Semester 2 Exam Review (accelerated) Earth Science -

Semester 2 Exam Review (accelerated) – Earth Science - Space A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes through the Earth’s shadow. A solar eclips...
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Semester 2 Exam Review (accelerated) –

Earth Science

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Space A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes through the Earth’s shadow. A solar eclipse occurs when the Earth passes through the moon’s shadow. Most of the time, the Earth experiences only partial eclipses. This means that only part of the sun is covered by the Moon. Moon – A natural satellite revolving around the Earth. Waxing Crescent – From Earth the moon looks as if it were getting larger each night, and only a sliver of the moon, less than ½, appears lit. First Quarter – From Earth half of the moon appears lit, and the moon appears larger each night. Waxing Gibbous – From Earth the moon appears to be almost completely lit, and appears to get larger each night. Full Moon – From earth the moon appears to be completely lit. Waning Gibbous –From Earth the moon appears to be smaller each night, and more than ½ still appears lit. Third Quarter – Back down to only 1/2 of the moon appearing to be lit as you view the moon from Earth. Waning Crescent – From earth only a sliver of the moon looks lit as it continues its march towards being a new moon. When the right side of the moon is lit it is waxing, when the left side is lit it is waning. The Universe contains everything we know. Galaxy – A huge grouping of stars. There are 3 main types of galaxies; spiral, elliptical, irregular. We live in a spiral type galaxy called the Milky Way. Our sun is located about 2/3 of the way out along the Orion arm of the galaxy. Our sun is an average sized middle aged star. Our solar system contains at least eight planets and other heavenly bodies, which revolve around the Sun. Between Mars and Jupiter lies the asteroid belt, an area of many asteroids. Comets are chunks of dirt and ice. A moon is a relatively large body, orbiting a planet. Rotation means to spin, in the same manner as a top. Revolution describes the motion of a body that travels around the sun. Mars, Saturn and Neptune have axial tilts closest to that of Earth; while Uranus, Jupiter and Venus have to largest differences. The closer a planet is to the Sun, the shorter the time required to complete one revolution. The gas giant planets have so many moons as compared to the inner planets because the gas giant planets have a stronger gravitational pull capable of holding more moons. Venus has the hottest surface temperature of any planet in our solar system because it has a thick, CO 2-rich atmosphere which holds most of the energy received from the sun. Earth’s place in the universe can be diagramed in this order: Earth, Solar System, Orion Arm, Milky Way Galaxy, Universe. The closest star to Earth is the sun; while the next closest is Proxima Centari. The Sun is many thousands of times closer to Earth than the next nearest star, and trillions of times closer to Earth than stars at the far end of the Milky Way Galaxy. The Sun appears to our eyes as the brightest star in the sky because it is far closer than any other star, which makes it look the brightest. The phases of the moon occur because an observer on Earth views the sun lighting different parts of the moon. The Sun is a yellow star. If it cools by 2000oK, it will be a red star, based on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. If a space probe sends back information on an object traveling through space at close to the speed of light, astronomers will be working with speeds of millions of meters per second It is 431 light-years to the North Star: Polaris. How long does the light leaving the star take to reach Earth? 431 years An astronomer would like to study the light coming from the constellation, Ursa Major. Which of his instruments should he point to the sky? Optical telescope An astronomer would like to study the different forms of electromagnetic energy that come from a specific star. Which of the following sets of instruments will be most useful? .) radio, infrared, X-ray, and optical telescope A satellite is being designed to study the composition of stars. Which of the following tools should be included on the satellite? spectroscope A star has a mass fifty times greater than Earth's sun, very high temperature, and is very bright. What will most likely happen to the star as it ages? It will become a supernova

A super giant explodes and forms a supernova. The remaining core is almost twice the size of Earth's sun. What will probably happen to the remaining core? It will form a neutron star An average-sized star that is part of a binary star system runs out of enough hydrogen to carry out fusion. What is likely to happen to the star? It will become a white dwarf A super giant explodes and forms a supernova. The remaining core is almost five times the size of Earth's sun. What will probably happen to the remaining core? It will form a black hole

Atmosphere The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surround the Earth. Air is: a gas; takes up space, has weight. Our atmosphere contains the oxygen we need to breathe. The atmosphere is composed of: 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% various gases – argon, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases. The atmosphere also protects us from harmful rays from the sun. The ozone layer absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun and warms the surrounding air. Gravity pulls the air molecules toward the surface of the Earth giving the air weight. Air pressure is the measure of the force with which the air molecules push on a surface. There are 14.7 pounds of pressure pushing on every square inch of your bodies We typically do not "feel" this weight because air surrounds our bodies on all sides and inside us, as a result the air, is applied equally. If Earth’s gravity increased, then the air pressure would increase also. Altitude is the height of an object above the Earth’s surface. As the altitude increases the air pressure decreases. As you travel through the layers of the Atmosphere the pressure increases as you get closer to Earth. There are 4 different layers of the atmosphere; defined by temperature. Troposphere – This layer lies next to the Earth’s surface. Almost all of Earth’s carbon dioxide, water vapor, clouds, air pollution, weather, and life forms are found in the troposphere. The temperature decreases with altitude in the troposphere. The troposphere’s temperature pattern is most like that of the mesosphere. The top of the troposphere has a combination of -52 degrees C temperature and an altitude of 11 km. The layer above the troposphere is called the stratosphere. The lower stratosphere is extremely cold. The ozone layer is in the stratosphere. If there were no ozone layer, then solar radiation would increase and the temperature in the troposphere and stratosphere would decrease. Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere. The mesosphere is the coldest layer of the atmosphere. If the ozone layer were moved to the mesosphere, then the temperature would increase. The uppermost atmospheric layer is the thermosphere. Because many of the gases here absorb solar radiation the temperatures can reach over 3000 degrees Fahrenheit. In the upper mesosphere and lower thermosphere there is an area called the ionosphere. In this region of the atmosphere the Sun's energy is so strong that it breaks apart molecules and atoms of air, leaving ions (atoms with missing electrons) and free-floating electrons. The ionosphere is the region of the atmosphere where the aurorae (Northern Lights) occur. The Earth receives energy from the sun in the form of radiation. Part of the energy that is absorbed by the Earth is then transformed to the surrounding atmosphere. This process is called conduction. Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy from one material to another by direct contact. Most thermal energy is moved by convection currents, caused by differences in temperature. Most thermal energy in the atmosphere moved by convection; which is the transfer of thermal energy by circulation or movement. If there were no convection, then the movement of thermal energy in the atmosphere would decrease. The amount of energy the Earth receives from the sun and the amount returned back into space must be equal. This is known as the radiation balance. If the Earth absorbed 49% of the sun’s energy instead of its current level the Earth would gradually get colder. If there were no clouds in the sky, then the atmosphere would be cooler. If we stopped getting energy from the sun, then the temperatures on Earth would near absolute zero. Even a fifty percent reduction of the sun’s energy would result in a decrease of transpiration and evaporation.

The Earth’s heating process in which gasses in the atmosphere trap thermal energy is known as the greenhouse effect. A chlorofluorocarbon increaser laser would be an effective tool to use if you were an evil scientist who wanted to give everyone skin cancer. Some scientists feel the Earth had warmer periods before and warming and cooling is a natural process. Other scientists feel this is not natural and pollution is moving the Earth to a dangerous level of carbon dioxide, thus pushing the Earth to dangerously high temperatures. Carbon dioxide concentration within Earth’s atmosphere were approximately 315 parts per million (ppm) in 1960 and steadily rose to 355 parts per million (ppm) by 1990. The most likely cause of the overall change in the level of carbon dioxide from 1960 to 1990 is an increase in the use of fossil fuels. Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide increased between 1850 and 1900, and 1950 to 2000 have been faster due to an increase in the use of fossil fuels for energy.

Weather Weather – The current conditions of the atmosphere at a certain time and place. Air Mass – A large body of air that has a similar temperature and moisture throughout. Air masses can be hot or cold Continental or Maritime. The weather in the U. S. is influenced by 6 major air masses. Nevada is influenced by a Tropical Continental air mass. The weather for locations in Nevada is most likely influenced by topography or shape of the surface of the Earth. The boundary between two different types of air masses is called a front. Cold front – - A cold air mass displaces a warm mass. The cold mass is denser, so it moves under the less dense warm air. Cold fronts move fast producing heavy rain by pushing the warm air up. Cold Fronts bring higher air pressure to the areas it moves through. Warm Front – - Warm air rides over cold air, gradually replacing the cold air. Warm fronts move slowly, bringing several days of rain Stationary Front – When a warm and cold front meet and neither one can push the other. Stationary fronts produce many days of rain Thermometer - A tool used to tell the temperature. Barometer – A tool used to measure air pressure Relative Humidity – The amount of water in the air compared to how much the air could hold. If a body of air has reached the dew point, then the relative humidity would be 100%. Sling Psychrometer – A tool used to tell the relative humidity. Wind Chill - represents what the temperature would be if the cooling effect due to the loss of body heat, caused by the strength of the wind were calculated while recording temperature. The wind does not change the temperature. Wind Sock / Wind Vane – A device used to tell the direction of the wind. Anemometer – An instrument used to measure wind speed Rain Gauge – A device used to measure the amount of rainfall during a storm Differences in air pressure cause wind. Differences in air pressure are generally caused by unequal heating. The bigger the difference in air pressure, the stronger the wind blows; blowing in the direction from highest air pressure to the lowest. Air at the equator is warmer and less dense so it rises and flows towards the cooler, denser air at the poles. As the warm air heads towards the pole it starts to cool and sink. The rising and sinking air creates an area of high pressure at 30 and 90 degrees north and south latitude and low pressure at 60 degrees north and south latitude. These bands of air are called convection cells The curving of the path of winds due to the Earth’s rotation is called the Coriolis Effect. The major wind belts are the Polar Easterlies, Westerlies, and the Trade Winds Rain Shadow Effect – The type of climate expected on the leeward side of the mountain range is desert. Clouds usually form on the windward side because the air rises and cools. If the temperature and humidity on the western side of a large lake in the continental United States were compared to the eastern side of that lake,

then on average, it would be reasonable to expect conditions at the western side of the lake to have a higher temperature but the lower humidity. On average, mountains and valleys have different weather, in which mountains have more precipitation and cooler weather. The Sierra Nevada Mountains impact the weather of Nevada by causing rain shadows. Increased cloudiness would cause average daytime temperatures to decrease as clouds reflect solar radiation; as compared to a cloudy evening where the overnight temperatures increase due to the effects of the greenhouse effect which will cause the temperatures to remain higher than on a clear night.

Water Cycle Ground water is water stored underground in the saturated zone. Groundwater flows from high to low until level. An aquifer holds the ground water for human use. The saturated zone is an area underground where every space is filled with water. The unsaturated zone is an area where every space is not filled with water; this area is above the saturated zone. The water table is the boundary line between the saturated and unsaturated zone. The water table is found by digging or drilling to find the water level. Watershed is where the local water comes from; divided by mountain ranges. Porosity is the amount of space between materials underground, high porosity – open large spaces, low porosity – small spaces. Permeable – Material that allows water to pass through it easily. The more permeable the rock the faster groundwater can flow through it. Impermeable – Material that will not allow water to pass through it. Precipitation is the main source for the recharge of the water table Dirt would act as a filter cleaning the water when polluted water passes through the ground. Wells, ponds, lakes, and springs are all places groundwater is discharged. Runoff moves downhill whereas infiltration moves down through the ground. A plume of pollution in an aquifer is similar to smoke coming from a chimney The primary energy source behind the water cycle is the sun’s electromagnetic radiation. As the sun heats up the surface of the ocean, convection currents can increase evaporation. A result that could happen with a melting ice sheet cause in the Arctic Sea would be a loss of habitat for land species. Rise in the sea levels worldwide would result if polar ice caps, glaciers and icebergs melted. Ocean water would increase the most if ice caps and glaciers melt.

Heat Transfer The phase changes necessary to occur when water changes from: ocean water → glacier → fresh water → water vapor is freezing → melting → evaporating. A difference between freshwater and a glacier is that the freshwater has molecules that are moving faster. For condensation to occur, water vapor must cool down and turn into liquid. Vaporization takes place at 100o C; while freezing takes place at 0o C. A cast iron spoon would be the best item to use if we wanted heat to transfer from one object to another by conduction. There would be an increase in evaporation if the temperature of the Earth increased by 20 degrees. A phase change is most like the game of leap frog is sublimation.

Constructed Response Draw and Label: The Water Cycle The Layers of the Atmosphere An Aquifer, Water Table, Recharge/Discharge Zones, Saturated/Unsaturated Zones The Three (3) types of Atmospheric Heating/Heat Transfer (Radiation, Conduction, Convection) Your Place in Space (Beginning with You, Ending with the Universe) The Phases of the Moon