to achieve the best alignment. Also the transparency of each image can be changed while you are watching it to highlight the different points you want to make.
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12. Save images as .jpg file
Any image you have on screen in silicon COACH can be saved as a .jpg file. This includes all drawings and text. These images are ideal for preparing reports or assignments.
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13. Export Presentation to video or CD
SiliconCOACH Pro and siliconCOACH Pro Server Edition are designed to create CD presentations, so your athlete or client can take home a personalized copy of your analysis. The analysis includes all of the drawings and measurements that you make, and you can use a microphone to record your verbal comments as well. The Package Wizard in the software simply packages all the files, including the free siliconCOACH Viewer, into one folder ready to burn to CD. Not all of your clients will have siliconCOACH software on their computer. If you have made a presentation for them in siliconCOACH Pro or siliconCOACH Pro Server Edition they can watch it on any Windows computer using the free siliconCOACH Viewer.
14. Graphing Function
If you have tracked positional changes of a point over time, the latest version of siliconCOACH automatically creates a graph of distance and speed. For example, if you use the continuous measurement tool to track the position of the bar during a squat action, you can press on the graphing button to automatically display the distance traveled and speed of the bar. The cursor is synchronized with the video in the background to visually show you what is happening at that point on the graph. For even further analysis, you can export all your data into a comma-separatedvalues file to be opened in other analysis software such as Microsoft Excel.
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15. Using the Technique Wizards with report PAC Technology
After eight years of developing sports analysis software we have realized that we can not only give our clients great analysis tools, but we can also provide knowledge on how to perform an analysis. To facilitate the transfer of knowledge between different groups that are interested in movement analysis, report PAC Technology was developed. Report PAC Technology revolutionizes movement analysis because it provides a mechanism for disseminating knowledge. To do this, reportPAC Technology creates a report by combining the data collected in siliconCOACH Pro, siliconCOACH Pro Server Edition, or siliconCOACH Student using Technique Wizards as a guide. reportPAC Technology then saves this report to your local computer or allows it to be uploaded to a web based database called siliconCOACH Central, by connecting through the World Wide Web. reportPAC Technology is not a stand alone piece of software. You must have siliconCOACH Pro, siliconCOACH Pro Server Edition, or siliconCOACH Student to use reportPAC Technology. This image shows a Technique Wizard made for squatting that guides the user through making a report.
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This image shows an automatically generated completed report for a tennis serve, as viewed in a web browser.
Part 3: Creating a Simple Presentation 1. Build a presentation with 1,2 or 4 screen views - use the ‘ templates’ - use the ‘ screen setups’
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2. 3. 4. 5.
Use PLAY, STEP, or MANUAL, controlled playback. Flip the movie. Synchronise two movies for playback. When using MANUAL playback, please use : • All the drawing tools • All the erasers • Measure joint angles • Measure angles relative to the horizontal/vertical • Set the scale and measure distance and speed • Create graphs • Make movies of your presentations.
‘” When a person feels that they got what they deserve because that’s what they earned - that’s Pride “ “ I will not say I failed 1,000 times , I will say that I discovered 1,000 ways that can cause failure “
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UNIT 5 TRAINING AND FITNESS
APPLICATION OF PERIODIZATION IN SPORTS
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PERIODIZATION REVISIT Per iodization can be defined as planned distribution or variation in training methods and means on a cyclic or periodic basis (Plisk S.S., 2003). The basic goals are to exploit complementary training effects at optimal times, manage fatigue, and prevent stagnation or overtraining. Each individual training cycle is characterized by periodical adjustments in the objectives, tasks, and content with the ultimate objective being to assist the athletes in reaching a peak level of performance for the main competition(s) of the year (Cissik J., 2008). Generally there are three (3) common per iodization models which include “Classic” linear, non-linear or undulating and reverse linear. A. “Classic” Linear Divides a long term training period called macrocycle into smaller phases called mesocycle, which are also subdivided into weekly microcycle. It is characterized by high initial training volume and low intensity. As training progress, volume decreases and intensity increases in order to maximize strength, power or both. In this model the training phase is designed to emphasized a particular physiological adaptation (e.g., hypertrophy, maximal strength etc). B. Non-linear or undulating Enables variation in intensity and volume within each 7 to 10 day cycle by rotating different protocol over the course of the training program (E.g., Monday – strength, Wednesday – muscular endurance, Friday – hypertrophy). This model requires less organization and planning. Kraemer et al. (2000) and Marx et al (2001) demonstrate undulating periodization are just effective as linear periodization for the development of strength, power and muscle mass and are more effective than non-periodized program. C. Reverse Linear This model is considered as a linear periodization in reverse. The goals of this model is to maximize muscle hypertrophy or endurance. It starts with the power phase (high intensity: 2-3 reps/set; low volume: 3 sets/exercise) first. Rhea et al., (2003) demonstrate reverse linear periodization model is more effective for increasing muscular endurance than linear periodization model. The authors concluded that gradual increases in volume and decreases in intensity may result in greater gains in muscular endurance. LINEAR PERIODIZATION MODEL FOR SPORT SPECIFIC Periodization Model for Endurance Sports Sample : Long-distance and Marathon Running High aerobic capacity is the essential physical attribute of distance runners. Equally important is the ability to maintain a steady pace so that the runner efficiently taxes the energy stores, where glycogen and free fatty acids are the fuels used to produce energy
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for the race. Fast pace at the finish is dependent on an athlete’s capacity to produce energy anaerobically. • • • •
•
Dominant energy system : aerobic. Ergogenesis: o 10K: 5% alactic; 15% lactic acid; 80% aerobic. o Marathon: 5% lactic acid; 95% aerobic. Energy suppliers: glycogen; free fatty acids. Limiting factor: requires muscular endurance of long duration. Training objectives: muscular endurance; power endurance; maximum strength.
Dates
Oct
Nov
Periodization Periodization of strength
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
Preparatory Anatomical Adaptation
Periodization of energy systems
MxS
Aerobic (O2)
M-EM Mxs
Conv. To M-EL
Aerobic (O2) Lactic acid
May
Jun
Jul
Competition Maintain: Power, muscleendurance
Aerobic (O2) Lactic acid
Aug
Sep
Transition
O2 Play
MxS = Maximum strength ( 35 yrs old may collapse due to Coronary Arterial Disease. Other causes are heart valve structural problems or disease or arrhythmia. 10.2.7 Contraindications to sports In certain medical conditions, participation in sports may predispose the athlete to further harm and danger. It is the responsibility of the coach to identify situations that may put the athlete at risk and act accordingly. The coach must consult the Medical Officer if the athlete has the following contraindications: a) Absolute Contraindications Sensory: Detached Retina, Severe hearing loss (tympanic perforation), severe myopia, Seizure disorder (depends on sport), Concussion; Brachial Plexus Injury; Spine: Spondylosis, Spondylolisthesis, Cervical Spine Instability, Cervical Stenosis, Herniated Disc with Cord Compression; Abdominal: Enlarged liver or spleen, Active hepatitis, Inguinal hernia; General Illnesses: Acute Febrile Illness, Uncontrolled Diabetes, Severe and Moderate Hypertension, Cardiovascular: Coronary Arterial Disease, Valvular Heart Disorders, Cardiac Arrhythmias; Pulmonary: Pneumothorax, Hemothorax, Tuberculosis, Blood disorder: Hemophilia & bleeding tendencies; severe anaemia; Skin: Herpes Simplex, Measles, Chicken Pox, viral warts, tinea infection (fungal);
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*NB: while active skin lesions, no direct skin contact or mat activities like wrestling (herpes gladiatorum), gymnastics, martial arts; Single Organ: Eye, Ear, Kidney, testicle (for contact sports) b) Relative Contraindications Hypertension, Diabetes Mellitus, hyperthyroidism, anaemia; impetigo; 10.2.7 Prevention of Infectious Diseases Infectious diseases can be transmitted during sporting activity. Modes of transmission in athletic settings include a) b) c) d)
Person-to-person contact, Food & Water Borne Airborne/droplet spread Vector Bourne
10.2.7.1 Person-to-Person Contact: e.g. HIV, Hepatitis B, Herpes Simplex, Gonorrhoea, Syphilis, Candidal infection; Viral warts; Taenia Infection; Onychomycosis; Impetigo; Preventive measures: a) Vaccination (if applicable) b) Safe sex: single partner, barrier methods (condom), avoid unnatural practices c) precautions of contamination from wounds (gloves, wound dressing) d) personal hygiene 10.2.7.2 Food & Water Borne: Acute Gastroenteritis; Typhoid, Hepatitis A, Cholera; Preventive measures: a) b) c) d)
Hand washing Drinking boiled water Hygienic food preparation and food handling Vaccination (if applicable)
10.2.7.3 Airborne / Droplet: Haemophilus Influenza A and B (flu), Coxsackie Virus; Preventive measures: a) b) c)
Vaccination (if available) Avoid contact with ill athlete Hand washing and Personal Hygiene
10.2.7.4 Vector Bourne: Dengue fever, Chikungunya, Malaria, Yellow Fever; Preventive measures: a) b) c)
Insect repellent and larvicide (e.g. Abate) Long-sleeve attire and mosquito netting Malaria prophylaxis: Malarone or Mephaquin tablets
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d)
Vaccination: Yellow fever
10.3 Medical Preparedness for competition and travel (1 hour)
10.3.1 Pre-event preparation Sports injuries and medical emergencies can be prevented with adequate preparation before the sporting event. The role of a coach is essential in ensuring that the risk of such injuries and emergencies are minimised. Role of coach: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)
Ensure that athlete undergoes pre-participation medical examination and identify athletes with medical conditions Determine suitability of return to play for injured athletes Identify nutritional supplements and medication used by athletes and inform Medical Officer and notify Anti-Doping Agency (MASDOC) Appoint Medical Personnel responsible for the team Inform injury risk and medical conditions Prepare first-aid box, taping kit and coolman (Ice box) Identify medical facilities and support (include referral) available at the event Identify time for food intake, warm-up, cool-down and rest
*Coaches are advised to undergo training for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Basic Training 10.3.2 Event Coverage a) Identify medical facility and person-in-charge at the venue b) Ensure that Medical Personnel is present during warm-up and cool-down c) Ensure that athletes are well-hydrated d) Ensure that open wounds are covered with wound dressing e) Tape injured parts before warm up and ensure tape is removed after cooldown f) Ensure that protective devices are properly applied by athletes g) Accompany injured athlete to hospital (if medical personnel is not available) 10.3.3 Preparation for travel a) Pre-participation medical examination to certify fitness of participation and to identify risk of injury and medical conditions b) Vaccination of team members (at least 2 weeks prior to travel) c) Briefing of team members d) Planning of duration of stay before competition to prevent jet-lag e) Sleep hygiene during travel: adjust to time of destination, avoid alcohol intake, carbonated drinks and fatty foods f) Prepare medical first-aid kit, taping kit and coolman (ice box) g) Arrange for Insurance Coverage during travel and competition *NB: Some insurance policies do not cover for participation in competitive sports
11. ASPECTS OF JET LAG – DIET WHILE TRAVELLING 274
One aspects of team preparation prior to touring overseas is the ability to cope with jet lag and finding suitable programs to ensure the hockey players are able to perform to the best of their ability in the shortest recovery time. Jet Lag program which mainly relates to diet, sleep patterns and passive exercise while are travelling, which are of benefit to the athlete. 11.1 Recommended Programme before Departure a) No caffeine – i.e coffee , tea b) No coke, also diet coke c) No chocolaté, Mars bars etc. d) Less Salt e) Reduce Alcohol drinks. 11.2 During Flight. a) As above – before depature. b) No carbonated drinks. c) Little cocentrated orange juice d) Less Calories – don’t eat everything that is put in front of you on the plane – avoid excessive peanuts etc. e) Drink lots of fluid – mineral water – Not carbonated. f) No Alcohol drinks. 11.3 Other Points to Remember on the Plane. a) Walk around every 1- 2 hours. b) Stretching exercice – Hamstrings, quads etc. c) Back flexibility exercise after sitting and sleeping for a long time. d) Ankle and foot mobility exercises. Explanation of all the intellectuals of the world do not equal the experience of one individual.
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