Running head: THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS

ii THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS

The Possible Benefits of Early Dyslexia Diagnosis

Daniel L. Lowery California State University San Marcos Spring 2016

iii THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS

Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate if certain early childhood behaviors are associated with a person being diagnosed with dyslexia. Only a slight proportion of articles published regarding dyslexia concern preschool children. This study attempted to determine whether some behaviors displayed before kindergarten or early primary school might indicate a connection to dyslexia. The survey study method was chosen for this study. It is important to recognize that ‘the survey approach is a research strategy, not a research method. As with any research approach, a choice of methods is available and the one most appropriate to the individual project should be used.” (Blaxter, 2010) This is not to say the surveys and statistical studies are mutually exclusive. This study analyzed 11 children and their parents who had been identified as dyslexic by medical doctors. One parent for each child was recruited making the total number of participants 22 in all. The participants came from The Dyslexia Institute of San Diego. The ages of these students ranged from 11 to 17 years old. The students were chosen by administrators at The Dyslexia Institute. Both students and children were asked questions concerning their early childhood. There were no prerequisites for students or parents to participate in the study other than having been diagnosed with dyslexia. The researcher did not take part in choosing either students or parents who enrolled where this study was performed. The researcher had the questionnaires given to the institute's members by their administrators at The Dyslexia Institute and at events they held both publicly and privately.

iv THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iii List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vii Chapter 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 Statement of Problem .................................................................................................................. 2 Definition .................................................................................................................................... 2 Rationale for the Study................................................................................................................ 3 Research Question ....................................................................................................................... 3 Hypothesis ................................................................................................................................... 3 Limitations .................................................................................................................................. 4 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 4 Chapter 2: Review of Literature ..................................................................................................... 5 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 5 Diagnosing Dyslexia ................................................................................................................... 5 Historic Overview of Dyslexia.................................................................................................... 6 Laterality Issues........................................................................................................................... 7 Visual Perceptions Problems ....................................................................................................... 9 Phoneme Awareness Difficulties .............................................................................................. 11 Summary of Literature Review ................................................................................................. 16

v THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 18 Research Design Overview ....................................................................................................... 18 Research Question ..................................................................................................................... 19 Designing an in-depth questionnaire for the dyslexics ............................................................. 19 Comparing the Data .................................................................................................................. 20 Participants / Setting.................................................................................................................. 20 Instruments / Measures.............................................................................................................. 20 Procedures ................................................................................................................................. 21 Data Processing / Analysis ........................................................................................................ 21 Ethical Considerations / Limitations ......................................................................................... 22 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 22 Chapter 4: Results ......................................................................................................................... 24 Analysis: .................................................................................................................................... 34 Analysis of the Paired Questions .............................................................................................. 35 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 35 Chapter 5: Discussion ................................................................................................................... 37 Summary of Findings ................................................................................................................ 38 Implications ............................................................................................................................... 39 Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 41 Future Research ......................................................................................................................... 42

vi THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 42 References ..................................................................................................................................... 44 Appendix A: Student Questionnaire ............................................................................................. 50 Appendix B: Parental Questionnaire ............................................................................................ 52

vii THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS List of Tables Table 1: Background Questions for 11 Students .......................................................................... 26 Table 2: Background Questions for 11 Parents ............................................................................ 27 Table 3: Activity Questions for 11 Students ................................................................................. 28 Table 4: Activity Questions for 11 Parents ................................................................................... 28 Table 5: Coping Strategies for 11 Students .................................................................................. 29 Table 6: Coping Strategies for 11 Parents .................................................................................... 30 Table 7: Signals of Dyslexia for 11 Students................................................................................ 31 Table 8: Signals of Dyslexia for 11 Parents.................................................................................. 31 Table 9: Behavior Issues for 11 Students ..................................................................................... 32 Table 10: Behavior Issues for 11 Parents ..................................................................................... 33

1 Running head: THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS

Chapter 1 Introduction In the opening scene of the HBO documentary, “The Big Picture,” Kyle Redford discusses how as an educator she made all these plans for when her child, Dylan, attended school. She had taught every subject in grade school, so she had great insight about learning techniques for children. When Dylan entered school, however, her plans were derailed. He could not learn the alphabet or write his name. When Kyle asked the school about Dylan having dyslexia, administrators told her they did not make that diagnosis until 3rd grade. As she waited for the diagnosis, Kyle grew frustrated at his lack of progress. “I had all these great ideas and I couldn't even use them,” she said. She felt as though grades one through three were an educational limbo for him. Dylan also grew frustrated as his classmates learned reading, writing and math and he did not. He finishes the opening segment of the film by saying he started 4

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grade illiterate and spent the next several years trying to catch up to his classmates in special learning classes. Most schools no longer wait as long they did in Dylan's case, because making the dyslexia diagnosis occur at the age of eight or nine puts the dyslexic student at a severe disadvantage in his or her academic career (Singer, 2008). According to a 2005 article written by Singer in the Journal of Learning Disabilities, a Dutch study found that many dyslexics develop a dislike or even hatred of learning as a defense mechanism against criticism (Singer, 2005). The study went on to say dyslexics reported a sense of doing something wrong in the eyes of their classmates, they questioned their own intelligence, had feelings of guilt and shame, and experienced trauma when being asked to read aloud and reported test anxiety. They often

2 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS seek avoidance strategies such as faking illness, making jokes, lashing out in anger or simply skipping out on school (Singer, 2005). Many famous people such as Albert Einstein, Thomas Edison, Leonardo da Vinci, Hans Christen Anderson, Woodrow Wilson and Auguste Rodin, to name just a few, have reported students and teachers labeling them as stupid, lazy and not willing to put an effort (Hornsby 2011). Entrepreneur, Richard Branson says his dyslexia made him dread school so much that he left it at 15 years of age. His headmaster predicted that he would either go to prison or become a millionaire (Hoffman, 2012). Statement of Problem The miserable school experiences of Branson and others document the difficulties dyslexics have in the academic world. The purpose of this study is to explore whether some early childhood behaviors reveal a greater likelihood of an individual being diagnosed with dyslexia. First, I will examine existing methods of diagnosing dyslexia that are available in the current empirical research. From this information, I will develop two sets of in-depth questionnaires for diagnosed dyslexics and their parents. I will then analyze the results of these questionnaires to determine whether any of the behaviors that children exhibit might lead future parents and educators to earlier diagnoses. By providing these indicators to the adults in a dyslexic’s early life, the adults may find methods to enhance their children's academic career. Definition The International Dyslexia Association (International Dyslexia Association Website, 2012) adopted the following definition of dyslexia: Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of

3 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge (International Dyslexia Association Website, 2012, p.1). Rationale for the Study According to a British study (Sandman-Hurley, 2014), as many as 95% of dyslexic adults over the age of 30 in the U.K. may not realize they have dyslexia because school officials had no specific training in its detection. Data from the United States reveal similar results (Chavez, 2006). These undiagnosed dyslexics may see no need to have their children to genetically tested for the disorder. This results in their potentially genetic offspring enduring the same unpleasant academic experiences their parents endured (Singer, 2005). Since medical science will not universally implement genetic testing for dyslexia in the near future, other methods for diagnosing dyslexia retain their importance (Singer, 2008). Research Question The research question guiding this study was, “What are the possible benefits, if any, of diagnosing dyslexia before children enter school?” Hypothesis I hypothesize that an earlier diagnosis of dyslexia will lead to improved lives for dyslexics. Moreover, I hypothesize that keeping dyslexics waiting until the 3 or 4 grade to rd

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receive a diagnosis substantially damages their future academic potential. As they wait to get the resources they need they often fall dramatically behind their peers in their schooling. If a diagnosis can be made earlier, dyslexics may get the resources they need to enhance their educational prospects.

4 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Limitations Limitations of this study will include the number of total participants who will consist of approximately 10 to 20 participants. The resources available constrained the number of participants. b) The selection of participants will derive from the San Diego area. c) The limitations of time spent on research. Four to five months researching, developing questionnaires, finding participants to participate to name a few of these limitations, constrain this researcher's attempt to achieve comprehensive results. For future studies, having more participants could possibly lead to results that are more valid. Furthermore, a larger, a more diverse sample of participants may determine if dyslexia indicators reveal themselves more in one gender, ethnicity or socioeconomic groups. Summary The embarrassments dyslexics endure have been well documented by the sources used in this paper (Singer, 2005). If dyslexics wait until 3 or 4 grade to receive a diagnosis, they will rd

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not only suffer through many indignities, but also inevitably fall behind their peers in their academic pursuits. This severely limits their future educational prospects (Singer, 2008). Therefore, it is imperative that parents and educators have new methods to help determine the disorder as early as possible.

5 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Chapter 2: Review of Literature Introduction

A comprehensive review of the available literature on dyslexia shows many indicators of the disorder. The following literature review will examine those indicators. First, I will discuss how dyslexia is diagnosed. Then I will present an historic overview of dyslexia. I will follow that by a review of left/right laterality issues. Next, I will investigate mind visual perceptions problems. After that, I will evaluate phoneme awareness difficulties. Following this, I will explore audio processing issues of dyslexics. Finally, I will review the literature describing recent genetic breakthroughs in dyslexic diagnoses. Diagnosing Dyslexia According to the Dyslexia Research Institute (Dyslexia Research Institute Website, 2014, p. 1), “Ten to fifteen percent of the US population has dyslexia, yet only five out of every one hundred dyslexics are recognized and receive assistance.” The institute goes on to say, “Approximately 60% of individuals diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorders are also dyslexic; however, their learning and language differences are often unrecognized because only the behavioral aspects of ADHD are addressed.” Lacking the appropriate identification and aid, many of these dyslexics and ADHD suffers are only barely able to read, and are a portion of the 44 million adults with the lowest literacy rates. This reduces their capacity to obtain work and perform self-sufficiently within their society. (Dyslexia Research Institute. Retrieved from http://www.dyslexia-add.org/) In the United States, the National Institute of Health diagnoses dyslexia at an even higher rate than the Dyslexia Research Institute. NIH research shows that dyslexia affects 20%, or 1 in

6 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS every 5 people. (Kiernan.2016). The research conducted by Keirnan additionally says, “Some people may have more mild forms, while others may experience it more severely. Dyslexia is one of the most common causes of reading difficulties in elementary school children because only 1 in 10 dyslexics will qualify for an IEP and special education that will allow them to get the help in reading that they need.” As alarming as the dyslexia rate may be in the general population, the occurrence of dyslexia in the prison population is more than double of the general population (Corteilla & Horwitz, 2014). Historic Overview of Dyslexia Ophthalmologist Rudolf Berlin first devised the term “dyslexia” in 1887. He formed the word from the Greek “dys” (difficult) and “lexis” (words) after he observed students with normal intelligence that could not easily learn to read (Wagner, 1973). In 1896, “The British Journal of Medicine” described dyslexia as a reading specific learning disorder (Snowling, 1996). At the beginning of the 20 Century, American physician Samuel T. Orton thought the disorder th

stemmed from failed brain hemisphere dominance. Orton felt that dyslexics twisted words in the minds since they were neither right nor left brain dominant. He considered dyslexia as a difficulty in seeing the ends of words (Orton, 1966). In 1949, French researchers Clement Launay and G. Mahec confirmed dyslexia has a visual connection when they observed dyslexics read better when they had words spread apart or reversed in a mirror (Launay, 1965). In the 1970s, researchers Bradley and Bryant put forth a new hypothesis stating that dyslexia was a phonological processing disorder. This new theory emphasized that dyslexics had difficulties processing sounds correctly (Bradley & Bryant, 1983). From all this early research, a gradual understanding of causes of dyslexia emerged.

7 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Laterality Issues The Farlex Medical Partner dictionary defines laterality as “referring to one side of the body or structure; specifically, the dominance of one side of the brain or body” (Fairlex, 2012) Retrieved from http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/laterality. The human mind has a right and left hemisphere. For left-handed people, the right hemisphere commands the left side of the body. For right-handed people, the left hemisphere commands the right side of the body. The dominant hemisphere manages reason, higher-level thinking, and long-term memory. The secondary hemisphere administers creative areas such as art, music and poetry. Externally, dominance manifests itself on one side of the body (Orton, 1938). Brain disturbance occurs when neither hemisphere attains dominance. This mixed dominance can happen not just in hands, but also in arms, legs, feet, eyes and ears. Some of the issues created by mixed hemispheric dominance are impaired brain organization and processing difficulties (Geschwind & Levitsky, 1968). The idea that dyslexia has a connection to left /right brain dominance dates back to the work of dyslexia pioneer Dr. Samuel Orton who first researched the relationship and found a high correlation between dyslexia and left-handedness (Orton, 1938). He noticed a large number of ambidextrous people among the dyslexics he studied. He witnessed many reading and writing mistakes caused by the reversal of letters and words. From this, he developed the concept of “strephosybolia” meaning twisted symbols. Orton theorized that dyslexics had a deficient visual perception of letters, perhaps in their cerebral hemisphere dominance (Orton, 1938). He further theorized that people store letters in their minds as prototypes or what he referred to as “memory engrams.” Typically, people recall these engrams when needed, but dyslexics due to mixed hemispheric dominance could not do this as well (Orton, 1938).

8 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS For a while, Orton's ideas on laterality dominated dyslexia research, but then fell out of favor. Other researchers such as (Snowling, 2000) demonstrated that the reversals of letters are a normal part of reading development in children until the 2 grade. Until the 1970s, the scientific nd

community downplayed Orton's concept of laterality in the disorder, but research conducted in the 1980s indicated that the male hormone testosterone might suppress left hemisphere brain maturation (Geschwind & Galaburda, 1987). Neuroscientists also repeatedly report that people with mixed dominance test poorly and have an inclination toward more emotional problems compared to others. These problems lead them to respond poorly to stimulus (Bower & Parsons, 2003). When excited, they cause the perception receptors to obstruct stimuli from reaching the cortical sections of retention storage (Willis, 2007). As a result of mixed dominance, dyslexics require an extra effort when they perform relatively mundane tasks that others normally perform with less effort (Willis, 2007). The research article, “An interpretative model of early indicators of specific developmental dyslexia in preschool age: A comparative evaluation of three studies in Greece,” found the acquisition of left / right hand dominance and control as a leading indicator of dyslexia (Zakopoulou, V., Anagnostopoulou, A., Christdoulidess, P., Stavrou, L., Sarri, I., Mavreas V., Tzoufi, M., 2011). The study showed that dominance confusion in regards to the use of writing tools, the visual–motor coordination of the ‘‘copy of shapes, the spatio-temporal placement, the attainment of ‘‘left right’’ and ‘‘up–down’’ concepts, such as ‘sketch’’ and grapheme discernment indicated a high likelihood of the disorder. Their research additionally asserts left / right hand dominance as necessary for the attainment of composition skills. Students who never obtained it struggled in their ability to write at a pace equal to that of their peers (Zakopoulou, et al., 2011).

9 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Visual Perceptions Problems Generally, physicians and ophthalmologists conducted most of the initial studies on dyslexics. They first associated dyslexia with the term “word blindness,” because from their perspective it seemed to have an important visual component (Hinshelwood, 1917). They perceived it as a visual deficit disorder—simply meaning something was wrong with a dyslexic's vision (Fisher, Liberman & Shankweiler, 1978). Other researchers such as Dr. Samuel Orton observed the link between dyslexia and left-handedness. From his research, he and other researchers reasoned that eye dominance or lack thereof must have a connection to dyslexia as well (Orton, 1937). Orton felt that “eyedness… is not so widely recognized as handedness, but it is probably of equal importance” (Orton, 1937 p. 30). Having the dominant eye on the same side of the body as the dominant hand has proven very advantageous for reading (Nicholson & Fawcett, 1999). If dominance completely resides on one side of the body when the eye sees a stimulus all the parts of the body can respond rapidly. A slower response happens if mixed dominance occurs on both sides. This delay can cause dyslexics to fall behind their peers in many activities (Nicholson & Fawcett, 1999). When neurodevelopmentalists work with parents to establish eye and hand dominance, dyslexic symptoms decrease and can even disappear (Stein, 2001). “Reading with only one eye not only reduces the visual errors made by many dyslexic children, but the majority of 8-10-yearold dyslexic children with unstable binocular control who use only the right eye for all reading and number work for a few months can improve their fixation permanently” (Stein & Walsh, 1997, p. 149). Visual perception adherents studied erratic eye movements, eye convergent defects, binocular controls and the use of colored lenses, but after years of applications, it

10 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS produced few positive results (Irlen, 1983; Irlen & Lass, 1989; Whiting & Robinson, 1988; Martin, Mackenzie, Lovegrove, & McNichol, 1993). These failures caused modern researchers to expand Orton's rather narrow concept of visual perception deficits in relation to dyslexia. One aspect that visual deficits studies have expanded concerns spatial frequency analysis (Williams & LeCluyse, 1990). Spatial frequency analysis refers to the rate of change in light by visual stimulus, usually measured in cycles per degree (Farlex, 2012). Data reveals that dyslexics differ from control groups regarding the operating of the transient visual system. That is a motion detecting system that carries content about changing images and forms (Farlex, 2012). Additionally, researchers have analyzed the function of the transient system in upper level sensory activity tasks and discovered that dyslexics show difficulties in a key amount of visual undertakings (Williams and LeCluyse, 1990). Brain research regarding changes in the magno-cellular levels of the lateral geniculate nucleus adds further proof for a visual processing deficit of dyslexia (Lovegrove, Bowling, Badcock & Blackwood, 1980). Magno-cellular refers to cells in the retina that handle depth perception. Lateral geniculate refers to a processing station between the retina and the cerebral cortex (Skottun, 2015). Researchers have tried to consider how the results are connected to other deficits in the disorder. Research of dyslexics and control groups reveals that nonsense word abilities combined with similar components measuring transient processing, indicated some correlation between both processing regions (Lovegrove, 1993). They theorized the deficits they witnessed might have deficits in processing quickly moving stimuli in all sensory perceptions (Lovegrove, Heddle & Staguish, 1980).

11 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Phoneme Awareness Difficulties Weak phonological awareness is frequently one of the most conspicuous features of dyslexia (Goswami, 2002). Phonological awareness concerns the capability to know, distinguish and understand the auditory connections of a language. Pertaining to speech, phonological awareness refers to the skills needed to decipher spoken sounds into distinct units to form words related to their equivalent sound components and to remove a phoneme from a syllable or to mix single phonemes into a syllable. Stated more simply, poor phonological awareness exhibits itself in different phonological bits of speech such as syllables, affixes, prefixes, suffixes and morphemes (Ziegler & Goswami, 2005; Goswami & Bryant, 1990). In the Greek study previously mentioned the researchers reported children with difficulties in phoneme awareness, phonological encoding and phonemic segmentation showed a high likelihood of dyslexia. This same Greek study also found that the children who failed at phoneme awareness additionally had failing scores in the following skills: organized and controlled grapho-motor ability, sorting and temporal sequence, laterality, and object matching (Zakopoulou, et al., 2011). Researchers found a correlation between phonological awareness and future reading ability (Wallach & Wallach (1976), Lundberg, Olafsson & Wall (1980) and (Fox & Routh, (1983). They observed that analytic and synthetic phoneme awareness predicts early and later reading achievement and difficulties. A decade later, American researcher Virginia Mann (Mann, 1993) discovered that two tests of phoneme awareness foretold between 30% and 40% of the divergence in first grade reading. The first was on phoneme segmentation and the second concerned invented spelling (Ball & Blachman, 1991).

12 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Present-day cognitive psychology and linguistics accept the assertion that phonological language deficits hurt literacy and result in dyslexics’ poor reading performance (Liberman, 1971). Researchers found that phonological awareness between the ages 4-5 indicates reading abilities at ages 9-10 (Liberman, 1973). This confirms that phonological awareness is a major indicator of reading, and sustains the theory that early phonological deficits could result in later reading impairment (Liberman, 1973). Auditory Studies In the late 1960s, French doctor Alfred Tomatis developed a theory of an exclusive auditory deficit. He proposed that dyslexics have problems converting written words into their phonological contents (Edelson, 1999). While this idea correlates to modern phonological concepts, Tomais stressed the auditory system rather than language deficits. His remediation method, which emphasized teaching about hearing and communicating, never gained a wide audience, but did achieve some influence. Hearing deficiencies can damage the natural processes of communication, and therefore, could cause language and reading deficiencies (Brady, Shankweiler & Mann, 1983). Allergies, ear infirmities and other environmental factors frequently cause hearing problems. The auditory system is a major source of input to the phonological system; any hearing problems may affect its processing (Ramus, 2001). This would explain why many dyslexics make few advances and some seem to achieve little aid from phonetic instruction. The auditory processing approach seeks to understand the exact nature of the phonological deficits and its biological causes (Ramus, 2001). Children who had a dyslexia diagnosis in third grade revealed substantially damaged FM sensitivity, categorical speech perception, speech-in-noise perception and phonological

13 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS awareness. FM sensitivity refers to the phonological ability to comprehend certain Frequency Modulated sounds (Dyslexia Research Trust, 2015 Retrieved from http://www.dyslexic.org.uk/research/hearing). The researchers also found that FM sensitivity and speech-in-noise perception in kindergarten foretold growth in reading ability (Scarborough, 1998). This shows that personal distinctions in auditory and speech processing are not just a corollary of phonological awareness and budding literacy and that damages in auditory and speech processing are not merely a secondary condition of dyslexia (Scarborough, 1998). The clear predictive value of these variables in association with the harm in pre-reading children who later on develop dyslexia, stress the significance of auditory and speech processing abilities for reading acquisition and verify the auditory deficit hypothesis of dyslexia (Scarborough, 1998). This data signifies that damages in auditory FM processing, speech perception and phonological awareness are often present in kindergarten children who later on develop dyslexia. FM sensitivity and speech-in-noise perception in kindergarten specifically increase with reading ability, even after accounting for letter knowledge and phonological awareness (Scarborough, 1998). Although researchers observed no specific relationship between auditory processing, speech perception and phonological awareness, the high correlation of all these variables corroborates the evidence for the auditory deficit theory of dyslexia. The outcomes signaled, but could not conclusively show, that children who have damage in auditory FM processing, speech perception and phonological awareness often have dyslexia (Scarborough, 1998). Therefore, an auditory deficit link may exist in dyslexics. A possible explanation for the discrepancy concerning frequency discrimination deficits and reading disability comes from Israeli researchers (Banai & Ahissar 2012). They identified dyslexia with feeble frequency recognition, weak duration discrimination and low verbal

14 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS memory storage. They indicated that successful hearing needed auditory data conveyance held in areas of the brain where comparison could then take place. Therefore, poor working memory may relate to both the reading damage and to the generally poor psycho-acoustic abilities. Specifically, they theorized that these persons had reading problems accompanied by weak memory function and not phonological core deficit issues. Dyslexics also make more mistakes than normal readers in auditory perception tasks that require quick stimulus refinement (Tallal, 1980). This indicated to Cambridge researcher, Dr. Paula Tallal and her associates that dyslexics have problems attempting to comprehend and manage stimuli in quick succession (Tallal, Miller, & Fitch, 1995). This reduced ability could lead to the phonological deficits that dyslexics display during reading. The common traits between these deficits and the visual system suggest that dyslexics’ might suffer from weak data processing abilities (Tallal, Miller, & Fitch, 1995). Not everyone with reading and speech problems has auditory problems as well (Ramus, 2003). This leads to two potential explanations. Some children may have reading disability associated with weak auditory processing. Additionally, nearly all children with reading difficulties may have trouble with auditory processing connected to low reading skills, but somehow overcome this condition with development in other areas (Ramus, 2003). Auditory processing is critical for noticing cultural and academic stimuli, such as talking, reading, listening understanding directions, paying attention, and many other abilities required as a functional human being. Low sequential processing skills make it arduous for a person to hold all the sounds of a word together to recall the word with efficiency (Brady, 1997). Since a major part of reading ability relies on the use of phonics, it is expected that many children with problems in these areas are poor readers.

15 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Since phonics is an auditory system needing decoding sounds and holding those sounds together to achieve speech, it would follow that the better an individual’s auditory processing ability, the easier it would be to use phonics. Nevertheless, developing the auditory skills needed to utilize phonics is demonstrating to be rather a limiting in a mostly visual world (Brady, 1997). Theories asserting a deficit in the phonological difficulties have much more influence than an auditory perception deficit (Mody, Studdaert, Kennedy, & Brady, 1997). A Scandinavian study entitled, “Early identification of dyslexia and the use of computer game-based practice to support reading acquisition,” (Lyytinen, Heikki; Ronimus, Miia; Alanko, Anne; Poikkeus, Anna-Maija; Taanila, Maria Nordic Psychology, 2007) showed that auditory components of computer games may predict dyslexia as early as two years of age. Even at this age, children may reveal symptoms of dyslexia in auditory and shape reactions and letter interpretation (Lyytinen, et al 2007). The initial data was revealed on the effects of the computer games that has been specially developed for preventive training with children who are at risk of failing to acquire reading skills at a normal rate (Lyytinen, et al 2007). Breakthroughs in Genetic Testing In 2005, Dr. Jeffrey Gruen, and his team identified a gene linked to dyslexia called DCDC2 (Gibson, C. J., & Gruen, J. R., 2008) Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2488410/. Further studies revealed that parts of this gene have links to language impairment. They observed that some variants of the gene regulator called READ1 are associated with the problems of reading performance. Gruen stated that when these gene variants react with another dyslexia risk gene, known as KIAA0319, it greatly increases the possibility of developing dyslexia. Gruen hopes genetic testing will now lead to children receiving treatment for the disorder before they get into academic difficulty at

16 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS school (Gibson, C.J. & Gruen, J.R. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2488410/). Oxford neurodevelopmentalist Dr. Deevy Bishop has cast some doubt over Yale's claims of a genetic breakthrough for dyslexia diagnosis. She points out that, “in a large sample you can have a statistically strong association between a condition such as dyslexia and a genetic variant, but this does not mean that you can predict who will be dyslexic from their genes “Bishop, D, (2014) http://deevybee.blogspot.com/2013/06/overhyped-genetic-findings-case-of.html. She asserts that while Gruen's findings might aid medical science to learn more about how genetic variation affect brain development, the results of Gruen’s studies shows its potential for diagnosing and treating dyslexia are unlikely to have much use in this objective (Bishop Website, 2014 page 1). Despite Bishop's reservations, she concedes genetics and hereditary factors remain key indicators in diagnosing dyslexia (page 1). Summary of Literature Review This literature review focused on five major causes of dyslexia. Under the category of laterality, dyslexia has been related to brain processing disorders, poor school performance in reading and writing, inadequate responses to stimuli, the difficulties in using writing tools and the understanding of concepts of up and down left and right. Closely linked to laterality are visual perception disorders. Researchers using this approach tried to find connections to rapid eye movement, binocular controls and colored lens. Failing to establish these connections, researchers found that some of their previous work may have been too narrowly focused. Therefore, they expanded their research to spatial frequency analysis, transient visual systems and mango-cellular processes with more success. From the perspective of phoneme awareness difficulties, the literature showed that these frequently lead to slow speech and reading

17 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS development. From the auditory deficit approach, the review demonstrated that hearing problems, whether obvious or not, can cause audio processing difficulties often associated with dyslexia. Finally, research accessed the implications of breakthroughs in genetic testing. From this information, this researcher developed two questionnaires designed to detect dyslexia at a much earlier period than is currently available. Now this paper will state the methods it will use to conduct its research.

18 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Chapter 3: Methodology Research Design Overview This study will develop the research into two series of in-depth questionnaires. The first questionnaire will focus on diagnosed dyslexic children currently in school and their parents. Through a series of in-depth interview questions, dyslexics may show warning signs of the disorder. The questions will be developed from the information in the literature review in chapter 2 of this study. The questions will focus on background issues, activity problems, coping strategies, dyslexic signals and behavioral difficulties. The second questionnaire will focus on the parents of dyslexic children in this study. The interviews will explore some possible signs that parents and educators may observe that reveal dyslexia in children. As cited previously, heredity is one of the leading indicators of dyslexia (Peart, 2013). Yet some research found as many as 95% of adults with dyslexia are unaware of their condition (Sandman-Hurley, 2016). Therefore, it is highly likely that the parents in this inquiry are unaware of it as well. To account for this possibility, the parental questionnaire will focus on the habits that undiagnosed, dyslexic adults commonly have. Typically, these tendencies are professions that are entrepreneurial, athletic, manual, musical and requiring high verbal skills. They are known as “out of the box” thinkers, street smart, unorthodox, creative and original to name just a few traits they possess (LoGiudice, 2008). This investigation will then compare the results of this questionnaire to the dyslexic children in this study to see if there is any apparent connection between dyslexic children and their habits.

19 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Research Question This study seeks to find out what questions can we ask children and their parents to screen for dyslexia in an earlier time frame than the one currently in use? The overall question guiding this study is, “What are the possible benefits of diagnosing dyslexia informally before children enter school?” Designing an in-depth questionnaire for the dyslexics I plan to ask dyslexics approximately 30 questions derived from the literature review in this study concerning their dyslexia. I will divide the questions into five categories of six questions each including family background, preschool memories, in-school memories, dyslexic characteristics and adjustments they have made to live with the disorder. Each group of questions is designed to detect signs of dyslexia in the participants. For example, in the background section, I hope to discover if any of their relatives had dyslexia or some symptoms of the disorder. In the preschool memories section, I seek to discover any signs the dyslexics may have exhibited that might indicate the disorder. In the school memories section, I plan to find out how the dyslexics coped with their disorder in the school system. In the dyslexic characteristics section, I intend to find out what common traits both parents and their offspring share to see if these traits may have a link to dyslexia. In the adjustments sections I want to discover what strategies the dyslexics used to cope with their disorder outside the school system. Designing the in-depth questionnaire for the parents of dyslexics I plan to ask the parents 30 questions also derived from the literature review in this study concerning their likelihood of having dyslexia. Just as with the student dyslexic questionnaire, I will divide the questions in into five categories of six questions each with each group of

20 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS questions designed to detect signs of the participants having had dyslexia. For the parents, I will begin with a section on family history to see if any relatives had the disorder. The second section will focus on their initial behavior in the school system to compare it with their siblings. Then the questionnaire will concentrate on coping strategies dyslexics use in the workplace. Next, it will move to signals of dyslexia parents may share with their offspring. Finally, it will end with behaviors that may reveal dyslexia. Comparing the Data I will then compare the data between parents and their children to see what signs emerged as telltale clues of dyslexia in both children and their parents. I will then list the signs in order of frequency for the group. By reporting the high frequency signs of the disorder, I hope parents of future dyslexics may be able to detect it earlier and have an opportunity to improve their child's academic prospects. Participants / Setting I contacted The Dyslexic Training Institute of San Diego to arrange a method to distribute two sets of questionnaires to their members. During the summer of 2015, I attended a dyslexia seminar by The Dyslexia Training Institute holds at the San Diego Public Library. Before the event began, Dr. Kelli Sandman-Hurley and her colleague, Tracy BlockZaretsky, introduced several diagnosed dyslexics to me and ask them if they would consider being part of this study. Those attendees who agreed to be part of the study answered the questionnaires when the Dyslexia Training Institute and I to distributed them. Instruments / Measures The study obtained data through questionnaires. A typical interview question for parents will was, “On a scale of one through five, one being very weak, two being weak, three

21 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS being medium and four being high and five being very high, how would you rate your school experience?” A sample questions for the dyslexics will be: did you ever have trouble distinguishing shapes such as a square, a rectangle; a circle or an oval?” The study asked similar questions concerning distinguishing between right and left hands as research, hearing high frequency sounds, video games and backwards letter writing as these indicate a high likelihood of dyslexia. The appendix of the paper contained the full list of questions used in the questionnaire Procedures Since the study restricts itself to just two sets of questionnaires, it will concentrate on asking the right questions and obtaining dyslexics for the research. Through a series of interview questions, the study examined the early life of several dyslexics and their parents. Both the dyslexics and their parents answered a series of in-depth questions concerning the disorder. I then analyzed the results of the questionnaires for any early indicators among dyslexics or their parent. Data Processing / Analysis I will follow all Internal Review Board requirements as set forth by California State University San Marcos. Once the researcher has the results from interviews, I will first analyze them to see if the parents are at a high likelihood for dyslexia. Then I will analyze the tendency for dyslexia in the parents and their offspring. The researcher will examine the findings for traits in the dyslexics that indicated dyslexia in their early years. From this information, I will then construct a list of warning signs that parents can use to provide an earlier diagnosis of dyslexia.

22 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Ethical Considerations / Limitations Some of the dyslexics included in the study may be minors; therefore, I will obtain parental permission to participate in the research. This will be difficult since I must convince them to take part in the research and to include their child as well. Some of the adult dyslexics may still harbor negative feelings toward education because of their previous negative experiences there. With parents, the study will stress the possible benefits for their child's academic future and possibly the benefits for the parents themselves. All raw data collected will be stored on a password protected hard drive and only shown to those relevant to the study. Conclusions This quantitative research study was devised to detect indicators of dyslexia in both parents and their offspring. I wanted to ascertain whether there were any heretofore unrecognized signals that dyslexics may produce that might indicate a high likelihood of having the disorder. The questions were derived from five categories of leading dyslexia indicators including laterality, visual perception, phoneme awareness, auditory and genetics. These were derived from the literature review that demonstrated as having a high indication of dyslexia. I will collect the data to determine if the participants reveal any signs of dyslexia. The questionnaire method was chosen because it offered the most advantageous and practical way to collect data about the experiences dyslexic children and their parents. The forthcoming section will examine the early life of several dyslexics. It will explore some possible signs that parents and educators may observe that indicate dyslexia in children. Through a series of in-depth interview questions, dyslexics may reveal warning signs of the disorder. The questions will focus on background, activities, coping, difficulties discerning left from right, problems in drawing certain shapes, trouble tying shoes, the inability

23 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS to hear certain sounds, uneasiness with computer games and backwards letter writing. By providing these indicators to the adults in dyslexic’s early life, the adults may find methods to improve the academic career of their children and students.

24 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Chapter 4: Results The purpose of this study was to explore whether some early childhood behaviors are correlated with an individual being diagnosed with dyslexia. This study examined 11 children and their parents who had been diagnosed as dyslexic by medical doctors. One parent for each child was recruited making the total number of participants 22 in all. The participants came from The Dyslexia Institute of San Diego. The ages of these students ranged from 11 to 17 years old. The students were selected by administrators at The Dyslexia Institute. There were no prerequisites for students or parents to participate in the study other than having been diagnosed with dyslexia. The researcher did not take part in choosing either students or parents who enrolled where this study was performed. The researcher had the questionnaires given to the institute's members by their administrators at The Dyslexia Institute and at events they held both publicly and privately. According to the Oxford University Press, a survey study refers to the “sample of people from a pre-determined population (the ‘population of interest’; this is the wider group of people in whom the researcher is interested in a particular study), followed by the collection of a relatively small amount of data from those individuals. The researcher therefore uses information from a sample of individuals to make some inference about the wider population.” The article goes on to say, “This is usually, but not necessarily, done by means of a questionnaire or interview. Surveys are designed to provide a ‘snapshot of how things are at a specific time.” The reason the survey study method was chosen over statistical analysis was, “Surveys are well suited to descriptive studies, but can also be used to explore aspects of a situation, or to seek explanation and provide data for testing hypotheses. It is important to recognize that the survey approach is a research strategy, not a research method. As with any research approach, a

25 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS choice of methods is available and the one most appropriate to the individual project should be used.” This is not to say the surveys and statistical studies are mutually exclusive. They can, in fact, be used in tandem and serve to complement each other when examining information. The resources of this study prohibited the application of more than one method. For the future, it would be useful to conduct a statistical analysis designed to interpret the data. The questions of this study fell under five categories: background, activities, coping, signal and behaviors. The survey questions were derived from the literature review conducted in Chapter 2 of this paper. They were categorized to maximize the possibility of detecting. The questionnaires given to the parents and their children contained paired questions designed to detect links between what parent and child answered. While they were not phrased exactly the same way, they asked essentially the same questions. Other questions had little connection between the parents and children’s surveys. The questionnaires were intended to make all participants feel as if they were answering a unique set of questionnaires. This was intended to limit duplications in answers among parents and their children. The study will measure data on a scale of one through five, with one being very weak, two being weak, three being medium and four being high and five being very high. The survey was designed so that the higher the number participant gave, the greater the likelihood they have signals of dyslexia. The reverse will also be true. The lower the number participants gave, the less the likelihood they will have a signal for dyslexia. These indicators were derived from the research mention in the literature section of this paper. The appendix of the paper will contain the full list of questions used in the questionnaire The questionnaires were handed out and collected by Dyslexia Institute of San Diego during the months of August through October during 2015. All the questionnaires were

26 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS distributed discretely to keep the students and parents who participated anonymous. The participants completed the questionnaires either at The Dyslexia Institute of San Diego or one of their sponsored or affiliated events. All of the participants turned in their completed questionnaires to The Dyslexia Institute of San Diego or mailed them directly to the researcher. Both sets of questionnaires are located in the appendix of this paper. As stated earlier, the questions ran on a one to five scale with one being the weakest and five being the highest. The results of the questionnaire are summarized here under the following categories: Table 1: Background Questions for 11 Students Topic

Average Score

Parental Sociability

4.0

Parental Attitudes on Education

4.8

Parental Reading Habits

3.6

Parent’s Occupation w/ Verbal Skills

4.6

Parent’s Involvement in Education

4.0

Relatives w/ Learning Disability

2.6

Mean

3.9

27 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Table 2: Background Questions for 11 Parents Average Score

Topic Relatives w/ Learning Disability

3.0

Siblings w/ Late Speech Development

1.8

Ambidextrous Relatives

1.6

Preference for Sports, Art, Telling Stories

3.4

Parental Help w/ Homework

1.6

Hearing Issues

2.4

Mean

2.3

An examination of the first two tables on participants’ background indicates some signs for dyslexia were poorly correlated with dyslexia such as Ambidextrous Relatives, Siblings with Late Speech Development, Hearing Issues, which registered fairly low for parents. Relatives with Learning Disability and Parental Help for Homework also came in fairly low at 2.6 and 1.6 respectively. Learning Issues charted a little higher for students while Learning Disabilities for both students and adults ranged in the upper two to threes. The highest average score for parents came under Preference for Sports, Art, and Telling Stories. The highest average score for their children came under Parents’ Attitude Toward Education. Parent Sociability and Involvement in Education ran at 4.0. Parental Reading Habits charted at 3.6. This analysis indicates that the children have stronger perceptions regarding their parents’ background in terms of education while parents felt their background in terms of education carried less emphasis concerning their dyslexia.

28 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Table 3: Activity Questions for 11 Students Average Scores 4.0

Topic Difficulty Telling Left / Right Hearing Problems

2.2

Video Game Frustration

3.2

Trouble Distinguishing Shapes

1.4

Continually Places Pen Over Same letters

2.0

Draws Letter Backward After 1 Grade

2.6

Mean

2.6

st

Table 4: Activity Questions for 11 Parents Topic Handwriting Skills

Average Scores 2.6

Labeled as Lazy / Indifferent at School

2.2

Daydreaming @ School

2.8

Prefers Personal Instr. Over Text Learning

4.4

Difficulty Finishing Tests on Time

2.2

Joking Around in School

2.8

Mean

2.8

Tables 3 and 4 focused on activities. Once again the parents had lower overall scores with being Labeled as Lazy in School and Difficulty Finishing Tests on Time the lowest marks at

29 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS 2.2. Handwriting Skills and Joking Around in Schools fared slightly higher in the mid to upper twos, while Prefers Personal Instruction to Text Learning achieving the highest mark yet at 4.4. The students table revealed that Trouble Distinguishing Shapes was not a major issue for this group of participants. Continually Placing a Pen over the Same Letters was only marginally more important and Drawing Letters Backward after First Grade ranked slightly higher. Video Game Frustration scored a 3.6 while Telling Left from Right came in at 4.0. This matches previously mentioned research chapter 2 of this paper concerning laterality issues. Table 5: Coping Strategies for 11 Students Topic

Average Scores

Avoiding Academic Activities

3.4

Using Humor to Avoid Questions

3.0

Using Friends to Aid w/ Weaknesses

1.8

Avoiding Public Reading

4.2

Feigning Academic Indifference

2.8

Dismissing Certain Academics

3.0

Mean

3.0

30 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Table 6: Coping Strategies for 11 Parents Topic Using Colleagues For Aid

Average Scores 2.1

Using Humor to Avoid Difficult Work

3.2

Avoiding Certain Tasks

3.8

Works Beneath Intel. Ability

2.8

Enjoy Working w/ Hands

3.4

Feigns Indifference Toward Promotions

3.0

Mean

3.0

The third set of tables summarizes coping strategies for students and parents. The paired question of Using a Colleague for Aid and the similarly-named Using a Friend for Aid scored lowest at 2.1 and 1.8 respectively. Working Beneath Intellectual Ability and Feigning Academic Indifference both registered 2.8. The similarly paired Feigning Indifference Toward Promotions and Dismissing Certain Academics achieved and equal mark of 3.0 each. The other paired question concerning the use of humor scored relatively close to each other with the students registering 3.0 and the parents registering slightly higher at 3.2. Outside the paired questions Avoiding Public Reading scored highest for the students with 4.4 while Enjoying Working with Hour Hands registered the highest for the parents. Thus far, the coping strategies have revealed the highest similarity in signals of the pair grouping that have been examined.

31 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Table 7: Signals of Dyslexia for 11 Students Topic Omitting Words in Speech

Average Scores 4.0

Memory Skills

4.0

Reading Skills

2.6

Writing Skills

2.6

Spelling Skills

2.0

Everyday Speaking Skills

3.5

Mean

3.1

Table 8: Signals of Dyslexia for 11 Parents Topic Organizational Skills

Average Scores 3.6

Occupational Verbal Skills

3.4

Memory Skills

3.4

Enjoy Socializing

3.5

Spelling Skills

2.5

Direction Skills

3.7

Mean

3.4

Under the category of dyslexia signals, the surveys revealed higher scores for both groups. The lowest paired group score fell under the category of Spelling Skills with the students getting 2.0 and the parents getting 2.5. Perhaps this indicates that while there is a linkage,

32 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS parents had developed methods to overcome their weak spelling abilities. Reading and Writing Skills received the next lowest marks for the students with 2.6 each. While Occupational Verbal Skills and Memory Skills each a 3.4 for the parents. Everyday Speaking Skills scored a 3.5 for the students and Enjoying Socializing attained the same mark for the students. Directional and Organizational Skills scored the highest for the parents while the students scored best in on Omitting Words from Speech and Memory Skills. Table 9: Behavior Issues for 11 Students

Academic Embarrassment

Average Scores 3.5

Feelings Toward Education

4.0

Letting Down Classmates

2.3

Peer Pressure About Answering Questions

3.5

Envious of Others Academic Ability

3.8

Academic Frustration

2.9

Mean

3.3

Topic

33 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Table 10: Behavior Issues for 11 Parents Topic Envy Others Mental Abilities

Average Scores 3.2

Feelings Toward Education

4.1

Peer Pressure About Understanding Ideas

2.5

Work Frustration

1.2

Letting Down Colleagues

1.9

Avoiding Situations

3.7

Mean

2.8

The fifth set of tables concerned behavioral issues. In this category the students scored lowest on Letting Down Classmates and Academic Frustration with 2.3 and 2.9 respectively. They scored equally with a 3.5 on both Academic Embarrassment and Peer Pressure About Answering Questions. Their next highest mark was a 3.8 on Envious of Others Academic Ability followed by 4.0 on Feelings Toward Education. For the parents their lowest marks came under Work Frustration with a 1.2, and under Letting Down Colleagues with a 1.9 score. The Peer Pressure About Understanding Ideas achieved a 2.5 mark while Envy Others Mental Abilities received a 3.2 score and Avoiding Situations got a 3.7. The highest mark went to Feelings Toward Education with a 4.1 mark. Examining the paired questions for this set of tables reveals the Letting Down categories scored relatively low for both parents and students. The Frustration questions also scored low. The Peer Pressure groups scored higher while the Feelings Toward Education scored the

34 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS highest. In these groups of paired questions, the scores for both students and parents had a relative matches when compared to each other. Analysis: One of the facts that stand out from the five sets of tables is that some questions were not correlated with signs of dyslexia. The weakest links were found in the questions concerning Ambidextrous Relatives, Siblings with Late Speech Development, Hearing Issues, Labeled as Lazy in School, Difficulty Finishing Tests on Time, Trouble Distinguishing Shapes, Using a Colleague for Aid, Using a Friend for Aids, Spelling Skills, Letting Down Classmates, Academic Frustration, Work Frustration, and Letting Down Colleagues. From the results of this study, these categories do not seem to be promising areas for further investigation. Other questions such as Relatives with Learning Disability, Parental Help for Homework, Learning Issues, Learning Disabilities, Handwriting Skills, Joking Around in Schools, Continually Placing a Pen over the Same Letters and Drawing Letters Backward after First Grade only indicated a modest correlation between parents and their children from this research. These categories only show a limited prospect for future research. The strongest connections were found in the categories of Parents’ Attitude Toward Education, Parent Sociability, Involvement in Education, Parental Reading Habits, Prefers Personal Instruction to Text Learning, Video Game Frustration, Telling Left from Right, Avoiding Public Reading, Enjoying Working with Your Hands, Directional and Organizational Skills, Omitting Words from Speech and Memory Skills, Avoiding Situations and Feelings Toward Education. From the results of this study these categories present the highest indications of dyslexia.

35 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Analysis of the Paired Questions The third set of tables had several paired questions for students and parents. The paired question of Using a Colleague for Aid and the similarly named Using a Friend for Aid scored lowest at 2.1 and 1.8 respectively. That these two questions shared a relatively low mark may indicate that for students or parents this condition is not a major signal for dyslexia. Working Beneath Intellectual Ability and Feigning Academic Indifference both registered 2.8. This exact match of a paired question may demonstrate it carries equal significance for parents and their children. The similarly paired Feigning Indifference Toward Promotions and Dismissing Certain Academics achieved an equal mark of 3.0 each. Once again this exactly equal match of a paired question show it may carry equal weight for both groups. The other paired question concerning the use of humor scored relatively close to each other with the students registering 3.0 and the parents registering slightly higher at 3.2. Thus far, the coping strategies have revealed the highest similarity in signals of the pair grouping that have been examined. Examining the paired questions for the behavioral set of tables reveals the Letting Down categories scored relatively low for both parents and students. This close grouping of a paired question may indicate it unimportance as a signal of dyslexia. The Frustration questions also scored low, showing their relative unimportance. The Peer Pressure groups scored higher while the Feelings Toward Education scored the highest. In the behavioral categories paired question the scores for both students and parents had a relative matches indicating they may have some relevance as a dyslexia signal. Conclusions The results of this study indicated some signals may point to early warning signs of dyslexia. Most were found under attitudes toward education for both parents and their children

36 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS alike. Another strong indicator was discovered under what can be grouped as sociability categories. These would include Parent Sociability, Prefers Personal Instruction to Text Learning and Avoiding Situations. Some other indicators defy categorization such as Video Game Frustration, Telling Left from Right, Avoiding Public Reading, Enjoying Working with Your Hands, Directional and Organizational Skill and Omitting Words from Speech and Memory Skills. These solo indicants may be part of another group of signals of dyslexia that was not covered in this study.

37 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS

Chapter 5: Discussion The overall objective of this study was to recognize the earliest signs of dyslexia and to examine which components may play the strongest part in the causes of the disorder. If any significant signals were discovered it was hoped that other researchers could use this information for further investigation. This study sought to accomplish these goals by investigating five broad categories for dyslexia to determine if they had a connection to dyslexia. The factors examined were background, activities, coping strategies, signals and behavior. Due to dyslexia's inherent attributes, the designation or the identification of students with this learning impairment has frequently been a challenging subject. Currently, there is a little agreement among scientists and academics regarding what is the best process to distinguish an individual with dyslexia from other disorders. In some industrial nations there are fixed processes and sufficient understanding for the recognition of this condition. Presently, the designation of dyslexics is a major issue, mainly because the deficiency of correct recognition procedures among the developed countries of the world. This thesis endeavored to integrate present-day research findings to improve categorization of dyslexia and additionally to ascertain approaches for intervention that are vital to a preschool student’s acquisition of reading and writing. Some of the major ideas brought forth from both student and parent questionnaires were in agreement with present research on the experience of dyslexics in their early years as well as through their later life though certainly many were not consistent with all the current research. Furthermore, while some of the findings

38 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS from this study did show some connections to dyslexia, others offered little or no conclusive connection. Summary of Findings As mentioned in the previous chapter, the results of this study indicated some signals might point to early warning signs of dyslexia. During the analysis of the data from student and parental questionnaires, some implications appeared. Perhaps the most prominent of them is that students in this study indicated that their parent’s attitude toward education had the greatest effect on their attitudes toward school. In the questionnaire, it averaged 4.8. The highest average for any of the 30 questions asked of the participants. In fact, all questions concerning education for both students and their parents alike averaged at 4.0 or greater. This reveals that those parents who had a positive impression toward education imparted this to their offspring just as those parents with a negative view of education may have imparted their attitudes about education to their children. It also shows that the category of education had the strongest connection to any of the early warning signs of dyslexia. Another category that indicated an early warning sign was sociability. In the study, under the question of Parental Sociability it averaged 4.0. Remember, the present research accrued background information for its subjects by the use of questionnaires for parents and their children. When designing the questionnaire, the researcher did not perceive sociability as an area where there may be some strong connection to the early warning signs of dyslexia. Therefore, the questionnaire contained only one direct question concerning it. Although other questions had a more limited connection to sociability, the data revealed some social background information about dyslexics. If, for instance, the question of Parental Occupation and Verbal Skills were also tied with sociability, the connection between this and the

39 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS early signals of dyslexia would be stronger still, because it averaged a 4.6. The second highest average for any of the 30 questions asked of the participants. While I realize that connection is somewhat suppositional in nature, it is not an altogether unreasonable one to make. Occupations such as sales, marketing and the law to name just a few often have a high level of verbal and social components in the day-to-day work schedule. Based on these findings, the role of background factors like sociability in developing the prediction of dyslexia was considered a fair indicator of having the disorder. The analysis also seems to point out that poor reading skills may also be of the first signs of dyslexia. This shows in the questionnaire under the high average of 4.4 for Preferring Personal Instruction Over Text Learning in the Activity Category for parents. Avoidance of Public Reading was slightly lower at 4.2. Questions concerning student’s own feelings about their Reading Ability, which was designed achieve a low score, was a nominal 2.6. This points out, as much previous research has confirmed, that poor reading skills and negative feelings about one's own reading ability are a key signal in detecting early dyslexia. What do these discoveries reveal regarding the initial appearances of dyslexia? To start with, the first signs of dyslexia seem to be comparatively clear-cut. They do not include problems with wide-ranging traits of common aptitude. Nevertheless, the implications for an empirical foundation for the early designation of dyslexia are not yet entirely well defined. In regards to proposals for alternative mediation for these children, the implication of these findings seems to show that earlier instruction would help to some degree. Implications At this point in time, diagnosing of dyslexia has not been feasible until the age of seven or more years by employing present-day measures. Yet, while many of these measures are

40 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS effective, they also have defects that result in children not receiving a diagnosis until much later in life and oftentimes not at all. The undesirable aftereffects of this comprise scholastic, temperamental and interactive complications that may be resistant to any improvement in the condition over time. Delayed identification of dyslexia can also be expensive in both fiscal and personal respects. One way of surmounting such constraints is to examine all children at a specific age such as when they enter to kindergarten to recognize those who may be in jeopardy for the condition. A number of important outcomes of early identification of dyslexia may result from this procedure. Foremost among them, is that an attempt to recognize of the initial signs of dyslexia would call for the creation of primary screening tests for the disorder. This would result in parents and educators alike having a far greater awareness of dyslexia than the present day method of waiting until the signs manifest themselves later on in the student’s academic career. On a more empirical level, an understanding of the early warning signs of dyslexia could assist with our understanding of the condition in general, which in turn might offer a great windfall to researchers, investigators, academics and all educators. Furthermore, a fuller understanding of the precise initial complications faced by the preschool dyslexic offers the greatest source for the creation of mediation programs and corrective assistance. The advantages of early recognition of children with academic difficulties are considerable, both in financial and human cost. Many other academics have proposed that early testing of all children should represent the beginning of a course of recognition, requiring fast and easy steps managed and taken by educational institutions. After that, children for whom there are some indications for the disorder may be marked as “a possible dyslexic” and given

41 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS alternative academic assistance, such as being supervised more thoroughly by the teacher, and possibly directed for a more elaborate examination by an educational psychologist. Another advantage of early recognition of dyslexia is that the transmission of such assistance would not be out of step with what most of the primary school classrooms are already doing. Children identified as being in jeopardy for the disorder could be instructed with the desired abilities more expressly and acutely than other students in their classrooms normally could. Recognition of certain qualities in subjects may permit alternative instruction of content, such as teaching to the student’s assets to surmount their deficits. This procedure would not be financially costly to carry out and would preclude the lengthy academic distress that typically accompanies a dyslexic student, by delivering assistance at the time when it was most advantageous to him or her. The expense of supplying instruction that is consistent to that which is already occurring in the elementary school classroom, but possibly at a more extensive level for the at-risk student, is far less than that of supplying an educational psychologist to the school, or positioning in a special residential school for dyslexic students. The case for early screening is, therefore, a powerful one. Limitations The relatively small sample size used in the study may have limited the precision the results. Furthermore, the relatively small geographical area of San Diego County covered by the research may have prevented the study from obtaining a more comprehensive outcome. Additionally, there were limitations of time spent on research. The four to five months researching, developing questionnaires, finding participants to participate to name a few of these limitations, constrained this researcher's attempt to achieve results that are more comprehensive. The resources available to the researcher were an overriding factor in these limitations.

42 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Even though, statistical deviations were discovered from the information amassed in the 11 returned questionnaires as well as the small amount of responses may have affected the research, many factors such as the study participant’s attitude concerning information supplied to them before the distribution of the questionnaire, their lack of time to complete the questionnaire, their apparent deficiency of knowledge about the subject and their lack of interest in the issue may have caused this modest return. Future Research Time, geography and money limited this study. Long-term research is needed to determine whether there are correlations between the factors observed in this research. This study also looked at a relatively small sample of students and their parents. Would the results be different if the sample size was larger, if the geographical region was wider or if more money and time were spent on it? The answer is more than likely yes. For future studies, having more participants could possibly lead to results that are more precise. Moreover, a larger, a more diverse sample of participants may determine whether dyslexia indicators reveal themselves more in one gender, ethnicity or socioeconomic group. Conclusions This study has endeavored to determine if some early warning signs for dyslexia based on responses given by the participants. In addition, a number of empirical goals have also been explored. The primary goal was the formation of first appearances or indicator of dyslexia in preschool children. The secondary goal was the inquiry into the relationship between dyslexia and different types of behaviors. The third was to study the relationship between dyslexia concerning parents and their offspring, and the last goal was to consider the findings of the study in terms of our general understanding of the nature and origins of dyslexia.

43 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Outcomes of the research discovered that no pronounced relationships occurred when taking into account parents and their offspring's background, activities, coping strategies, signals and behavior. However, some categories such as educational attitudes, sociability and difficulty with reading did suggest the strongest indications of the disorder. This study also found that educators should consider some of these factors when first assessing students before regular evaluation time of second grade. Authorities need to make additional efforts enlighten educators who work with early primary school students who have dyslexia. Returning to the original purpose of this study where the characteristics of dyslexia were examined, and they were attempted to be linked to early warning signs of the disorder, it is possible to consider whether the results of this research have made a contribution to our overall understanding of dyslexia. The results were uncertain regarding the early signals of dyslexia that it discovered. More precisely, the small sample size limited the research's findings.

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50 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Appendix A: Student Questionnaire Instructions: On a scale of 1 to 5 (1=being very weak, 2=being weak, 3=being medium, 4=being strong and 5=being very strong) answer the following questions. 1) How social would you say your parents are? 1—2—3—4—5 2) How would you rate your parent’s attitude toward education? 1—2—3—4—5 3) Do your parents read a lot? 1—2—3—4—5 4) Does your parent’s occupation involve verbal skills? 1—2—3—4—5 5) Did your parents participate in your educational activities? 1—2—3—4—5 6) Have any of your relatives had some type of learning disability? 1—2—3—4—5 7) Have you ever had any difficulty distinguishing left from right? 1—2—3—4—5 8) Have you ever been diagnosed with any hearing problems? 1—2—3—4—5 9) Do video games sometime cause you frustration? 1—2—3—4—5 10) Have you ever had any problems distinguishing shapes such as circles, ovals, squares, rectangles, and etcetera? 1—2—3—4—5 11)

Do you continually place a pen over the same letters causing indentations in the paper as

you write? 1—2—3—4—5 12) Have you ever drawn your letters backwards? 1—2—3—4—5 13) Do you ever avoid certain academic activities? 1—2—3—4—5 14) Have you ever joked your way out of academic situations without answering the question? 1—2—3—4—5 15) Do you have a network of friends who assist you with your academic weaknesses? 1—2— 3—4—5 16) Do you avoid reading aloud from text when possible? 1—2—3—4—5

51 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS 17) Have you ever acted indifferent toward an academic subject you found too challenging? 1— 2—3—4—5 18) Do you ever tell yourself that certain academic subjects are not important? 1—2—3—4—5 19) How would rate your verbal skills? 1—2—3—4---5 20) How would you rate your memory skills? 1—2—3—4—5 21) How would you rate your reading skills? 1—2—3—4—5 22) How would you rate your writing skills? 1—2—3—4—5 23) How would you rate your spelling skills? 1—2—3—4—5 24) How would you rate your speaking skills? 1—2—3—4—5 25) Do academic situations ever embarrass you? 1—2—3—4—5 26) How would you describe your feelings toward formal education? 1—2—3—4—5 27) Do you ever feel you have let your fellow classmates down in an academic situation? 1— 2—3—4—5 28) Have you ever felt pressure from your peers because you could not answer a question as quickly as they could? 1—2—3—4—5 29) Do you envy others ability to read, write and understand academic concepts? 1—2—3—4— 5 30) Have you ever directed anger toward a teacher or classmate because of academic frustration? 1—2—3—4—5

52 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS Appendix B: Parental Questionnaire Instructions: On a scale of 1 to 5 (1=being very weak, 2=being weak, 3=being medium, 4=being strong and 5=being very strong) answer the following questions. 1) Have any of your relatives been diagnosed with a learning disability? 1—2—3—4—5 2) Were you or any of your siblings late in developing speech? 1—2—3—4—5 3) Are you or any of your relatives ambidextrous? 1—2—3—4—5 4) As a child did you prefer sports, art or telling stories to other activities? 1—2—3—4—5 5) Did your parents regularly help you with your homework? 1—2—3—4—5 6) Have you ever had any issues with your hearing? 1—2—3—4—5 7) Did teachers ever criticize your handwriting skills? 1—2—3—4—5 8) Were you ever labeled as lazy or indifferent as a student? 1—2—3—4—5 9) Did adults often tell you to stop daydreaming in school? 1—2—3—4—5 10) Do you prefer personal hands on instruction to text book learning? 1—2—3—4—5 11) Was it difficult for you to finish tests on time? 1—2—3—4—5 12) Did you like to joke around in school? 1—2—3—4—5 13) Do you have colleagues at work that you regularly go to assist you in areas that you find difficult? 1—2—3—4—5 14) Does reading out loud ever cause you to feel ill? 1—2—3—4—5 15) Do you avoid certain activities about your job that you feel might show you in a bad way? 1—2—3—4—5 16) Do you feel your current job does not value your intellectual ability? 1—2—3—4—5 17) Do you enjoy working with your hands? 1—2—3—4—5

53 THE POSSIBLE BENEFITS OF EARLY DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS 18) Do you sometimes act indifferent toward promotional opportunities offered at your job? 1— 2—3—4—5 19) How would you rate your organizational skills? 1—2—3—4—5 20) Does your occupation involve a lot of verbal skills? 1—2—3—4—5 21) How would you rate your memory skills? 1—2—3—4—5 22) Do you enjoy socializing? 1—2—3—4—5 23) How would you rate your spelling skills? 1—2—3—4—5 24) Are you good with directions? 1—2—3—4—5 25) Do you sometimes envy other people’s ability to understand concepts quickly? 1—2—3— 4—5 26) What are your feelings toward formal education? 1—2—3—4—5 27) Do you frequently feel pressure from superiors to understand a concept faster than you normally do? 1—2—3—4—5 28) Have you ever directed anger toward a superior or coworker because you couldn’t understand what they were communicating to you? 1—2—3—4—5 29) Have ever felt you have let colleagues down because you couldn’t finish an assignment in the allotted time? 1—2—3—4—5 30) Do you sometimes avoid situations at work that might cause you embarrassment? 1—2— 3—4—5