Sagalassos. Visitor s Companion

Sagalassos Visitor’s Companion This guide is published as part of the project “Development and Promotion of Cultural and Natural Resources of Ağlasun...
Author: Shon Johns
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Sagalassos Visitor’s Companion

This guide is published as part of the project “Development and Promotion of Cultural and Natural Resources of Ağlasun for Sustainable Tourism Use,” funded within the framework of the West Mediterranean Development Agency’s 2011 Financial Support Programme (reference number TR61/11/TURİZM/KAMU/01-35).

Sagalassos: A Brief Biography This book has three purposes: it aims to enrich your visit, to serve as a nice souvenir, and to provide an introduction in words for those who have not been to Sagalassos (yet).

Inside you will find: • a brief biography of the city and the region from 10,000 BC to the 13th century AD; • the text from the panels on the site (slightly adapted), which tell the story of Sagalassos and its many buildings and monuments with images. • an epilogue from Professor Marc Waelkens, who put Sagalassos on the archaeological world map.

In southwest Turkey, slightly more than one hundred kilometres north of the coastal city of Antalya, lies Sagalassos. It is part of the province of Burdur. The ancient city is located in the Taurus Mountain chain, with the Mediterranean sea to its south and the Anatolian plateau to its north. Sagalassos was for centuries the most important city of ancient Pisidia, the inland area of southwest Anatolia. The city spreads over south-facing slopes between 1450 and 1600 meters above sea level. To its east is the impressive summit of Akdağ, 2271 meters high. The ancient city was surrounded by a series of valleys that were gradually incorporated into its territory. The first and foremost was the valley of Burdur, acquired by the beginning of the 2nd century BC at the latest. This valley considerably expanded the city’s agricultural land, and later linked it to the Roman road network of Anatolia. In the time of Augustus the valleys of Bağsaray and Çeltikçi to the south were also taken into the territory of Sagalassos.

Sagalassos’ unique soil conditions – a waterpermeable layer of limestone on top of a layer of clay – led to the formation of dozens of natural springs in the area of the city. The soils of the site also yielded clay for making high quality ceramics and bricks, and ores for metal production. In ancient times, the nearby valleys were also more fertile than today. In the heyday of the city, during the Roman Imperial period, it had another important advantage: Sagalassos was linked to the Anatolian road network and was thus connected with the interior, with the ports on the western coast of Ionia, and most importantly with those on the Mediterranean coast (ancient Pamphylia). All of these factors lured people to a prosperous city that enjoyed growing prestige and was open to innovation. Wheat, olives, probably also pine trees and high quality red-slip tableware formed the basis of the economy and were also exported.

Why did people settle on this steep mountain slope? Despite the forbidding appearance of the site, there were good reasons to settle here. Security was one of them and the abundance of water was another.

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Sagalassos before Sagalassos

Sagalassos becomes Hellenized

The metamorphosis of a city

Pre-and proto-history: 10,000 to 546 BC

Persian and Hellenistic periods: sixth to first century BC

Augustus and the first century

Hadrian and the second and third centuries

The oldest human traces in the area of the later Sagalassos date from 10,000 BC, and the oldest known permanent settlements from around 6500 BC, when ceramic wares were already being made. The first agricultural settlements in the valley of Ağlasun date from just before 4000 BC and by 3000 BC there was a web of settlements, each of which controlled their own territory. This evolution came to a halt around 2300/2200 BC when IndoEuropean peoples (the Hittites and the Luwians) migrated into Anatolia. Around the fourteenth century BC, the Sagalassos area fell under Luwian influence and there are signs of imports from Mycenaean Greece or its colonies. Shortly after 1200 BC, the great empires of the Bronze Age fell and were succeeded by the Phrygians, the Lydians, and finally the Persians. Different groups evolved out of the former Luwian states. One of these were the Pisidians, who also inhabited the Sagalassos region.

Hellenizing influences in Pisidia were already felt in the time of the Persians, and perhaps also reached Sagalassos. This evolution was accelerated and strengthened after Alexander the Great passed through the region. Under his successors in the Roman period, Sagalassos became, much faster than some other Pisidian cities, a polis resembling the ‘city-states’ of ancient Greece. This ‘progressive’ development probably occurred at the expense of the ‘conservative’ neighbouring settlement of Düzen Tepe.

The first Roman emperor, Augustus, was probably the most influential character in the story of Sagalassos. Not that he was directly involved in the city, but under his reign there was peace, the investment climate was favourable, the tax system was reformed, a road connected Sagalassos to the sea, and the population grew strongly. The climate was also warmer and wetter, allowing olive cultivation 500 m higher up the intramontane valleys than today. The local elite immediately saw the opportunities offered by this new context, particularly in economic terms. Unlike the rest of Pisidia, Sagalassos drew the Roman card without renouncing its identity. The first century was indeed a golden age for Sagalassos.

In the period 124-132 AD, the Emperor Hadrian visited Asia Minor at least three times. Even before these visits, in the early 120s, he had probably already made a decision that would have major consequences for the future of Sagalassos: the city was moved from the province of “Galatia” to “Lycia and Pamphylia”, where it became the centre of the imperial cult for the newly created sub-province of “Pisidia”. It was also recognized as the “first city” of Pisidia. This was the fulfilment of the ambitions which Sagalassos had held since Augustus’ time, an official confirmation of an existing reality. It also marked the beginning of a new golden age, with intense economic and construction activity that lasted until the early third century.

This is an inscription where Sagalassos proudly presents its status. It says in ancient Greek: “The City of the Sagalassians, the first in Pisidia, friend and ally of the Romans”. The inscription is on a pedestal for a bronze statue of Emperor Caracalla. It is still standing at the Upper Agora.

This is a typical house-shaped cremation urn (for ashes and burnt bones) of the 2nd century BC. The shield decorated with a lion’s head and crossed sword and spear behind it was meant to emphasize the deceased’s military prowess – for which the city was famous. This example is located in the southern necropolis of Sagalassos. © Marc Waelkens.

These ceramic cups dating from ca. 6000-5800 BC were found in one of the oldest settlements of Western Anatolia: Hacılar, located 25 kilometers to the west of Burdur. Settlement at this site began by 6500 BC. On display at the Burdur Museum. © Burdur Museum.

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“The first city of Pisidia”

Via Sebaste connected the territory of Sagalassos with the ports on the south coast. Map by J. Theelen and R. Rens.

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A new culture: Sagalassos becomes Christian

An end in phases

Surprise and rapture

The sixth century and beyond

The story of the discovery of Sagalassos (1706-1982)

Three events in the sixth and early seventh centuries caused the gradual decline of Sagalassos: an earthquake at the beginning of each century and a plague epidemic in 541-542. Even after these devastating events the city remained inhabited but its people mainly lived off agriculture; only in the thirteenth century did the last vestiges of Sagalassos disappear. Meanwhile the neighbouring town of Ağlasun developed. The last stronghold on Alexander’s Hill was possibly destroyed by the Seljuk Turks who arrived in the area in the early 1200s AD.

After ancient and medieval Sagalassos was finally abandoned in the thirteenth century, it was not rediscovered until 1706. That honour befell Paul Lucas, a French diplomat under Louis XIV. In 1824 the name of the city was identified. In 1884-1885 the Polish count Karol Lanckoroński, one of many 19th century visitors, made the first scientific study of the site. By the end of the nineteenth century, “Sagalassos” had become a well-known concept, but then the site was again forgotten, overshadowed by the excavations in the great ancient cities along the Turkish coast. In the twentieth century, archaeologists focused on a number of smaller facets, until in 1986 Marc Waelkens participated in the first of four consecutive research campaigns under the direction of Stephen Mitchell and later himself. In 1990 Prof. Waelkens was given permission to dig in the city and conduct an archaeological survey of its territory.

View of the Alexander’s Hill from the city. This conical hill has a significant place in the history of Sagalassos. “The Sagalassians awaited the arrival of the Macedonians on the mound in front of their city, as this was an equally strong defensive position as the city wall,” writes the historian Arrian at the beginning of his brief description of the Sagalassians’ lost battle with the army of Alexander the Great in 333 BC. The hill also housed the last Byzantine garrison during the 12th-13th centuries AD, which was destroyed possibly by the Seljuk Turks.

Title page of “Voyage du Sieur Paul Lucas fait par ordre du Roi dans la Grece, l’Asie Mineure, la Macedoine et l’Afrique” Paris, 1714.

The fourth and fifth centuries After centuries of Hellenization and Roman rule, a third major change took place in Sagalassos from the fourth century onward: the city became Christian. Significant administrative developments occurred and after a pause in construction of nearly 235 years, building activity resumed at the end of the fourth century. Local elites were less involved in the city than before. From the fifth century on, Christianization widely influenced the architecture of Sagalassos.

In 120-125 AD Titus Flavius Severianus Neon built the library known by his name. He was the greatest benefactor Sagalassos ever had. The library was restored, probably during the reign of the last pagan Emperor Julian (361-363 AD), since it was a symbol of pagan culture. The mosaic floor dates from that period. At the end of the 4th century AD, the panel in the middle of the mosaic floor, depicting Achilles saying farewell to his mother Thetis, was intentionally damaged, possibly by Christians of the era.

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A Walk Through Sagalassos 22

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Itinerary A: One hour / 1.5 km Itinerary B: Two hours / 2.5 km Itinerary C: Four hours / 4 km Comprehensive visit

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Alexander’s Hill

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Hadrian and Antoninus Pius Shrine for the emperor cult

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Early Byzantine Fortification Wall

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Grand Colonnaded Street Tiberian Gate

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Entrance



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Lower Agora Severan Nymphaeum Late Hadrianic Nymphaeum Christian basilica inside the Shrine of Apollo Klarios Odeon (covered theatre) Imperial Baths Urban Mansion Macellum (food market) Upper Agora Antonine Nymphaeum Bouleuterion (Council Hall) Basilica of St. Michael Doric Temple Northwest Heroön

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Martyrion inside the Stadion

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Hellenistic Fountain House

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Neon Library

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Theatre

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Potters’ Quarter

500 Metres 9

Itinerary A: One hour / 1.5 km • Walk the Colonnaded Street to Lower Agora and Odeon • Walk the central path to the Upper Agora, visit the Macellum and the Urban Mansion overlook • Arrive at the Upper Agora, see the Antonine Nymphaeum • Visit Bouleuterion, Heroön and Doric Temple • Walk the upper road to the Hellenistic Fountain House and Neon Library • Return via the overlook of the Urban Mansion and the central path • Visit the Roman Baths on your way out

Itinerary B: Two hours / 2.5 km • Walk the Colonnaded Street to the Lower Agora • Visit Hadrianic Nymphaeum, Apollo Klarios and Odeon • Walk the central path to the Upper Agora, visit the Macellum and the Urban Mansion overlook • Arrive at the Upper Agora, see the Antonine Nymphaeum • Visit Bouleuterion, Heroön and Doric Temple • Walk the upper road to the Hellenistic Fountain House and Neon Library • Walk up to Theatre and eastern suburbs • Return via the Urban Mansion overlook and the central path • Visit the Roman Baths on your way out

We are going to take a walk through Sagalassos, highlighting its important places and monuments. The walk takes you along the southern Colonnaded Street into the city centre, leads you up to the Lower Agora and then to the Upper Agora. From there it takes you first to the western part of the site, towards the Stadium, and then returns east to the Theatre and the eastern suburbs via the upper city. This is the longest tour of the site (Itinerary C). Two shorter tours are also available (Itineraries A or B). In all the itineraries, after the Odeon you can chose to walk west along the caravan road as an alternative to taking the central path to the Upper Agora. The caravan road will take you to the Western Necropolis, the Heroön and Doric Temple area, and to the Stadium further west. We start with Alexander’s Hill. If you approach Sagalassos from the south, for instance from Ağlasun’s town centre, you first arrive in front of this hill.

Itinerary C: Three hours / 4 km • Walk the Colonnaded Street to the Lower Agora • Visit Hadrianic Nymphaeum, Apollo Klarios and Odeon • Walk the central path to the Upper Agora, visit the Macellum and the Urban Mansion overlook • Arrive at the Upper Agora, see the Antonine Nymphaeum • Visit Bouleuterion, Heroön and Doric Temple • Walk to Western Necropolis and Stadium • Return to the Heroön and walk the upper road to the Hellenistic Fountain House and Neon Library • Walk up to Theatre and eastern suburbs • Return via the Urban Mansion overlook and the central path • Visit the Roman Baths on your way out

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Alexander’s Hill

The Temple of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius

Heavy with history

A new temple for the Imperial Cult When Alexander the Great approached Sagalassos with his army in 333 BC, Sagalassians defended their city at ‘Alexander’s Hill’. At that time Sagalassos was already an important settlement in Pisidia. The conical hill has a flat top and steep flanks. Strategically important for its location and height, it controlled the southern approach to Sagalassos. Alexander defeated the Sagalassians in the battle and took their city, making it part of the Hellenistic world. There was probably never a settlement on the hill. In the Roman Imperial period, one of the four necropoleis (cemeteries) of Sagalassos developed along its

Emperor Hadrian (117-138) declared Sagalassos the official centre of the Imperial Cult for the sub-province of Pisidia. This launched the city’s “golden age” and a period of intensive construction. Hadrian also gave Sagalassos the honorary title of ‘first city of Pisidia, friend and ally of the Romans’.

slopes. This was one of the city’s largest and oldest necropoleis, covering 15.7 hectares. On top of the hill there was probably a pagan temple, replaced by a church in the 5th or the 6th century. Excavations showed that this church was renovated or decorated around 1000 AD. The latest remains on the hill date to just before 1200 AD, when a walled military garrison stood here. Possibly in 1204, this ‘fort’ seems to have been forcibly conquered. It was abandoned after this destruction.

Temple for the Imperial cult of all of Pisidia dedicated to the Deified Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, ca. 125-145 AD. After G. Niemann, 1884.

A sarcophagus from the South Necropolis, spread around the slopes of Alexander’s Hill.

A decorated limestone door lintel found during the excavations at the Alexander’s Hill. Dating to 1000 AD, It probably belonged to a church on the hill.

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Beginning of the building inscription of the temple. The right fragment was visible for centuries on the surface but, remarkably, was not noticed in 1884-1885 by Lanckoroński’s team. The adjoining fragment was uncovered during our excavations. The Greek text of the first line reads [ΘΕ] Ω ΑΔΡІΑΝΩ or “To the god Hadrian”, which means that the emperor was already deceased. In the second line, only [“The venerable city] of the Sagalassians” can be deciphered as the beginning of the honorary title “First city of Pisidia”.

A prestigious Imperial temple was built on a natural promontory to the south of the town, making it visible from afar. Construction began under Hadrian himself and was completed under his successor Antoninus Pius (138-161). When complete it was one of the most elaborate buildings in the city, with a courtyard more than 70 meters long and a porticoes surrounding the whole precinct. An inscription on the building proudly proclaimed Sagalassos’ new title for the first time. Every year, delegations from all the Pisidian cities came together here to honour the emperor with sacrifices, festivals, and processions along the Colonnaded Street. The temple was the centre of the imperial cult until the end of the 4th century AD. Its courtyard was filled with statues of and honorary monuments for emperors, priests, and victors of the festival games. From the end of the 4th century onwards, private construction started to appear on the temple grounds. This promontory, wellfortified from the mid-7th century, was one of the longest-inhabited places in Sagalassos. Settlement continued in this area until the 11th century when it moved from here down to Ağlasun.

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The Southern Gate and Towers

The Colonnaded Street An elegant avenue

Towers at a bottleneck

In the pre-Roman period, the southern entrance to Sagalassos was a gate flanked by two towers. The towers were later dismantled down to their foundations and rebuilt around the middle of the 7th century AD using material recycled from other buildings. This time a wall was constructed between them, blocking the paved street and providing no gate. One of these towers has been excavated. Remains of the fortification wall blocking the colonnaded street. This was a 7th century AD intervention that protected the final settlement at Sagalassos, which lay to the south.

The wall was built at a bottleneck with towers facing north toward Sagalassos. It was intended to prevent attackers from the north, presumably Arab invaders, from reaching the terrace in the south. Although the sanctuary of the Imperial cult located there was no longer in use by the end of the 4th century, from the second half of the 5th century onwards the promontory was again occupied by local citizens.

Aerial view (facing south) of the colonnaded street flanked by the 7th century towers and the fortification wall blocking the street. The eastern tower has been excavated.

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The north-south Colonnaded Street of Sagalassos is an elegant paved avenue with porticos on both sides. Built during the second quarter of the 1st century AD, it is one of the earliest such streets in Asia Minor. The construction of the road must have been very expensive: to level the road, a deep depression between two hills had to be filled by hand with thousands of cubic meters of rock and soil.

Colonnaded Street of Sagalassos after excavations, view towards the north.

The Colonnaded Street was about 300 meters long and 10 meters wide. Along both sides of the street there were covered galleries (porticos) 3.5 meters wide. Rows of columns faced the street side, and behind them stood shops, eating houses and workshops. During the reign of Tiberius monumental gates were built at both ends of the street. A visitor approaching Sagalassos from the south would have taken the road around the foot of Alexander’s Hill and entered the city from the monumental gate at the southern end of the Colonnaded Street. The street was well-maintained until at least the 6th century AD.

This ‘heart-shaped’ Corinthian column-pier belonged to a building that stood here before the street was built. Only this column-pier was incorporated into the portico of the street. One missing drum of the column was found re-used in the late-period fortification wall that blocks the street. Here it has been temporarily reassembled for research purposes.

Statuettes of the god Apollo and the goddess Hygieia discovered during the excavations of the street. They were put on display on statuary consoles integrated in the columns of the Colonnaded Street during a 6thcentury renovation.

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The Tiberian Gate

The Lower Agora

An Imperial gate to the city

A city square

When the colonnaded street was constructed during the reign of Emperor Tiberius (14-37 AD), monumental gates were built at both ends. These gates were exclusively decorative in function, and played no role in the defense of the town. The northern monumental gate, an elegant building in Corinthian order, was one of the most elaborate monuments in Sagalassos. The Corinthian capitals supported a richly-carved frieze of fruit garlands, a symbol of the “golden age” that had begun with the reign of Emperor Augustus.

The gate stood at the landing of the monumental staircase leading to the Lower Agora. The stairs were impassable for vehicle traffic, so this elegant street was only accessible to pedestrians and pack animals. The Colonnaded Street was also used for religious processions. Because of the many staircases in the city, beasts of burden – mainly donkeys and mules – were used for transport within Sagalassos. The northern monumental gate was destroyed by an earthquake around 500 AD. After the earthquake, the staircase was repaired re-using some of the stones from the gate. The gate’s northwest corner was also rebuilt around a statue of Emperor Julian the Apostate.

The Lower Agora of Sagalassos was built during the reign of Emperor Augustus (27 BC -14 AD). Although this square seems to have had a more commercial character than the Upper Agora, it also featured many honorary monuments and statues. Statue bases with inscriptions dedicated to important citizens can still be seen today along the east side of the agora, which was lined by a colonnade with a row of shops behind it. On the west side stood an identical colonnade, but without any shops. These covered colonnades (porticos) protected pedestrians from sun, rain and snow. When the agora was renovated in the second quarter of the 6th century AD, the western portico was divided into small eating houses and wine bars. The eastern portico had a large restaurant with a bar, a kitchen, a bedroom and a storage space.

However, what we see today is not the original fountain of the Lower Agora. The original monumental fountain was built here around 80-100 AD. It had a similar façade arrangement but it was longer than the later one and had 9 niches. This earlier fountain was the first monument in Sagalassos to use brick-faced walls with Roman concrete infill, barely ten years after this new technique was first used in important cities like Ephesos and Miletos. During the early years of the reign of Hadrian, the original fountain was dismantled and a new one was built 40 cm in front of it. The stones of the pedestals and the basin were re-used. In the early Severan period a new, elaborate entablature replaced the original one and was topped with statues of the goddess Victory.

On the northwest side of the agora the remains of a nymphaeum, a monumental fountain, can be seen. Water cascaded from the back wall of the fountain into the large basin in front, providing refreshment to passers-by. The back wall has eight niches for statues and a series of columns elevated on pedestals.

One of the statues of goddess Victory found during the excavations of the Lower Agora fountain. On display in the Burdur Museum.

Tiberian Gate (14-37 AD) after C. Licoppe

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(1) Lower Agora (2) East Portico (3) West Portico (4) Severan Nymphaeum (5) Late Hadrianic Nymphaeum

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The Apollo Klarios Temple

The Old Baths A Bath in the Italian Style

A temple for Apollo and… Augustus On this remarkable site at the end of the Colonnaded Street, overlooking the Lower Agora, a temple was built in the reign of Emperor Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD) to honour Apollo Klarios. (Klaros was an oracle shrine of Apollo, near Ephesus). At first, this small Ionic temple only had half-columns on its front façade (and possibly on its back façade as well).

Temple of Apollo Klarios, after the 103-104 AD renovation. After G. Niemann, 1884.

Close-up view of an Ionic capital, re-used inside the church built around 450 AD using the stones of the temple. The column and the capital were re-erected during the excavations in 2005.

Before the temple was built, Apollo was not one of Sagalassos’s main gods. But Augustus favored Apollo, believing that he was his protector. Building a temple to Apollo, then, was also a way of honouring the Emperor himself. From the reign of Vespasian (69-79 AD) onwards the building served as the municipal Imperial cult temple, making the connection official. In 103-104 AD it was renovated, partly with private money. The interior was clad with marble and 6 x 11 Ionic columns were erected on four sides of its exterior. This was one way that the Imperial cult had a visible influence on the development of Sagalassos.

By the time of Emperor Augustus, Sagalassos already had a bath complex (10-30 AD), considered to be the oldest Italian-style bath house in Anatolia. Most of this first bath building was later dismantled, partially incorporated into or filled in to support the much larger baths built in the 2nd century AD. The ‘Old Baths’ had featured warm, tepid and cold water rooms. Other examples of such bath buildings are known from Pompeii, in the Campania region of Italy. The presence of Italian-style baths at Sagalassos could be explained by the fact that veterans from Central Italy had settled in this region during the reign of Augustus.

The southern, semicircular ends of the three halls of the Old Baths.Constructed in irregular polygonal masonry. They were all completed before 10-30 AD.

After the Temple of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius was built, the Temple of Apollo Klarios played a secondary role in worship of the Emperors, and fell out of use by 400 AD. Around 450, the building was rebuilt as a Christian basilica, using the stones of the temple. Excavations have shown that after the church went out of use it was used to deposit trash. Later, between the 10th and 13th centuries AD, it was used as a Christian cemetery by people living nearby.

Plan of the Imperial baths (grey) with the apsidial walls of the old baths (red).

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The ‘Imperial Baths’ A luxurious bath complex

During the reign of the Emperor Hadrian (118 – 137 AD), Sagalassos became the centre of the Imperial cult of Pisidia. A new bath complex was needed to receive the many visitors who came to Sagalassos during the yearly festivals. The construction of this bath building lasted for more than forty years (around 120 – 165 AD). The complex was built on the same hill where a smaller bath building formerly stood. The upper surface area of the hill was enlarged by building vaulted rooms against its slopes. This was the largest building in Sagalassos (at least 5000 m2) and was constructed with Roman concrete walls faced with brick. The external walls were built of large blocks (ashlars) on the outer face, and of brick-faced concrete on the inner face. They could be as thick as four meters. The two-story building competed in size and grandeur with the magnificent baths of Ephesus. It was luxurious inside too: the walls were covered with many types of expensive marble, one of which may have been a gift from the Emperor Hadrian.

The building had a double circuit of cold, tepid and warm water baths for women and men. Next to those, there were also dressing rooms, sweat rooms and utility spaces. The complex also had a swimming pool and public toilets. Roman bath houses were the leisure centres of their time. Around 400 AD, most rooms of the baths went through renovation. The main cold hall (frigidarium) and its two wings of changing rooms became a public hall, eventually (if not from the very beginning) functioning as a banquet hall. Colossal statues of emperors and empresses, originally standing elsewhere, were located in the niches of the southern wing of changing rooms (apodyteria), which must have created a wonderfully impressive décor for these feasts.

Discovery of the legs of a colossal statue of Marcus Aurelius, still standing in place, in the southern wing of changing rooms (apodyterium/Statue Gallery) of the cold hall (Frigidarium 1). This large, cross shaped hall was later converted into a public (banquet) hall. The frigidarium (F1), the cold bath hall where the imperial statues were discovered in the southern row of changing niches.

Detail of the floor in Frigidarium (F2). Made of square and octagonal tiles in dozens of different coloured stones and marbles (opus sectile), it was part of the renovation carried out around 400 AD.

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Frigidarium 2 with the large cold water pool and a floor with marble tiles (opus sectile)

Plan of the Imperial Baths T tepidarium, C caldarium, F frigidarium, P praefurnium, S shaft, A apodyterium, IH imperial hall, BH banqueting hall, SG statue gallery

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A Corinthian pilaster capital in marble; example of interior decoration of the baths.

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The Marble Hall

The Severan Gate An honorary gate for the Emperor

This central part of the large bath complex of Sagalassos was a prestigious room, measuring 25 x 18.5 meters. Such halls were found in bath buildings in many ancient cities of Anatolia and were called the Marble Hall or the Imperial Hall. Celebrations such as award ceremonies for the games were held here. In this way it was also linked with the Imperial cult.

Around 220-235 AD an honorary gate was built where the main north-south street to the Upper Agora met the Roman Baths. The structure had three rectangular openings for people and goods to pass through. In front of you lies the collapsed northern part of the gate, including the piers and one of the openings.

Probably six, or perhaps eight, colossal statues of emperors and empresses stood in the niches of the hall. Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius and possibly Lucius Verus were represented here with their respective wives Sabine, Faustina the Elder, Faustina the Younger, and possibly Lucilla. After paganism and the Imperial cult were abolished, the bath complex went through an important renovation. This hall was turned into a warm water bath. Pools that could fit about twenty people were built in the niches where the statues used to stand. The statues were moved to the niches of the southern row of changing rooms (apodyteria) of Frigidarium I, in another hall in the bath complex. Later most of them were burned in kilns to obtain lime. Parts of these imperial statues were discovered during the excavations of 2007-2009.

The construction of the gate probably started under Alexander Severus (222235 AD) who won a victory against the Persians. Many Pisidian soldiers served in the Severan emperors’ campaigns against Persia; in turn, many monuments were built in their honour. This gate was one of the last major monuments built in the city – the death of Alexander Severus marked a halt to two centuries of intense building activity at Sagalassos.

Collapsed stones of the Severan Gate still visible on the surface along the path leading to the Upper Agora.

Pieces of colossal statues found in the Frigidarium 1, believed to belong originally to the Marble Hall. Shown are marble heads of Emperors Hadrian (dated at 120-125 AD), Marcus Aurelius (dated at 170-180 AD), and Empress Faustina the elder, wife of Antoninus Pius (dated at 138-161 AD), along with the front part of the feet of Empress Sabina, wife of Hadrian (dated at 120-125 AD).

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The Marble Hall of the ‘Imperial Baths’

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The Odeon A cultural centre

The Hadrianic Nymphaeum Façade architecture

Aerial view of the Odeon. The later caravan road cuts through the west end of the stage building.

The construction of the Odeon began during the reign of emperor Augustus (27 BC-14 AD), a fact we know because we were able to date a well-preserved column capital discovered during the excavations to this period. The construction, however dragged on for about 200 years. The building was probably financed by the city council. The Odeon was an indoor theatre and a concert hall with a semicircular auditorium and a stage building (skene) about 50 meters long. 1500 to 2000 spectators could be seated in the multipurpose room to watch music, drama, poetry and oratory. Famous orators on tour also held their performances here. The rich inner façade of the stage building was not completed until around 200 AD. The eastern entrance is very well preserved: still intact are the staircase leading to the podium and the special loggia facing the stage, reserved for prominent spectators.

The well-preserved east entrance of the Odeon. Unfortunately the rest of the monument was not found in this condition. The seating was removed and the west entrance remained under the caravan road.

The fountain was commissioned by the first Roman knight of Sagalassos, Tiberius Claudius Piso, who ordered its construction in his will. He dedicated the monument to Emperor Hadrian. It was common in Roman provincial towns for local aristocrats and benefactors to dedicate monuments to the emperors. This helped them display their connections with Rome.

This monument is an example of “tabernacle architecture”: the back wall has niches while projecting podiums made of one or two pairs of columns formed ‘tabernacles’, in which statues were placed. In the centre of the lower storey stood a 4-metre-high statue of Apollo. The fountain was close to the Temple of Apollo Klarios and was also dedicated to this god. Above the colossal statue of Apollo stood a gilded bronze statue of Emperor Hadrian, flanked on both sides by bronze statues of Piso. The other statues in the fountain represented Piso’s two heirs, who executed his will, and statues of gods and demigods. The pilasters of the podium are decorated with relief carvings of six of the nine muses. The statues of the nymphaeum were made by three different workshops, all of very high quality. The monumental fountain probably collapsed soon after 500 AD and was never reconstructed.

This 4.5-ton statue of Apollo filled the lower central niche of the monumental fountain of Hadrian. The statue was found in multiple pieces during excavations and has been reassembled. It is on display in the Burdur Museum Collection.

When the Odeon was completed it was probably used for meetings of the city council. The theatre-like arrangement ensured good acoustics, better than those in the Bouleuterion. The Odeon you now see is the result of 6th century AD renovations, when gladiator fights and animal hunts were also held here. Today only the rough shape of the cavea (seating area) is preserved: the stone seating was removed in late Antiquity.

Head of a marble statue (ca. 3m high) of the goddess Demeter, 117-138 AD. It was probably placed in the interior arcade of the Odeon’s stage.

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This monumental fountain, dating to 129-132 AD, was built on a terrace above the Lower Agora and dedicated to Emperor Hadrian. A flight of eight steps leads you to the basin of the fountain; behind it you can see the remaining part of the monument’s back wall. Originally 17m high, this was the only two-storey fountain at Sagalassos. Functional and prestigious at the same time, the monument was aligned with the south Colonnaded Street so that visitors could see its upper storey as they entered the city.

Reconstruction drawing of the late Hadrianic Nymphaeum of Sagalassos, built in 129-132 AD. © Julian Richard and Eliane Mahy.

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3 2

The Lower City and Surrounding Hills

The Urban Mansion

This little plaza in front of the Hadrianic Nymphaeum looks out on beautiful views of the lower part of Sagalassos and the valleys below. In front of you are the Lower Agora and the Colonnaded Street that extends to the south to join the Temple of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. Just west (right) of the temple is Alexander’s Hill.

Beginning in the era of Emperor Augustus, the local aristocrats of Sagalassos invested in the decoration and infrastructure of their city. In return, they received Roman citizenship and social prestige. However, this began to change in the 4th century AD. From this period on, a new class of super-rich landowners spent more on their own personal building projects. The palace-like urban residence you see in front of you is an example of this trend.

A spacious residence (1) southern section

Aerial view of the Late Antique ‘Urban Mansion’ (at the end of the excavations in 2012).

About two kilometres southwest of Sagalassos, you can see the plateau of Düzen Tepe, where the largest settlement of this area was located until the 2nd century BC. Above the plateau, the town on Düzen Tepe had an acropolis on Zincirli Tepe (1800m), the high hill with the sharp peak that rises to the right.

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We do not know why people abandoned Düzen Tepe. It could have been because of the lack of water there (compared to Sagalassos, where water is abundant), or it could also be that the Sagalassians were militarily superior. A large part of the population of Düzen Tepe may have resettled in Sagalassos.

1. Lower Agora 2. Hill with the ruins of the Hadrian and Antoninus Pius Temple 3. Alexander’s Hill 4. Düzen Tepe 5. Zincirli Tepe

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General view of the collapsed columns of the West portico of Peristyle Courtyard LXIX (the most southern colonnaded courtyard).

The ‘palatial residence’ acquired the shape you see today, more or less, by around 400 AD. However, its building history began much earlier. The first house, built in the 1st century BC, stood outside the city walls of the time. In the 1st century AD, a peristyle dwelling with a small, paved courtyard was constructed. In Late Antiquity this courtyard became the core of the private section of the mansion, which grew to gigantic proportions: eight floors and more than eighty rooms have been excavated. In the late 4th and early 5th century, the private part of the villa had its own bath spaces, three inner courtyards, many private rooms, and service spaces spread over two floors. The southernmost colonnaded courtyard is one of the largest known in Asia Minor.

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Düzen Tepe plateau (4) at the foot of the Zincirli summit (5, highest hill on the right). The conical hill with a flat top before them is Alexander’s Hill (3).

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Figurative wall painting fragments (glass flask, hand, flower) and graffito (bird and male head) from Peristyle Courtyard LXIX.

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The Urban Mansion

The Macellum

A spacious residence (2) northern section

A market for luxury products

This palace-like urban mansion in the eastern residential quarter of Sagalassos was not only a private residence, but also had a public wing. The mansion undoubtedly belonged to a member of the urban elite who lived here with his family, or to the local bishop.

A market for luxury food products (macellum) was built on this terrace south of the Upper Agora in the last decade of the 2nd century AD, most likely replacing an Augustan predecessor built on the same spot. Later, decorative and utilitarian luxury products were also sold here, including jewellery, music instruments, and objects of worked bone, antler, metal, and glass. Servants of the wealthy came here to shop.

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View on the representative wing of the Late Antique residence from the northwest (central space A; Reception Hall B; Staircase C leading via Waiting Rooms D and E to Banquet Hall F and the presumable Guest Rooms G and H).

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In situ mosaic floors in in the public section of the Urban Mansion: corridor K next to the Atrium (left), and the two Waiting Rooms D and E (right) which gave access to the Banquet Hall F.

The public part of the house was used to grant audiences to guests and for formal entertainment. This area was arranged around a covered inner courtyard (atrium) with its own fountain, and an impluvium (a pool that collects rainwater) which was constantly fed with fresh water. The mansion also had its own water supply. Waiting rooms with mosaic floors were arranged around the atrium. The atrium also gave access to an impressive audience hall. Right above this hall, on the upper floor, there was a second reception hall with an semicircular recess (apse) on the east end which is still preserved.

Hypothetical reconstruction of the Macellum courtyard with the tholos in the centre.

An architrave-frieze block from one of the porticos of the Macellum. At the right end of the top line it is clearly visible where the name of Commodus was removed. The remaining parts of his name still allowed this inscription to be dated at ca. 180-191 AD.

The market was arranged around a courtyard of about 21 by 21 meters, and surrounded on three sides with shops behind expensive marble columns. The south side of the courtyard was an open colonnade offering impressive views towards the lower city and the valleys beyond.

A staircase led from the atrium to a spacious banquet hall. In front of the banquet hall, mosaic-paved waiting rooms were arranged. Most likely there were also guest rooms in this part of the house.

C

Staircase C with its purple schist pavement, leading via Waiting Rooms D and E to Banquet Hall F.

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The mansion was presumably subdivided into smaller units at least three times: after 450 AD, soon after the plague epidemic of 541-542 AD, and once again after the earthquake of 602-610. A part of the villa was probably turned into a kind of hotel or hostel and formerly prestigious rooms were used for more ordinary purposes such as storage, stables and even garbage dumps. This reuse of a once opulent building reflects how the proud city of Sagalassos gradually became a rural village, Aerial view of the Macellum, the market building, with shops arranged around three sides of the square courtyard, with the tholos in the middle.

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The Upper Agora Political centre, gallery, and marketplace

Publius Aelius Akulas, a benefactor of the city and priest of the Imperial cult, provided funds for the construction of the market. Akulas financed the porticos (colonnaded galleries), while the city paid for the pavement and the central round building (tholos). The tholos had a diameter of 6 meters and contained a water basin. Akulas dedicated this new market to Emperor Commodus on the occasion of his victory over the Parthians. Later, the name of Commodus was erased from all of the inscriptions. The shops of the market were rebuilt between 450 and 520 AD, but the porticos, the courtyard and the tholos remained the same. Some rooms of the complex stayed in use until ca. 600 AD, and one of the storage spaces until as late as 620 AD.

During the Hellenistic period the Upper Agora was the political heart of the city. The assembly of male citizens gathered here, and the Bouleuterion (city council building) dominates the west side of the agora.

Objects made from animal bones from the sixth century AD, produced and sold in the Macellum. At that time, a workshop was established there that produced artefacts made of deer antlers.

During the reign of Augustus, the agora was thoroughly reorganized and paved, a project financed by four prominent citizens from the local elite of Sagalassos. They were honoured with columns placed at the four corners of the agora, each carrying a bronze statue of one of the benefactors. About 14m high, these columns were made to be seen from all over the city. The northern columns were recently restored and re-erected. The two western ones were dedicated to the brothers Eilagoas and Krateros. Roman rulers expected the local elite to invest in infrastructure and monuments in their home towns. In return they would receive Roman citizenship, be knighted or even become senators. In this way, certain

families at Sagalassos were able to gain control of the city and hold on to power for many generations. From the 1st century AD onwards the agora began to fill up with honorific monuments erected for emperors, governors and the local aristocrats, turning the square almost into a gallery. Around 500 AD, an earthquake struck the city and most of these statues and honorific monuments toppled. From this point onward, the agora returned to the people. Most of the statues were burned for lime or melted down for metal, and their pedestals were reused elsewhere in the city. The agora was subsequently used as a marketplace. On the pavement slabs you can still see holes for the wooden poles used to hold up market stalls and inscriptions assigning the stalls to specific individuals. A few statues of important emperors or prominent benefactors were collected along the sides of the square.

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A flute made of animal bone (ca. 6th century AD) found in the Macellum. The instrument is part of the Burdur Museum collection and still works.

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A copper alloy brooch in the shape of a goat, 4th-5th century AD, found in the Macellum.

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Hypothetical reconstruction of the Upper Agora and its surroundings in the 2nd century AD. 1- Upper Agora 2- Honorific columns (5-14 AD) 3- Antonine Nymphaeum (160-180 AD) 4- Tychaion (25-0 BC) 5- Arch of Claudius (37-41 AD) 6- Bouleuterion (ca.100 BC) 7- Doric Temple (50-25 BC) 8- Northwest Heroön (ca. 1 AD) 9- Macellum (180-191 AD)

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The Arch of Claudius

The Antonine Nymphaeum

A monumental gate to the agora

An opulent fountain (1)

Remains of a collapsed monumental arch visible in the topsoil in the southwest corner of the Upper Agora were first studied in 1987. It was identified as an arch dedicated to Emperor Caligula dating to 37-41 AD. Archaeologists excavated the area in 2010 and found that almost all of the building blocks were preserved as well as the two pillar bases of the arch. The building inscriptions revealed that the monument was financed by, “Kallikles, son of Darius”. He was a grandson of Eilagoas who was honoured with a bronze statue on top of the northwest column in the agora. This Sagalassian family was the first family in the city to acquire Roman citizenship, perhaps because they sponsored the construction of this arch.

This fountain was constructed on the north side of the Upper Agora between 160 and 180 AD. It was exceptionally rich in decoration, with a dozen different types of stone used in its construction. It replaced a rather simple Doric fountain of the Augustan period, built against a terrace wall.

Inscriptions were placed on the side of the arch facing the agora, while a weapon frieze decorated the side facing the southwest street approaching the agora. Although a popular theme for many centuries, this was the last weapon frieze on a public monument at Sagalassos. Statues of Claudius and Germanicus must have stood on top of the arch, but no remains of either the statues or the pedestals were recovered. The monument was restored using its original building stones in 2011-2013. An almost identical monumental arch, dedicated by the city to Claudius in 46 AD, stood just opposite to this one at the southeast corner of the Upper Agora. Since August 2010, water cascades once again into the basin of the Antonine Nymphaeum, built from a dozen different types of stone. In this monument, water is used as a decorative architectural element. The water collected in the basin reflects the rich columnar façade and its statues.

The building was indeed originally dedicated to Caligula. However upon his death, his name was condemned and erased from inscriptions all over the Empire including this arch in Sagalassos. Subsequently the arch was re-dedicated in 43 AD to his successor Emperor Claudius and his brother Germanicus, Caligula’s father. The original central inscription was erased and replaced by new ones at the two ends of the frieze.

This single-storey fountain is 28 metres long and almost nine metres high. Six ‘tabernacles’ project from the façade. The lateral ones (with two pairs of columns) project more than the central ones (with one pair of columns). The basin holds 81 cubic metres and was reached by a short staircase. Between 1998 and 2010 the fountain was reconstructed and its water system reconnected; this is the third monument restored at Sagalassos. During excavations, many statues were discovered inside the basin; in 2011, casts of these were restored to their locations in the nymphaeum. Sagalassos’ greatest benefactor, Titus Flavius Severianus Neon, probably financed the fountain along with his wife. Neon belonged to an important family that was eminent in Sagalassos for many centuries. He was honoured more in the city than any other benefactor: we find his name on more than a dozen statue bases, some dating from long after his death.

Location of the arch before excavations.

The fountain itself was repaired after 500 AD and was turned into a memorial monument for the Neon family. Some names of family members can be read in the inscriptions on the bases of the statues that were placed inside and even on top of the fountain.

Reconstruction of the arch based on discovered original stones.

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The frontons of the corner tabernacle are decorated with symmetrical spiral scrolls (volutes) The others are either triangular or half round and carry Medusa heads.

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The Antonine Nymphaeum Statues in the basin (2)

Like many other buildings in Sagalassos, the Antonine Nymphaeum is sumptuously decorated. In the Roman Empire, elaborate decoration was first used on buildings in the time of Emperor Augustus, when it was used to symbolize the golden age that begun with his reign.

North part of the Upper Agora before excavations (1993).

The terrace wall and the podium of the nymphaeum before restoration, unearthed in 1993-1994.

The main decorative themes in this fountain refer to water and the god Dionysos, as suggested by the theatre masks, grapes and intoxicating plants. The two larger-than-life statues of the drunken Dionysos supported by a Satyr were very expensive sculptures from the city of Aphrodisias. These two statues are the only ones original to the fountain.

Dionysos supported by a Satyr, the smaller of two almost identical groups in the left corner tabernacle; carved in a workshop at Aphrodisias in 160- 180 AD. This statue group was depicted on Sagalassos city coins and was reproduced on locally produced serving bowls and in terracotta figurines.

The other statues that archaeologists discovered in the basin originally stood elsewhere and were added to the fountain in the 4th and the 5th century AD. They represent Nemesis, Apollo, Asklepios and Koronis. All of the statues except Nemesis were broken and thrown in the basin by Christians. The statue of Nemesis was damaged during the earthquake of 600-620 AD. The original statues are displayed in the Museum of Burdur; the statues exhibited here are copies.

Nemesis, possibly from the “tabernacle façade” of the Theatre; reused in the 4th-5th century AD in the second niche in the back wall of the “Antonine Nymphaeum”. Made of Docimian marble in early 180’s. The original statue is displayed in the Burdur Museum.

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Reconstruction drawing of the Antonine Nymphaeum. Supplemental pieces used during the restoration are shown in blue. After S. Ercan, 2005.

Images from different phases of the restoration.

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The Antonine Nymphaeum

The Bouleuterion A building for the elected council

Restoration (1998-2010)

An earthquake in ca. 610 AD caused the Nymphaeum to collapse. Its ruins were covered by soil eroded from the hillside above, and were only exposed again by excavations in 1993-1995. Because most of the building elements were still well-preserved and the podium of the building was found in situ, it was possible to re-erect the monument. Restoration using the original stone (anastylosis) began in 1998 under the supervision of architectural conservation expert Semih Ercan. The project continued for 13 years, during the summer months, and was completed in 2010. The project consisted of four phases: 1. Joining all broken fragments together and identifying their original position About 3500 broken pieces of stone were reassembled into approximately 400 blocks, using epoxy as adhesive and fibreglass as reinforcement (1998-2000). Their exact position on the building was defined through architectural research (restitution). 2. Carving the supplemental and missing pieces With the help of the ‘pantograph’, a kind of compass used to create supplemental pieces that closely fit to the original blocks, hundreds of missing building fragments were re-carved to perfectly match the broken surface of the partially preserved blocks. This technique was applied only to the missing parts that were structurally necessary. Next, the whole monument was set-up without fixing the architectural elements to each other, to test whether the hypothetical restitution was accurate (2001-2007).

3. The anastylosis The whole building was then dismantled again. The final construction then began, this time with structural connections joining the blocks. Stones were connected to each other vertically and horizontally as they used to be in the ancient building. The new connections, made of fibreglass were designed to be strong enough to resist stress but at the same time, slightly weaker than the original stone. Under excess load, these connections will break first, preventing the ancient stone from cracking and further damage. To reduce earthquake risk, neoprene vibration isolation panels were placed in the upper part of the structure, below the architrave. This isolation system separates the upper part of the structure, which contains the main load, from its more rigid lower part, allowing the upper part to move by itself and partially absorbing earthquake vibrations (2008-2010).

Aerial view of the Bouleuterion and its original courtyard (upper right corner on the photo). A basilica was built in its courtyard in the 5th century AD.

The Bouleuterion had a strong symbolic meaning for Sagalassians. It was a reference point for many later buildings and monuments of the upper town, which followed its alignment. The rectangular limestone building itself was rather sober. It could seat 220 elected members. A frieze on the outside of the monument depicts weaponry and busts of the war gods Ares and Athena, which suggested Sagalassos’ military prowess. Corinthian style half capitals were used inside the building, a new and fashionable style in Pisidia at that time. From 200 AD onwards the Bouleuterion was no longer used and the city council probably met in the Odeon instead.

4. Reconnecting the water supply To complete the structure, water was brought to the Nymphaeum from the Late Hellenistic fountain house, 230 metres to the east, restoring its ancient function as a public fountain.

One of the two half columns of the Bouleuterion with a depiction of Athena and a war prisoner in relief.

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The city council building (bouleuterion), was built soon after 100 AD on a natural terrace to the west of the Upper Agora, flanked by a courtyard. This building is evidence that Sagalassos had an elected and active city council (boulé) at that time. The institution was already old by then: from the 4th century BC onwards Sagalassos was a polis (citystate) based on the Greek model, with elected magistrates and written laws. This model continued during the Roman period, although civic institutions were dominated by a few elite families, replacing democracy with oligarchy.

A warrior helmet in relief on the outside of the Bouleuterion, 1st century BC,

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The Archangel Michael Basilica

The Northwest Heroön Monument to an anonymous benefactor (1)

A short-lived church

Around 400 AD the old city council building (bouleuterion) of Sagalassos was abandoned, and its stones were re-used to build the new city walls. The place where the building once stood was turned into an open courtyard. The open space in front of the former council building was then used to build a Christian basilica, the first church in Sagalassos. It was likely devoted to the archangel Michael, who was widely venerated in Pisidia at that time. At first, the entrance to the church was from the south, but after the early 6th century a monumental staircase was built that connected the church directly to the Upper Agora.

This new basilica was not used for very long. Shortly after 500 AD it was seriously damaged (probably by an earthquake). Its restoration was probably interrupted by the plague of 541-542 AD and never completed. It later collapsed after a major earthquake shortly after 600 AD. By that time, there were several other churches in Sagalassos.

This heroön was built around the year 1 AD, during the reign of the Emperor Augustus. The monument was recently re-erected using its original stones. Architects could tell where each block belonged on the monument by looking at the original connection holes on the stones. Visible from afar, the monument stands on a square podium 7.80 by 8.50 meters and is 15 metres high. A heroön is a small temple monument that honours a local benefactor. Sometimes they also served as graves for these individuals. Members of the local aristocracy of Sagalassos constructed such monuments in order to be remembered. Heroa were built within the inhabited areas of Sagalassos until Early Imperial times. The Northwest Heroön was a monument for a young aristocrat, whose name is unknown. Archaeologists have not found a dedicatory inscription. However, they did find parts of a 2.5-metre high statue of this person, including the beautifully-carved head in Docimian marble. The statue most likely stood in front of the doors of the monument. Around 400 AD, the Northwest Heroön was incorporated into the new city walls, where it functioned as a tower.

Today the mosaic and opus sectile floor of the basilica is covered with protective layers.

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Reconstruction of the south façade of the Northwest Heroön. After E. Torun, 2000.

Marble head of the colossal statue placed in front of the door of the Northwest Heroön. It represents the young heros in an idealized portrait, probably a young local aristocrat, who after his death was honoured with this building. On display, in the Burdur Museum.

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Reconstruction of the east façade of the Northwest Heroön. After E. Torun, 2000.

Close-up view of the wall frieze decoration of the Northwest Heroön.

The first panel of the frieze with dancers from the Northwest Heroön (ca 10 BC – 10 AD). On the left, a young woman playing a cithara. A dancer on the right holds an edge of her floating robe. Both wear high dancing shoes. Made of Burdur limestone.

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The Northwest Heroön

The Doric Temple

Craftsmen at work (2)

From temple to tower

The base of the Heroön was decorated with a wonderful frieze. You can see a girl playing the cithara and thirteen dancing girls depicted almost life-size and in relief. They are dancing in the round, and two carry symbols related to worship of the god Dionysos. It could be that the person honoured with this monument had introduced this cult to Sagalassos, or had organized festivals for him during which such dances were performed. The original stones from this frieze are on display in the Burdur Museum, as well as the beautiful marble head of the statue found here.

Between 50 and 25 BC construction of a new temple began at the highest spot in the city centre of Sagalassos. The walls of that monument are partly preserved today. The temple was almost certainly dedicated to Zeus, who had long been the main god of Sagalassos and most Pisidian cities.

Another frieze of lush winding vines is visible higher up on the walls. This decorative theme comes from Italy, where the architects of Emperor Augustus used it to symbolize the prosperous ‘golden age’ that the emperor had begun. At Sagalassos, this imagery (and the propaganda behind it) spread very quickly. The Heroön exemplifies the work of Sagalassos’ master craftsmen, which can be seen over many generations on numerous prestigious graves and public monuments. Archaeological research allows us to follow their activity in the city for almost four centuries.

Detail from the frieze of the dancing girls; the face of the fourth girl from the start of the round (southwest corner). The complete frieze with dancing girls is on display in the Burdur Museum.

The temple was built in the Doric style but stood on a Roman-style podium, showing a mix of Greek and Roman architectural styles. Soon after its construction, during the reign of Emperor Augustus, a Corinthian-style monumental gate and new temenos (sacred enclosure) walls were built for the temple complex. Around 400 AD the temple was abandoned. Soon afterwards, it was incorporated into the new fortification walls constructed around the Sagalassos city centre. The gate of these new walls, located just behind the former temple, was decorated with busts of Ares and Athena taken from the walls of the dismantled Bouleuterion. The temple was converted into a high tower incorporating many of the weaponry frieze blocks from the Hellenistic Council House nearby.

Remains of the Propylon (monumental entrance) of the temple today. The late fortification wall was built through the gate around 400 AD when the temple had fallen out of use.

Reconstruction of the south façade of the Doric Temple. After M. Waelkens, 1987.

Still standing walls of the Doric Temple, with late fortification walls of the 5th century AD built against it.

Reconstruction of the monumental gate to the temple area built in ca. 1st century AD. After M. Waelkens, 1987.

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The new fortification

The Western and Northern Necropoleis

A new wall around the city

Cities of the dead

A new fortification wall was built around the monumental heart of Sagalassos around 400 AD. This wall did not surround Sagalassos completely, but enclosed only one third of the inhabited area. The new fortification partly followed the circuit of an earlier Hellenistic city wall.

One of the largest of Sagalassos’s four necropoleis is located to the west, on the skirts of the terraces on which the city was built. It lay on and around a limestone massif where a church stood in the 5th or 6th century AD. The western necropolis covered more than 5 hectares and contained mostly sarcophagi.

Why was the new wall built? Despite ongoing raids during this period, it was not built for a specific emergency. Rather, this major construction project was related to the politics of the time, which aimed to revive urban life and support the economy. The new city walls also expressed a renewed urban pride among the inhabitants of Sagalassos around 400 AD.

To the north, an almost vertical rock face with arched niches (arcosolia) forms the smallest of Sagalassos’ necropoleis, the North Necropolis. The arcosolia date back to the Imperial period (1st to 2nd century AD). Some feature a cremation urn carved into the rock, while in others a separate cremation urn would have been placed in the niche. In a third group, the urn or coffin is formed by a separately carved and decorated slab.

The late fortification walls joining the Doric Temple and the Northwest Heroön and the west city gate, built around 400 AD

Some existing monuments, such as the Doric Temple and the Northwest Heroön were incorporated into the wall as towers. Stones of dismantled monuments, such as the Bouleuterion, and pieces of sarcophagi and other grave monuments were re-used during the construction.

First a stone quarry This rock face probably began as a stone quarry, and later became the northern necropolis. The beige-coloured local limestone was quarried along the northern slopes of Sagalassos throughout the JulioClaudian to Severan periods (1st century BC – 3rd century AD). Building stone was also brought to the site from other quarries, located anywhere from a few to hundreds of kilometres away. White, darkblue, and especially purple-veined white marble from Dokimeion (Afyon), another type of white marble from Afrodisias (Geyre), and even a green marble, cipollino, from Euboia in Greece were brought to Sagalassos.

Fortification walls built after 400 AD

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Close up view of one of the arcosolium in the northern necropolis

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Example of channelling to extract building blocks, near the eastern quarries at Sagalassos.

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Three basic ancient stone extraction techniques were levering (A), splitting (B) and channelling (C). Levering is extraction of blocks following natural cracks that are widened with the help of levers or inserted stones. Splitting created cracks by using a sledge hammer to hit wedges inserted into a series of prefabricated holes. Channelling was combined with splitting where deep grooves were carved out in the rock.

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Stadium and Basilica E1

The Trajanic Nymphaeum

From stadium to church

A fountain next to the stadium

It is not known exactly when the stadium of Sagalassos was constructed. We do know that by 117 AD, a public fountain stood at its entrance. In the 5th or 6th

The church was constructed using carefully numbered and dismantled stones from a temple of Dionysos, an example of the transition Sagalassos went through during the 4th and 5th centuries as it gradually became a Christian city. However, despite the demolition of many temples, pagan decorations were preserved in this church and in other places around the city.

The first monumental fountain built in Sagalassos was located next to the Stadium. It was dedicated to the city and Emperor Trajan (98-117 AD). Claudia Severa, a member of the most important family in Sagalassos, financed the construction of the fountain along with her sisters and brothers. Sagalassos’ two most prominent families of that time were united through her marriage to the grandfather of T. Flavius Severianus Neon. The fountain reflected a new aspect of urban benefactions around 100 AD: whereas during the Julio-Claudian period (AD 14 - 58) monuments to the Imperial family had only honorific character, in the later period they were also utilitarian.

Plan

The games probably took place for the most part in the stadium. Private organizers of the games provided the prize money as well as the statues of the victors. However, the latter’s names were only briefly mentioned, while the benefactors described their entire careers in detail on the statue bases for the victors. People from all over the region attended the games. The spectacle and its use of Imperial propaganda provided a shared cultural experience that must have given the citizens a feeling of belonging to the Roman Empire. Since under Vespasian the ‘municipal’ emperor cult was installed in the Temple of Apollo Klareios, the Klareia were also associated with the Imperial cult.

century AD, a church was built in the stadium. It was most likely dedicated to martyrs of the intense Christian persecution during the reign of Emperor Diocletianus (303-313 AD). Such churches were often built on the spot where martyrs were executed, for instance in the stadium.

East elevation

The ‘games’ played an important part in Imperial propaganda. At Sagalassos, these games were mainly the ‘Klareia’, the games for Apollo Klarios, which consisted of running, wrestling and boxing competitions for both adults and children.

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Reconstruction of the nymphaeum . After G. Üner and J. Richard, 2010.

Remains of the basilica built in the former stadium, made of architectural blocks from a Dionysos Temple elsewhere in the city.

Reliability

1st degree - in situ



2nd degree - fairly reliable position



3rd degree - possible position



3rd degree - architrave in fairly reliable position



3rd degree - architrave in possible position



4th degree - structural necessity

The fountain, now collapsed, measured 6.5 by 7.5 m. Its apsidal (semi-circular) façade consisted of a podium that supported a solid wall decorated with an elegant Ionic colonnade. In the middle of the back wall, a vertical groove suggests the presence of a pipe for water supply, implying that the basin was probably not supplied from a cascading water system but through a single spouting statue instead.

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The area of the stadium. Today almost no remains of this once popular monument can be seen on the site, except a few seating rows and its shape on the topography.

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In situ plan of the Trajanic nymphaeum amongst the collapsed building blocks. After G. Üner and J. Richard, 2010.

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The Late Hellenistic Fountain

The Neon Library

Water for new neighbourhoods This fountain house was built just before the reign of the Emperor Augustus, between 50 and 25 BC. It was reconstructed in 1997, and the original water source (discovered in the excavations) was reconnected and now fills the fountain again. The fountain is u-shaped, with a Doric portico elevated on a balustrade. The portico protects the water basin behind it from heat and dirt. The fountain was built when Sagalassos began to outgrow its original city walls. This fountain was part of the new quarter that developed to the east, in a less-steep area with beautiful panoramas. The new neighbourhood was favoured by wealthy families during the Imperial period, who got their water from this fountain or others in the town, though many also had water supply systems in their homes.

After the early earthquake around 500 AD, the fountain house was partially filled up and converted into a holding-tank from where water was taken by terracotta pipes to various places in the city.

The u-shaped water basin of the fountain house, sheltered under the roof.

Within one century (50 BC- 50 AD) Sagalassos tripled in size. Most of the city’s underground water distribution pipes were also laid in this period, which is a very early date for such an infrastructure.

This library, built ca. 120 AD, is one of several monuments built by the elite families of Sagalassos. By building such monuments, these aristocrats were able to display their wealth and leave a legacy. Titus Flavius Severianus Neon, a member of one of the most important families of Sagalassos and a scion from the intermarriage between the two leading families of the later 1st century AD, built the library. He was the greatest benefactor of the city and also the patron of the games. He built the library in honour of his deceased father. In many ways, it resembles the Library of Celsus at Ephesus (114 -117 AD), which was also a dedicated to a deceased father by his son. The two buildings also have some architectural similarities. The building was renovated several times. Today only the podium of the rear wall belongs to the original building phase. The niches in the podium held small statues and a series of inscriptions were placed on a row of slabs above them. In the inscriptions, Neon and some members of his family are honoured by the city council (Boulè) and the assembly (Dèmos). The back wall, made of solid brick, belongs to the second building phase of the library (200 AD). During this renovation due to structural problems, the interior of the Library was made narrower. The side walls date back from this building phase. The black and white mosaic floor dates from a second renovation phase. This may have been carried out during the reign

Settlement area in the city during Hellenistic Period

Sagalassos city map showing urban growth in different periods.

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Settlement area in the city from Imperial Period to the 6th century AD Parts of Hellenistic city walls

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Late Antique city walls Necropoleis

of Emperor Julian the Apostate (361-363 AD). The damaged middle panel of the mosaic depicted a scene from the Trojan War, showing Achilles saying farewell to his mother Thetis before leaving to join the war. The artist’s name, Dioskoros, is also legible on the panel. Towards the end of the fourth century, this monument and the mosaic panel were destroyed by the Christians, since they were symbols of pagan culture. The large cracks on the mosaic floor are the result of the big earthquake of the 610s AD.

Reconstruction showing the interior of the library in its original building phase. After M. Waelkens and G. Üner, 2013.

Reconstruction of the interior of the library after the first renovation. After M. Waelkens and G. Üner, 2013. In the first text of the inscription band on the rear wall, the Boulè (city council) and the Dèmos (assembly) honour Titus Flavius Severianus Neon as “a son of the city, loving his fatherland, a ktistes (founder of the library/re-founder of the city), a virtuous man and an agonothetes (presiding chairman most likely of the Klareia) for his lifetime, with his own (financial) resources, because of his respect and benefactions for them.”

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The Theatre A stage performance with a view

“On the side of the hill that rises above, there is one of the finest and most perfect theatres I have ever seen or heard of ...”, wrote Charles Fellows, an early visitor to Sagalassos, in his 1839 A Journal Written During an Excursion in Asia Minor. He was not the only one impressed by this well preserved complex and its stunning views of Alexander’s Hill and beyond.

The partially snow-covered Theatre of Sagalassos, photographed by G. Bell on April 28, 1907,. The mountain with the sharp peak at the centre of the image is the acropolis of Düzen Tepe. © M.P.C. Jackson, curator for the Gertrude Bell Photograpic Archive.

Today the Theatre of Sagalassos is one of the most romantic ancient theatres in Anatolia. The spectators could see Alexander’s Hill (in the centre of the image) right behind the axis of the stage.

The construction of the Theatre most likely started around 120 AD, when Emperor Hadrian granted Sagalassos an important role in the imperial cult. This new status meant that the city would be hosting events for all of Pisidia; therefore adequate buildings were needed to accommodate the ceremonies. Although Sagalassos only had at most 5000 inhabitants at that time, the Theatre could seat about 9000 spectators. The construction of the Theatre stopped around 180-190 AD, probably due to lack of funds. The city had been overspending for many years. Thus the stage building does not have a second storey, and the seating above the southwest entrance was never completed. The Theatre also has a well-preserved vaulted corridor with entrance and exit gates (vomitoria) for the spectators. Archaeologists have found reliefs of gladiators and animal hunting in the Theatre. Besides performances, the Theatre was also used for gladiatorial contests, which rulers commonly sponsored to entertain the people and improve their public image.

The Potter’s Quarter or The Eastern Outskirts Innovation and tradition

The Potters’ Quarter of Sagalassos lies to the east of the Theatre and covers a vast area of six hectares. Not only potters but also bone and metal workers were active in the area, and perhaps glassmakers and wool dyers as well. Outside the city proper, the area was a mix of workshops and graveyards. Starting from the reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD), Sagalassos became wellknown for its terra sigillata (glossy slipped tableware) made from the high quality local clay. In this period the population was growing, and the city was connected to the rest of the empire by land and sea routes. The elite families of Sagalassos invested in ceramic production, establishing large-scale production workshops in the potters’ quarter that evolved to take on an industrial character. Pottery from Sagalassos was exported across the empire. Wine bottles from Sagalassos have been discovered in other parts of Asia Minor, Egypt, and Carthage. For six centuries Sagalassos remained an important centre of pottery production. What was the secret of this success? They kept the regional forms that people were accustomed to use for centuries while enlarging the scale of production. They were innovative and traditional at the same time.

Decorated handle of a terracotta bowl from 0-200 AD, after prototypes of similar silver tableware. Burdur Museum collection.

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Examples of locally produced tableware (Sagalassos red slip ware). Top left two drinking cups and right a bowl. At the bottom, a cup (mastos) after Hellenistic prototypes in glass or silver, 25 BC-15 AD. The upper cup and bowl were excavated in Sagalassos, the two remaining pieces are from the province of Burdur. Burdur Museum collection.

Mould-shaped flask with a picture of an Amazon, 5th century AD. Found in the rubble of the former courtyard of the Bouleuterion, rebuilt as a church.

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Marc Waelkens: “A Lifelong Dream” “I have experienced unforgettable moments in Sagalassos. I remember very well when I first came here with my good friend and colleague Stephen Mitchell. It was August 23, 1983. When we arrived, early in the morning – around half past seven – it was completely deserted. Mehmet, the guard, was the only one around. He immediately made us some tea. We enjoyed it together. At that hour of the day the light at Sagalassos is the most beautiful. Everywhere we saw monuments, sometimes several meters high. Between them lay overturned columns and statue bases. In the distance we discovered the theatre, one of the most romantic ruins in Turkey in terms of location. I can make this comparison because I have visited nearly all of them. That morning, we shuffled from ruin to ruin, afraid of breaking pottery or glass. The ground was covered with it. A bird of prey circled above us, its wings spread wide. Sometimes it would suddenly dive down. It contributed to the magic of the moment. That was my first visit to Sagalassos. That’s how it all started. And so the dream of a sixyear-old boy, who after reading four pages about the discovery of Troy in a Spirou comic strip, announced to his father that later he would also go digging in Turkey, came true.

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“This first visit to Sagalassos turned my life upside down and formed the basis of all the ‘happy’ and ‘tragic’ moments I’ve experienced since then. The latter were offset by the many magical moments, like when an eagle accompanied us, barely two meters in front of our minibus, as we approached Ağlasun. It was as if we drove under the protection of Zeus himself. Or that one evening at dusk, when I turned over the intact head of the ‘smaller’ Dionysos from the Antonine Nymphaeum and the god stared at me, smiling. He seemed grateful to see the light of day again, after fourteen centuries.” “I often think back to the early years with nostalgia. We felt connected to the Western travellers of the nineteenth century, who together with their staff often stayed in better circumstances than we did. The warm hospitality of the locals, however, made up for everything. This is when the basis was laid of the close friendships which now connect us with the labourers and ‘fellow townspeople’, and which will serve to protect Sagalassos into the future.”

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T.C. KÜLTÜR VE TURİZM BAKANLIĞI

This guide is published as part of the project “Development and Promotion of Cultural and Natural Resources of Ağlasun for Sustainable Tourism Use,” funded within the framework of the West Mediterranean Development Agency’s 2011 Financial Support Programme (reference number TR61/11/TURİZM/KAMU/01-35). Co-financing is provided by a Concerted Research Action by the University of Leuven on “Approaching patterns of nature-society interactions in regional development. An interdisciplinary dialogue between past and present in the region of Sagalassos”. Its contents do not reflect the official opinion of the West Mediterranean Development Agency and/ or the Ministry of Development. The Municipality of Ağlasun is wholly responsible for the views expressed herein.

Written by: Marc Waelkens and the Sagalassos Team Text adapted by: Patrick De Rynck and Ebru Torun Illustrations: Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project unless otherwise stated.