Rivalry for Trade in Tea and Textiles

Europe’s Asian Centuries Series Editor: Maxine Berg, Professor of History, University of Warwick, UK This series investigates the key connector that transformed the early modern world: the long-distance trade between Asia and Europe in material goods and culture. This trade stimulated Europe’s consumer and industrial revolutions, re-orientating the Asian trading world to European priorities. Europe’s pursuit of quality goods turned a pre-modern encounter with precious and exotic ornaments into a modern globally-organised trade in Asian export ware. Europe’s Asian Centuries engages with new historical approaches arising from global history; it develops subject areas grounded in skills and processes of production as well as material culture, and it demonstrates the new depth of research into diverse markets, quality differences and the development of taste. The books are groundbreaking in bringing the study of traded products, material cultures and consumption into economic and global history, and in making economic history relevant to wider cultural history. It has the vision of a history over a long chronology of two and a half centuries and wide European and Asian comparisons and connections. The series includes: Edited by Maxine Berg with Felicia Gottmann, Hanna Hodacs, Chris Nierstrasz GOODS FROM THE EAST, 1600–1800 Trading Eurasia Chris Nierstrasz RIVALRY FOR TRADE IN TEA AND TEXTILES The English and Dutch East India Companies (1700–1800) Forthcoming titles: Felicia Gottmann GLOBAL TRADE, SMUGGLING, AND THE MAKING OF ECONOMIC LIBERALISM Asian Textiles in France 1680–1760 Hanna Hodacs SILK AND TEA IN THE NORTH Scandinavian Trade and the Market for Asian Goods in 18th Century Europe Europe’s Asian Centuries

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Rivalry for Trade in Tea and Textiles The English and Dutch East India Companies (1700–1800) Chris Nierstrasz Lecturer in Global History, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands

© Chris Nierstrasz 2015 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2015 978-1-137-48652-3 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2015 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-57156-7 ISBN 978-1-137-48653-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9781137486530 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Nierstrasz, Chris, 1978– Rivalry for trade in tea and textiles : the English and Dutch East India Companies (1700–1800) / Chris Nierstrasz. pages cm.—(Europe’s Asian centuries) 1. East India Company – History – 18th century. 2. Nederlandsche Oost-Indische Compagnie – History – 18th century. 3. Tea trade – Europe – History – 18th century 4. Textile industry – Europe – History – 18th century. 5. Europe – Commerce – Asia – History – 18th century. 6. Asia – Commerce – Europe – History – 18th century. I. Title. HF486.E6N453 2015 3829.413720942—dc23

2015018868

A Laura e ad Anna Sofia

Contents

List of Illustrations

x

Acknowledgements

xiii

Measurements

xv

List of Terms

xvi

Introduction 1 A new approach 2 Spices, tea and textiles 3 East India Companies and tea 4 East India Companies and textiles 5 The different chapters

1 3 4 7 9 12

1 Imperfect Monopolies 1 Imperfect monopoly in trade 1.1 Mix of commodities 1.2 Monopoly and private trade 2 Imperfect monopoly in Europe 2.1 Silver and taxation 2.2 Re-export of Asian commodities 3 Imperfect monopoly in Asia 3.1 Beyond silver 3.2 Intra-Asian trade and Empire 3.3 Empire and the home state Conclusion

20 21 23 26 30 31 35 38 39 42 46 49

2 Rivalry for Tea: Empires and Private Trade 1 Tea, monopoly and competition 1.1 Competition for monopoly (1685–1730) 1.2 A competitive market (1730–1790) 2 Empires and tea 2.1 Direct trade and Empire 2.2 EIC intra-Asian trade and English country trade 2.3 British Empire and Canton

54 54 55 61 67 67 69 72

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Contents

3 Private trade and tea 3.1 The ‘discovery’ of tea 3.2 Private trade and Batavia 3.3 Private trade in tea as a tool of competition 3.4 English private trade in tea Conclusion

74 74 79 81 85 86

3 Popularisation of Tea: Smugglers and Different Varieties of Tea 1 Tea and smuggling 1.1 The problem of contraband tea 1.2 An answer to smuggling 2 Smuggling and America 2.1 Unnoticed smuggling 2.2 British Empires connect 3 Selections of tea 3.1 Different varieties, different prices 3.2 A different selection of tea Conclusion

91 92 93 95 100 101 103 105 105 112 120

4 Rivalry for Textiles: A Global Market 1 India, Europe and the Atlantic 1.1 Different systems of trade 1.2 The imports of Indian textiles 1.3 Textiles and mercantilism 2 Textiles and empire in Asia 2.1 Intra-Asian trade and textiles 2.2 Balancing Asia and Europe 2.3 English dominance Conclusion

124 125 125 128 133 138 139 140 144 149

5 The Consumption of Textiles: Return Cargoes and Variety 1 Different regions, different textiles 2 Competition for textiles 2.1 Muslins 2.2 White calicoes 2.3 Coloured calicoes 3 Imports of Indian textiles and the Industrial Revolution Conclusion

154 155 160 161 167 174 180 186

Contents

ix

Conclusion 1 Popular consumption or not? 2 Rival empires of trade

190 191 193

Appendix 1

Primary Sources on the Trade in Tea and Textiles

198

Appendix 2

Denominations of Textiles

203

Bibliography

205

Index

215

List of Illustrations Figures 2.1 Tea warehouse, Canton (Guangzhou), Chinese artists, c.1800 3.1 One of a pair of pictures showing the part of the Western hongs or ‘factories’ at Canton (Guangzhou) by an unknown artist, c. 1770 5.1 Fine white muslin bodice with lace inserts, India, Bengal, c. eighteenth-early nineteenth century. Hand spun, hand stitched and handwoven, inlay jamdani technique 5.2 Furnishing cotton, fine floral red on cream, fantasy insects and plants, plate printed, alum mordant and dyed madder on plain weave, made in Britain, c.1770–1780 5.3 Pair of detachable cotton sleeves, c. mid-eighteenth century Dutch (Indian painted chintz) floral with stylised inner patterning, two tones of madder on cream

59

106

162

168

175

Graphs A B C D E F

G H

Total exports of silver to Asia, VOC and EIC (in pound sterling) (1701–1795) Value of imports, sales, bills of exchange and export of precious metals in guilders, VOC (1640–1795) Value of silver sent from Europe and bills of exchange accepted in Asia in pounds sterling, EIC (1709–1800) Total imports of tea, VOC and EIC (in kg) Sales price per pound of tea, VOC (in pounds sterling per Dutch lb) and EIC (pounds sterling per English lb) Purchase prices of tea in Canton (EIC, in pounds per English lb) and in Canton and Batavia (VOC, in pounds per Dutch lb) (1731–1781) EIC purchase prices of green tea (singlo, hyson and bing) in Canton (in pounds sterling per English lb) (1715–1789) EIC purchase prices of black tea (bohea, congou and souchong) in Canton (in pounds sterling per English lb) (1715–1789)

x

32 40 41 62 64

66 109

110

List of Illustrations

I J K L

M N O

P

Q R S T

U V

Percentage of different varieties of tea in the return cargo of the EIC (% of the weight), 1715–1789 Percentage of different varieties of tea in the return cargo of the VOC (% of the weight), 1700–1794 Total number of pieces of textile imported by the EIC and the VOC (1700–1800) Purchase price of textiles in India, VOC and EIC (divided into Bengal, Bombay and Coromandel) (in pounds sterling per piece) (1700–1799) Price per piece of textile at the VOC sale (in guilders) (1700–1780) Number of Indian textiles (in pieces) imported for the Africa trade, EIC and VOC (1700–1789) Percentage of muslins, white calicoes and coloured calicoes in the EIC return cargo of textiles from India (% of number of pieces), 1713–1789 Percentage of muslins, white calicoes and coloured calicoes in the VOC return cargo of textiles (% of number of pieces), 1713–1789 Number of muslins (Bombay, Madras and Bengal) in the returns of the EIC, 1713–1789 Average price per piece of muslins (Bombay, Bengal and Madras) returned by the EIC (in pounds sterling), 1713–1789 Number of white calicoes (Bombay, Madras and Bengal) in the returns of the EIC, 1713–1789 Average price per piece of white calico (Bombay, Bengal and Madras) returned by the EIC (in pounds sterling), 1713–1789 Number of coloured calicoes (Bombay, Madras and Bengal) in the returns of the EIC, 1713–1789 Average price per piece of coloured calico (Bombay, Bengal and Madras) returned by the EIC (in pounds sterling), 1713–1789

xi

112 113 129

134 135 138

159

160 164 164 171

171 177

177

Plates 1 2

Tea warehouse, Canton (Guangzhou), Chinese artists, c.1800. Courtesy of Patrick Conner, Martyn Gregory Gallery London One of a pair of pictures showing the part of the Western hongs or ‘factories’ at Canton (Guangzhou) by an unknown artist c. 1770. Courtesy of Patrick Conner, Martyn Gregory Gallery London

xii List of Illustrations

3

4

5

6 7

Fine white muslin bodice with lace inserts, India Bengal c. eighteenth-early nineteenth century. Hand spun, hand stitched and handwoven, inlay jamdani technique. Courtesy of the Textiles Collection of the University for the Creative Arts at Farnham Furnishing cotton, fine floral red on cream, fantasy insects and plants, plate printed, alum mordant and dyed madder on plain weave, made in Britain, c.1770–1780. Courtesy of the Textiles Collection of the University for the Creative Arts at Farnham Pair of detachable cotton sleeves, c. mid-eighteenth century Dutch (Indian painted chintz) floral with stylised inner patterning, two tones of madder on cream. Courtesy of the Textiles Collection of the University for the Creative Arts at Farnham Percentage of different varieties of tea in the return cargo of the EIC (% of the weight), 1715–1789 Percentage of different varieties of tea in the return cargo of the VOC (% of the weight), 1700–1794

Table 2.1 A comparison of amounts of tea and their purchase and sales prices, VOC and EIC (1700–1708)

57

Acknowledgements During the time I was writing this book, I had the privilege of being part of Maxine Berg’s Europe’s Asian Centuries project. Without this project this book would not have been possible. The people that constituted our team, Hanna Hodacs, Felicia Gottmann, Meike Fellinger, Tim Davies, Anna Guszcza, Anna Boneham, Jiao Liu and Sheilagh Holmes, have provided essential assistance by reading drafts, organising research and giving mental support. I am especially grateful to Maxine Berg and Helen Clifford. Maxine, you have been a great boss by giving me the necessary freedom in the pursuit of my research. Before I met you, my own applications for funding had been turned down for being too ambitious in scope. You never saw any problems in my ability to think big and gave me the chance to pursue my dreams anyway. Helen, you took the time to read all my chapters, even several times and helped me find illustrations. Your enthusiasm kept me going and I would not have been able to finish this book without your help. This project was housed in the Global History and Culture Centre of the University of Warwick. This centre provided a perfect setting for research with fantastic colleagues such as Anna Gerritsen, Stephen McDowall, Dan Branch, Karolina Hutkova, and Amy Evans, just to name a few. Giorgio Riello in particular, with his never fading energy, provided a stimulating environment for the study of Indian textiles and he always enthusiastically encouraged me in my work. I would also like to thank the people who have helped me to write this book by lending a helping hand or with their enthusiastic support. John Styles’ great knowledge of textiles greatly helped me as he provided me with stimulating comments on my work. Rosemary Robson edited the English and she was available for even the smallest last-minute correction. The people responsible for the publication of this book at Palgrave Macmillan, especially Jenny McCall and Jade Moulds, have skilfully guided me along the rocky paths towards publication. I would also like to thank the two blind reviewers, who reviewed my plan for the book and the actual book itself, for their very helpful comments. They both gave me a clear idea of the direction in which this book had to go. Patrick Conner of Martyn Gregory Gallery London provided me with some beautiful illustrations of Canton. Linda Brassington, of the Textiles

xiii

xiv Acknowledgements

Collection of the University for the Creative Arts at Farnham, found exactly the illustrations of textiles I needed. Both in the British Library and in the National Archives of the Netherlands, I have always received great help with enquiries and with handling the often quite heavy documents. Despite their weight, staff were always willing to help me out. I would like to thank the people of the INGHuygens institute, and especially Gerrit Knaap, for their great work in publishing the BBG-database, which so nicely complemented my own work on the VOC and the EIC. During the time I was absent for work in England, my family was very patient with me and kind to my wife. I apologise for my absence, as family should always come first. I am very sad that my father has not been able to see the fulfilment of this book. His honest opinion is something I will greatly miss. My Italian family, Silvio, Marisa and Franci, provided great support during trips to Rome. My wife, Laura, always saw the beauty of my work. I want to thank her for being so patient and for giving me the space and time to finish this book. Most of all, I would like to thank our daughter, Anna Sofia, who, before and after being born, has been an almost silent witness to the completion of this book.

Measurements

Guilder: 10.5 guilders equal 1 pound sterling Guilder (Indisch): 15 Indische guilder equals 1 pound sterling, the difference between zwaar and licht makes a further correction of 20 per cent necessary (see Appendix 1) Kannasser: 1 kannasser equalled 90 lb Dutch weight or 44.46 kg. lb (Dutch): 1 lb (Dutch) equals 0.494 kg lb (English): 1 lb (English) equals 0.453 kg Pound sterling: 1 pound sterling equals 10.5 guilders Rix-dollar: 1 Rix-dollar equals 2.4 guilders Tael: Chinese currency, 3 Tael equals 1 pound sterling

xv

List of Terms Arrack Asafoetida Bezoar stones

alcoholic beverage, brewed from sugar or other plants. gum raisin with a strong scent. Used as medicine. stone-like objects from the intestinal tubes of some animals, attributed great potency as an antidote. Borax a mineral, used for melting and soldering of metals. Calliatourshout red sandalwood, used for inlaid work or for producing paint. Cardamom sweet-scented spice, seed of Cardamomum minus. Cassia lignea bark of a plant from the family of the cinnamon family, considered as inferior in quality to cinnamon. Curcuma intensely yellow root of the plant Curcuma longa. The root was mainly used for making medicine. Dragon’s blood blood-red resin, used as paint by cabinetmakers. Galingale the aromatic root of certain Indian plants of the genera Alpinia and Kaempferia, formerly much used in medicine and cookery. Guilder currency in the Dutch Republic. Olibanum incense. Ommelanden the areas surrounding the VOC main settlement of Batavia in Java. Redwood see calliatourshout. Sago sago starch extracted from the pith of the sago tree.

xvi