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Running head: TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN RELATION TO LEARNING THEORIES Technology Integration in Relation to Behaviorist, Cognitivist, and Constructivist Learning Theories Cean L. Spahn William Paterson University
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Abstract Technology can help learners reach their fullest potential, but when it is just used for the sake of saying that it is being used, are teachers really meeting the needs of their learners? This paper, by summarizing the behaviorist, cognitive and constructivist learning theories, reminds teachers that it is important to reflect on what they are doing with technology and why they are doing it.
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Steve Ballmer (2005), the Chief Executive Officer for Microsoft Corporation once said, “The number one benefit of information technology is that it empowers people to do what they want to do. It lets people be creative. It lets people be productive. It lets people learn things they didn't think they could learn before, and so in a sense it is all about potential.” Technology and potential mean a lot to today’s students, for it is through technology that all students, including ones with disabilities or special needs, can reach their fullest learning capabilities. In order to get students to have truly memorable learning experiences, however, teachers need to keep in mind that computers, gadgets, software, and other forms of technology should not be used just for the sake of saying they are being used or just because everyone else is using them. To circumvent this halfhearted, bandwagon attitude and to create more meaningful lessons that integrate technology, teachers should revisit behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism, three traditional learning theories, to see how they can each be used to justify the use of certain technologies in a given situation and guide teachers’ selection of technology. As an eleven year teacher of the Lewis F. Cole Middle School in Fort Lee, NJ, I have recently taken a step back and reflected on the theoretical connections behind what I and some of my colleagues do with technology in our classrooms. One of the first theories of learning that emerged was behaviorism. It dates back to the early part of the 20th century when John B. Watson and others like Ivan Pavlov, William Thorndike, and B.F. Skinner strived to predict and control behavior and hypothesized that psychology was not about the mind but about the external behaviors exhibited by people (Cunia, 2007). Behaviorism uses the A‐B‐C model to explain the learning process. “A” is the antecedent or the environment that presents some kind of stimulus or cue to a learner. This
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stimulus then elicits “B” or a behavior in the learner. “C” is the consequence or result that occurs immediately after the behavior. This result helps to reinforce the desired behavior. Learning is said to have occurred when there is “a change in the probability that a person will behave in a particular way in a particular situation” (Newby, Stepich, Lehman & Russell, 2006, p. 27). According to Skinner (1968) students learn quicker when teachers provide contingencies or the A and C aspects of the behaviorist model. Newby, et al. (2006) explain that teachers need to slowly and steadily make adjustments to the contingencies in order to get students to meet a certain learning goal. New information should be logically sequenced or broken down into “frames” which consist of “information along with a question, problem, or exercise that calls for a response” (Newby, et al., 2006). A technology program like Odyssey, which is used in my school, is partially based on the behaviorist theory and principles. The computer program covers math, language arts, science and social studies. Through animated drill and practice exercises that stimulate a student to think, students answer logically sequenced multiple choice questions and receive immediate feedback on their answers. For example, in the grammar/writing section of the program, a stimulus, like a frog trying to hop across lily pads is presented, along with a problem sentence involving homophones. Students then must choose the correct use of a word like their, there or they’re to fill in the blank. Upon submission of the answer, the student receives immediate feedback and positive reinforcement. In this case, the frog moves to the next lily pad and the next question. Sounds, video and music accompany the program and serve as the reinforcers. The program also has an artificial intelligence feature which monitors students’ performance levels, and then increases difficulty, remediates or moves the learner onto the next level.
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Formative and summative assessments are built right into each skill sequence along with a reports feature. This allows teachers and students to view their progress over time and enables the teacher to pinpoint students’ weakness and strengths. The program, in its fourth year, has been successful in helping to improve the individual skills of students. Language arts students do learn when to use commas and when not to and math students do learn how to factor or reduce a fraction. The musical and visual components of the program also make students feel like they are playing games instead of doing schoolwork. The only downside is that after the first half of the year, some students lose interest because they have to play the games for 90 minutes a week according to a district mandate. This is shown when those learners start to just click on answers without even reading the passage in a test. Teachers at this time must provide additional reinforcement to get students to focus on the program’s activities. For example, teachers of younger students might allow them to pick out of a prize box after completing their activities and for older kids rewarding them with a prepaid download code for music would work well. Overall, the program has been kept in spite of these setbacks because by the end of the year students’ skills in math and reading are noticeably improved. In contrast to the behaviorist theory which focuses on the external environment, the information processing perspective or cognitive theory stresses the internal processes of the mind or what happens to new information once it enters a learner. According to Driscoll (2005), there are three processes that occur when a learner actively engages his or her mind to integrate new information. The first is called attention, which is when the learner picks from the thousands of new bits of information he or she is flooded with each day and decides which
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information he or she is going to process (Newby, et al. 2006). This is an important distinction from the behaviorist theory which views learning as more passive. The next phase is encoding which is when the learner takes the new information, translates it into a language that can be understood by the brain and then stores or integrates the new information. This process further involves making connections with prior learning and the learner’s existing knowledge base. In the final phase, retrieval, the information, if encoded and assimilated correctly, can be easily retrieved and used in the future. This is what constructivists think constitutes learning (Newby, et al. 2006).
Inspiration, a piece of software that allows students (and teachers) to create
graphic organizers embedded with images, sounds, and/or hyperlinks, supports the information processing perspective. Students take concepts, ideas and/or new pieces of information on a topic (attention) and categorize them into organized webs or outlines that demonstrate their interrelationships (encoding). Contained in the program is the ability for students or teachers to import their own pictures or sounds and also create links to other sources of information found on internet websites. The written and visual aspects of the program work together and help students remember and recall new information (retrieval). Figure 1 shows how a student could organize elements of a drama like Macbeth into a web that would integrate more easily into his or her schema. Figure 2 shows the same information found in the Macbeth web, but Inspiration, through only the click of a button, has converted the details into an outline. Both views help students encode information in a way so that it can be more easily recalled at a later time.
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Within my school the program was recently used by students in a collaborative language arts class when they created character webs for the book Monster by Walter Dean Myers. In the attention phase each student had to choose four characters that they wanted to explore from the fiction text and give a general statement of what the character’s role was in the story. For example, the main character, Steve Harmon could be described as a 16‐year‐old, African American boy from Harlem who is on trial for felony murder. To assist with the encoding process, the students first had to choose four adjectives to describe each character. For Steve, words like afraid, lonely, confused and liar were chosen. Then for each adjective, students had to gather one quote from the book to support their word choices. Page numbers also had to be included. The final encoding step involved connecting all the characters in the web to show their interrelationships. Some students placed Steve in the middle and then branched off the other characters from him. Others gave each character the same level in the web and then added links from one character to another to explain their connection. Overall, the program served as a great tool for getting students to remember a lot of information and be able to retrieve it later on, the final phase of learning according to the information processing perspective. This was clearly demonstrated when on a summative test, which was given more than a week after the Inspiration assignment, 90% of students were able to successfully answer objective and open‐ended questions about the characters. According to Driscoll (2005) the last theory, constructivism received its name in more recent years, but has roots tied to John Dewey and its ideas connected to other theorists like Piaget and Vygotsky (as cited in Newby, et al., 2006). It is based on the idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves, and it is, therefore, subjective rather than objective
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(Newby, et al., 2006). Each individual student brings to a learning experience his or her own experiences and, therefore, uniquely interprets and integrates any new knowledge. As a result, students learn the most when they are allowed to actively create meaning from different experiences. Individual constructivism posits that knowledge is “a matter of individual interpretation” (Newby, et al., 2006, p. 35). Social constructivism centers on the idea that groups of learners should work together to reach a shared understanding of new information. According to Collins, Brown, & Holum, 1991, and Rogoff, 1990, teachers are like the guides who pose realistic and meaningful problems for students to solve (as cited in Newby, et al., 2006). Constructivists see the teacher as an active participant in the learning the new information. They may not have all the answers but they will work with the students to discover them. Technology based activities that create problematic situations for groups of students to solve align well with constructivist theory. In the near future, 60 honors level students will participate in a going green webquest. Groups of students will become authors hired by the Fort Lee School District to write children’s books for fourth graders on how to go green and use alternative sources of energy at home, school or in society. Groups will agree upon a specific area to focus on and use the internet, print, and electronic databases to gather their information. They will also need to generate hand‐drawn illustrations or gather online images, digitally scanned pictures or clip art. This gathering process, according to Newby, et al. (2006) will help students learn more about going green and aid with the retention of all this new information. After the books have been published, students will then visit the elementary schools to share their books with the fourth graders. They will have to dress like professional authors and illustrators, to further extend their role playing experience. Overall, the
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constructivist theory would view this project as an effective way for learners to actively create meaning through social interactions and the presence of a complex environment. They would also recommend that activities like one mentioned should occur throughout the year to help students delve more deeply into topics. In closing, while it is true that with technology all things seem possible, as teachers we must allocate time, perhaps, several times a year to think about why we are using a particular piece of technology. Educational theories like behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism can help us make connections between the ways we apply technology in our lessons to the ways that our students learn. After thoughtful reflection about some of the technology used at the Lewis F. Cole Middle School, I can say that through the use of certain software like Odyssey and Inspiration and through the development of problem‐based activities like the going green assignment, the teachers are not just jumping on the technology bandwagon. Instead, they are using technology to help each student reach his or her fullest potential. Can you say that about your school?
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References Balmer, S. (17 February 2005). [address} Address presented at the Alamo Area Community Information System Unlimited Potential Grant Announcement, San Antonio Texas. [Transcript] Retrieved April 18, 2008, from http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/exec/steve/2005/02‐17aacis.mspx Cunia, E. C. B. (2007). Behavioral learning theory: Web quest. Retrieved April 18, 2008, from http://suedstudent.syr.edu/~ebarrett/ide621/behavior.htm
Driscoll, M.P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Inspiration Software, Inc. (n.d.) Inspiration classroom examples: Language arts. Retrieved April 18, 2008, from http://www.inspiration.com/productinfo/inspiration/using_insp/ index.cfm?fuseaction=langarts Newby, T.J., Stepich, D.A., Lehman, J.D., & Lehman, J.D. (2006). Educational technology for teaching and learning. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure Captions Figure 1. Sample of how information on plot and characters in Macbeth could be organized into a web using Inspiration. Figure 2. Sample of how information entered into a web can easily be converted into an outline.
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