SELECTED ENGLISH WORDS IN AN ENGLISH DICTIONARY FROM AN ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE: A CASE STUDY

BY

ALWA BINTI ABD. RASHID

A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences in Teaching English as a Second Language

Kuliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences International Islamic University Malaysia

MARCH 2013

ABSTRACT

Language is an embodiment of a community’s worldview and experiences. It is an element through which a culture is explored, discovered, embraced and recorded. It is the voice that makes tangible the ephemeral spirit of the people, capturing their thoughts, convictions and actions. Since words might have different semantic values from one community to the next, it is necessary for the English language used by Muslims to adequately express the Islamic worldview. The objectives of the study were to identify and analyse words in an English dictionary whose meanings are not in line with the Islamic viewpoint. As the dictionary is an important medium of reference for many, it is important that these words are defined adequately and correctly following Islamic principles for the benefit of Muslims in particular and the masses in general. The study also aimed to propose new definitions for these words to accommodate the Islamic perspective. An English dictionary, namely the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2008), was examined qualitatively using a document analysis. Words that are either in contradiction with Islam in their meanings or words with meanings that insufficiently explain the Islamic worldview were evaluated. Analyses were based on the Quranic verses, hadiths or traditions of the Prophet (may peace be upon him) with special focus on the hadiths of al-Bukhari and Muslim which are deemed as among those ranked the highest. Viewpoints from the consensus of the ulamas or learned scholars were also sought. The words were then categorized under inadequately or contradictorily defined. The “Inadequate” category consists of words which are defined similar to how Islam perceives them but still entail further elaboration. Meanwhile, the “Contradictory” section comprises of words that possess an element or elements that are against Islamic principles. In total, 85 words were categorized under the “Inadequate” category while 33 words were placed under “Contradictory” section. A proposed definition for each word was given after each analysis. The findings indicate that 118 words are either inadequately or contradictorily defined. The study is significant as it is more comprehensive than others of similar scope and it is hoped that it could act as an impetus for Muslim lexicographers as well as aid Muslim and non-Muslim users of the dictionary not only to be more aware of the role of language on culture and identity, but also more importantly, to learn and comprehend the true meanings of the words as regarded by Islam.

ii

iii

APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Masters of Human Sciences (Teaching of English as a Second Language) ………………………….………. Khairiah Othman Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Masters of Human Sciences (Teaching of English as a Second Language) ……….…………………………. Haja Mohideen Mohamed Ali Examiner

This thesis was submitted to the Department of English Language and Literature and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Masters of Human Sciences (Teaching of English as a Second Language)

………………………………….. Zahariah Pilus Head, Department of English Language and Literature

This thesis was submitted to the Kuliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Masters of Human Sciences (Teaching of English as a Second Language)

………………………………….. Mahmood Zuhdi Hj. Abd. Majid Dean, Kuliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences

iv

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Alwa Binti Abd. Rashid

Signature………………………………….

Date………………………………

v

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH Copyright © 2013 by International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights reserved.

SELECTED ENGLISH WORDS IN AN ENGLISH DICTIONARY FROM AN ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE: A CASE STUDY I hereby affirm that The International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) holds all rights in the copyright of this Work and henceforth any reproduction or use in any form or by means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of IIUM. No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form of by means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Affirmed by Alwa Binti Abd. Rashid

…………………………………. Signature

………..……………. Date

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Alhamdulillah. All praises be to Allah, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful for without His sustenance and guidance, this thesis would not be a reality. My heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Khairiah Othman, my fantastic supervisor, whose invaluable suggestions, patience and unflagging optimism I will eternally cherish. This has been a nerve-wrecking, nail-biting phase in my life but her enthusiasm and unfaltering confidence in me have helped me in more ways than she could imagine. Kudos to you, Dr. and may Jannah be your reward. My appreciation also goes to Professor Nuraihan Mat Daud and Dr. Maskanah Mohammad Lotfie who have inspired me with their intelligence and zeal. To all my lecturers – thank you. To a dear old friend, Professor Dr. Medaylin Acraman, you may be out of sight but certainly not out of mind. Your friendship, kind and loving spirit will be cherished forever. I owe this success to you too. Thanks. To my Director, Hjh. Zaleha Esa, Deputy-Director, Ustaz Hj. Afifi and staff of IfLA, your understanding and support are much appreciated. To Zizee and my dear friends, your advice, prayers and the laughter shared have lightened my load immeasurably. I have ranted and raved but sanity prevailed with your presence. Finally, to my family, I am eternally indebted. Their love and unwavering belief pushed me on. My difficult moments eased with their prayers. To my husband, Hussin. Hj. Ramlan, I could not have done this without you, abang. To my three super-duper children – Syamil Sofiah Hussin, Sakinah Najwa Hussin and Ahmad Zahin Hussin – you are the stars in my life and I revel in your love and warmth. Your supplications anchored my success. It has been a truly rocky, spirit-draining and sometimes dark travail but I thank Allah for I have emerged spent but not broken. To all who have helped me directly and indirectly, thank you. May Allah bless and reward you in this world and in the hereafter. Ameen.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ................................................................................................................... Abstract in Arabic .................................................................................................... Approval Page .......................................................................................................... Declaration Page ...................................................................................................... Copyright Page......................................................................................................... Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. List of Tables ...........................................................................................................

ii iii iv v vi vii x

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .................................................................. Background of the Study .............................................................................. Statement of the Problem ............................................................................. Research Objectives ..................................................................................... Research Questions ...................................................................................... Significance of the Study ............................................................................. Organisation of Chapters ..............................................................................

1 1 4 5 5 6 6

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE .............................................. Introduction .................................................................................................. Language and Culture .................................................................................. Quest for New Symbolism: Recasting the English Language ..................... Islam and the English Language .................................................................. Theoretical Framework ................................................................................

7 7 7 9 12 20

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY............................................................ Introduction .................................................................................................. Methodology ................................................................................................ Sample .......................................................................................................... Data Collection Procedures and Analysis .................................................... Step One: Identifying .......................................................................... Step Two: Analysing ........................................................................... Step Three: Infusing ............................................................................ Sample Data Analysis ................................................................................. Justice ................................................................................................... Bigamy ................................................................................................. Conclusion....................................................................................................

22 22 23 23 23 24 24 25 25 25 27 28

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ...................................... 29

viii

Introduction .................................................................................................. Results and Analysis .................................................................................... Inadequately Defined Words........................................................................ Contradictorily Defined Words ....................................................................

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION ...................................................................... Introduction .................................................................................................. Summary of the Findings ............................................................................. Implications of the findings ......................................................................... Limitations of the Study and Recommendations for Future Research ........

29 29 30 95

127 127 127 128 129

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 131

APPENDIX I: THE LIST OF THE IDENTIFIED INADEQUATELY AND CONTRADICTORILY DEFINED ENGLISH WORDS ....................................... 138 APPENDIX II: SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS ............................................... 143

ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table No.

Page No.

4.1

List of Inadequately and Contradictorily Defined English Words

138

II.1

Inadequately Defined English Words

143

II.2

Contradictorily Defined English Words

158

x

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY As an international lingua franca, English and its global facet have made indelible inroads into practically every aspect of one’s life. It reigns supreme in many fields such as science and technology, trade and finance, mass media as well as in the arts and entertainment. English is also oftentimes equated with “progress and prosperity” (Phillipson, 1992: 8) so much so that individuals, societies and governments may find themselves at the losing end if there arises a need or desire to partake in the international sphere without English or are inadequately equipped with it. However, in spite of its power to transcend borders and boundaries, there are many who view English with an ambivalent attitude. Its rapid rise in the eyes of the world has brought in its wake influences which have threatened and affected the “cultural integrity” (Modiano, 2001: 345) of many societies. Since “languages give testimony to the unique heritage of humankind” (p. 343), Modiano concludes that “it is impossible to learn a foreign language without being influenced ideologically, politically, culturally…” (p. 344). He warns that the spread of English can cause great upheavals on any number of languages and cultures and that in spite of its benefits, the “English language, like any other European languages with a colonialist legacy, is a dangerous bedfellow” (p. 345). Phillipson (1992) shares the same view when he asserts that “English intrudes on all the languages that it comes into contact with” (p. 7) and that there are many basic terms which are “ideologically loaded” which “tend to reflect a European way of

1

conceptualizing the issues and tend to reinforce

Eurocentric

myths and

stereotypes” (p. 38). Since “language is the outward manifestation of the spirit of the people’ (Humboldt, as cited in Adamo, 2007: 46), these Eurocentric myths and stereotypes convey and disseminate knowledge that is steeped with the “essence and spirit of Western civilization” (al-Attas, 1978: 134). Al-Attas further asserts that this knowledge, borne out of “confusion and skepticism” (p. 133) reduces those associated with it to a state of ‘chaos leading to the brink of disaster’ (p. 134). It has furtively strengthened itself in the Muslim mind and erodes his or her ability to differentiate between true and false, and right from wrong. Al-Attas’ consternation is mirrored by many Muslim scholars such as alFaruqi (1986), Sa’Adeddin (1996), Ratnawati (1997), Haja Mohideen (2001) and Mahboob (2009) who have highlighted and discussed the Muslims’ dilemma of using the English language. Since English projects the Western’s secular worldview, there are many English words and concepts which possess meanings different from the ones held by Muslims and Islam. For instance, al-Attas (1978: 149) defines justice as a “harmonious condition or state of affairs whereby every entity or every being is in its right or proper place”. This is different from how the West sees justice as “fairness in the way people are dealt with” (Cambridge Advanced Learners’ Dictionary, ed. 2008: 783). John Rawls (1971, as cited in Reiman, 1990), a renowned moral and political philosopher, in his renowned massive effort, A Theory of Justice, writes that the fundamental idea of justice is fairness and in his Political Liberalism he asserts that one of the two principles that specifies the notion of justice is that the society must ensure that each citizen has “an equal basic rights and liberties, which scheme is compatible with the scheme for all” (p. 3, as cited in Richardson, 2005). This idea of justice being linked to fairness and equality can also be seen in Edney (1984, as cited

2

in Schroeder, Steel, Woodell and Bembenek, 2003) who suggests that, although not always the norm, the notions of justice and fairness are now seen as “equivalent to equality” (p. 375). In contrast, the concept of justice or ‘adl in Islam means a “harmonious condition whereby everything is in its right and proper place” or “a state of equilibrium” (al-Attas, 1978: 76) but this condition may not be necessarily equitable (this will be discussed further in the methodology section). Al-Faruqi (1986) propounded “Islamic English” in order to enable the English language to carry “Islamic proper nouns and meanings… to serve the linguistic needs of Muslim users of the English” (p. 7). For instance, he draws attention to the word salah which has been translated incorrectly to “prayer”. This English translation is devoid of the Islamic divine provenance attached to the Arabic term of salah as well as its proper Islamic meaning and value. While a prayer is “any communication with whatever is taken to be one’s god, even if that is an idol”, salah on the other hand, “consists of precise recitations, genuflections, prostrations, standings and sittings with orientations towards the Ka’abah, and should be entered into only after ablutions and solemn declaration of intention or niyah” (al-Faruqi, p. 11). Haja Mohideen (2001) advocates the use of Islamically correct language for it is important to use language that reflects Islamic values so as to avoid indirectly perpetuating anti-Islamic elements. For example, the word “idolize” (p. 47) can be replaced with “adore” or “admire” since the basic meaning of idol is an object of worship. It is crucial that a closer and serious look is given to the role of the seemingly ‘ubiquitous’ English dictionary, an indispensable tool in understanding English words and one that may exert considerable influence on the thinking masses. Since the English dictionary is manned by Westerners, it is understandable if the definitions are coloured by their worldview in spite of the attempt at ‘objectivity’. As discerningly

3

observed by Sa’Adeddin (1996), in some dictionaries are “numerous examples where the meanings have been rendered with the compilers’ non-Islamic experiential memory” (p. 390). There must be a continuity of the effort that has been initiated by a few Muslim scholars in utilizing the English language in inspiring Muslims and spreading the word of Islam. As Ratnawati (1997) puts it, “we need to demonstrate, through English, the thought, the lives, and the culture of the Muslims” (p. 15).

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The presence of some conceptual words in English that are not defined in line with Islamic values and precepts is an important area which deserves close attention. Since English is widely used by Muslims, it is necessary for Muslims that English carry the weight of (their) Islamic experiences, cultures and ideologies (Mahboob, 2009: 175) so that in the socialisation process, Muslims will still retain the characteristics advocated by Islam. Although there were studies conducted by Al-Faruqi (1986), Haja Mohideen (2001), and Khairiah and Engku Haliza (2009), they were limited in scope. Mahboob’s study (2009) of the usage of English in Pakistan and how it reflects Islamic values and sensitivities is confined to analyses of English language textbooks, thesis acknowledgements and English language newspapers. Sa’Adeddin, on the other hand, only suggests the need for a “lexicography unit manned by knowledgeable Muslim scholars” to start work on ‘alternative sources of information that respond to the priorities of linguistic Islamification and the Islamification of disciplines’ (Sa’Adeddin, 1996: 390-391), without any tangible work produced. There is yet a study to be done on a complete analysis of words in an English dictionary from the Islamic viewpoint.

4

This study is not an attempt at lexicography but aims at empowering Muslim teachers and learners with the ability to be alert and critical in selecting the ideas and values imparted in the course of teaching and learning English. Language and language learning should not be taken for granted. A passive, unquestioning spirit only serves to validate “western concepts and categories of life” (Argungu, 1996: 341). The attempt at de-secularisation may appear trivial and insignificant to some, but the cumulative effect of the negative influences that the vocabulary will have on the ‘Muslim psyche’ (p. 341) is visible and undeniable.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The objectives of the study are as follows: 1) to establish if there are conceptual words in the dictionary that have meanings which are contrary to the Islamic viewpoint 2) to analyse why the meanings are contradictory to Islam 3) to propose new inclusive definitions for these words

RESEARCH QUESTIONS The study will address the following questions: 1) Are there conceptual words in the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2008) that contain meanings which are in conflict with Islam? 2) Why are they not in line with Islam? 3) What are their new definitions?

5

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY This study will contribute further to the meager existence of present literature in a similar scope of study. From this research, we will be able to have a more comprehensive list of English words and their Islamic definitions. It is hoped that the findings will be of benefit to Muslim lexicographers, scholars, teachers, students and Muslims in general and to overcome the dilemma faced by Muslims in using the English dictionary and to yield a more proactive interest in the production of more Islamic-English dictionaries. The result from this study can also assist in promoting the awareness of the role of the English language and Islam and the spread of Islamic awareness itself.

ORGANISATION OF CHAPTERS This study will be divided into five chapters. They are Chapter 1; Introduction, Chapter 2; Literature Review, Chapter 3; Methodology, Chapter 4; Results and Discussion and Chapter 5; Conclusion. Chapter 1 explains the principal elements of this study like the background of the research, the research problems, the research objectives and questions. Chapter 2 is a review of the works and studies which are related to the present research. Chapter 3 highlights the methodology used in this study while Chapter 4 presents the findings of the study. Finally, the significance of the study and its conclusions will be explained in Chapter 5.

6

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION As a leading language of international communication, speakers of English are found far and wide across the globe and this includes “Muslims who have mastered or acquainted themselves with the English language and who use it as a language of reading and research, for writing and/or communication” (Al-Faruqi, 1986: 7). Since language may exert a profound influence on the mind and personality of its users, these Muslim users of English, without realizing, might compromise their beliefs and principles in their ready embrace of English and in order to accommodate a language that is perceived to be saturated with the Western value system. This chapter discusses the interplay between language and culture and the impact of the use of English on Muslims.

LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Sapir (1929) sees language as a “symbolic guide to culture” – a powerful entity that conditions man’s interpretations of his “social reality” (p. 397). Brown (1967: 114, as cited in Cooper and Spolsky, 1991: 14) contends that the ‘culture of centuries shapes language and the latter in turn affects the individual’. He adds that the structure of language influences both the perception and thought processes of its users. Due to this intricately intertwined relationship between the individual, language and society, many non-native speakers of English fear that some of the negative Western values and precepts entrenched in the language may bring undesirable consequences to both

7

individual and society. One such example is delineated by Tully (1997) who reveals how in a prestigious school in India, the strong emphasis on English resulted in its students having “a faulty knowledge of Hindi” (p. 160). He believes that the failures of the Indian education system are directly related to the status of English in India. Those in power and capable of making a change in the education system do not send their children to Indian language-medium schools and have no interest in improving the system. There is glorification of Western literature in schools and the elite unfavourably perceive vernacular literature as promoting communalism but readily embrace the Western idea of secularism. Matthew (1997) sees this dominant force of English as a world language and its debilitating effects as having “hegemonic tendencies” as it carries with it the “cultural and academic tradition of the colonizers” (p. 165). His sentiment is an echo of Phillipson’s linguistic imperialism theory in which the latter defines hegemony as “dominant ideas that we take for granted” (1992: 73), a “competing and complementary set of values” (p. 74) that enable those in power to legitimise themselves and through their ideas, assume material power. Ngungi (1986,

as cited in Michieka, 2005) similarly states that English

influences people to detach themselves from their languages and roots – a “cultural bomb” that eradicates the “memories of pre-colonial cultures and history” (p. 3) and simultaneously making way for a more supreme and sinister form of colonial oppression. Michieka continues to explain how English and its commanding position in Kenya has usurped the importance of Kiswahili – Kenya’s national language to the extent that its functions are few compared to English which is used for “interpersonal, instrumental, regulative and creative functions” (p. 180). Just like their Western counterparts, Muslim intellectuals such as Abdussalam (1999: 15) also discern

8

language as representative of the culture, civilization and belief of a language community. This is echoed by Sa’Adeddin (1996) who views language as a ‘reminder of God’s greatness’ as well as the vehicle of man’s “thoughts, feelings, attitudes, beliefs, and worldview to other people and theirs to us” (p. 367). To him, the quintessence of language is meaning which springs from “the vast set of communal linguistics and other experiences” (p. 370). Sa’Adeddin also brings to attention the circular connection between culture and language – for the culture of a member of a language community “determines the semantic content of the language and types of expression” just as the language used by a community influences “personality characteristics which in turn reflects on the beliefs and values prevailing in that language community” (p. 371). This interrelation is also mirrored by Mazrui (1975, as cited in Pennycook, 1994) who defines language as “the most important point of entry into the habits of thought of a people. It emulates within itself cumulative associations derived from the total experience of its people” (p. 48).

QUEST FOR NEW SYMBOLISM: RECASTING THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE John Spencer (1975: 193, as cited in Mehrotra, 2000) contends how the rise of the cultural revolution at the end of colonial sovereignty involves a measured and intricate process of taking apart and acclimatizing inherited colonial attitudes towards native language and culture on the one hand and towards the language and culture of the former colonial masters on the other. To him, this is part of the search for “new symbolism and cultural ideologies, the reconstruction of a national self image” (p. 134). Rushdie (1982: 233, as cited in Dissayake, 1985) attributes this as a need to “decolonize English” so as to “make it in the other images”. The English language

9

then, assumes an “indigenous character” (Mehrotra, 2000: 141) as it is made to come into contact with native languages and cultures. This view is also reflected by Bapsi Sidhwa (1996: 231-232, as cited in Mehrotra, 2000), a prominent Pakistani novelist who upholds that moulding English to adapt to one’s needs has given it “a new shape, substance and dimension” (p. 135). Kachru echoes a similar sentiment when he notes that “[in] culturally, linguistically, and ideologically pluralistic societies, there is a complex hybridity…I believe linguistic and cultural hybridity is our identity”, and “our major strategy is to acculturate the language in our contexts of use, on our terms, Asian terms” (1997: 22, as cited in Bolston and Kachru, 2006). This attempt towards the nativization and acculturation of English is also evident in post-colonial India. Although English has continued to be a language of power and prestige, linguistic innovations have emerged to cater to non-native cultures and sensibilities. Kachru (1986) draws on Raja Rao, a prominent Indian fiction writer and philosopher, to delineate the “Indianization of English” (p. 11). Rao, like a few other Indian novelists such as Narayan and Mulk Raj Anand, writes in English and moulds the language in such a way that it projects underlying thought patterns which mirror the “traditions of Sanskrit and the regional or national oral lore” (p. 162). His stylistic innovations make him linguistically different from a native speaker’s perspective and “culturally it introduces into English a dimension alien to the canons of English literature” (p. 167). Mei (2001) draws attention to Singlish (a basilectal variety of English) as an underlying principle in the construction of a Singaporean identity. The writer contends that Singapore English (SE) is a manifestation of the need to “express cultural constructs and adapting existing words to adopt new meanings” (p. 40). This is apparent in the study conducted by the writer where 60 undergraduates were

10

interviewed. A majority of the undergraduates were quite positive towards Singlish as it gave them not only a unique sense of identity but also confidence in using the Standard English. To the students, Singlish allows them to express themselves better and acts as a unifying force. Mei is also of the view that unlike native speakers of English who can associate it with their culture, there is a missing link between Standard English in Singapore and its bilingual speakers. Singlish transcends cultures and is a “symbolic cultural construct, a tool of expression for what is uniquely Singaporean” (p. 44). Mei concludes that Singlish “represents a strong unifying force across ethnic boundaries and socio-economic groups, among both the well- and less- educated” (p. 44). Mei’s view is affirmed by Ling and Brown (2005) as they explore the apparent differences between Singapore English (SgE) and Standard English (StdE). By the term SgE, Ling and Brown refer to the two main varieties of English used in Singapore which are Singapore Standard English and Singapore Colloquial English or Singlish. Drawing on the numerous contrasts between SgE and StdE Ling and Brown conclude that at times “the most important aspect of a word or an expression is not to do with its denotation, but with its connotation” (p. 87). Singapore possesses its own unique culture and this is reflected in certain SgE expressions whose meanings may diverge from “their StdE senses, in order to reflect this”. Among the lexicon discussed whose meanings are culturally related are bath and hall. The Oxford dictionary, according to Ling, defines bath as “a large, long container that you put water in and then get into to wash your whole body”. In the Singapore context however a bath is usually “a shower in order to keep clean” (Ling et al.: 213). A hall in the British sense is “a space or passage inside the entrance or front door of a building”. SgE refers to

11

the hall as “the first part of the house to which visitors come, which is the living room” (p. 213). Bautista (1997, as cited in Bolston and Kachru, 2006) in collaboration with Susan Butler and the Australia-based Macquarie Dictionary, compiled a list of Philippine English words to be added on to the Macquaire Asian corpus for an Asian English dictionary, specifically a Philippine English dictionary.

Like Singapore

English, there are words in Philippine English that vary in meaning from American or Australian English as testimony of the fact that language is the mirror of culture. For example, the way Philippine English uses sleep is different. According to Bautista, “I slept late yesterday,” may mean to some Filipinos “I went to bed late last night,” while in Australian and American English, it means “I woke up late yesterday.” In the Macquarie and Webster, “motel” is a roadside hotel with parking for cars. Philippine English defines a motel as a hotel usually used for premarital or extramarital sex. Salvage to a Filipino is to kill in cold blood, usually used when police and soldiers kill suspects before trial but in American or Australian English, salvage means to save (p. 461) In short, the English language is no longer being used exclusively by the native speakers of English but by different cultures and nations to reflect the new variety of English.

ISLAM AND THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE Similar to the concept of decolonizing the English language, Muslim scholars too have clamoured for the “islamization of language” (al-Attas, 1980), “Islamic English” (al-Faruqi, 1986), “Islamic linguistics” (Sa’Adeddin, 1996) or “Islamo-English” (Haja Mohideen, 2012). This is because English, the language used by many Muslim and

12

non-Muslim communities alike, is viewed as still saturated with the imperialists’ ideologies and prejudices. English as the legacy of the colonialists and the Englishspeaking Western world, brings with it secular, Western values which can only influence positively or negatively, more so negatively, the society it comes into contact with. As acknowledged by Lee Kuan Yew, the former Prime Minister of Singapore in a National Day Rally speech in 1978 (as cited in Pennycook, 1994: 247), A person who gets deculturalised – and I nearly was, so I know the danger – loses his self-confidence….I may speak the English language better than the Chinese language because I learnt English early in life. But I will never be an Englishman in a thousand generations and I have not got the Western value system inside; mine is an Eastern value system… (The Mirror, 14 September 1978) English then is not neutral but closely connected to an

undesirable loss of

“cultural identity” (p. 248) and values. Al-Attas (1980), meanwhile, calls for the Islamization of language, a need which exists due to the ‘modern cultural phenomenon’ (p. 9) and the infusion of foreign concepts resulting in the reversion towards the non-Islamic world view and “deIslamization” (p. 9). Since language and thought are generally interlinked and interdependent, this “deIslamization” has caused a “semantic confusion in the application of linguistic symbols” and brings about “confusion and error in the interpretation of Islam itself and its world view” (p. 10). According to al-Attas, as the Islamic language is embedded with the basic Islamic vocabulary, made up of key terms and concepts and one that delineates the Quranic outlook, he cautions that there must be constant alertness in detecting the invasion of warped “alien concepts” which are created and spread by the West and pregnant with the secular elements of Western culture and tradition. Al-Attas (1978) proposes that these elements be identified, separated and isolated from the alien body of knowledge to permit true knowledge to

13

be distinguished from what is perceived as one which originated from the West and which rejects “God and the hereafter” (p. 136) while deifying Man and humanizing Deity. In the face of this onslaught, al-Attas suggests that there must be an earnest effort to Islamize language and stem the tide of its deIslamization. This is of paramount importance as language is intricately bound to knowledge and world view. As al-Attas (1980) explains, while “the Islamization of language brings about the Islamization of thought and reason” (p. 38), its deIslamization can only cause “forgetfulness of Islam” and a Muslim’s duty to Allah and His Messenger. Al-Faruqi’s (1986) consternation at the grave distortions in the translations and transliterations of Arabic names and concepts into English equivalents leads him to propose an “Islamic English’ – a new language which permeates with the “spirituality and culture of Islam” (p. 14), one which protects Muslims against the onslaught of Islamically undesirable Western mores and the seemingly perpetual imperialistic consciousness. This “Islamic English” is able to carry “Islamic proper nouns and meanings without distortion, and thus serve the linguistic needs of Muslim users of the English language” (p. 7). He sees the effort to translate many Arabic words into English as a “universal injustice against the human spirit” (p. 8) and in some cases, even blasphemous. He cites the example of a Muslim proper name. It does not only define the person and his Muslim identity, it also “recalls an aspect Islamic history…of Islam itself” (p. 9). The Muslim name may also signify information about Allah, when used in connotation of the relationship between Allah and man as His servant. It may also be alluded to the Prophet whose name one might be using. Al-Faruqi also delineates how the translation of the word salah to “prayer” is one example that obliterates the divine provenance associated with salah. “Prayer” in English refers to “any communication with whatever is taken to be one’s god, even if

14