RIFT VALLEY COLLEGE

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UNIVERSITY

THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRD NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON “RESEARCH FOR QUALITY AND RELEVANT EDUCATION AND TRAINING” RVUC,

June 18, 2011

Volume 3 www.riftvalleyuc.net/Research/research.html/

© RVUC Printing Services, Adama, Ethiopia, June 2011 Published by the Office of the Vice - President for Research, Publications and External Affairs

RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS BOARD OF ADVISORS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

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Prof. Diribsa Dufera Addis Ababa University Dr. Gemetchu Megersa Rift Valley University College, Adama, Ethiopia Dr. Ayele Abebe Adama Science and Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia Dr. Birhanu Mathews Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia Prof. Deepti Gupta Punjab University, Chandigarh India Dr. Birhanu Mogus Adama Science and Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia Dr. Getachew Seyoum Jima University, Jima, Ethiopia Prof. Sarala Kirshna Murthy Polytechnic Institute of the University of Namibia

Table of Contents

1. Preamble..........................................................................................................................................................4 2. Opening Speech................................................................................................................................................8 3. Key Note Speech .............................................................................................................................................11 4. Self Perception of Teachers as Adult Learners and Professionals: Implications to Their Practices and Professional Development....................................................................................................................................................14

5. Perspicacity into the Nexus of Moral Maxims: Teaching Etiquette and Its Bearing on the Nub of Education..................................................................................................................................26

6. The Contribution of HDP to the Quality of Education in Ethiopian Higher Education Institutions: The Views of Teachers, Students and HDP Leaders (A Case of Adama University)............................................................35

7. Enhancing the Occupational Competencies of Graduates in Ethiopia: Managing the Challenges of Employment 72 8. The Role of Career Guidance in Quality Education ......................................................................................93 9. The Concepts of Gender Ideology in Oromo World View .............................................................................114 10. Quality Education, Academic Staff and Morality .........................................................................................138 11. The Role of Teachers’ Continuous Professional Development (CPD) To the Quality of Education: The Case of General Secondary Schools of East Showa Zone ....................................................................................................... 156

12. Assessing the Student Support Services in Distance Education of Rift Valley University (RVUC) Adama Coordinating Center ............................................................................................................................................................173

13. The Challenges and Opportunities of Entrepreneurial Development: A Case Study of Micro and Small Enterprises Found In Adama Town.....................................................................................................................193

14. Enhancing Quality in Language and Literature Teaching and Learning by Improving the Quality of Teacher Question.................................................................................................................................................206

15. Enhancing the Relevance of Active Learning for Quality Higher Education................................................214 16. Quality Assurance Practices of the Ethiopian Higher Education.....................................234

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Preamble Rift Valley University College (RVUC) conducted the third national conference with the theme, “Research for Quality and Relevant Education and Training” on June 18, 2011. This conference was attended by a total of 1232 participants. The participants were drawn from universities, HERQA, TVET Agencies, students of RVUC, NGOs, RVUC Staff and industries. Although three papers were not included in this compilation, a total of 16 papers were presented during one day conference following the time table below: Morning Session …June 18, 2011, Opening Ceremony……Venue: OLYAD Conference Hall TIME

TOPIC

PRESENTER

CHAIRPERSON

RAPPORTUERS

8:00….8:30 AM

Registratio n

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All Research and Publications Committee (RPC)

8:30....8:40

Welcome Note

8:40....8:50

Presidentia l address

8:50…9:00

Key note address

Ato Reta Bekele, Managing Director Dr. Gemetchu Megersa, President, RVUC Dr. Tesfaye Teshome, Director General, ETQAA

Ato Kassa Abera, Quality Assurance Officer Dr. Haileleul Zeleke Ato Reta Bekele, MD, RVUC Dr. Gemetchu Megersa, President, RVUC

All Research and Publications Committee (RPC) All Research and Publications Committee (RPC) All Research and Publications Committee (RPC)

Plenary Session: ……….Venue: OLYAD Conference Hall Chairperson…………….Dr. Birhanu Mathews, AAU Secretary………………..Ato Endalu Rosha, RVUC TIME TOPIC PRESENTER 9:10…9:30 Higher Education Quality and Relevance: Lessons Dr. Tesfay S Tsegay AM from the Corporate University 9:30.…9:50 Perspicacity into the Nexus of Moral Maxims: Ato Mindaralew Zewdie Teaching Etiquette and Its Bearing on the Nub of Education 9:50…10:45 Discussions Participants 10:45..11:0 Coffee Break Administration 0 11:00..11:20 An Assessment of Quality Assurance Policies of the Dr. Haileleul Zeleke Ethiopian Higher Education 11:20..11:40 The Role of Education Quality in Economic Growth Dr. Emana Getu 11:40..12:30 Discussions Participants Afternoon Session: .......Syndicate One……. Room 5-001 (RVUC, Administration Building) Chairperson………Ato Begashaw Dechassa, Vice President for Adm and Bs.Dev. RVUC, Secretary………...Ato Hassan Abdurahman, TVET Supervisor, and RVUC Time Topic Presenter 2:00….2:2 0 PM 2:20….2:4 0 2:40....3:2 0

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Self Perception of TVET Teachers as Adult Learners and Professionals: Implications to Their Practices and Professional Development The Role of Vocational Guidance and Counseling on the Quality and Relevance of Higher Education and Training Discussions

Dr. Ayele Abebe Ato Kumsa Donni Participants

3:20….3:4 0

Coffee Break

Administration

3:40….4:0 0

The Contribution of HDP to the Quality of Education in Ethiopian Higher Education Institutions: The Views of Teachers, Students and HDP Leaders (The Case of Adama University ) The Role Of Teachers’ Continuous Professional Development (CPD) To The Quality Of Education: The Case Of General Secondary Schools Of East Showa Zone Discussions

Ato Mesfin Sileshi

CLOSING SPEECH AND AWARD OF CERTIFICATES

Ato Reta Bekele, Managing Director

4:00… 4:20 4:20… 5:00 5:00… 5:15

TIME

Ato Feyera Beyessa, Participants

Syndicate Two………….. Syndicate Two ……. Room 5-002 (RVUC, Administration Building) Chairperson……………..Ato Wondwossen Tedla, Dean, Faculty of Bus. and Soc., Secretary………………..Ato Asrat Worku, Chief Librarian, RVUC TOPIC PRESENTER

2:00….2:20 pm

Dr. Birhanu Mogus

3:00….3:20

Enhancing the Relevance of Active Learning for Quality Higher Education Enhancing Quality in Language and Literature Teaching and Learning by Improving the Quality of Teacher Questions Evaluating the Quality of Student Support Services at Rift Valley University College, Distance Education Division Discussions

3:20….3:40

Coffee Break

PRO

3:40…4:00

Ato Asnake Talarge

4:20…5:00

Enhancing the Occupational Competencies and the Quality of Graduates in Ethiopia: Managing the Challenges of Employment The Challenges and Opportunities in Quality and Relevant Entrepreneurial Development: the Case of Adama City Discussions

5:00…5:15

CLOSING SPEECH AND AWARD OF CERTIFICATES

Ato Reta Bekele, Managing Director

2:20….2:40 2:40….3:00

4:00…4:20

Dr. Birhanu Mathews Ato Kassa Abera Participants

Ato Messele Kumlachew Participants

Afternoon Session: ....... Syndicate Three ……. Room 5-003 (RVUC, Administration Building) Chairperson…………….. Ato Kirubel Yared , Chief Registrar, RVUC Secretary……………….. Ato Abdu Mohammed, Dean, Faculty of Technology TIME TOPIC PRESENTER 2:00….2:20 pm Academic Staff Motivation for Quality Higher Dr. Tenna Dewo Education: Its Moral Dimension and Implications 2:20….2:40 Academic Integrity: Agenda For Research And Ato Gemechu Waktola Action In Response To Quality Concern For Higher Education 2:40….3:20 Discussions Participants 3:20….3:40 Coffee Break Administration 3:40…4:00 4:00…4:20

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Assessing The Position Of Student Support Services In Distance Education Of RVUC , Adama Coordinating Centre The Concept of Gender Ideology in Oromo World

Ato Temesgen File Ato Ginbar Negera

4:20…5:00 5:00…5:15

View Discussions CLOSING SPEECH CERTIFICATES

AND AWARD OF

Participants Ato Reta Bekele, Managing Director, RVUC

With the aim of achieving the following objectives of research and publications at RVUC, RVUC shall continue to organize national conferences: • Provision of opportunities for the academic staff of the University College, most of who are young and energetic, to learn how to formulate research proposals and write reports on their research findings, from their senior colleagues. •

An academic staff member undertaking a research, publications and consulting project is obliged to read and refer to the most up-to-date literature to keep abreast with latest developments, thereby widening the scope of his knowledge and his professional competence.

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Another major component of research and publications activities is the preparation of teaching materials, which depends not only on the teaching experience of the instructor but also on the latest information he/she has accumulated through reading relevant materials for his/her research work. At a time when private institutions of higher learning are emerging at an unprecedented rate and, where books are either not available or available at exorbitant prices, the preparation of teaching materials by the teaching staff is the only practical option.

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Contribution of the staff to the advancement of human understanding, knowledge, creativity and professional practice.

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Creation of a culture that provides an intellectually stimulating environment for staff, students and the local community.

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Enhancement of teaching and academic development at all levels and ensuring that students experience an academic culture which is vital and challenging.

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Advancement of the contribution of RVUC to the society and the economy through knowledge and technology transfer and the application of research and consulting services in the wider community.

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Enhancement of the reputation of RVUC as an institution of national and international excellence.

The objectives raised above, coupled with the fast expansion of Rift Valley University College, both in the quality and number of its teaching staff in about 12 campuses, have prompted the top management to organize national conferences on quality and relevance of higher education annually . Conducting a conference regularly is yet another step in the right direction-a direction towards a status of a fullfledged university. RVUC’s Research and Publications Office acknowledges the contribution of all researchers whose joint efforts have contributed to the advancement of the quality of tertiary education 6

and training. The Office shall continue organizing national and international research conference focusing on the enhancement of the quality of higher education. All are cordially invited to contribute to our research initiative which chiefly focuses on the quality and relevance of tertiary education and research.

OPENING SPEECH By Ato Reta Bekele, Managing Director, RVUC Dear Dr. Tesfaye Teshome, Director General of Higher Education Relevance and Quality Agency, Dear Invited Guests and Representatives of Government and Non-Government Organizations and Institutions, Ladies and Gentlemen,

Good morning and welcome. It is my pleasure to have the opportunity to give this brief opening speech at the 3 rd National Conference on “Research for Quality and Relevant Education and Training” organized by the Research and Publications Office of Rift Valley University College. It is indeed an honor for the University College to be able to host such an important conference on the quality and relevance of higher education. Let me begin by thanking the Ethiopian Education and Training Quality Assurance Agency for nurturing in us the desire of upholding quality enhancement and improvement in our systems. In fact we recognize that the Agency’s main initiatives originate primarily from a deep concern that the nation’s higher education system is falling behind the rest of the world. A second important driver behind the Agency’s initiative is the recognition that most private higher education institutions, although in their infancy yet, are of poor quality, and that many are more interested in making money than providing a quality education. A third reason for the government’s involvement appears to be the concerns of employers and the industry about the poor performance of graduates. The concerted effort by the government through Education and Training Quality Assurance Agency to inculcate the notion of quality assurance into the systems of tertiary education in Ethiopia over the last few years has produced tremendous results as evidenced by the changes that both public and private higher education institutions have been undergoing in recent years. It gives me a great pleasure to inform you that Rift Valley University College has gained significantly from this government initiative. As a result, more than ever before, we are aware of and fully committed to quality assurance in our systems. This may be demonstrated in several ways by what we have been doing over the last few years: • We have firmly set our own institutional quality assurance system that emphasizes flexibility and quality enhancement and improvement on continuous basis. • We have established quality assurance units at all levels, whose main duties are to develop and monitor quality assurance procedures to promote performance improvements across the University College programs and constituents, and to facilitate the conduct of regular internal quality reviews. • We have carried out self-reviews, based on data collection and analysis, and have submitted self assessment reports to the Education and Training Quality Assurance Agency. Based on the information we obtained from these internal reviews, we have made lots of changes that improved our performance. When the Agency’s audit reports are received, we 7

shall again use the information to seek further improvements and foster needed changes and to begin the process of developing and utilizing more effective mechanisms for quality improvement and enhancement. • We have allocated adequate and credible resources, both human and financial, with appropriate provision for the development of our efforts to enhance quality. LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, At this very moment you may be asking yourselves, “Why is quality so important at the higher levels of education?” There are several reasons we can offer. First, quality is more closely correlated with growth and development. Workers with higher quality cognitive, technical, communications and team skills are better able to assimilate technology, push the frontiers of knowledge, work in groups and make efficient decisions that build the technological capability for competitiveness. Second, tertiary institutions equipped to impart quality education and conduct relevant applied research are also more likely to cultivate multiple linkages with industry and to stimulate knowledge-based development through a variety of proven channels. Third, better quality education can lead to higher graduate employment and enable graduates to effectively participate in life-long learning and personal development. LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, The emphasis of this 3rd National Conference is on quality and relevant education and training at a tertiary level. Presumably, this level is seen as a tool to generate benefits and opportunities of social, economic and cultural development. The development of quality tertiary education is vital in producing workers who are knowledgeable; skilled in ICT; practitioners of positive attitudes and values; creative and critical in thinking; and who are ready to enter the world of work with full confidence and commitment. Over the next several ours throughout the day today, I believe you will be discussing issues and matters regarding quality in tertiary education such as the role of education quality in economic growth, the role of teacher’s continuous professional development to the quality of education and an assessment of quality assurance policies of the Ethiopian higher education, to name just a few. This conference will include discussions based on more than fifteen presentations that cover issues and topics mainly encompassing new developments in quality tertiary education. I trust you will find such topics interesting. As for the panelists, they are all well experienced in their respective fields and have offered to share with us their scholarly findings relating to the critical issues of quality and relevance in our tertiary education system. LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, Let me take this opportunity to assure you that Rift Valley University College will continue to host such public conferences more frequently and widely share their outcomes with the public at large. I would also take the same opportunity to thank Dr. Tesfaye Teshome and other invited guests who offered to be with us on this occasion in spite of the busy schedules they normally have. My sincere appreciation is also extended to all scholars who have offered to share with us their research findings, and to the Vice President for Research and Postgraduate Studies and his team members who have shown incredible dedication in making this conference a reality. Let me again offer my welcome to all participants of this conference. I hope that this day will be a fruitful one for all of us involved. The free exchange of ideas among the various interests represented here today will only further our understanding of quality and relevance in higher education, and I look forward to an active discussion and debate of the issues surrounding quality tertiary education. Thank you very much. 8

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KEY NOTE ADDRESS ON THE THIRD NATIONAL RESEARCH CONFERENCE ORGANIZED BY RIFT VALLEY UNIVERSITY COLLEGE By Dr.Tesfaye Teshome, Director General, HERQA Respected academic community of RVUC Distinguished researchers, All participants of this conference, Ladies and gentlemen: Primarily, allow me to share my unending satisfaction on behalf of the Ministry of Education and Education and Training Quality Assurance Agency (ETQAA) for I am able to deliver this key note address at this third national research conference that discusses on an important theme of the higher education: “Research for Quality and Relevant Higher Education and Training.” I should also be allowed to express my honest appreciation to RVUC’s senior management and the conference organizing teams for organizing such a national conference for the third time. RVUC has shown its commitment to enhance its own academic quality which positively influences the quality and relevance of the Ethiopian higher education. Ladies and Gentlemen, Boldly speaking, a tertiary institution like RVUC has to support its academic staff to conduct research works, organize research conferences, transfer appropriate technologies, generate knowledge, publish research journals, participate in community engagement works actively and bring about changes in the quality of life. Only when RVUC’s staff takes up research and publication works seriously and contributes to the generation and then the globalization of knowledge, RVUC fits for its purpose. It is very important to observe that RVUC has seriously engaged in research into academic quality. A research conducted on the quality and relevance of education and training can play substantial roles for the socio-economic development of the country. Institutions of higher learning must create research forums to integrate educational policies and strategies that potentially consider the quality of science, technology and basic social needs. Our country can successfully realize its Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) when our higher education institutions deliver quality education and begin to produce competent workforce. Our country will become one of the middle income countries when its educated workforce competently participates in various development and nation building projects. Active research engagement is the channel in these development endeavors. RVUC has played a leading role and taken a crucial responsibility organizing national conferences like this, in addition to advancing genuine ideas that promote quality education, understanding and utilizing 10

educational policies and strategies. This continuous and focused research engagement has become the best practice to be followed by other tertiary institutions. To focus on one major research theme is a commendable job. Maintaining this research excellence and focus, RVUC can streamline other research focus areas later on. Ladies and Gentlemen, Obviously, Higher Education Proclamation of 2009 presents that higher education institutions should design programs towards delivering education and training in an integrated manner focusing on technology transfer and knowledge generation and cultivating competent workforce. The workforce should become the sources of new knowledge with efficiency in conducting research and problem solving capacity, as well as disseminating scientific knowledge. Being aware of the importance of applied research, innovation and systems in higher education institutions, HERQA will go on to providing a maximum support. HERQA is pleased that RVUC has organized the third research conference on research for quality education and training. The issue of quality has been a great concern throughout this year. HERQA has been assessing the quality of the degree programs of private higher education this year. The preliminary assessment has identified several concerns on the quality and relevance of education and training provided by private higher learning. Another important concern has been the research engagement of the staff of private higher learning. A preliminary observation shows that the involvement of the academic staff to the research and publication work has been negligible. Private higher institutions are also established to generate knowledge and actively engage in industry led research works. With the aim transferring knowledge and technology, private providers also have to forge dependable and sustainable partnership with the local enterprises and industries. Let me ask some basic questions to all academic staff of RVUC.

How many of you actively

participated in research works after your graduation? How many of you participated in the research conferences? How many research articles have you published after your graduation? Have you produced any teaching material? Are you aware of the consulting jobs outside? Have you read the proceedings and journals that your own University College has been publishing? Some of you might have answered “YES”, boldly. Do you read journals and research findings outside your own discipline? I am not sure!!

However, I am pleased that RVUC has created this forum. RVUC has started

publishing journals and availing research data through its website so that all of us can have access to great research data. I am earnestly requesting you to read, read and read. 11

Dear all participants of this conference, Our assessment of RVU’s campuses this year shows that RVUC has approached the enhancement of quality from different approaches. Efforts have been made to decentralize its governance and management systems. In line with ESDP IV and GTP, RVUC has produced its five year growth strategy. It is great that this institution knows that continuous professional development (CPD) of the academic staff is a key instrument of maintaining the quality and relevance of higher education. CPD facilitates the implementation of modern teaching and assessment methods. It is also great to learn that RVUC has started conducing labor market surveys to launch science and engineering fields in the proportion of 70:30. Revision of the curriculum allows this growing institution to deliver competency based training. Enhancing the institutional capacity of utilizing technology, especially ICT, is a fundamental tool to deliver quality education and training. Diversifying applied research works has a momentous worth to keep such technological growth. As creativity and new systems are the result of research findings, conducting applied researches paves the way to new discoveries. It is obviously relevant to make integrated research between the existing technology and creating new ones in line with the existing situation of the country. The industries nearby RVUC should benefit from your research. The industries/enterprises have to come together starting from problem identification to the implementation of research results. Research works should support the industries. We are also pleased that RVUC has invested on improving the quality and relevance of distance learning. The abstracts booklet shows some research on distance learning which means that this institution has sponsored research on distance learning. RVUC is on the right direction. All in all, it is great that RVUC has made bold measures to enhance the quality and relevance of its education and training following ten areas of quality that HERQA has identified as crucial. RVUC remains an exemplary higher institution addressing the issue of quality strategically investing hugely. Once again, I would like to make this confirmation that the Ministry of Education and HERQA will provide all the necessary support to RVUC on its way to undertake expansion of quality and relevant higher education. I expect that this conference will come up with fertile policy recommendations on the quality and relevance of higher education at the end.

I declare this third national research

conference is officially open. 1. SELF PERCEPTION OF TEACHERS AS ADULT LEARNERS AND PROFESSIONALS: IMPLICATIONS TO THEIR PRACTICES AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT By Ayele Abebe (PhD) Abstract 12

The objective of this study was to identify and determine the influence of the individual TVET teacher’s self perception on their learning and development as adult learners and professionals. This study attempted to answer the following research questions: How do TVET teachers perceive themselves as adult learners and as professionals? What are the implications of these individual teacher’s perceptions on their learning and Professional development? A purposive sampling method is used to conduct an in-depth interview with selected TVET teachers from different TVET Colleges. Qualitative content analysis methods are employed to analyze the data using ATLAS.ti software. The result of the study, which is part of a larger research project, showed that TVET teacher’ motivation and morale for engaging in learning and professional development are low. Their lack of motivation is attributable partly to their self - perceptions regarding themselves as an adult learner and the teaching profession. The knowledge of teachers’ self - perception, beliefs and attitudes should be considered as important variables to be taken into account in the design and implementations of teacher education and professional development programs. 1. Objectives The objective of this study was to identify and determine the influence of the individual TVET teacher’s self perception on their learning and development as adult learners and professionals. This study attempted to answer the following research questions: How do TVET teachers perceive themselves as adult learners and as professionals? What are the implications of these individual teacher’s perceptions on their learning and Professional development?

2. Theoretical Basis: Influence of Self Perception on Learning and Development Kersaint et al. (2001) addressed the growing recognition that teachers’ attitudes and beliefs, and their prior experiences as learners and instructors shape and impact how they engage in professional development activities and experiences. They stressed that in addition to teachers’ subject matter and pedagogical knowledge, their attitudes, and beliefs about themselves and about knowledge, learning, schooling, and the community in which they live are also important and must be addressed in order learning and development activities to bring an impact on their practices. As a result, professional development programs should be designed to include components that address the existing perceptions and beliefs in order for changes in beliefs of teachers to occur through reflection and self-assessment (Jones et al., 1994) 13

Borko & Putnam (1996) also stressed that active and constructive learning of teachers is heavily influenced by their existing knowledge and beliefs and the specific contexts they are situated. Therefore, the acquiring of new knowledge and skills by the teachers is evidently affected by their preexisting knowledge and beliefs. Teachers, like other adult learners, are shaped by their diverse educational, life and work experiences in the past and present. These acquired experiences influence their perspective on their future educational event, including their motivation to be engaged in professional development activities. (Lawler, 2003) Regarding the influence of teachers’ perception on their teaching practices, Postareff et al. (2007, p. 30) stated that “while teachers approach teaching in diverse ways, they also hold different conceptions of teaching. Teachers’ conceptions of teaching have been shown to affect the way teachers approach their teaching. Teachers who conceive teaching as transmitting knowledge are more likely to adopt a teacher-centred approach to teaching, while those who conceive teaching as facilitative are found to use more student-centred approaches (Samuelowicz and Bain 1992; Prosser et al. 1994; Kember 1997; Kember and Kwan 2000; Eley 2006). The need for professional development of teachers to influence their perception and practices is essential as “teachers conceptions of teaching do not necessarily develop with increased teaching experience” (Norton et al. 2005; Richardson 2005). A number of researches are found in the adult education literature which shade insights on adult learners’ self - perception and their influence for their learning. These researches explored selfperceptions of adults as learners, the relationships between adults seeking learning opportunities, and the influence of self-perception upon self-directed learning and engagement within new learning environments. It is evident that knowledge about adults’ self-perceptions and how they see themselves in learning environments may be crucial in ensuring their learning and development in their profession. (Kling 2007; Bauer et al. 2004; Boud and Solomon 2003; Illeris 2003, among others) Illeris (2003 , p. 174) stated that ‘if something occurs that the individual experiences as a defeat, humiliation or other negative experience…very quickly a thick wall of defence can be mobilised’. Also in this connection Velez (2006) concluded that self perception (and self worth) as a concept which precedes the act of motivation and the difficulty of motivating the learner extrinsically that lack intrinsic belief in themselves. On the other hand, research findings show that is it possible to alter the self-perceptions of adults with negative self-images (as learners) and, in doing so, increase their motivation to learn. Hence, self perception, although developed over many years, may not necessarily remain static. (Klein et al., 2004)

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Like wise, Velez (2006) indicated that self-perception is not a quality given, but it is an attitude that is cultivated. It would seem important to consider that self-perception as something fluid rather than rigid or static. And hence adult learning and development programs and adult educators may have a role to influence the adult learner’s self-perception. Having an awareness of how best we can ensure a safe learning environment that enhances selfperception will be invaluable for adult educators and adult education, including teacher education programs. 3. The method of empirical study Based on the specific research objectives and the types of research questions of this study, a qualitative inductive research approach is adopted as a research strategy. Primary data were obtained from Technical and vocational Education and Training Teachers (TVET) teachers using a one-on-one qualitative in-depth interview method. These data were analyzed using a Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA) method based on Mayring’s step-model of inductive category development procedure during the coding and categorization process (Mayring, 2000a) The empirical results obtained and presented in this paper are components of a larger research project which focused on the influences of individual and contextual factors to improve the professional development of TVET teachers (Abebe, 2010). Among the twelve major categories obtained from the research, three categorized were found relevant to this particular study. These categories are Selfperception of Teachers as Adult Learners, Self-perception of Teachers as Professionals, and Teachers’ Motivation to Learning and Development. 4. Empirical results and discussions 4.1 Teachers’ Self –Perception as Adult Learners In relation to the question how the TVET teachers perceive themselves as a learner, most of the teachers interviewed found it difficult to readily perceive themselves as adult learners. They also claim that they do not intentionally engage in learning and development activities as learners continually. Furthermore, most of the teachers preferred not to be perceived as a learner by others, including their colleagues and students. They reasoned out that being perceived as a learner may lead to being perceived as a less competent person by colleagues and others. They believed that such perceptions will negatively impact on their self image. Most respondents agreed that the perception of teachers not perceived as learners’ is also widely espoused by the society at large. 15

Many of the respondents agreed that their self- perception as learners may change if the circumstances become motivating in their workplace and the wider contextual conditions change. Their responses also suggest that better conditions in their work culture and more openness among each other would have supported their active engagement in learning and development activities for their own benefit as well as to deliver better services for their students. Thus the respondents seemed to suggest that their selfperception is more of a function of external factors than each individual personality or learning style. Borko and Putnam (1996b, p674 in Kawkman, 2003) have asserted that active and constructive learning is heavily influenced by an individual’s existing knowledge and beliefs and is situated in particular contexts. As the empirical results also show the absence of self-perception as adult learners by the teachers has contributed to the condition where much of what may be learned often is incidental or unintentional and learning and development initiative will usually be externally – driven rather than self initiated and managed, since one’s self perception and beliefs strongly affects own motivation to learn. Therefore, the knowledge about teachers’ self-perceptions and how they see themselves in learning environments is crucial in ensuring their own knowledge and skills development. It should be one of the aspects to be taken into account in teachers’ learning and professional development processes, including teacher education programs. This result is found to be in agreement with other prior researches by Ryckmann (1993) , Lawler and King (2003) , Kwakman ( 2003) , among others. Earlier research findings pointed out the significance of altering the negative self perception of adults in order to increase their motivation for learning and development (Velez, 2006; Klein, et al. 2004; Weld, 1998). It would be therefore essential to give focus in developing the self-perception of the TVET teachers as adult learners in order to support and enhance their learning and professional development. It is a diversified, multi-level effort that may help bring about such changes in perception in the long run. Primarily this implies affecting teachers’ beliefs and attitude towards themselves as learners and the perception of the society towards them as well. At individual level, it may require a transformative learning process, on the part of the teacher, to question and challenge some of the long held views and perceptions. For such transformative learning to take place, it is essential for the teachers to come across new experiences and learning opportunities and engage themselves in critical thinking and reassessment of their own perception and practices. The overall effort to bring changes in teachers’ self-perception requires not only the active involvement of the teachers in such process but also others who directly or indirectly involve in the construction and deconstruction of these perceptions. Actors that help influence to bring about change in self 16

perception of the TVET teachers as adult learners include students, colleagues, school leaders, education policy makers, professional associations, teacher education institutions, and the general public, just to mention some. 4.2 TVET Teachers’ Perception of their Profession As Weld (1998) has stated the lack of recognition of teachers as professionals and the absence of adequate professional development opportunities are among those factors which highly impact on teachers’ motivation and morale. In general, it is expected that the perception of teaching as a profession to differ among teachers, teacher educators, policy makers, and the members of the society at large. These varying perceptions are influential factors on how teachers are prepared and how their professional development is promoted in the education system (Calderhead and Shorrock, 1997; OECD, 1990). Goodson ( 2000) also argued that the perceptions of the role of teachers and their profession are culturally and socially embedded, and teachers’ own perceptions of their role and profession affect, and are affected by, the conception of teaching that is prevalent in their societies . The result of this study also clearly indicate a similar result in which the society’s perception about the teachers and their profession has played a significant role in affecting teachers’ perception. Most of the TVET teachers who took part in this study perceive teaching not as a profession and also themselves not as professionals. These perceptions upheld by the teachers about themselves and their profession in turn has affected their daily practices and influenced their desire to learn and act in different ways. They believe that their profession is not equally recognized as other professions, and such situation has further contributed to their lack belongingness and commitment to the teaching profession. These conditions have severely affected their motivation for further learning and development and also impacted on their students’ achievement as well. As Owens ( 1987) stated teachers need to be perceived as “people of achievement, professionals who are influential in their workplaces, growing persons with opportunities ahead to develop even greater competence and a sense of accomplishment” ( p. 104). However, the biased perception of the society towards the teaching profession, economic problems, the school culture, and the absence of continuous professional development opportunities, are considered to be the major factors that have influenced the TVET teachers’ perception towards their profession. As a consequence, such perception held by the

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teachers has in turn affected their motivation to learn and actively engage in learning and development activities at individual and group level. Clearly as Cranton and King (2003) and Villegas – Reimers (2003) stated the development of effective and meaningful professional development strategies and activities that takes into account teachers’ beliefs, values and assumptions play a critical role towards developing a professional identity and openness for learning and change. 4.3 Teachers’ Motivation for Learning and Professional Development The empirical results suggested there is low TVET teacher motivation and morale to initiate and sustain learning behaviours due to several factors. The respondents argued that the major factors influencing their own perception as well as their desire to engage in learning are strongly linked to the motivational problems at workplace and beyond. Most of the teachers agreed that extrinsic factors such as their current level of pay and benefit contribute to their dissatisfaction in their work place. Yet changes in these extrinsic factors may only reduce the teachers’ dissatisfaction and may not increase their motivation to learn and develop. Most importantly the respondents identify intrinsic factors that reduced their motivation towards their learning and professional development. The respondents emphasised that the lack of intrinsic motivation, like recognition and autonomy, had hampered their learning and professional development. In particular, many of the respondents pointed out that by and large they perceive themselves as unrecognized and under valued by the society. Such emotional feeling of worthlessness has negatively impacted their motivation towards learning and better performance. Most of the respondents pointed out that such a perception by the society, not only affect their motivation, but also put a negative image on the teaching profession. Theories on intrinsic motivation also showed that peoples’ curiosity to learn and develop resides in the individual themselves and the desire for acceptance by others; increased status and recognition, achievement of more responsibility and autonomy, and such other desires influence the behaviour of the teachers in the learning and development process (Steven Reiss, 2004; Deci and Ryan, 1985). Other intrinsic motivation perspectives (Deci, Koestner, and Ryan 2001) regard that when learners could see that they are valued, and what they learn make sense and is relevant for them, then they become intrinsically motivated. Teacher education and professional development programs that take into account these factors create motivation for learning. However, the empirical results indicated the lack of respect and recognition for TVET teachers’ knowledge and experience in the teacher education institutions and the professional 18

development programs they attended. Various studies (Wlodkowski, 1999; Deci, Koestner, and Ryan, 2001; Csikszentimihalyi and Csikszentimihalyi, 1998) showed that the creation of a learning culture and atmosphere that respect the learners, their experiences, values, and choices are critical factors that enhances the motivation of the learners. The empirical results obtained by this study also support these assertions. In general, TVET teachers’ low motivation to learn affects negatively their initiation and commitment in their learning processes and their overall performance in the TVET schools. Therefore, improving teachers’ learning and development requires the need to motivate teachers and create learning conditions that favour individual as well as group learning. This study has shown that changing the teachers’ and the society’s perception towards the teaching profession contributes to the motivation of teachers’ for learning and seeking professional development.

5. Conclusion Teachers’ self perception and beliefs can strongly affect their own motivation to learn. Therefore, the knowledge about teachers’ self-perceptions and how they see themselves in learning environments is crucial in ensuring their own knowledge and skills development (Kwakman, 2003; Ryckmann, 1993, Kersaint 2001; Ulrich 1987). The results obtained in this study strongly support the critical role that self-perception plays in explaining teachers’ motivation in participating in their own learning and professional development activities. As the results of this study showed, the perceptions of most of the TVET teachers have negatively influenced their motivation to teach, their self -directedness towards their own learning and development, and their attitude towards their profession. The results also showed that TVET teacher’ motivation and morale for engaging in learning and professional development are low. Their lack of motivation is attributable partly to their self perceptions regarding themselves as an adult learner and the teaching profession. The knowledge of teachers’ self - perception, beliefs and attitudes should be considered as important variables to be taken into account in the design and implementations of teacher education and professional development programs. (Lawler and King, 2003; Lawler 2003) Therefore, it could be argued that appropriately designed teachers’ professional development program support in influencing the self-perception of teachers about their profession and themselves. On the other hand, self- perception of teachers as adult learners and professionals provide the necessary motivation for engaging further in learning and professional development activities. 19

Bibliography Abebe , A. 2010. Influences of Individual and Contextual Factors on Improving the Professional Development of TVET Teachers in Ethiopia. PhD Thesis, Technical University of Kaiserslautern press. Baur, J., Festner, D., Gruber, H, .Harteis, C. & Heid, H. (2004) The effects of epistemological beliefs on workplace learning, The Journal of Workplace Learning, 16(5), 284292. Borko, H., & Putnam, R. T. 1996. Learning to teach. In D. C. Berliner, & R. C. Calfree (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 673–708). New York: Simon & Schuster. Boud, D.; Solomon, N. 2003. “’I don’t think I am a learner’“: acts of naming learners at work. In: Journal of Workplace Learning. 1(15), 326- 331 Calderhead, J.; Shorrock, S.B. 1997. Understanding teacher education: case studies in the professional development of beginning teachers. London: The Falmer Press. Cranton, P.; King, K.2003.Transformative Learning as a Professional Goal. In: New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2003(98) pp 31-37, Denver Csikszentmihalyi, M. & Csikszentmihalyi, I. (Eds.).1998.Optimal Experience: Psychological Studies of Flow in Consciousness. New York: Cambridge University Deci, E., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. 2001. Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review of Educational Research, 71(1). 1-27 Deci, E.; Ryan, R.1985. Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior: Perspectives in Social Psychology. Plenum Press. Eley, M. E. (2006). Teachers’ conceptions of teaching, and the making of specific decisions in planning to teach. In: Higher Education, 51, 191–214. Goodson, I. 2000. Professional knowledge and the teachers’ life and work. In: Day, C.; Fernandez, A.; Hauge, T.; Moller, J. (Eds.), The life and work of teachers: international perspectives in changing times. London: Falmer Press. Illeris R, 2003, Workplace learning and learning theory: Journal of workplace learning, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 167 – 178 Jones, G.; Lubinski, C.; Swafford, J.; Thornton, C. A. (1994). A framework for the professional development of K-12 teachers. In D. B. Aichele & A. A. Coxford (Eds.), Professional Development for Teachers of Mathematics. Reston, VA. Kwakman, K. 2003. Factors affecting teachers’ participation in professional learning activities. In: Teaching and Teacher Education, 19(2), 149-170 Kember, D. (1997). A reconceptualisation of the research into university academics’ conceptions of teaching. In: Learning and Instruction, 7, 255–275. Kember, D., & Kwan, K. (2000). Lecturers’ approaches to teaching and their relationship to conceptions of good teaching. In: Instructional Science, 28, 469–490. Klein B, Cosmides E, Murray R, and Tooby J, 2004, on the acquisition of knowledge about personality traits: does learning about self engage different mechanisms than learning about others? In: Social Cognition; 22 (4), 367 – 390 Kling, M. 2007. Insight into Self - Perception and Adult Learning .http://www.ala.asn.au downloaded on 23.03.2008 Kersaint, G.; Borman, K.; Boydston, T.; Sadler, T. 2001. Teachers’ Perception of their USI Professional Development Experiences. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ ERICWebPortal downloaded on 12.03.2007 Lawler, P. 2003. Teachers as Adult Learners: A New perspective. In: New Direction for Adult and Continuing Education. No.98, (pp. 15 – 22) Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Lawler, P.; King, K. 2000. Planning for Effective Faculty development: Using Adult 20

Learning strategies. Malabar, Fla.: Krieger Mayring, P. 2000a.Qualitative Content Analysis. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 1(2), Art.20 Norton, L., Richardson, J., Hartley, J., Newstead, S., & Mayes, J. (2005). Teachers’ beliefs and intentions concerning teaching in HE In: Higher education, 50, 537–571. OECD. 1990. The teacher today: tasks, conditions, policies. Paris. Owens, R. 1987. Organizational behaviour in education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Postareff, L.; Lindblom-Ylänne, S.; Nevgi, A. 2008. A follow-up study of the effect of pedagogical training on teaching in higher education. In: High Education 56, 29–43 Prosser, M., Trigwell, K., & Taylor, P. (1994). A phenomenographic study of academics’ conceptions of science teaching and learning. In Learning Instruction, 4, 217–231. Richardson, J. (2005). Students’ approaches to learning and teachers’ approaches to teaching in higher education. In: Educational Psychology, 25, 673–680. Ryckmann R. 1993. Theories of personality (5th Ed.) California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co. Samuelowicz, K., & Bain, J. D. (1992). Conceptions of teaching held by academic teachers. In: Higher Education, 24, 93–112. Reiss, S. 2004. Multifaceted nature of intrinsic motivation: The theory of 16 basic desires. Review of General Psychology, 8, 179-193. Ulrich, B. 1987: Perception of physical competence and participation in organized sport: their relationships in young children. Research Quarterly in Exercise and Sport 58, 57–67. Velez J, 2006, Motivating students by cultivating self-worth. In: The agricultural education magazine, 78(4), 15 Villegas-Reimers, Eleonora. 2003. Teacher professional development: an international review of the literature, International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris Weld, J. (1998). Attracting and retaining high-quality professionals in science education. Phi Delta Kappan, 79(7), 536-539. Wlodkowski , Raymond.2003. Fostering motivation in Professional Development Programs. In: New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2003(98) pp 39-48, Denver.

2. PERSPICACITY INTO THE NEXUS OF MORAL MAXIMS: TEACHING ETIQUETTE AND ITS BEARING ON THE NUB OF EDUCATION By Mindaralew Zewdie (RVUC) Abstract While being girded by predicaments from almost all walks of challenges , to be able to exact one’s bounden duty and shoulder one’s professional responsibility raises the actors to the status of the ascetic taking sanctuary not in a non-secular teguments but in the pulsating core of the secular world itself. That in its own throws unto us a challenge that sounds at first glance something of a selfdefeating essence: The ascetic style of life in a world that is built every step of its way from secular bricks. That is exactly the case with teachers who keep on paddling the canoe of education across the sea of life defined by a relentlessly soaring storm of inflation, a skyrocketing price of food stuff, an 21

exponentially shuttling house rent, clothing and everything that is sine qua non for keeping one’s existential unit. The bevy of these plethora problems staring him/her stark in the eye notwithstanding, the teacher has been and still is noted for delivering as per the expectations of the very profession’s etiquette. The point worth scrutinizing at this juncture is one of the secret behind this commendable performance when everything at hand and nearby can only admit of a life of a convent or of a religious sanctuary. By plumbing the depths of the issue at hand the study I conducted unequivocally finds itself geared towards one fact in life. And that fact in life is but the rich moral repertoire of our culture in which instructors have been and still are nurtured. Moral ethos are the subsisting substratum into which the perseverance of the teacher in delivering his/her professional onus is anchored. Moral precepts that are woven deep into the existential being of the teacher are the key to unraveling the enigma of holding unto meting out their task while being circumscribed by all repellent, motivation-draining, incentivebelligerent and bleak and control-freak factors of life.

Introduction Since the time of Sophists, the first paid teachers, the greatest ever service that human beings can deliver to the crux of what bestows the said beings with their one diagnostic characteristic that sets them not only apart from the rest creatures but also from the universal mind itself is teaching. It is a service in a category of its own in that it is delivered to the most perspicacious mind, in contradistinction to services rendered to those actors who are either indulged or obliged in that dimension of life to mire or get it marred, to tarnish or get it blemished, to run amok or get it dingy, drab, and dowdy. Plato, the finest ever writer and the steeple apex of rationalism was also a teacher without being formally paid for his luminary services. Logically speaking the founder of the first hub of genuine intellectuals of philosophers’ magnitude, the man who brought into play the first university that goes by the name Lyceum, in a word Plato was a teacher. There is a well known saying that the whole western philosophy is footnotes to Plato. Pursuant to this crux, I can reasonably argue that the whole of mankind’s professions are footnotes to teaching. It was this rarified of all services in a probity of its own which gave birth to an equally giant philosopher, in the name and person of Aristotle who in his turn was the tutor of Alexander the great (Bryan Magee,2000). However because they were not paid teachers can by no stretch of imagination mean that they had neither no one or nothing else, no dint 22

else, to plug in the holes of their material life. As Aristotle himself once wrote, if there were not slaves at his beck and call he would by no mean be a philosopher and the tutor of Alexander the great. (see Bryan Magee, 2000). The deluge of services dancing attendance upon these great teachers and philosophers of our planet spared them from the belligerence of distraction and detrimental pangs of inconvenience so that they pursued their ivory- towerish profession with unprecedented clarity and superlative degree of rapt attention. The argument is triple clear and twice as much cogent. Teaching calls for, among other things, the decision made from the floor of one’s spirit and bottom of one’s heart to go shares on what one knows with his students unreservedly. One’s munificence in knowledge must be coupled with his or her decision or predisposition to be generous enough to cleave what one masters from the crux of one’s profession. But a decision or a predisposition to be munificent enough where cleaving what one masters from the repertoire of his profession is not a matter that is predicated on the will of the individual alone. As I tried to give you a thumbnail’s sketch of it, it calls for having satiated the material facades of the teacher, among other things. Not to put too fine a point on it, if the instructor wants to go shares with his students on matters that are the quintessential of his profession, make sure that he has always either a societal or personal means to keep all the factors and forces of distraction at bay. With this in mind, we can now glide over to the nub of the issue whose make and fabric is the thematic of this paper. Stated otherwise, let’s contextualize the issue under hefty consideration within Ethiopian setting. Contextualizing Analysis It is now almost a hackneyed fact of everyday reality since the government of Ethiopia via its mass media and communicational dints made it public that few years back the inflation rate has skyrocketed to an appalling and alarming all time highest figure of 63%, (see the annual report of the Ministry of Finance, 2001 through 2003, E.C.). While this research was current and deep in its hubby pipeline, the rate dropped to 38%, which is again by all measurable standards one of the highest. It has as well been a generic fact of an everyday mundanity that seen from the vantage point of economics, a country as a whole and its people to persevere holding unto their existential units the inflation rate mustn’t exceed 20%. What would have they said had they been in a position to hear or see for themselves that there is a country and there are peoples that have still survived not just a mere 20% inflation rate but a rate, an inflation rate, or to be more correct an inflation catastrophe, that is more than three times as much? No 23

matter what their response to this precipice, one thing of miraculous magnitude is for sure: teachers be it those working at tertiary or other levels have been and still are exacting their duties, shouldering their professional responsibilities and meting out the demands their existential units place on them both at cultural and personal level. Nothing in this life, and no reason whatsoever on earth can explain this, nor can cast a say of elucidating nature and illuminating fixture save the divine intervention and the moral rectitude that is woven deep, way deep into the existential being of instructors. At a time when the footsteps of the pangs of hunger are threatening one to deprive him of his very persona, in a situation where the skyrocketing price of everything that is for sale is stealing the instructor in a single day or two his monthly earning, in an environment where the management, in particular of private colleges and universities more often than not, are smitten head over heel in amor with profit commitments rather than social commitments, to see instructors still running up the hill of knowledge and down the dale of life and across the terrain of professional etiquette is the miracle of the contemporary age. I repeat, with all the power and stamina I am capable of, that nothing is more miraculous than to find instructors who are duty bounden, and who are still the warps and wefts of a social fabric dubbed education. What would have Maslow said had he been in a position to up from his grave and somehow learn that professionals in the territory of teaching are still meting out their bounden duties in a situation where their basic needs are a light year away from being met? Would he still hold onto his famous line of argument that has it to say: “Before more sophisticated, higher order needs can be met, [higher order duties can be shouldered] certain primary needs must be satisfied,” (Maslow, 1970). Whatever his reaction to the question I hypothetically put him, the point worth arresting our attention at this hiatus is the meanings he let the very basics be laden with. Mind you, by most basic needs or primary needs Maslow unequivocally means the following: “The most basic needs are those described as primary drives: needs for water, food, sleep, sex and the like. In order to move up the hierarchy, a person must have these basic physiological needs met” (Maslow, 1987). The point worth taking in one’s argumentative pipe and get it pulverized there with is one of asking what would happen if the said and profusely much fussed about basic needs are not met. Maslow in his line of reasoning that stands the test of time and a critic has it unfolding as follows: “Only when the basic lower-order needs are met can a person consider fulfilling higher-order needs, such as the need for love, sense of belongingness, esteem and self actualization…” (Maslow, 1987). 24

When the bare truth is, though only a whit of it, laid in this humble effort of mine, the obvious conclusion one can draw from this flow of argument is as unequivocal as a nose on one’s face. As to what keeps the instructor going along the most grueling path of pricy life, while shouldering the profuse load of professional etiquette, in line with the hint touched upon above, is the moral ethos (see also Havilland,1999) bequeathed unto us, unto each instructor from the repertoire of the culture in which we are born and bred. People at this juncture might feel like shoving an oar of objection to the point on which we have logically docked our argument. It might sound a bit tempting to push one’s whim, though unfounded it is, by referring to an equally unfounded fable. The said fable has it to say that Ethiopian quality of education is on its descent. Though I can make neither fish, nor flesh, nor red herring of this selfdegrading malady with which quango scholars are beyond demur possessed with the intensity of infirmary, all it takes to prove the vacuity involved in it is to allude to a study once made (see Mindaralew, 2009). In this study it is ascertained beyond a scintilla of doubt that of all Ethiopians who were sent to pursue their graduate studies abroad 99.7% has succeeded to have made it to a high profile consummate. The study at the same time uncovered that something well over 88% of those who attended their studies leading to their second and terminal degrees took only a couple of weeks since day one of their stay in a given university abroad, to distinguish themselves. The question is: whose disciples do we all think, do you all think, do those self-abusing malady prisoners think these distinguished students in a foreign soil are? The answer is clearer than crystal clarity! They are students of Ethiopian instructors who earn less, far less recognition, material and financial gains than they deserve while they deserve it, even over-deserve it! They are disciples of instructors who keep on exacting their professional duties in a situation where even not the least of their basic needs in life are met. They are pupils of teachers who have given them the subsisting substratum of all they know in their local schooling years for a payment that can’t even keep, as the English people say, the wolf at the door. They are human extensions of the mental prints of local instructors who have been and still are carrying their duties to their logical conclusions in the loftiest ever ways whose meanings can only be discerned in the layers of moral rectitude. 25

To put it in different words, if you give yourself a latitude of freedom in such a way that you feel like measuring the quality, for what it is worth, of education in terms of the inputs outside those whose domain totally lies within the reach of the instructor, you might feel tempted to hobnob with your hasty conclusion: The quality of education is on its way down the drain. Granted, a hasty conclusion is a variety on a theme of fallacy. Have a look at the sham libraries we have got in most if not all institutions of higher education of both private and public ones, dwell a little while on the inept management that cast an equally effete spell on most again if not all colleges and universities, both public and private, of the country, where the opportunity for instructors to keep themselves abreast of the world is seen not as a matter of ulterior necessity but treated as a privilege of ultimate exclusivity, our argument obviously scales in favor of pointing to the quality of education trotting its unfortunate way down the drain. The truth is however the situation as regards the quality of education is not as bleak as the besotted beings of hasty concluders in their skin deep judgment may portray it. Again what has kept the educational quality above water levels is nothing but the moral maxims to which instructors are bounden. Being an instructor in Ethiopian setting is being a crusader of knowledge girded by plethora of problems that not only downplay but as well outplay the factors that might gear education to keep company with quality and end up thanks to our moral ethos to deliver quality education of a world class. Conclusion In a situation where most if not all institutions of higher education are being run by the management filled to the brim with persons that run low on experience and twice as low on expertise to find instructors who live their profession, every minute of their professional lives, clearly points to one thing, among a helluva lots of them, and that is the power there is to moral ethos, ethical maxims and traditional mores to oblige the teacher to be at one with his profession. In a situation where most if not all universities, particularly private institutions of higher education, are run in a manner in which instructors are hired and fired in tune with the emotional barometers of the owners, the only reason that can explain why instructors are in most if not all cases teaching-etiquettesbounden is the force of moral values, we have inherited from our long standing history of independence and a rich repertoire of cultures, that are deep, way deep rooted in the very core of our collective being as Ethiopians. Where teaching is concerned, a province where teachers deliver so much with so little a dint to do so, that which can explain the apparently inexplicable enigma is but the strong bearing moral values have 26

on the teacher. Stated otherwise, what keep the teacher standing in good stead of the very profession at a time and in a situation where not even his/her basics needs are eons away from being met, are moral maxims which are enshrined in the warp and weft of their being. When the bare truth is, though only a whit of it, laid in this humble effort of mine, the obvious conclusion one can draw from this flow of argument is as unequivocal as a nose on one’s face. As to what keeps the instructor going along the most grueling path of pricy life, while shouldering the profuse load of professional etiquette, in line with the hint touched upon above, is the moral ethos bequeathed unto us, unto each instructor from the repertoire of the culture in which we are born and bred. To reiterate the point very well taken care in the earlier sections, what has kept the educational quality beyond the shambles of control-freaks and above water levels is nothing but the moral maxims to which instructors are bounden. Being an instructor in Ethiopian setting is being a crusader of knowledge girded by plethora of problems that not only downplay but as well outplay the factors that might gear education to keep company with quality and end up thanks to our moral ethos to deliver quality education of a world class. May I then be permitted the honor of paraphrasing Plato before I wind up my argument. Once Plato was reported to have said, in relation to an institution for higher education, the following: Let no one enter here who is ignorant of mathematics. And I now confer onto myself the onus of putting somewhat a similar conclusive point to my endeavors: Let no one enter humanity’s coliseum, that is home to every walk of life, who is ignorant of teaching. References Baigent M.and Leigh R. (2006). The Dead Sea Scrolls Deception. United Kingdom. London: Arrow Books. Feldman, R.S. (ED.). (1982). Development of Nonverbal Behavior in Children. New York: Springer Verlag. Feldman, R.S., Philippot, P., & Custrini R.J. (1991). Social Competence and Non-verbal Behavior. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University press. Feldman, R.S. (1994) Case studies and Critical Thinking about Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill. Feldman, Robert, (1996) Understanding Psychology, fourth ed. Boston: McGraw Hill Inc. 27

Haviland, William, (1999) Cultural Anthropology, fifth ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. Magee, Bryan, (2001) The Story of Philosophy. London: a Dorling Kindersley Book. Maslow, A.H. (1970), Motivation and Personality (2nd ed). New York: Harper and Row. Maslow, A.H. (1987), Motivation and Personality (3rd ed). New York: Harper and Row. Mindaralew Zewdie, (2010) a Philosophical Perspicuity into the Crux of our Moral Values, Addis Ababa: Ethiopia. Mindaralew Zewdie, (2011) Education Skives and Malaria Devours, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Mindaralew Zewdie, (2011) The Conundrum Calling for Deciphering: Cultural Riddles in Ethiopia. VDM publishing House, Germany. Peoples, James and Bailey Garrick, (1991) Humanity: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology, 2nd ed. New York: West publishing Company. Ritzer, George, (1997) Modern social Theory. Maryland: McGraw-Hill Companies. Ritzer, George, (2000) Classical Sociological Theories, third ed. Maryland: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Ritzer, George, (2000) Sociological Theories, 5th ed. Maryland: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Scupin, Raymond and Decorse, Christopher, (1998) Anthropology: A Global Perspective. New Jersey: Upper Saddle River New Jersey, Prentice Hall.

3. The Contribution of HDP to the Quality of Education in Ethiopian Higher Education Institutions: The Views of Teachers, Students and HDP Leaders (A Case of Adama University) By Mesfin Sileshi1 Abstract This study is aimed at investigating the opinions of higher education teachers, students and higher Diploma leaders with regard to the practices and impacts of the Higher Diploma Program (HDP). The HDP was initially developed with the assumption of meeting some pre-identified needs of teacher educators in higher education institutions (MoE, 2004). The program was first targeted at improving 1 Mesfin Sileshi Is a PhD candidate at Addis Ababa University

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the quality of higher education in Ethiopia through licensing program that will develop the skills and professionalism of teacher educators within the country. However, the provision of the program, in many cases, was extended to include higher education teachers other than teacher educators as well. The study employed a survey method to investigate the extent of the effect the HDP has made on the teachers themselves. Moreover, the study has solicited the views of students with regard to the practices of teachers in implementing the different teaching and assessment approaches during their teachinglearning situation within the classroom. Primary sources of data for the study included 64 randomly selected students, 37 teachers, and 6 HDP leaders/tutors. Two different types of questionnaires –one for students and one for teachers were used for data collection. Data from HDP leaders/tutorials was collected through the use of unstructured interviews conducted on one-to-one basis. The result showed that teachers, in principle, agree that HDP can help improve the quality of education, however, they also confirm that teachers are not implementing many of the HDP principles in the real classroom situation as it has to be, due to different reasons and hence failed to meet the purpose for which it is intended. 1. Introduction 1.1. Background The dissatisfaction with the quality of education in Ethiopia is a long standing phenomenon. Limited access to education, inequitable distribution of school services, problem of efficiency, lack of quality and relevance, undemocratic content were among the major dissatisfactions which were clearly stipulated in the Education and Training Policy and its Implementation document (MoE 2002). This document, on top of indicating the long standing problems of education in general, and putting strategies to curb each of the problems, underscores that “teachers play a key role in maintaining the standard and quality of the curriculum in institutions of higher education”. It also indicates that teachers have to be acquainted with new teaching methods from time to time.

The policy document, in addition, clearly indicates that those higher education teachers are key personnel for maintaining standards and for the improvement of the curricula. It also points out that teachers too, need to be acquainted with new teaching methods not only once but from time to time. Though the term teaching has many definitions, B.O Smith (1963) in Aggarwal (1996, p. 16) states that “teaching is a system of actions involving an agent, and end in view, and a situation including two sets of factors—those over which the agent has no control (class size, size of classroom, physical 29

characteristics of pupils etc.) and those that he can modify (ways of asking questions, almost all instructions and way of structuring information or ideas gleaned”. The emphasis of this definition is obviously on the profession of teaching without taking into account of the role of the learner in the process.

Given this short account of the dissatisfaction witnessed and the role of teaching in general, let us have a brief note of some of the common practices undertaken to improve the knowledge and skills of teachers. The long-standing and major attempts at improving the teachers’ professional development were through the use of in-service program in Ethiopia where selected teachers join programs of studies in colleges and universities. Such programs, however, are targeted and served secondary and primary school teachers. Short-term trainings and workshops, though not usual, have also been a component in the process of the development. Unlike the secondary and primary school teachers, higher education instructors hold a teaching position without even having the basics of teaching. They get employment simply on the basis of their academic achievement in their major fields of studies (e.g. Civil Engg., Mech. Engg., Accounting, Law, etc.) upon their graduation. To the extent of the knowledge of this researcher, there is no comprehensive study that looked into the effects of such practice as far as teaching/ learning is concerned.

The Higher Diploma Program (HDP herein after) which was initiated in 2003 to meet the identified needs of teacher educators, though not mentioned implicitly, has been one of the attempts expected to deal with the problem. In spite of all the efforts to improve the skills and capacity of teachers, through the program, the actual practice of teaching/learning within the classroom situation still seems to be continuing as usual and unchanged (Adula, 2008). Adula’s findings revealed that the HDP graduates did not apply the knowledge and the skills they have acquired to their classroom instruction. According to Adula, factors that contributed for not implementing the skills at classroom level included physical constraints such as large class size, lack of materials at hand and mismatch between course content and 30

the allotment of time for the content, absence of interest from the side of the instructors and students, including absence of well organized follow-up support that enforces the instructors to use their training skills within their classroom situation. The intention in this paper, however, is not to investigate the actual classroom teaching and learning practices with regard to each elements of HDP. Rather the study aims at soliciting opinions of teachers, students and HDP leaders with regard to the practices and the impacts of the Higher Diploma Program. 1.2.

The Problem

The Higher Diploma Program was initially developed with the assumption of meeting some pre identified needs of teacher educators in higher education institutions (MoE 2004). It was started in 2003 in almost all TEIs (Teacher Education Institutions) including those teacher education departments which are situated within the universities. The program was targeted at improving the quality of education in Ethiopia through a licensing program that will develop the skills and professionalism of teacher educators within the country. Its objectives are stated as follows:                

Support the implementation of the TESO program Identify their own needs and become a reflective teacher educator Develop teaching as a skill, based on sound theoretical knowledge and experience Use active learning and student centered teaching methods Become a role model of good practice Have high standards of professional ethics and clear values Provide a high quality experience for student teachers Help school teachers be more effective in their own teaching Be involved in action research Develop team working skills Address gender issues Support disadvantaged students in the institution Promote good citizenship Play active part in community development Play an active part in institutional development Plan their own professional development and career (MoE, 2004)

The program is still running within the various higher education institutions. A number of teachers have participated in the program and assumed that they would apply the knowledge and skills they acquired through the program to their classroom situation. But many observers, including myself as a teacher 31

educator in a higher education institution, are of the view that many teachers are not using the principles and the methods acquired through the HDP in their classroom situation. The active learning methods of teaching, the methods of student assessment, are not often applied in the day-to-day classroom activity.

The aim of this study is to find out the perceptions and attitudes of teachers who have gone through the HDP, the attitude and perceptions of students who are the beneficiaries of the teaching encounters within the classroom situation, and the HDP leaders who are responsible for the initial training of the HDP and its implementation including the follow-up thereafter. It also aims in finding out the challenges in implementing the HDP. To this end the following research questions were formulated: (1) To what extent has the HDP been effective in improving the quality of education in general? (2) How do teachers evaluate their application of the HDP principles (i.e. active learning methods, assessment methods, etc.) to the classroom situation in their teaching? (3) What are the attitudes of teachers, students and HDP leaders towards the effectiveness of the HDP and its contribution to the quality of education?, and (4) What are the major challenges encountered in implementing the principles of the HDP in the teaching-learning process? 1.3

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is: (1) to find out the extent to which the HDP helped to improve the professional capabilities of teachers in higher education institutions; (2) to investigate teachers’ own self evaluation of their application of the methods, principles and assessment mechanisms; (3) investigate the challenges and prospects in implementing the HDP within the higher education institutions; and 32

(4) find out the perceptions and attitudes of teachers, students, and HDP leaders with regard to the effectiveness of the HDP and its contribution to the quality of education. 1.4.

Significance of the Study

HDP is a program which is still being provided in many of the higher education institutions. It can be said that HDP helps the newly employed teachers, however, the extent it is used within the classroom situation and its impact on the overall quality of education is not clear. Of course, the question of quality in education does not entail a simple and fast forward answer. Even the successful application of all the principles of HDP, in its fullest sense, alone cannot be taken as an absolute guarantee for the improvement of quality of education. Quality of education is a function of many components in addition to the teachers’ activities in the classroom. The study does not attempt to gauge whether the quality of education has been improved or not. It is rather a way of looking into the degree of the application of the HDP principles and the active learning methods and assessment mechanisms in a classroom situation. For the purpose of this study, a greater application of the principles and active learning methods is taken as an indication of the attainment of the objectives set for HDP; On the other hand, a lower application of the principles and the active learning methods are taken to suggest low attainment of the objectives.

Given this direction of the study, it is hoped that the findings of the study will shed light on the knowledge and understanding of the effects of the present HDP on improving the quality of education and the teaching practice within the higher education institutions. Moreover, it will serve as a stepping stone to researchers in the field. It may also be useful to program initiators and HDP leaders to make use of it to further improve the implementation of the HDP training itself and establish a follow-up mechanism at the classroom level. The researcher strongly believes that the inclusion of large sample size and use of different data collection instruments in the study can make the study more reliable and strong in its evidence. It is beyond the scope of this study to include all institutions that run the HDP. 33

Hence, the subjects of the study are drawn from a single university which conducts the HDP right from its beginning to present.

2.

Review of Related Literature

In this part some related literature and research findings are reviewed. This will lay the ground for theoretical and conceptual framework. The development and practices of the teaching profession in general and the requirements at the university/higher education institution level in particular is reviewed. A brief account is also made of what is meant by the term quality.

2.1 The Teaching Profession Teaching and learning are inseparable (Biggs & Tang, 2007; Prosser & Trigwell, 1999). Where there is teaching it is likely that there would be some kind of learning related to the teaching learning encounter. The purpose of teaching is to create and develop the potential for improvement in the life of the learner. How effectively one teaches, depends on what one thinks what teaching is (Biggs, & Tang, 2007:15). In other words effective teaching of any subject takes account of how students learn (Goodrum, et.al. 2000:18). A well thought teaching implies the “elimination of those aspects of teaching that encourage surface approaches to learning and that we set the stage properly so that students can more readily use deep approaches to learning ( Biggs & Tang, 2007). Surface approach to student learning refers “at best, about quantity without quality; deep is about quality and quantity” (Ramsden, 2003, p. 45).

According to Biggs and Tang, the first step in improving teaching is to avoid those factors that encourage surface approach. This, then, makes teaching “a matter of changing the learner’s perspective, the way the learner sees the world and on how learners represent knowledge” (Prosser & Trigwell, 1999) cited in Biggs & Tang, 20-21) As pointed out by the Australian Higher education Council, 1992, “university teaching is a profession and a scholarly activity which draws on a high level of competence 34

and expertise in the discipline and/or relevant professional experiences together with highly developed communicative and interpersonal skills”. Though there are some who believe that “knowledge of the subject matter” is the requirement for “good teaching” (McKeachie, 2007), as professionals university teachers need to be a role model and exhibit to their students a commitment of scholarly values, lifelong learning, professional and personal growth through critical reflection and self evaluation, accountability for their own professional activities, and be responsible and show ethical practice of their profession. Generally, university teaching aims to enable students to reach their highest possible level of learning during their time of enrolment and to prepare them for life-long learning. In practice this means that staff are responsible for the design, management and teaching of their subjects and for facilitating effective learning by their students. The acquisition of a good teaching ability and skill is not a one time job of the teacher that can be acquired during his/her initial training as a teacher. It requires a continuous professional development. Teachers’ professional development refers to “the professional growth a teacher achieves as a result of gaining increased experience and examining his or her teaching systematically” (Glatthorn, 1995, p. 41) cited in UNESCO (2003). This suggests that the teacher has to strive for the growth of his or her own profession in any way possible if he/she has to be good teacher.

2.2.

Quality of Teaching

Any effort devoted to an educational program gets settled in its final implementation which definitely has to be accompanied by inputs other than itself. The success of any program depends on how well one implements it. A good program without the necessary implementation activity and process is unlikely that it would result in the attainment of the objectives aimed at. The effect of an educational program is measured by the quality of its products in this case the students. Teaching is an activity that requires the teacher to have the skill, ability and knowledge to bring together all the necessary components that would enable learners to have an understanding of the subject is taught. 35

Many educational goals, these days, emphasize on ‘outcome based education’ (Ramsden, P. 2003; Biggs. J & Tang, C. 2007). Outcomes based education and teaching and learning “is a convenient and practical way of maintaining standards and improving teaching” (Biggs and Tang, 1987, p.5). According to Biggs and Tang, outcomes based education is different from “competency–based education”, which is just one example of outcomes based education, and which focuses on narrow competencies such as skills that are mostly applied in vocational and technical education. According to these writers, outcome based education is manifested in three versions, i.e., version 1 is stated in terms of setting up standard for each student, version 2 is associated with accountability movement in the USA, and the last third version is Outcomes Based Teaching and learning (OBTL) which “had its roots in Dearing Report (1987)” where outcomes are defined specifically to enhance teaching and learning (Biggs, and Tang, 1987, p. 5-7). Biggs and Tang suggest that this last version or OBTL aligns teaching and assessment to the student learning outcomes and hence they call it “constructive alignment”. Constructive alignment differs from outcomes based teaching and learning in its provision for the alignment of teaching learning activities and the assessment tasks to the intended learning outcomes in accordance with the learning activities required in the outcomes (Biggs, J. & Tang, C. 2007, p. 7).

In other words, Ramsden advises that the way to becoming a good teacher is “first to understand your students’ experience of learning” (Ramsden, 2003, p. xii). Ramsden believes that university teaching can be improved by studying the students’ learning and by listening to and learning from the students (Ramsden, 2003, p. 6).

3.

Research Methodology and Procedure

The major purpose of the study is to survey the perception, understanding and attitude of teachers trained in the HDP and describe the extent of the effect it has made on the teachers themselves. It also solicits the view of students with regard to the practices of teachers in implementing the different teaching and assessment approaches during their teaching-learning situation within the classroom. This 36

particular study is then a cross-sectional survey study which includes both teachers and students of Adama University which aims at describing their perceptions, understanding of the HDP and their attitudes towards its effects in the teaching learning process.

3.1.

Sources of Data, Subjects of the Study, & Instruments of Data Gathering

The sources of data for this study include students, teachers, and HDP leaders including the deans of selected schools. A sample of 64 students was selected from among a total population of 127 pedagogy and psychology students using systematic sampling method. The sample of teachers was drawn using availability sampling method. The fact that many of the teachers who have gone through the HDP have left the university for further studies either abroad or within the country, did not permit the use of random sampling method. The third group of sample included the HDP leaders and deans selected purposely on the basis of their closeness to the training and application of HDP.

3.1.1. Instruments of Data Gathering Two questionnaires – one for teachers and the other for students, to be filled by the selected teachers and students were prepared and distributed for both groups. Items were written by the researcher in the form of a Likert scale having five scales of “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. The items in the questionnaire were constructed in such a way that they can solicit the views of both teachers and students with regard to the contributions of HDP to the improvement of the quality of education. While some of the items presented to teachers were connected to their general view of HDP the rest of the items were focused on active learning method, the learning style of students, methods of assessment and action research. The students’ questionnaire contained more or less similar items except that it was an indirect way of probing the teachers’ application of the active learning methods within the classroom situation. Both questionnaires, of course, included items related to the personal characteristics of each respondent. The data collected through the questionnaires were coded and entered into the computer, 37

loaded with SPSS, in the form that it generates the necessary output. Both quantitative and qualitative methods of data analysis were employed to analyze the overall data collected. To analyze the quantitative data, mainly frequency analysis and percentages were used. In addition to the two questionnaires an interview schedule comprising six leading questions was prepared to solicit information from HDP leaders and school deans. The schedule was presented to respondents ahead of the interview so that they can have their response focused. Additional oral questions were used as the discussion proceeded. Interviews are useful “to gather data, as in survey or experimental situations” (Cohen et.al 2000 p. 268). 4.

Data Analysis and Interpretation

4.1 Characteristics of subjects of the study The study as indicated herein above included a sample of 64 students 37 teachers and five Higher Diploma leaders/tutors and deans. Table 1 Characteristic of Respondents Student Instruct Leaders/Tutors s ors/teac hers Stream M F School M F M F Peda History 20 2 School of 8 2 2 0 Engineering. Peda 18 3 School of Business 5 0 0 0 Geography Peda 23 8 School of 10 1 1 0 Psychology humanities School of Pedagogic 10 1 3 0 Total 51 13 33 4 0 The majority of the respondents in all cases were males. The student sample is drawn from the third year students who will be graduating at the end of this academic year. Lower participation of female students in general, coupled with the attrition of students at each level of study, made the number of female students so minimal than the number of male students. Likewise, the number of female teachers is found to be much lower than the male teachers. It was also not easy to find more female respondents who have gone through the HDP (See Table 1). While the student sample is drawn solely from the 38

school of Pedagogy and Vocational Teacher Education, the sample of teachers was drawn from all of the four schools of Adama University situated at Adama Campus. Basically, all the teachers have gone through the HDP and have acquired the knowledge and skills it had to offer. The assumption here is, that the teachers in the school of Pedagogy and Vocational Teacher Education, while applying the skills and knowledge they have acquired for their day-to-day teaching in the classroom, they are also expected to transfer the skills to the “would be teachers” they are teaching. This actually, is one of the major expectations of the HDP. 4.2 Teachers View of the Contribution of HDP to the Quality of Education Teachers were presented with a group of items that tried to probe their views of the contribution of HDP to the quality of education. The item was presented in the form that they indicate their response on a Likert scale of five choices. The group of items is depicted on the following table (Table 2) Table 2. Teachers Views of the Contribution of Higher Diploma program on the Quality of Education (N = 37) Strong. Disagree

Disagree

Not Sure

Agree

Strongly Agree

Total

F

%

f

%

f

%

Opinion HDP has Contributed to quality Teachers apply the principles active learning Students are acquainted with active learning Students have gained more from

39

f

%

3

8.1

4

10.8

17

45.9

11

29.7

6

16.2

9

24.3

19

51.4

2

5.4

3 3

8.1 8.1

14 8

37.8 21.6

15 8

40.5 21.6

4 15

10.8 40.5

active learning Student assessment has shifted from mid & final to continuous Result

4 10.3

10.8

10 24.3

27

12 38.4

32.4

9 22.1

About 46% of the respondents indicated that they were not sure whether HDP has contributed to the quality of education. About 35% of the respondent teachers either agreed or strongly agreed that the HDP has contributed to the quality of education. The remaining (19%) disagreed or strongly disagreed. What can be observed from this data is that the majority of the teachers are not sure whether the HDP is contributing or not to the quality of education. Teachers were also asked to indicate their views about the teachers (including themselves) applying the active learning methods during the teaching-learning process. The majority of the teachers (51.4%) were not sure that the teachers apply the active learning methods. However, 40.5% of the teachers either agreed or strongly agreed that the teachers use active learning methods. The rest, about 8% of the respondent teachers either disagreed or strongly disagreed. In the same category of items teachers were asked if the students are being acquainted with the active learning methods. The majority of the respondents (40.5%) were not sure whether students are acquainted with the active learning methods. while (35.9%) disagreed or strongly disagreed Only a small percentage of the teacher respondents (13.5%) agreed that students are being acquainted. The teachers were also asked to indicate their view weather the students gain of any experience from active learning methods. Many of the teachers (48.6%) either agreed or strongly agreed that the students have gained experience from active learning methods. However, a relatively high number (29.6%) of the teachers disagreed or strongly disagreed while the rest (21.6%) were not sure. Teachers were then asked to point out their views with regard to the shifting of student assessment from the traditional mid and final examination method to continuous assessment methods. A relatively large number of the teachers (48.6%) agreed or strongly agreed that there is a shift to continuous assessment 40

24.3

while (29.7%) of the teachers disagreed or strongly disagreed. The rest (21.6%) were not sure that there is a shift. The overall analysis of Table 2 (last row) shows that of the total respondents 34.6% strongly disagree or disagree that the higher diploma program has contributed to the quality of education and relatively a large number 38.4% were not sure whether the HDP has contributed to the quality of education. The rest 26.96% of the respondents either agree or strongly agree that the higher diploma program has contributed to the quality of education.

1.3. Students’ Views of teachers Using active Teaching/ Learning Methods Students were asked to rate the type of active learning methods that the teachers are using. The items were prepared in a Likert form having five values which denotes from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The table (table 3) showing the responses is depicted herein under. Table 3 Students’ Views about Teachers use of Active Teaching/learning methods N=64 Stro Stro ngly ngly Met Disa Disa Not Agre Agre Total hods gree gree Sure e e f % F % f % f % f % f % Disc ussio n Met 100. hod 7 10.9 12 18.8 4 6.3 33 51.6 8 12.5 64 1 Lect ure Met hod 4 6.3 1 1.6 2 3.1 18 28.1 39 60.9 64 100 Ques tion & Ans wer Met hod 2 3.1 20 31.3 7 10.9 29 45.3 6 9.4 64 100 Assi gnm ents 1 1.6 3 4.7 8 12.5 31 48.4 20 31.3 63 98.5 Brai n stor ming 15 23.4 13 20.3 22 34.4 13 20.3 1 1.6 64 100

41

Case studi es Prob lem Solv ing Dem onstr ation

18

28.1

17

26.6

22

34.4

6

9.4

1

1.6

64

100. 1

19

29.7

12

18.8

13

20.3

16

25

4

6.3

64

100. 1

14

21.9

10

15.6

14

21.9

15

23.4

3

4.7

56

Result

15.9 0

17. 5

18. 3

31.9 9

16. 3

87.5 1 0 0

In response to the 1st item of the category, i.e., discussion method, the majority (64.1%) of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed, while only 6.3% of them were not sure. The rest 29.7% either disagreed or strongly disagreed. With regard to lecture method the large majority (89%) indicated agree or strongly agree, while very few 3.1% were not sure. The rest 7.9% disagreed or strongly disagreed. In connection with the question and answer method the majority (54.7%) agreed or disagreed, while only 10.9% were not sure. The rest 34.4% disagreed or strongly disagreed. The use of assignment as active teaching method was agreed or strongly agreed by the majority (79.7%) of the student respondents, while 12.5% of them were not sure. The rest 6.3% of them either disagreed or strongly disagreed. On the use of brainstorming, 36.3% of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed, while 34.4% of them were not sure. The remaining 43.7% disagreed or strongly disagreed. On the use of case study as an active learning method 11% of the respondent students agreed or strongly agreed while 34.4% of them were not sure. The majority (54.7%) disagreed or strongly disagreed. Only 31.3% of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed on the use of problem solving as active learning method, while 20.3% of them were not sure. The rest 48.4% disagreed or strongly disagreed. The rest 48.5% of them disagreed or strongly disagreed. On the use of demonstration 28.1 % of the respondents agreed while 21.9% were not sure. The rest 37.5% disagreed or strongly disagreed.

4.4.

Teachers’ assessment of their Own Classroom Activities

The second group of items presented to the teachers was concerned with assessment of their own practices in their classrooms. These items were presented in the form of a five scale version of Likert scale with 1 signifying “Almost Never” and 5 signifying “Almost Always” Ten items were presented in 42

this category. The same version of the items was also presented to students to see the relationship between what the teachers say and what the students actually witness. The intention in providing these items to the teachers was to find out whether the teachers themselves believe that they are applying the active learning methods in the classes they teach. The items are depicted on the following table (Table 4). Table 4

Teachers' Assessment of their own Teaching Activity (N = 37) Alm ost neve r

Rare ly

Item Write Objectives for every activity Review teaching materials regularly Vary teaching method in accordance with the nature of the topic Responsive to the opinion of the students Encourage students to debate their ideas Read pedagogy books & try to apply Put new ideas into action & evaluate the result Discuss with colleagues about lessons Look at things from the students angle is responsible for the students success & Failure Result

Som etim es F

Ofte n %

Alm ost alwa ys Total F % f

%

f

% 27 54. 1 40. 5

5

13.5

4

10.8

15

40.5

10

0

0

4

10.8

5

13.5

20

1

2.7

2

5.4

13

35.1

15

0

0

3

8.1

5

13.5

17

1

2.7

2

5.4

8

21.6

13

45. 9 35. 1

3

8.1

9

24.3

9

24.3

10

27

2

5.4

4

10.8

15

40.5

11

2

5.4

6

16.2

13

35.1

12

1

2.7

2

5.4

8

21.6

23

0

0

2

5.4

12

32.4

12

4.05

10.3

27.8

29. 7 32. 4 62. 2 32. 4 38. 6

f

%

F 37

8

8.1 21. 6

6

16

37

3

12 13 6

32. 4 35. 1 16. 2

4

13. 5 10. 8

3

8.1

5

11

29. 7 19. 2

37

37 37 37 37 37 37 37

% 99. 9 10 0 99. 7 99. 9 99. 9 99. 9 99. 9 99. 9 10 0 99. 9 99. 9

The first item in the category was regarding the clarification of lesson objectives in the classroom. In this regard, teachers were presented with the question of whether the experiences of HDP has enabled them to write objectives for every lesson they teach. Of all the respondents 24.3% responded that they never write or rarely write objectives, 40.5% of them indicated sometimes while the rest (about 35%) pointed out often or almost always. The second item presented to the teachers was regarding their practice of reviewing their teaching materials. The majority of the respondents (65.7%) indicated that they review their teaching materials often or almost always. The remaining (13.5%) indicated 43

sometimes while the rest (10.8%) indicated rarely. The 3 rd item of the category was concerned with the teachers varying of their teaching methods in accordance with the nature of the topic they teach. This item was actually presented to find out whether teachers are using the various teaching methods that they have acquired through the experiences of the HDP. A good number of respondents (56%) indicated that they vary their teaching methods often or almost always. About 35% of them indicated sometimes while about 8% pointed out that they rarely or almost never vary. The 4 th item tried to solicit whether the exposure to HDP has made them responsive to the opinions of their students. In this regard, the majority (78.3%) believed that they often or almost always are responsive to the opinions of their students. While only 13.5% indicated sometimes the rest (8.1%) said rarely. The 5 th item was intended to find out whether teachers are employing debate as a method of teaching. The majority (70.2%) of the teachers pointed out that they encourage students to debate their ideas. The rest (21.6%) allow sometimes while the remaining (8.1%) either rarely allow or never allow. The sixth item in the category was concerned with the way teachers update their teaching knowledge and skills. It was really meant to investigate whether teachers are trying to read pedagogy books with the intention of improving their teaching. Of all the respondents only (43.2%) indicated that they read pedagogy books often or almost always. The other (24.3%) indicated sometimes while the rest (32.4%) rarely read or never read. The seventh item was related to teachers’ practice of putting new ideas into action and evaluating results. Only 43.2% of the respondents indicated that they use new ideas and evaluate them. The remaining (40.5%) pointed out sometimes while the rest (16.2%) indicated rarely or almost never.

The eighth item referred to the teachers’ team work practice. The item was presented to find out whether or not teachers discuss about their lessons with their colleagues. Only 43.2% pointed out that they discuss while 35.1% of them indicated sometimes. The rest (21.5%) indicated rarely or almost never. The 9th item tried to probe the teachers’ position in relation to the students’ position. The teachers were requested to point out whether they look at things from the students angle or differently. The majority (70.3%) pointed out that they look at things from the student’s angle. Only 21.6% of them indicated sometime while the rest (8.2%) said rarely or almost never. The last item in the category was 44

to investigate whether they feel responsible for the success or failure of the students. The majority (62.1%) indicated often or almost always while 32.4% indicated sometimes. The rest (5.4%) pointed out rarely. The final result of table 4 (last row) shows that teachers evaluation of themselves is positive. This is, (57.8) of the teachers rated their own practice positively while 27.8% rated sometimes. The rest (14.35%) rated their own practice negatively. 4.5.

Students’ Views regarding Everyday practices of Teaching/learning

As it was indicated herein above in this study, items by which teachers assessed their own practices were also modified and presented to the students so that they express their views of practices in the classroom. In a similar way to that of the items presented to the teachers these were also constructed in the form of a Likert scale comprising of five values ranging from ‘almost never’ to ‘almost always’. As those of the items presented to the teachers, the student’s questionnaire also comprised of 10 items in the category. These are depicted on the following Table (Table 5) Table 5

Students’ View about Everyday Practices of Teaching & Learning

Alm ost Som neve Rare etim r ly es Item Write objectives for every class they teach review their teaching materials regularly Vary their teaching methods to suit the topic are responsive to the opinions of students encourage students to debate their ides Read pedagogy books & to apply theory Put new ideas into action & evaluate the results Discuss about the lessons they teach with students look things from the students angle think that they are responsible for students success

45

Alm ost Ofte alwa n ys F % F

%

F

22

34.4

20

31.3

13

20.3

24

13

20.3

3

%

f

10

15.6

5

37.5

16

25

14

21.9

21

32.8

4.7

11

17.2

23

35.9

11

17.2

18

28.1

20

31.3

7 1 0 1 9 1 2

15

23.4

14

21.9

18

28.1

11

13

20.3

19

29.7

21

32.8

9

24

36.9

24

36.9

13

20

7

10.9

11

17.2

25

10

15.6

14

21.9

20

Total %

F

7.8 10. 9 15. 6 29. 7 18. 8 17. 2 14. 1

7

% 10. 9

F

%

64

100

4

6.3

64

100

6

64

100

8

9.4 12. 5

64

100

2

3.1

63

98.5

6

9.4

64

100

2

3.1

64

100

4.6

0

0

64

98.4

39.1

3 1 6

25

5

7.8

64

100

31.3

1 0

15. 6

1 0

15. 6

64

100

Result

204

264

292

159

20.5

26.4

29.3

16

78. 1 7.8 3

996. 9 100

It was stated in the HDP that teachers have to write objectives for every class to the students. With regard to this, the first of the items presented to the students was in connection with the teachers’ practices of writing objectives during the classes they teach. The majority of the student respondents (65.7%) indicated that the teachers rarely or never write objectives. Only 15.6% of the respondents pointed out that teachers sometimes write objectives. The rest (18.7%) indicated either agree or strongly agree. On the second item students were asked whether teachers review their teaching materials or not. The majority (57.8%) pointed out either rarely or almost never, indicating that the teachers do not revise their teaching materials. The rest (25%) indicated ‘sometimes’, while the remaining (17.2%) stated either ‘agree’ or ‘strongly agree’. The 3 rd item was focused on the teachers varying their teaching methods to suit their particular topic they teach. Many of the student respondents (42.2%) indicated ‘rarely’ or ‘almost never’, while 32.8% of them pointed out ‘sometimes’. The rest 25% indicated ‘often’ or ‘almost always’. With regard to the 4 th item which is related to the teachers’ responsiveness to the opinions of students 21.9% of the respondents indicated ‘rarely’ or ‘almost never’, while 35.9% of them indicated ‘sometimes’. The remaining 42.2% pointed out ‘often’ or ‘almost always’. On the item concerned with teachers allowing students to debate on their ideas (5 th item) 45.3% of the responses were rarely or almost never, while 31.3% were sometimes. The rest 21.9% of the respondents pointed out ‘often’ or ‘almost never’. The 6 th item was about teachers reading of pedagogic books to apply theory. Many of the respondents (45.3%) indicated ‘rarely’ or ‘almost never’ while 28.1 of them pointed out ‘sometimes’. The remaining (26.6%) of them opted for ‘often’ or ‘almost always’. For the 7th item which is concerned with the instructors putting new ideas into action and their practice of evaluating these new ideas, the majority 50.2% of the respondents indicated ‘rarely’ or ‘almost never’, the next 32.8% pointed out ‘sometimes’ and the rest 17.2% opted for ‘often’ or ‘almost always’. The 8th item was concerned with the possibility of teachers discussing about their 46

lessons with students. A large majority of the student respondents (73.8%) stated ‘rarely’ or ‘almost never’ while only 20% of them stated ‘sometimes’. The remaining few (4.6) stated for ‘often’.

On the 9th item which was about the teachers looking at things from the perspective of students, 28.1% of the respondents indicated ‘rarely’ or ‘almost never’ while 39.1% of them stated ‘sometimes’. The remaining 32.8% of the respondents stated ‘often’ or ‘almost always’. The last item was whether teachers think that they are responsible for the success or failure of the students. In this regard, 37.5% of the respondents stated ‘rarely’ or ‘almost never’, while 31.3% indicated ‘sometimes’. The rest 31.2% of them stated ‘often’ or ‘almost never’. The comparison between what the students’ responses and the teachers’ responses is illustrated as follows:

Figure 5. Comparison between student’s responses and Teachers Responses with Regard to the Everyday Practices of Teaching and Learning

47

As shown on the table, quite significant percentage of the students believed that many of the things that teachers have to do on the day-to-day teaching learning process are put into practice ‘sometimes’ or ‘rarely’ or ‘almost never’. On the contrary, a significant percentage of the teachers believed that they exercise most of the things ‘sometimes’ or ‘often’ or ‘almost always’. This actually implies that there is a mismatch between what the students think and what the teachers believe. While the students showed dissatisfaction, teachers have taken it as somewhat normal. 4.6. Teachers’ View of Students’ Learning Style The third major group of items presented to teachers was concerned with their view of students’ learning style. These were presented just like the other items discussed above in a Likert scale having five values. These are depicted in the following table (Table 6).

Stud ents Lear n Best:

Stro ng. Disa gree

Disa gree

Not Sure

Agre e f

When they engage in projects & group work

48

Stro ngly Agre e

0

% 0

Total

f

%

1

2.7

f

% 0

0

f 20

% 54. 1

f 16

% 43. 2

f

%

37

100

When provided with selfdirected work

0

0

3

8.1

4

from specific examples

0

0

1

6

from theoretical approaches with practical interpretation of ideas from problem solving activities

2

5.4

6

2.7 16. 2

13

0

0

1

2.7

2

0

0

0

4

from lectures from discussion, questioning, brainstorming Comparing how new material fit in their exp.

1

0

11

0 29. 7

0

0

1

2.7

3

0

0

1

2.7

11

Case studies

0

0

1

2.7 70. 2 7.0 4

3

Result

Table 6.

8.1 0.8 1

5

10. 8 16. 2 35. 1

20 21 14

5.4 10. 8 13. 5

20

8.1 29. 7 16. 2

18

146 14. 6

15 18

16 18

54. 1 56. 8 37. 8 54. 1 40. 5 48. 6 48. 6 43. 2 43. 2 481 48. 3

10 9 2 14 18 1 15 9 15

27 24. 3

37

100

37

100

5.4 37. 8 48. 6

37

99.9

37

100

37

99.9

2.7 40. 5 24. 3 37. 8

36

94.5

37

99.9

37

99.9

37

99.9

292 29. 3

996.7 100

Teachers Views of Students Learning Styles (N=37)

The first item of this category was about the learning style of making use of projects and group work. A large majority of the teacher respondents (97.3%) indicated ‘agree’ or ‘strongly agree’. Only 2.7% of them disagreed. With regard to the 2nd item which is concerned with self-directed work, the majority (81.1%) pointed out ‘agree’, or ‘strongly agree’, while 10.8% indicated that they were not sure. The rest (8.1%) disagreed. On the suggestion that students learn from specific examples, 81.1% of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed while 16.2% of them were not sure. The rest (2.7%) disagreed. The 4th item was concerned with whether students learn more from theoretical approaches. A good number of the respondents (43.2%) agreed or strongly agreed, while 35.1% of them were not sure. The rest, 21.6% disagreed or strongly disagreed. With regard to the “students learning with practical interpretation of ideas” (5th item) a large majority of the respondents (91.9%) agreed or strongly agreed while only 5.4% of them were not sure. Only 2.7% of the respondents disagreed. Concerning problem solving activities as a learning style (Item No.6), 89.1% of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed while 10.8% were not sure. There was no one who disagreed or strongly disagreed. A large number of the respondents (50.3%) agreed or strongly agreed on lecture as a learning style, while 13.5% of them 49

were not sure. The rest 32.4% of them disagreed or strongly disagreed. 89.1% of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed that discussion, questioning, and brainstorming are effective learning styles while only 8.1% of them were not sure. The rest only 2.7% of them disagreed. Comparison of new materials with old experiences as a learning style is agreed by 67.7% of the respondents, while 29.7% of them were not sure. The rest 2.7% disagreed. The 10 th item, case study as a learning style, 81% of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed while 16.2% of them were not sure. The rest 2.7% of them disagreed. As observed from the data teachers believed that almost all of the learning styles are useful for students learning. Only few of them were not sure or disagreed with the learning styles presented . 4.7. Students’ Views of their Learning Style The items presented in this category of the learning styles are a more or similar with the items presented to the teachers. Similar to the items presented to the teachers they were constructed using a Likert scale with five values of 1 to 5. These are depicted on the following Table. (Table 7).

Stud ents Lear n Best :

Stro ng. Disa gree.

Disa gree

Not Sure

When engage in project or group discussion When provided with selfdirected work assignments

50

Stro ngly Agr ee

Agr ee

Total

f

%

f

%

F

%

f

%

f

%

f

4

6.3

6

9.4

9

14. 1

21

32. 8

24

37. 5

64

1

1.6

7

10. 9

8

12. 5

36

56. 3

12

18. 8

64

% 10 0. 1 10 0. 1

1 0 1 3 1 6

15. 6 20. 3 25

20

6.3 21. 9 20. 3

17

3.1

4 1 4 1 3

9

14. 1

1 3

3

4.7

1 7

From specific examples From theoretical approaches With practical interpretations of ideas From problem solving activities, experimentation,

3

4.7

6

4

6.3

11

9.4 17. 2

5

7.8

4

6.3

9

14.1

9

From lecture Discussion, questioning, is brainstorming Comparing how new materials fit into experiences

9

14.1

10

14. 1 15. 6

3

4.7

2

1

1.6

Case studies

3

4.7 65.9

Result

6.63

105 10. 5

24 24

37. 5 37. 5 31. 3

20

26. 6 29. 7 31. 3

20. 3

30

26. 6

24

183 18. 4

Table 7 Students Learning Style (Students View)

19

21 11 17

32. 8 17. 2 26. 6

64 63 62

26

39. 1 17. 2 40. 6

46. 9

11

17. 2

64

37. 5

17

26. 6

64

367 36. 9

25 11

274 27. 5

64 63 64

10 0 98 .5 97 10 0. 2 98 .5 10 0 10 0. 1 10 0. 1 99 4. 6 10 0

(N=64)

Students’ response concerning the learning style of engaging in project or group work, the majority (69.3%) either ‘agree’ of ‘strongly agree’ while 14% were not sure. The rest (15.7) of them stated either ‘disagree’ or ‘strongly disagree’. The 2nd item in the category was whether students learn better with self-directed work assignment. Here again the majority of students (75.1%) either agreed or strongly agreed while 12.5% were not sure. The remaining (12.5) disagreed or strongly disagreed. For the question which tried to probe whether students learn better from specific examples, the majority (70.3%) of them either agreed or strongly agreed, while 15.6% of them were not sure. The rest 14.1% disagreed or strongly disagreed. Theoretical approach as a learning style was the 4 th item in the category. A good number (54.7) of them agreed or strongly agreed, while 20.3% were not sure. The remaining (23.5%) either disagreed or strongly disagreed. The 5 th item concerned with the practical interpretation of ideas (57.9%) of the respondents stated either ‘agree’ or ‘strongly agree’, while 25% of them stated ‘not sure’. The rest (14.1%) either agreed or disagreed. With regard to the learning style of problem solving activities and experimentation (7th item), the majority (65.3%) pointed out either ‘agree’ or ‘disagree’ while few of them (6.3%) were not sure. The remaining 28.2% either disagreed or 51

strongly disagreed. Of all the respondents who considered lecture as a learning style 46.9% agreed or strongly agreed while 21.9% of them pointed out not sure. The remaining (29.7%) either disagreed or strongly disagreed. Discussion, questioning and brainstorming as learning style was agreed or strongly agreed by the majority (71.9%) of students while 20.3% of them were not sure. The rest (7.8%) either disagreed or strongly disagreed. The style of comparing how new things fit into experiences was agreed or strongly agreed by (66.1%) of the respondents, while 20.3% were not sure. The rest 15.7% either disagreed or strongly disagreed. Concerning case study as a learning style, the majority, 64.1% of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed while 26.6% of them were not sure. The remaining 9.4% of the respondents either disagreed or strongly disagreed. Since the intention of presenting similar items to both students and teachers was to see the difference existing between the opinions of the teachers and the students, it is better expressed in the following bar graph which contains both in combination.

Figure 7

Comparison Teachers and Students Opinion of the Learning styles

As shown in the above bar graph, both students and teachers regard all the learning styles positively. But about 10% of the students disagree and about 7% of them strongly disagree with some of the learning styles. 4.8. Students Assessment Teachers Views of Student Assessment Improving the student assessment mechanisms is one of the important aspects of the provision of HDP. In this regard for both teachers and students seven assessment mechanisms were selected and presented for rating using a Likert scale of five values. The lowest number of the scale number 1 denoted 52

“Strongly Disagree” while the highest number 5 denoted “Strongly Agree”. The rest of the numbers, i.e., 2, 3, and 4 denoted “Disagree”, “Not Sure”, and “Agree” respectively. This is depicted on the following table (Table 8)

Table 8.Views of Teachers on Student Assessment The Stro mea ng. ns Disa Disa for gree. gree asse ssme nt invo lves The use of students' portfolio

Not Sure

Stro ngly Agr ee

Agr ee

F

%

f

4

10.8

9

Interview

8

21.6

Presentation Students' reflection in the class Small group discussion Mid and final examination

2

Assignments

Total

f

%

F

10

5.4

1

2.7

4

3

8.1

2

5.4

4

3

8.1

3

8.1

6

27 32. 4 10. 8 10. 8 16. 2

13

11

% 24. 3 29. 7

0

0

1

2.7

2

5.4

12

3

8.1

2.7

2

5.4

23

62.1

1 2 8

76

40

108

19 10 8

12

5 22 21 16

% 35. 1 13. 5 59. 5 56. 8 43. 2 32. 4 51. 4 292

f

%

F

%

1

2.7

37

99.9

1

2.7

37

99.9

8

21.6

37

100

7

18.9

37

100

8

21.6

36

97.2

22

59.5

37

100

12

32.4

100

59

159

37 25 8

697

The first item in the category of student assessment was the use of portfolio as an assessment mechanism. In this regard, all the teacher respondents 37.8% agreed or strongly agreed, while 27% of them were not sure. The remaining 35.1% either disagreed or strongly disagreed. On the 2 nd item of the category, i.e., interview as an assessment mechanism only 16.2% of all the teacher respondents agreed or strongly agreed while 32.4% of them were not sure. The majority (51.3%) either disagreed or strongly disagreed. The other item presented in this category was presentation as an assessment mechanism. Of all the respondents, the great majority (81.1%) said ‘agree’ or ‘strongly agree’, while 53

only 10.8% of them were not sure. The remaining (8.1%) either disagreed or strongly disagreed. Student reflection in class (4th item) was agreed or strongly agreed by the majority (75.7%), while only 10.8% were not sure. The remaining (13.5%) either disagreed or strongly disagreed. Small group discussion as an assessment mechanism was agreed or strongly agreed upon by the majority (65.4%), while 16.2% were not sure. The remaining 16.2% either agreed or strongly disagreed. Mid and final examination as an assessment mechanism was agreed or strongly agreed upon by the majority (91.9%), while only 5.4% were not sure. The remaining 2.7% disagreed. On the other hand assignment as an assessment mechanism was agreed upon by the majority (83.8%) while 5.4% were not sure. The rest 9.8% either disagreed or strongly disagreed. The data in general shows that the majority of the teacher respondents either agrees or strongly agrees that the assessment mechanism includes all kinds. 4.9. Students Views of Assessment Mechanisms Just in the same way as that of the teachers’ items, these question items also contained seven items. The response mechanism was also the same. This is depicted on the following Table. Table 9 Students Views of Assessmen t N=64 Strongly. Disagree. The means for assessmen t involves The use of students' portfolio Interview Presentatio n Students' reflection in the class Small group discussion Mid and final examinatio n

54

Disagree

f

Not Sure

%

Strongly Agree

Agree

f

%

Total

f

%

f

%

F

12 10

18.8 15.6

13 11

20.3 17.2

15 20

23.4 31.3

18 19

28.1 29.7

6 4

2

3.1

3

4.7

9

14.1

32

50

18

4

6.3

7

10.9

42

65.6

10

15.6

0

0

0

9

14.1

11

17.2

26

40.6

18

1

1.6

3

4.7

7

10.9

16

25

37

Assignmen ts Result

2 31

3.1 48.5 6.94

2 48

3.1 75 11

9 113

14.1 177 25

30 151

46.9 236 33.7

Responses of student to the first item of this category i.e., portfolio as a means of assessment, 37.5% of them pointed out agree or strongly agree, while 23.4% of them were not sure. The remaining 39.1% either disagreed or strongly disagreed. For the question of interview as an assessment mechanism 36% of them agree or strongly agree, while 31.3% of them were not sure. The rest 32.8% either disagree or strongly disagree. Presentation as an assessment mechanism, (78.1%) agreed or strongly agreed while 14.1% were not sure. The remaining 7.8% either disagreed or strongly disagreed. Students’ reflection as a means of assessment was agreed by only 15.6% of the respondent students while the majority (65.6%) of the respondent was not sure. The rest 17.2% of the respondents pointed out either disagree or strongly disagree. Small group discussion as an assessment mechanism was agreed or strongly agreed by the majority (68.7%) of the respondents, while 17.2% of them were not sure. The remaining 14.1% disagreed.

The question of mid and final examination was agreed or strongly agreed by a vast majority of 82.8%, while 10.9% were not sure. The remaining 6.3% disagreed or strongly disagreed. The question of assignment as an assessment mechanism was agreed or strongly agreed by a large majority of 79.7%, while 14.1% were not sure. The remaining 6.2% disagreed or strongly disagreed. The data shows that quite a number of the student respondents were not sure or disagree or strongly disagree on the use of some of the assessment methods proposed. A summary of both the teachers’ views and students’ views can show the total picture better. Figure 11

Teachers’ and Students Views of the Assessment Mechanisms

The bar graph shows the relative positions of both students and teachers with regard to the use of the different assessment mechanisms. While many of the teachers believed that many of the assessment 55

21 104

mechanisms can be used, quite a large number of students were not sure or disagree or strongly disagree. 4.10 Teachers Views of Action Research

Teacher respondents were presented with three questions with regard to action research. The intention here was to find out whether or not teachers are involved in doing action research and if they do why. The three items, just like the other items were in Likert scale of five values. The responses obtained are depicted in the following table (Table 10) Table 10

Teachers views of Action Research

Stron gly disag Disag Not Agre ree ree Sure e Your Involvement in Action research is: f % to improve the teaching learning process 0 0 To improve the class/workshop condition 0 0 To extend studentcentered teaching and active learning 0 0 0 0 Result

f

N=32

Stron gly agree

Total

%

f

%

f

%

f

%

f

%

2

5.4

8

21.6

14

37.8

8

21.6

32

108

3

8.1

6

16.2

16

43.2

7

18.9

32

86.4

1 6

2.7 16.2 5.77

7 21

18.9 56.7 20.2

15 45

40.5 121.5 43.27

9 24

24.3 64.8 23.1

32 96

86.4 280.8 92.31

A significant percentage (59.4%) of the teacher respondents agreed or strongly agreed that they are involved in action research to improve teaching and learning process, while 21.6% of them were not sure whether they are doing action research to improve the teaching learning process. The rest 5.4% Disagreed. On the other hand 62.1% of the teachers agreed or strongly agreed that they are involved in action research to improve class/workshop conditions, while 16.2% were not sure. The remaining 8.1% disagreed. The response of teachers with regard to the involvement of teachers in action research with the intention of extending student centered teaching learning method the majority (64.8%) agreed or strongly agreed, while 18.9% were not sure. The remaining (2.7%) disagreed. 56

4.11 Opinions of the Higher Diploma Leaders As has been indicated in this study six HDP leaders including two deans were interviewed. The interview focused on six major areas: 1) their general opinion about the contribution of HDP to the quality of education, 2) their opinion on the extent to which teaching and learning improved as a result of HDP, 3) their opinion about teachers implementing active learning methods in their day-to-day teaching, 4) their opinion of the students being active learners, 5) their views with regard to the implementation of continuous assessment within the university, and 6) The main challenges encountered. Quality All of the respondents agree that HDP is a good program. They mentioned that many of the new teachers have learned a lot through it. Even many of the experienced teachers have made use of it to update their knowledge they felt that the actual implementation is not as expected. One of the HDP leader felt that it didn’t help to improve quality. He felt that it is not implemented and teachers are not using it due to the large number of student size. Based on this situation he believed that quality is not improved The Improvement of Teaching and Learning

Almost all of those interviewed believed that HDP improves the teaching learning process. But they also felt that there has never been an aggressive implementation of it in which many of the teachers are involved. They also witnessed that there are some teachers who try to use some of the active learning methods and make the effort to get best out of it. According to them, such practice is not common with all the teachers. In some cases, they said, it is unthinkable to use the active learning methods like that of discussion due to the nature of the subject and size of the class. Examples of such courses as mentioned by one of the interviewees include civics education and other such cases where many students come 57

together for a class. One of the leaders also mentioned that the seat arrangements of the classrooms are not inviting for active learning methods. When asked whether they themselves implement it, two of them said that they sometimes do. Another one indicated that he use it sometimes as a means for revising his course at the end. Students Being Active Learners

Interviewees were asked whether students have become active learners. One respondent from the engineering stream said that students learned these days through group discussion. Though the active learning methods are difficult to implement in large classes, in engineering some students have gained some experiences due to their relatively lower number in each class. He also mentioned that active learning methods are more suitable for laboratory courses. Others mentioned that if teachers could apply it regularly in their class teaching students could become active learners. But due to the reason that teachers are not implementing it to the level needed, it is difficult to say that students have become active learners. One of them also mentioned that some of the students do not like active learning methods even though the teacher wants to use it in the classroom. Continuous Assessment Continuous assessment, almost all the interviewees acknowledged that it helps the students. But almost all the interviewees indicated that there are some problem associated with the large size of class. One of the methods for continuous assessment is assignment. Giving two three assignments to each large class of, say, two or three groups, leaves the teacher with no time. Hence, the interviewees indicated, the major assessment mechanism used in the class is mainly mid and final examination. 4.12.

Challenges Encountered During the Implementation of the Active Learning Methods of HDP

Interviewees were requested to indicate the major challenges encountered during the implementation of the knowledge and skills of HDP to the classroom situation. Some of the problems they mentioned

58

included: Lack of follow up, Inconvenient class set up, Lack of media, Large class size, Lack of personal interest and willingness from the side of some teachers, Lack of interest from students. Summary of Major Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations: 5.1 Summary of Major Findings 1. A reasonable number of the teachers (34%) disagree or strongly disagree that Higher Diploma Program has contributed to the quality of education. The other 39% of the teachers were not sure whether the HDP has contributed to the quality of education; 2. Large number (33.4%) of the students, disagree or strongly disagree that teachers apply active learning methods in the classroom while 18.3% of them were not sure whether teachers are applying the active learning methods; 3. The majority of teachers (73.8%) do not discuss about their lesson with their students. And large majority of the teachers (97.3%) believed engaging the students in projects & group work makes students to learn better; 4. The majority of the teachers (89.1%) also believed that problem solving activities help students to learn better; 5. Many teachers (41.1%) disagree or strongly disagreed on the use of interview as an assessment tool while 32.4% of them were not sure. In connection with this large majorities (91.9%) of the respondent teachers agree or strongly agree that mid semester and final examination is the present means of assessment; 6. The majority of the teachers (64.8%) agreed or disagreed that they do action research to extend student centered learning; 7. Higher diploma leaders and deans believed that HDP to some extent contributed to the quality of education 5.3 Conclusions: To the extent this research findings are concerned it can be concluded that Higher Diploma Program (HDP), in principle is an accepted way of improving the quality of knowledge and skill of teachers. 59

However, it cannot be said that its implementation has made any significant impact on the quality of education. The fact that its principles have not been used at the classroom level, as indicated by the respondents, makes it nonexistent to the students waiting in the classroom, leave alone making an impact and change the quality of education to the best. The fact that many of the active learning methods are not practiced within the classroom situation, the fact that the assessment procedures remains as mid and final examination show the shortcomings in the implementation of HDP and its adverse impact on the quality of education. 5.3. Recommendations There is no doubt that the principles and skills of the HDP are well accepted by teachers. But the problem lies in implementing it within the classroom situation. The reason for this, according to the findings of this study, is attributed to problems of diverse nature such as that of lack of follow-up, inconvenient classroom set up, large class size, lack of interest from the side of both teachers and students. As a means of curbing the problem, this researcher recommends the following:

1.

Since the motive behind any good implementation of any task is interest of the individual or any group, it also holds true for the implementation of the knowledge and skills of the HDP at classroom level. For this to happen teachers must have the interest and take the initiative. This, in the researcher’s view, can be developed in two ways: 1) through a proper follow-up from the side of the institution and giving recognition for good practices of implementing the principles, 2) through the provision of some kind of incentives to those who implement it (to the highest level) and who are capable of registering a notable result. In this regard I recommend the establishment of a follow-up, advising and certifying committee within the institution.

2.

The implementation of active learning methods requires a setting quite different from the conventional lecture method of teaching learning. As far as the seat arrangements of the classrooms remain the same the problem continues to persist. As a means of alleviating this problem this researcher would like to recommend the establishment of special classrooms where

60

students of various fields of studies could come and learn topics that require more of active learning methods. Seating arrangements in such classes must be in a way it can be arranged and again rearranged to suit the varying needs. Moreover such classrooms have to be equipped with the equipment such as computers and LCDs. Such classrooms are exclusively meant for implementing active learning methods and be kept under the care of specific personnel.

6.

Bibliography

Bennet, Douglas (2001) “Assessing Quality in Higher Education” Libral Education, Spring. Biggs, J & Tang C. (2007) Teaching for Quality Learning at University (3 rd ed.), society for Higher Education & Open University Press: McGraw Hill. Biggs, J (2001) “the Reflective institution: Assuring and enhancing the quality of teaching and learning” higher Education 41: 221 – 238 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Printed in the Netherlands. Clark, Burton R. (2004) Sustaining Change in Universities, England: Society for Research into Higher Education & open University Press. Ebel, Robert and Frisbie, D, A (1991) Essentials of Educational Measurement (5th ed.) Fraenkel, J.R & Wallen, N, (2008) How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education, New York: McGraw-Hill. Gay, L.R. et.al. (2009) Educational Research (9th ed) Upper Saddle River: Merill HERQA, (2008) Adama University Institutional Quality Audit, Addis Ababa Kohen, L. et.al.(2000) Research Methods in Education (5th ed.), London: RoutledgeFalmer MOE, (2002) The Education and Training Policy and Its Implementation MOE, (2008) Annual Intake and Enrollment Growth and Professional and Programm Mix of Ethiopian Public Education: strategy and Conversation Plan, 2001-2005. Prosser, M & Trigwell, K. (1999) Understanding Learning and Teaching: The Experience in Higher Education, U.K.: The Society for Research in Higher Education & Open University. Ramsden, P. (2003) Learning to Teach in Higher Education (2nd ed.), London & New York: RoutledgeFalmer.

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UNESCO (2003) Teacher Professional Development: an international review of the literature (www.unesco.org/iiep)

4. ENHANCING THE OCCUPATIONAL COMPETENCIES OF GRADUATES IN ETHIOPIA: MANAGING THE CHALLENGES OF EMPLOYMENT By Asnake Talargae Abstract The aim of this study is to examine the issues pertaining to the employability of graduates of higher education (HE) in the formal sector labour market of Ethiopia, in order to explain the quality and relevance of courses rendered in HE. This study uses urban-level data from the formal sector in five regions (Addis Ababa, Amhara, Oromia, SNNP and Tigry) to explore to what extent HE graduates are relevant in filling the available vacancies in labour market. It, thus, discusses how management of education has hindered the ability of HEIs to design relevant and employable courses that alleviate the problem of unemployment. It argues the quality and relevance of courses studied in HE by students could readily and easily fixed into the labour market. The relationship between higher education, employability and the occupational competence or the use of knowledge on the job at the urban level is measured using some of the underlying issues related to quality and relevant curriculum and designing of employable courses to meet the reality of education. In doing so, the study attempts to explore the themes: collaboration between employers of labour and HE, curriculum adaptation to meet labour market requirements, making internship a normal part of education experience, administrators and business community to maintain contact through research and projects, and professional orientation for educators. The study concludes that the relationships between HE and graduates competence in filling the available vacancies in urban labour market has clearly shown that the management of HE desires relevant curriculum and designing employable courses. Therefore, it is recommended that the 62

employers of labour and HE should collaborate and explore the development of employable courses. It is also recommended that HE should focus on developing students for high skilled technology that make structured effective engagement and communication of manpower needs to government planners and education service providers. 1. Introduction 1.1.

Background and Statement of the Problem

The consideration of occupational competencies of graduates and the design of strategies for managing the challenges of employment are the key roles of higher education (HE) to play in empowering youth for labour market. In Ethiopia the enhancement of occupational competencies of graduates is often criticized as inadequate, since a growing number of youth are found unemployed and some engaged in unrelated jobs to their specialization. Akangbou (1987) argued that unemployment problem facing youth graduates of higher education institutes (HEIs) is largely a result of the mismatch between the expansion of the education system and the economy. The result is that graduates, who do not have marketable skills, cannot be employed in the labour market. Many graduates of HEIs in Ethiopia today are also greatly under-employed. As the free labor movement (market) inaugurated and the expansion of private higher education institutions (HEIs), the number of graduates increased at a speed faster than the rate of growth in the economy even university degrees ceased to guarantee automatic employment. The pace of economic and social development in the country was not fast enough to permit large number of HEIs graduates to be immediately absorbed into the job market (Seyoum 2001). As a result, many graduates are found employed below their capacity. The skill mismatch is one result behind the labour market failure on the part of individual graduate’s unemployment and under-utilization of graduate (Asnake 2010). For more than a decade, the linkage between the HEIs and labor market has been characterized by the inability of both public and private sectors to absorb HEIs graduates. In most cases, there is no linkage between the training institutions and either the formal or informal sector. The graduates trained in these institutions cannot, therefore, be immediately absorbed into the job market. There is therefore a big challenge for the HEIs to enhance the occupational competencies of graduates so as to increase the employability of their graduates by producing marketable skills for the formal labor market. In the same way, appropriate labor regulation and practices has become increasingly important in addressing the problem of youth unemployment and poverty. The government of Ethiopia has attempted to address youth unemployment in several policy documents such as Poverty Reduction 63

Strategy Paper which extensively elaborates on youth employment strategies through micro credit schemes, vocational training, ICT skills training and the like. Another policy issues related to youth unemployment in general and graduates in particular is attached with education. Some of the policy priorities including: improving the quality and relevance of higher education, enhancing capacity of the national education system towards demand-driven education, quality higher education and technical education services, and promoting excellence, creativity, innovation and investment in higher education. In spite of this, the linkages between employers and education providers to enhance the occupational competencies of graduates through improving quality of education in Ethiopia have not been achieved. As a result, addressing the problem of youth unemployment and poverty remains difficult. In this regard, the study attempts to examine the challenges of youth learners work placements in the urban centers of the case study. It helps in indicating national and institutional action needed to enhance the occupational competencies of graduates or the use of knowledge on the job at the urban centers formal sector in Ethiopia. It is against this background that the problem of graduate’s unemployment in urban areas of the country must be addressed. 1.2.

Objectives of the Study

The major aim of this paper is to examine the issues pertaining to the employability of graduates of higher education in the formal sector labor market of Ethiopia, in order to explain the quality and relevance of courses rendered in HEIs. In line with this general objective, the specific aims of the study are to: •

assess the role of HEIs in producing relevant and skillful graduates to meet the needs and demand of formal sector labour market;

•

identify and assess the status of HE graduates employment and unemployment;

•

examine the role of HE and the strategies of managing He to enhance relevance of courses and to alleviate the problem of unemployment;

• 1.3.

recommend the possible options that may minimize the problems Research Questions

The main concerns of the present paper, thus, tried to discuss how management of education has hindered the ability of HEIs to design relevant and employable courses that alleviate the problem of unemployment. This leads to the following further research questions: i. To what extent do the numbers and profiles of graduates match the occupational competencies of the formal sector of the economy? 64

ii. Do the skills and competencies acquired match those required by employers in the formal sector of the economy? iii. To what extent do HEI respond to the human resource needs of the formal sector of the labour market? iv. Why graduates acquired skills and competencies are not relevant for employment and work? v. What measures can resolve the stated problems? 1.4. Significance of the Study The reason for discussing these questions at some length is that they are difficult and yet were not until recently recognized as involving major issues of policy. There are two main problems. First, there is no linkage between education and the world of work and the graduates of these institutions cannot be immediately absorbed into the job market. Second, difficulties arise owing to develop policies that will address unemployment problems and create an environment that the graduates of HEIs can exploit their potential through value adding initiatives. Therefore, the study helps organizations that are studying HEIs and problems they currently facing in producing relevant and skillful graduates to meet the needs and demand of labour market. The results of this study also serve as starting information for researchers who would like to undertake further studies on HEIs and competence of graduates in Ethiopia. It would also be used for comparison of related studies in other parts of Ethiopia. The discussion that follows is divided into five sections. First, the methodology of the research will be discussed. Second, the literature review will be presented that have to be taken as a discussion of this paper is based. Third, the status of graduates employment and unemployment in the urban areas of the country are presented and illustrated. Fourth, discussions of the findings will be presented. Fifth, some conclusions and recommendations are suggested regarding national and institutional action for enhancing the occupational competencies of graduates in the formal sector labor market 2. Research Methodology This analysis was conducted with an existing data set that had been collected for the purpose of strengthening the link between graduates of HEIs and labour market in the urban centers of Ethiopia. It uses urban-level data from the formal sector in five regions (Addis Ababa, Amhara, Oromia, SNNP and Tigray to explore the links between higher education and graduate employment in the Ethiopian labour market. It, thus, discusses how management of education has hindered the ability of HEIs to design relevant and employable courses that alleviate the problem of unemployment. A first look at the relationship between higher education, employability, and the occupational competence or the use of 65

knowledge on the job at the urban level focuses on the ability of an institution to ensure graduate employability. Thus, the analysis is measured using some of the underlying issues related to quality and appropriateness of tertiary education. As indicated in the previous section of this study, one of the specific objectives of the study is to assess the relevance of graduates in relation to the needs of the formal sector labour market. To measure the occupational competencies of graduates, the study uses some of the underlying issues related to quality and relevant curriculum and designing of employable courses to meet the reality of education. The study uses to analyze the issue at hand the following indicators. They are the number and the types of education that are graduated in the HEIs of Ethiopia that compiled by MoE for 2003 and 2008. Another set of measures to explore the relationship between education and the world of work includes the following indicators: the structure of employment by sector, occupational group and employment status in the five regions urban centers. In this study variables of the number of graduates from HIEs and the structure of employment in the formal sector by occupational groups and employment status are important indicators to analyze the occupational competencies of graduates in the labour market. From data concerning regular graduates, the employed population of graduates was calculated for formal sector in the case study regions urban areas. The case study urban areas differences in graduate employment were then correlated with the following indicators of graduates occupational competencies: a) distribution of the graduate manpower within the formal sector by major occupational groups; b) distribution of employed graduates within six major occupational groups; c) employed population of urban areas by region, sex and employment status. When examining occupational competencies of graduates through the main indicators of quality and relevance (appropriateness) of education, it is particularly important to analyze the data by occupational groups, employment status and fields of study (Teichler 2002). In this study, six major occupational groups were distinguished. In selecting and defining occupational groups the main criterion for present purposes, of course, used the structure of the education and training system. The six occupational groups are included:

66

•

Legislation and managers

•

Professional

•

Clerks

•

Sales work

•

Skilled agriculture and fishery

•

Plant, machine operators and assemblers.

These major occupational groups were distinguished to measure the extent that graduates employed in the formal sector. Regarding the employment status of graduates in the sector, four types of employment status were distinguished. These include that employed persons whose employment status were classified as employee-government, government- parastatal, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), or members of producers’ cooperative were considered as being working in the formal sector (CSA2009). 3. Literature Review Jim Allen, Ger Ramaekers and Rolf van der Velden (2005) considered competencies are what make people competent. They defined competencies as prerequisites for effective action and should cover the general and specific knowledge, skills and motivations that may be needed for effective action. Competence of an individual as defined by most authors (Kellermann and Sagmeister 2000; Teichler 2002; Akomolafe and Adegun 2009) is the knowledge, skills, abilities, or personality characteristics that meet the needs and demand of modern world labour market. It usually involves the role of HE and the strategies of managing HE to enhance relevance of courses and to alleviate the problem of unemployment (Akomolafe and Adegun 2009). It aims at improving on existing capacities and resources and using them effectively to design relevant curriculum and employable courses to meet the reality of education in modern world. Competencies can be measured at the time of graduation or sometime after the transition to the labour market. In theory, competencies at the moment of graduation are more reflective of the actual output of courses. However, since competencies are supposed to reflect graduates’ ability to function in practice, it is desirable that they have already gained some practical work experience (Allen, Ramaekers and van der Velden 2005). In today’s dynamic labour market, HEIs must develop and demonstrate a new set of competencies to fulfill their changing roles and responsibilities (Hay and Fourie 2000). In this connection, individual graduates are expected to acquire knowledge, skills or competencies potentially relevant for employment and work. These changes of the traditional role of HEIs producing and disseminating knowledge have acknowledged the demand for generic competencies, social skills, personality development, and problem-solving skills. It has also given a greater concern for application and

67

practices, along with a greater emphasis upon economic and social relevance (Maharasoo and Hay 2001). According to Kellermann and Sagmeister (2000), there is, however, a discrepancy between competencies acquired in education and those required in ‘real life’. They found that three major issues and challenges of labour market for HE. The first point relates with under-qualification of graduates. The educational system might be so far removed from the workplace that education are unable to anticipate the competencies graduates will need for a productive life. Second, under-utilization of graduates might be practiced, which may come about from poorly organized workplace to use graduates’ skills effectively. Thirdly, the gap between attained and required skills and knowledge might be emanated from over qualification of graduates. Boateng (2002) lists the determinants of such skill mismatch as: the type and quality of curriculum, career and academic advisory services, admission and evaluation policies in the tertiary sector, and the role of faculty boards and employers association in the delivery of education services. 4. Status of HEIs graduates Employment and Unemployment in Ethiopia This part provides the total enrollment of HEIs and the distribution of graduates by their field of study. The status of graduates employment and unemployment in the case study regions is also presented. 4.1.

Status of Higher Education Graduates

The higher education enrolments and the number of graduates are important indictors to look at the enhancement of occupational graduates in Ethiopia to look for managing the challenges of employment in the urban center formal sector. As table 1 indicates, between 2003-2008 the number of HE students’ enrollment grows from 98,404 in 2003/4 to 263,001 in 2007/8. As table 1 clearly shown, the number of students at the HEIs of the country increased by177 %. While in 2003/4 more than two thirds of students were male, currently women students are slightly increased. So there was not only a large increase in rates, but also a remarkable change in gender proportions. In these years, the increase in the number of HEIs students enrolled was related with the number of institutions both public and private has increased within the country. Table 1 below presents the total number of enrollment of HEIs. Table 1 Total Number of Undergraduate Enrollment of HEIs by Year and Sex Year Male Female Total 2003/4 77,985 20,418 98,404 2004/5 105,013 33,148 138,159 2005/6 130,835 43066 173,901 2006/7 150,530 52,869 203,399 2007/8 199,684 63,317 263,001 68

Source: MoE.2009. Educational Statistics Annual Abstract. Addis Ababa: MoE. As can be seen from table 2 below, the number of graduates of HEIs has shown a dynamic increase in the study periods. It also shows that except for the years 2005/6 and 2007/8, the number of female graduates from HEIs was increasing. In general, the number of graduates in 2003/4 was 7,600, while it reached at 47,979 in 2007/8. This shows that the number of graduates from HEIs of the country increased by 131%. Table 2 presents the total number of graduates by year. Table 2 Total Number of Graduates from all Programs of HEIs by Year Year Male Female Total 2003/4 6446 1154 7600 2004/5 9646 1889 11535 2005/6 21240 4095 25335 2006/7 24474 5371 29845 2007/8 38048 4931 47979 Source: MoE.2009. Educational Statistics Annual Abstract. Addis Ababa: MoE. Similar study undertaken by MoLSA (2010) using the number of regular undergraduates from HEIs in 2007/8, however, indicated the number and the field of studies of graduates. According to this report, the total number of graduates was 27,789. Out of this figure 26,839 were graduated from government education institutes, and 950 from private HEIs. The same report further elaborated that among the majority of regular undergraduates 24.43% was accounted for those who graduated in education, while 19.29% were those who have completed in business and economics. 4.2. Employment of Graduates in the Case study In the employment survey of 2009, 52.9 percent or 1,819,315 of the labour force were employed in the formal sector of the country. Out of this figure, the case study five regions employed 1,695,887 or 93.2 percent of the formal sector labour force of the country. Table 3 presents data from a national survey on the formal sector urban employment. Table 3 Currently Employed Population in the Formal Sector of Case Study Regions by Sex Region Male Female Total Tigray 79191 59485 138676 Amhara 196889 94288 291177 Oromia 361711 181022 542733 SNNP 155786 83457 239243 Addis Ababa 311662 172396 484058 Total 1105239 590648 1695887

69

Source: CSA. 2009. Statistical Report on the 2009 Urban Employment and Unemployment Survey. Addis Ababa: CSA. Table 3 shows the employed population in the formal sector of the case study regions and the employment status by sex. It also indicates that a large proportion of manpower was employed in the formal sector of Oromia region, which accounted 542,733 or 32%, followed by Addis Ababa City Administration which employed 484,058 or 28.54% of the total employment of the formal sector of the case study. The least was found in Tigray which accounted 138,676 or 8.17%. An analysis of the links between the field of study and employment sector (Asnake 2010) shows that 55.36% of labour force concentrate on a key employment sector. For example, the highest number of those trained in accounting, economics, banking and finance (44.77%) employed in the private sector and engaged in sales work followed by clerks occupation which constitute 15.61%. The second most frequent employment sector, i.e. the public sector, comprised about 36.14% while NGO’s employing the remaining 8%. The findings of the present study also show the number of employed population by major occupational groups to identify the number and distribution of employed graduates in the case study urban areas formal sector. As mentioned earlier, in examining the linkage between higher education and graduates’ employability six occupational groups were distinguished to assess the case at hand. Table 4 reveals the number of employed population by sex and major occupational groups in the case study regions. Table 4 Currently employed Population by Urban Areas, Sex, and Major Occupational Groups Region

Employm ent Status Legistiure & Professionals

Tigray

Amhara

Oromia

SNNP

70

T M F T M F T M F T M F

Managers 9614 7761 1853 12521 9609 2912 23338 17911 5427 10287 7895 2392

19907 14914 4993 20383 14268 6115 37991 26594 11397 16747 11723 5024

Clearks 20797 8597 12200 28244 11356 16888 52644 21166 31478 23206 9330 13876

Sales work 83902 27044 56658 146170 59982 86188 272451 111802 160649 82099 31284 50815

Skilled

Plant

agriculture 13129 9362 3767 46588 29700 16888 86837 55359 31478 33063 22403 10660

machine 16353 14575 1778 20673 18053 2620 38533 33642 4884 16986 14833 2153

Addis

T M F

Ababa Total

39807 30807 8676 95243

69909 87800 22109 164937

86436 30060 56376 211327

226308 118251 108057 810930

11438 8800 2638 191055

88368 78003 10365 180913

Source: CSA. 2009. Statistical Report on the 2009 Urban Employment and Unemployment Survey. Addis Ababa: CSA The above table shows that the highest numbers of employed persons are engaged in sales work. This is followed by clerks occupation. On the other hand, the least number of employees are found legislator and managers which account 95,243. These analyses suggest that the degree of concentration of those graduates in business and economics is high in the formal sector employment. It also indicates that the distribution of employment sector was rather stable in some disciplines (e.g. law, agriculture fields). This assessment of currently employed population of urban areas by sex, employment status and major occupational areas reveals that the HEIs (social and economic sciences) serve in different capacities in various organization of the formal sector in the case study regions. In addition to differences in employment among occupational groups, table 4 above also reveals the distribution of employed population by sex and regions. As it is depicted from table 4, out of the total number of 810,930 employees found in sales work occupational group, the females’ employee in Oromia and Addis Ababa account for 268,706 (33.13%). It can be observed from the table also that the distribution of female employee in the legislative and managers, as well as plant machine operators are the least. Besides the gender differences, the table also show that Oromia and Addis Ababa are the largest employers of the total employed population. 4.3.

Unemployment of Graduates in the Case Study

MoLSA (2010) stated that in July 2009 the number of university-trained persons registered as unemployed was 10,215. Out of this figure, 5000 was male and 5215 female graduates of HEIs. On the other hand, according to the same report, the number of registered jobseekers in the same period was 171,681. These show that data on graduates’ unemployment is not easy to find. However, the distribution of job seekers by their occupational preferences is an indicative of the levels of educational background an applicant has. Using such indicatives Asnake (2010) assessed the number of unemployed graduates in three regions, i.e. Tigray, Benishangul Gumuz and Addis Ababa. According to this study, the number of unemployed graduates (of 15 types of training) in Tigray was 252 in the year 2003 and it increased to 3684 in 2009. In the case of Addis Ababa, the study findings showed that in the year 2003 the unemployed graduates was 18,034 and reached to 32,689 in 2009. The study also stated that during the reporting year out of 71

15 types of training 46.8% unemployed graduates of females specialized in five types of training, namely Bookkeeping, Secretarial Science, Computer Science, Home Economics, and Hotel and Tourism. The same specialized courses represented 77.5% of 18,723 the total number of unemployed female graduates. As the same study indicated the highest unemployment of graduates is found in Addis Ababa. 1. Management Strategies to Enhance Relevance of Courses in Labour Market The finding of this study shows that there is a discrepancy between competencies acquired in education and those required in the labour market of the urban centers. Several inter-related factors contribute to fast increasing graduates unemployment in Ethiopia. This shows that HE is facing challenges of producing graduates that are relevant in filling the available vacancies in labour market. In this paper, the relationships between HE and graduates competence in filling the available vacancies in urban labour market has clearly shown that the management of HE desires relevant curriculum and designing employable courses. The following discussion is provided to demonstrate how the management of education can enhance graduates competencies and alleviate the problem of unemployment. Collaboration between employers of labour and higher education As regards improvement of education-industry communication, there seems to be little or no doubt that is was one of the major obstacles that female graduates aspiring to become employed in the urban centers formal sector had to face irrespective of their training background. This happened largely due to the fact that there is no clear relationship between HEI and employers of labor in the urban center of the country formal sector. One major implications it has that the role of HEI are not properly implemented the need to make contact and interaction with employers of labor and design curriculum to meet the reality of the labor market. Second, research into relevance of technical education and training in labor market do not get attention. This makes it difficult for graduates of HEI to be employed in their specialization and for employers of skilled labor to know about the quality of graduates’ labour. Akomolate and Adegun (2009),however, considered that technical education institutes should make closer links with employers to help them identify and adopt strategies to overcome any skills shortages and to be responsive provider of education in areas of technical skills shortages and to be responsive provider of education in areas of technical skills shortage. The collaboration between HEI and employers or education and industry is, therefore, a key element in the development, implementation and evaluation of graduates' employment in the formal sector of urban areas of Ethiopia. The mobilization and recognition of all stakeholders, that may influence or have the potential to influence 72

changes in the workforce, makes sure that implementation of effective and efficient training coordination. Hence, it realizes quality and relevance of education to the labor market needs. Moreover, it also determines labor targets from the education providers, and private sector to help in aligning supply of skills and demand with national priorities. Establishment of data base or registration of graduates at the central level is also crucial to serve as linkage between companies and training institutions. Curriculum adaptation to meet labour market requirements The second major issue of enhancing the occupational competencies of graduates and managing the challenges of employment is that the need to produce quality, relevant and employable graduates. This could happen through focusing on curriculum that is aimed at a growing job market. Higher education needs to produce graduates who have the personal, social and communication skills needed in the modern labour market. For example, employers today typically look for people who have good communication skills. They want people who are team players and those who can put forward ideas persuasively. They also need people who have good social skills, who are able to relate to other people well. Most importantly, though employers need people with real skills who possess the practical knowledge required on their job (Akomolate and Adegun 2009). Educational system needs to adapt curriculum that could meet the demand of the labour market. This enables HEIs to produce graduates who have the ability to think critically, to challenge assumptions, to ask questions and to find out answers on their own. To do this, the educational system could be tied closely to the private sector through its partnership and its students will benefit from studying with people who are actively working in their field of study and have first hand contact and experience with the market place. These people are best able to decide what skills and knowledge students need for today’s job market and can constantly adapt course content and classroom discussion to the real needs of the students (ibid).

Making internship a normal part of education experience As Philippe De Vreyer (2007) puts it, formal on-the-job training is not very common in Africa, including Ethiopia, mainly because the formal sector is not very well-developed. It is now accepted that training provided by internships plays a key role in the transmission of skills and enhancement of competencies in the crafts industries and young people access to the labour market. Students who 73

receive their HE confronted with two difficulties: the graduates of HEIs do not always have a sufficient level of competencies acquired to perform jobs in the formal sector and the quality of training suffers from a lack of organized progression. On the contrary, employment in the formal sector of the economy and regions is associated with the question of labour regulations and their applications which persist even when graduates employments are taking place. There are several explanations for the differences between the sectors. For instance, fresh graduates of HEIs face specific difficulties with personnel management, due to the fact that the case study regions formal sectors are demanding work experience or practical skills of graduates to be employed. To solve the problem, they may search for works that are below their capacity in order to get employment. Akomolate and Adegun (2009) point to internship opportunity made possible full time employment for them. In this case, full time recruits coming out of internships are more successful as employees than those drawn from outside of the internship process. Young graduates are obviously at a disadvantage with this sort of mechanism because they do not have the means of receiving more attention (sending out positive signals) concerning their job skills and do not have the networks to help overcome the problem of employment. Most literature in this regard agrees on the importance of supporting in the transition from school to the world of work (Teichler 2002; Olasi 2008; Akomolate and Adegun 2009). According to Olasi (2008), graduates looking to secure good jobs must use the benefit internship to secure their future and their career, no matter what the starting packages are for a start, it would solve the problem of unemployment. To do this, educational system must be in close contact with the business community and be willing and able to determine and respond to the needs of that community. HE can make internships and work study a normal part of the education experience. In this way, students are able to apply their newly gained knowledge to the real world and then to continue their education with a more certain knowledge of how they will apply it in the market place. The improvement of networking learners through work placement and internships will, thus, help graduates to secure good jobs and it would solve the existing problem of unemployment. Administrators and business community to maintain contact through research and projects The absence of contact between administrators and business community is another important factor that has exacerbated unemployment. For many decades, the development of administrators and academics making contact through research has been neglected to ascertain the needs of the private sector on a regular basis. This constraint has crippled HEIs of Ethiopia in fighting unemployment.

74

Akomolate and Adegun (2009),however, considered that higher education institutes should make closer links with employers to help them identify and adopt strategies to overcome any skills shortages and to be responsive provider of education in areas of technical skills shortages and to be responsive provider of education in areas of technical skills shortage. The collaboration between HEIs and employers or education and industry is, therefore, a key element in the development, implementation and evaluation of graduates' employment in the formal sector of urban areas of Ethiopia. The mobilization and recognition of all stakeholders, that may influence or have the potential to influence changes in the workforce, make sure that implementation of effective and efficient training coordination. Hence, it realizes quality and relevance of education to the labor market needs. Moreover, it also determines labor targets from the education providers, and private sector to help in aligning supply of skills and demand with national priorities. Establishment of data base or registration of graduates at the central level is also crucial to serve as linkage between companies and training institutions.

Professional orientation for educators A competent and well-trained educator is necessary for making the contents of their course materials up to date, relevant and challenging to students. This is an important missing link in HEIs of Ethiopia as can be evidenced by the poor caliber of the vast majority of academic staff working in HEIs. A survey conducted to assess the academic staff profile of selected both public and private HEIs in Ethiopia reveal the extent of shortage of trained personnel. As can be observed from table 5, academic staff of HEIs in Ethiopia have a low level of education and lack adequate training to produce graduates who are able to secure jobs anywhere in the world. Table 5 Level of Educational Qualification and Training of Academic Staff in Ethiopia, 2008 Level Education

of Addis

Jimma

Gonder

Royal

City

CPU

Ababa

Unver.

Univer.

college

Business

Buss

Total

Univer. Diploma 73 Undergraduate 260

75 385

134

17

5

7

148 808

Degree Masters

684

180

106

20

17

10

1017

44

117

56

Degree DM/DV 75

college

217

PhD 525 13 29 2 569 Total 1586 770 325 37 24 17 2759 Source: MoE. 2009. Education Statistics Annual Abstract, 2007/8 and HERQA’s Institutional Quality Audit Report. Table 5 shows that about 34.65 percent of academic staff of the sampled higher learning institutions have college diplomas and undergraduate degrees. According to the same table, about 65.25 percent have masters level and above educational background. Apart from low educational achievement, a vast majority of these instructors is not trained so as to keep them abreast of time in knowledge and technological skills. It can be generalized that this reality of low educational achievement and lack of up-to-date knowledge and technological skills training applies to many HEIs throughout the nation. In this age of information and communication technology (ICT), educators in this country need to have the necessary up-to-date skills. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary to initiate a professional orientation and training for educators that should be able to compare favorably with their colleagues across the globe, so that they are able to produce graduates who are able to secure jobs anywhere in the world. 2. Concluding Remarks The findings discussed above indicated that graduate’s labour market desires greater attention upon the backdrop of increasing graduates unemployment. The relationships between HE and graduates competence in filling the available vacancies in urban labour market has clearly shown that the management of HE desires relevant curriculum and designing employable courses. If this is not the case, skill mismatch between job seekers and employers, inadequate skilled workforce in some fields, compiled with under-employments have been prevalent in the labour market. The employment of HEIs graduates or the risk of not finding adequate work greatly depends on whether the personal qualities (such as qualification) or competencies are compatible with available working positions in terms of variety and number. More important, this challenge will require the role of HE in turning out employable graduates who could readily fill available vacancies. To meet the challenge, HE should have take into cognizance the need to make contact and interaction with employers of labour and collaborate and explore the development of employable courses. Moreover, HE should focus on developing students’ high skilled technology that makes structured effective engagement and communication of manpower needs to government planners and education service providers. References Allen, J., Ramaekers, G. and van der Velden, R. 2005. “Measuring Competencies of 76

Higher Education Graduates.” D.J. Weerts, J. Vidal (Eds), Enhancing Alumni Research: European and American Perspectives, New Directions for Institutional Research. No. 126:49-59. Akangbou, S. D. 1987. The Economics of Education: an Introduction. Ibidan: Shaneson Ltd. Akomolafe, C. O. and Adegun, O. A. 2009. “Strategies of managing higher education for youth labour market in Nigeria.” International NGO Journal, vol.4(10) 456-460. Altman, M. 2005. A Review of Labour Markets in South Africa: Research GapsLabour Market Function and Policy in South Africa, Final Report to Sida. Asnake Talargae. 2010. Strengthening the Linkage between Higher Education and Labour Market for Graduate Employment in Ethiopia. Paper Presented to the Eighth National Conference on the Private and Public HEIs. EEA: Addis Ababa. Boateng, K. 2002. Higher education and the labour market: a logical framework for policy maker in Africa education sector. Economic and social Policy Division working paper. Central Statistical Authority. 2004. Report on Urban Bi-Annual Employment Unemployment Survey: October 20031st Year Round 1. CSA: Addis Ababa. Central Statistical Agency. 2009. Statistical Report on the 2009 Urban Employment and Unemployment Survey. Statistical Bulletin 469. CSA: Addis Ababa. De Vreyer, P. 2007. “Youth Employment in Africa.” Dialogue:Dial newsletter,No.27. Dussault, G. and Dubois, C. A. 2003. “ Human Resources for health policies: a critical component in health policies.” Human Resources for Health: 1-16. Kellermann, P. & Sagmeister, G. 2000. “Higher Education and Graduate Employment in Austria.” European Journal of Education. Vol.35 No. 2:157-164. Maina, B. & Wairiuko, J. nd. Developing Better Linkages Between the Markets and Education Suppliers to Improve the Quality of Education in Kenya. Paper Presented to Kenya Association of Manufacturers. MoFED. 2002. Ethiopia: Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction. Addis Ababa. Teichler, U. 2002. “Graduate Employment and Work in Europe: Diverse Situations and Common Perceptions.” Tertiary Education and Management 8:199-164.

5. THE ROLE OF CAREER GUIDANCE IN QUALITY EDUCATION By Kumsa Donis 77

Abstract “Career guidance refers to services and activities intended to assist individuals of any age and at any point throughout their lives, to make educational, training and occupational choices and to manage their careers” (Sultana & Watt, 2005:17). Obtaining guidance service is a fundamental right essential for the participation in education and employment. There are three broad policy goals that can be achieved through career guidance services. They are the learning goals, labour market goals and social equity goals. The learning goals focus on improving the efficiency of education and training systems and their link with labour market. The labour market goals draw attention to improving the match between labour market demand and manpower training to reduce market failure or to ensure competitiveness in the context of economic globalisation. The social equity goals underscore the need to support equal opportunities and promoting social inclusion of the disadvantaged. Besides, career guidance reduces school dropout rates, mismatches, dependency and increase adjustment to changing situation regardless of individual’s disabilities, gender, education, race, religion, age and occupational status. Furthermore, it provides useful support to familiarize with workplace environment and expectations, adjustment to the workplace culture and work skills, and help in achievement by avoiding experience and skills gaps and unrealistic expectations. Therefore, this paper argues that career guidance is a necessary and important dimension in the quality education debate. Career guidance interventions in schools, colleges and universities can be used as means to facilitate the comprehensive development of students. The concept of quality education, Ethiopian context and selected career development theories are reviewed and discussed in terms of their applications. Strategies to implement career guidance interventions are also examined. 1. Overview of Quality Education For years, the education system in Ethiopia has placed a strong emphasis on the acquisition of knowledge and the development of academic skills. Less attention was given to the quality of education. Quality education has become a popular idea in Ethiopia education circle after the 1994 Ethiopian Education and Training Policy and a number of empirical studies were made to authenticate its effective implementation. The policy emphasised relevance, quality, accessibility and equity to overcome the entangled complex problems of education in Ethiopia (Ministry of Education, 1994:2). It is to enhance the development needs of the society. In line with these focuses the two main objectives of the policy are to: 1. develop the physical and mental potential and the problem-solving capacity of individuals, and 2. Cultivate the cognitive, creative, productive and appreciative potential of citizens by appropriately relating education to environment and societal needs. The first objective indicates the need to identify one’s potential and the second indicates the need to cultivate this potential to obtain productive citizens who have the culture of respect for work, positive

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work habits and high regard for workmanship. From this perspective, it seems that quality education is viewed as the effectiveness of schools in facilitating comprehensive student development. Quality education is a high-sounding ideal, but its meaning is often vague. However, UNICEF (2000:4) considerable consensus exists around the following basic dimensions of quality education: 1. Learners who are healthy, well-nourished and ready to participate and learn, and supported in learning by their families and communities; positive early experiences and interactions are also vital to preparing a quality learner. 2. Environments that are healthy, safe, protective and gender-sensitive, and provide adequate resources and facilities; 3. Content that is reflected in relevant curricula and materials for the acquisition of basic skills, especially in the areas of literacy, numeracy and skills for life, and knowledge in such areas as gender, health, nutrition, HIV/AIDS prevention and peace; 4. Processes through which trained teachers use child-centred teaching approaches in well-managed classrooms and schools and skilful assessment to facilitate learning and reduce disparities;

5. Outcomes that encompass knowledge, skills and attitudes, and are linked to national goals for education and positive participation in society. The following diagram shows the link among these aspects of quality education.

Source: UNICEF (2000). Defining quality in education: a paper presented by UNICEF at the meeting of the International Working Group on Education Florence, Italy. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund. The realities of the Ethiopian educational system, however, have caused many to doubt whether the high-sounding principles of quality education targeting the comprehensive development of students could be implemented. Emphasis is given to the cognitive aspects and exam oriented approach limited time for schools to engage in activities that are not directly related to academic learning. Students’ low motivation in learning is another problem. Keeping these students in schools and maintain their learning routines have already consumed a huge amount of energy from teachers and the government. From these perspectives there is a high fear that quality of education to target the comprehensive development of students seems unrealistic and unreachable. Therefore, there is a high demand to address the comprehensive development of students to increase in human capital to contribute significantly to the growth of the economy and meet future economic challenges, and to be competitive internationally. 79

Levin (1997a) identified 12 competency areas that are important to workers in highly productive workforce. The 12 competency areas could be classified into three major categories. The first category is interpersonal and collaboration skills including cooperation, working in groups, peer training and multicultural skills. The second category is plan-full and systematic problem solving skills, including evaluation, reasoning, planning, decision-making and problem-solving. The third category is selfenhancement skills, including initiative and learning skills. Whereas the development and refinement of these skills are likely to be a lifelong process, it is important to provide opportunities for individuals to acquire and develop confidence in the use of these skills in the child and adolescent years. The overemphasis in knowledge acquisition has caused these skills to be under-developed among most primary and secondary students. From an economic perspective, Levin (1997a), beyond the instruction of knowledge, he suggested that education should produce individuals whose skills and competencies are consistent with the demands of the society. As a result, quality education should take on the mission of promoting the comprehensive development of students and preparing students to meet their future social and career responsibilities. Career development, therefore, should be one of the major components of quality education. A career development perspective offers a useful perspective to understand and operationalise student development. 2. Career Development and Quality Education Career development can generally be defined as a lifelong process of developing beliefs and values, skills and aptitudes, interests, personality characteristics and knowledge of the world of work (Tolbert, 1974). Career development is the total constellation of economic, sociological, psychological, educational, physical and chance factors that combine to shape one’s career (Sears, 1982). In order to identify the interface between career development and education, it is necessary to examine three assumptions common to many career development theories: 1. Development is an integral part of an individual’s developmental experience, as well as a process that encompass the whole life span. 2. Career planning and life planning are inter-related process. 3. Educational experiences at the primary and secondary levels play an important role in facilitating the career development of students, as well as equipping students to become effective persons as they enter the adult world ( e.g., Herr & Cramer, 1992) Accordingly, vocational/career guidance, therefore, refers to services intended to assist individuals, of any age and at any point throughout their lives, to make occupational, training and educational choices 80

and to manage their careers (Bezanson, 2008:.9). Career guidance also seeks to increase effective vocational decision, industrial efficiency, promote the adjustment of the worker, and further industrial stability by eliminating sources of grievances and misunderstandings between workers and employers (Guilford, 2005:507). Guidance is like ‘’bridging over trouble water’’. Hence, guidance is the oil that makes the training and industrial/business/organizational system work effectively. In general, career guidance is one of the crucial elements for achieving the 4 public policy goals strategy: life long learning, social inclusion, labour market efficiency, and economic development (Scheerens, 2004:2). However, in spite of enormous changes, consequences of globalization and pressing need to rethink of provision of guidance, it appears that existing vocational guidance is not serving its purpose to the degree supposed in theoretical frameworks to promote personal growth and development, and the development of learning-to-learn skills required for vocational success. As a whole, the following issues pointed out by International Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2004:20-22) is issue of discussion time and again by students, teachers and educators in the university. •

There is little or no career guidance available for many students in tertiary education. Often, services are thin on the ground, with students not having access to the range of services they require to make informed educational and career decisions.

•

There is a lack of trained personnel to meet tertiary students’ career development and guidance needs.

•

The focus of existing career services is frequently narrow, often concentrating on personal or study guidance. Little attention is paid to career development and choice, including helping students to develop career management and entrepreneurial skills and to consider taking up selfemployment options.

•

The specific career guidance needs of particular groups of students - including students in transition from study to employment, students who are dropping out from or changing their courses, and mature students returning to study, for instance – are often not catered for.

Due to this minimal attention given to career guidance, the country is outpaced by the ever-changing demand of the world of work and students cannot get appropriate assistance in career development. Besides, the problems mentioned which demand career guidance, below are also some indicators of demands for career guidance and factors affecting its implementation.

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3. Factors Affecting the Implementation of Career Guidance There are different factors affecting the provision of career guidance. A few of them are demographic, contextual, economic, political, socio-cultural and educational factors and job fair. 3.1 Demographic factors Poverty, subsistence agriculture, and narrow modern industrial sectors are the major challenges to create new job opportunities according to the number of new graduates and population growth (Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, 2010:1). 3.2 Contextual factors Contextual factors affect the application of appropriate career guidance. Hansen (2006:7) identified the following country’s contextual challenges influencing career guidance: A. Cultural values such as position of work in society, attitudes toward change and mobility, role of family and community, hierarchy of occupational status, influence of socio-economic status and reward structure. B. Labour market characteristics such as prevalence of unemployment, underemployment and poverty, sectoral structure (e.g., whether it is labour or knowledge-intensive industries), dominance of informal economy activity, demographic factors, impact of globalization, migration and urbanization. C. Institutional infrastructure weaknesses. These challenges are also prevalent in Ethiopia. There is not systematically organised career guidance in the higher education. Of the three dimensions of guidance (academic, personal/social and career) limited attention was given to academic and personal guidance. The third dimension of guidance and counselling, that is, career guidance is missing. There are some observed consequences of lack of effective guidance pointed out above. The most common problems are first, choosing fields of study and an occupation for which the required level cannot be attained by the individual; second, choosing education/training and an occupation that has limited employment potentials; third, choosing an occupation for which the student did not properly train for; fourth, choosing an occupation because of its glamour without giving due attention to its financial aspects and benefits; fifth, choosing field of study and an occupation which is already overflooded; sixth, choosing fields of study and an occupation based on wishes and ambitions of parents, friends or relatives (“informal guidance"); seventh, students’ inability to adjust themselves to new and

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changing academic environment; and eighth, students’ dropout of schools, colleges and universities that leave the individual ill-prepared for life and in turn gives rise to unemployment. In general, deprivation from career guidance that guarantees career development right from elementary school through high school to college/university and college/university to world of work limits individuals’ self-awareness, exploration of world of work, career planning, career choice processes and personal satisfaction and success. Lack of clear guidance policy, guidance centres and effective guidance programme are the main problems. Lack of appropriate qualification, training and practical experiences of personnel providing the service is also the other drawback. Scant attention given by the government and learning institutions, negligible resources allocated, lack of involving teachers in guidance services, lack of Ethiopian related model further limits the provision of effective guidance. Parents’ interest, peer confirmation and some informal and unprofessional advice from teachers dominate their decisions. These problems seem to limit students’ career decisions, personal satisfaction of learners and their contribution in economic development of the nation. It also limits their educational, vocational, social and psychological development. These situations eventually resulted in wrong choice of career which can lead to under-employment, idleness, lack of employment or job dissatisfaction, low income and lack of fulfilment and achievement of organisational goals. To solve these problems at grassroots level, therefore, context-sensitive career guidance policy that gives direction, framework and lay a more solid ground for the overall guidance services and programme must be in place (UNESCO, 2010). Specifications are also needed about the qualification of guidance personnel, workload, student-to-guidance personnel ratios, whether or not to treat career guidance as a separate course, or integrate into either the curriculum or the day-to-day work of teachers and the use of technology and psychometrical assessments. The following sections discuss the specific contexts and situations in Ethiopia that directly or indirectly affecting the provision of career guidance, such as economic, political, socio-cultural, educational factors and job fair. 3.3 Economic and political factors The first important economic factor that plays an important role in determining the variability of career guidance in Ethiopia is rural poverty. The Ethiopian economy is marked by a heavy reliance on agriculture, with sizeable percentage of the population living in rural areas. This impedes us to give career guidance to the poor, illiterate rural communities which will gradually enforce them to move from focus on economic survival to self-development and identity construction. 83

Unknown number of unregistered or unincorporated enterprises, lack of job descriptions, qualification requirements or occupational structures in the informal sectors; private family owned micro-enterprise which is restricted and determined by family needs and expectations; and international migration and brain drain where there is inadequate information about study and work/career opportunities abroad are the other problems. 3.4 Socio-cultural factors Besides economic and political factors, the socio-cultural factors are vital in the provision of career guidance. The socio-cultural factors include the ethnic group, family, gender, support and clientalism, directiveness, fatalism neither. The family and ethnicity, for example, influence one’s career paths as they also influence one’s education (UNESCO 2005a in Costantinos, 2005:2). The family is often an extended one and collectivist in nature rather than “care of the self”. Family members are responsible to economically and socially support each other, specially, in hard times. The advantage is supporting each other in times of difficulty. But its disadvantages are immense. It contributes to poverty as an individual is expected to support many family member even relatives, many of which are completely dependent. The family also has a very significant influence on what occupations are pursued by members of that family. The western notion of individual career guidance might be seen as inappropriate and/or irrelevant as young persons’ expected to follow pathways decided for them by parents, older siblings, close relatives and other individuals with limited information about students’ interests and abilities. The second socio-cultural factor is gender roles stereotyping which has its roots in tradition and religion. Though the government has given considerable attention to eliminate gender based stigmatisation of occupations, females persist to work in low paying, predominantly “female occupations” compared to their males’ counterparts (Kolev & Robles, 2007:5). Career guidance involving parents in the process of choice to combat the prejudices they have and narrowly tie to the roles of wife, mother and carer for family members is, therefore, useful. Career guidance can, therefore, contribute to one of the Millennium Development Goals, the promotion of gender equality and empowering (MoFED, 2010) Directiveness is the other factor in career guidance. Defectiveness is the idea that the curriculum and school system often encourage submission, obedience, subordination and compliance rather than free critical thinking. Though this is not a serious problem in the curriculum design, teachers predominantly rely too much on teachers’ dominated teaching that limit students’ creative and critical thinking. Policy influence in channeling students to planned economy tracks has also advantages and disadvantages. Its 84

advantage is that the graduates will get large job opportunities and contribute to economic development of the country. In line with this, on August 11, 2010 the prime minister of Ethiopia made press conference with local and international journalists on different current issues. One of the questions raised by the journalists was the employment opportunity of students that are currently pursued their education in higher the higher learning institutions and those very high number of students who will be assigned to higher learning institutions in the years to come. The prime minister replied that in the coming years the labour market demands high number of engineers, graduates in the natural sciences including medicine. Consequently, the proportion of students’ assignment in the higher learning institutions will be 40% engineering, 30% natural sciences and 30% social sciences. This is good news because in career planning and development the national plan of development needs to be taken into account. But the question is that “is there a well established policy guideline at national level and guidance programme at institution level to manage the career development of students through stepwise progression and training of guidance counsellors/lecturers who execute the programme. This preempt notions of choices, restrict the concept of choice and the scope for formal career guidance services. Family socialisation, social constraints and fatalism affect the career orientation of an individual. The way individuals and communities attribute success or failure and achievement to external or internal factors in life matters in career guidance services among others. Ethiopian higher education students tend to exhibit a high degree of external attribution, that is, to luck, God and destiny as they obtained very limited career guidance and opportunities to find themselves and express selves through work (Tamire, 1997:63-77). To reverse the problem career guidance services need to focus on the notion that individuals are largely in control of their own destinies and that the future is subject to rational planning rather than to forces over which they have little control. 3.5 Educational factors From review of UNESCO (2005a) report Costantinos (2005:2) acknowledged that formal schooling is one the several important contributors to the skill development of an individual and to human capital. At the same time educational factors can set constrain and mould guidance services. Education system impacts on the field of career guidance in various ways. A few of educational factors which affect career guidance in Ethiopia are as follow:

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•

Administrators, teachers and parents aiming at excellence for a few that lead to label large number of students negatively.

•

Curriculum and teaching methods which emphasise memorising and rote learning rather than critical thinking. Emphasis is place on “know that” and to some extent on “knowing how” rather than on “knowing why.”

•

Pedagogical practices that do not take sufficiently into account the different learning needs and styles of pupils.

•

Assessment strategies which are summative in nature, with formal examinations where the primary purpose seems to select and channel students into different educational (and consequently occupational) pathways rather than the formative process of diagnosis, remediation and support that nurture and sustain individual choices and aspirations.

•

Lack of sufficiently trained teaching staff and problems with equity.

3.6 Job fair The other challenge in career guidance is lack of job fair. A job fair allows employers and job seekers to meet and find employment opportunities. Job seekers have an excellent opportunity to discover those fields which are in demand, know reform efforts in organisations and to find internships or employment. Companies also meet the most qualified and competent graduates and students. Besides, they get opportunities to communicate campanies‘ objectives and employment requirements. In general, lack of career guidance policy and consideration of these factors that shape the perception, understanding and implementation of career guidance services in Ethiopia risk students finding themselves in difficult situation and the economy as well. Therefore, career guidance is becoming an indispensable part of the human capital development in knowledge and competitive economy and globalisation. From the above analysis, it is possible to see that career development is a needed dimension to operationalise quality education. Career development interventions-career guidance could be used as vehicles to achieve the educational goals specified in the policy. In the next section, selected career development theories are reviewed. These theoretical models are integrated to form a guiding 86

framework for the design of career development interventions in primary, secondary and tertiary levels in Ethiopia. 4. Some Theoretical Frameworks of Career Development Varieties of career theories offer the conceptual framework/guidelines for interventions in assisting students to achieve their career goals (Collins, 2010:44). The theories also allow counsellors to identify, understand and respond to students’ career questions systematically at the right time in their life. The major vocational guidance theories and models will now be discussed. The focus is specially on the seven main stream and well researched theories of career development that have guided career guidance and counselling practice in the various parts of the world for the past few decades. In addition to that, the postmodern contextual approaches such as Hansen’s Integrative Life Planning, Patton & McMahon’s (1999) Systems Theory of Career Framework and Savickas’s (2001) Career Construction Theory were integrated with the main stream theories and discussed. The seven theories are (a) Trait-and-Factor ‘’theory’’ (b) Theory of Work-Adjustment, (c) Holland’s Theory of Vocational Personalities in Work Environment, (d) the Self-concept Theory of Career Development formulated by Super, (e) Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and Compromise, (f) Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT), (g) Cognitive Information Processing and (CIP). These theories are thematically organised under person-environment theories, developmental theories, and cognitivebehavioural theories 4.1 Person-environment fit theories As an origin career guidance’s role resides in a pair of traditions that have been termed ‘fitting the man to the job’ and ‘fitting the job to the man’. The former one manifest itself in employee selection, training and vocational guidance and the later one insists on the job, design of tasks, equipment and working conditions that suit a person’s physical and psychological characteristics (Gibson and Mitchel, 1981:211; Guilford, 2005:507; Van Esbroe, 2002: 73-83; Arnod et al., 2005:17). The person-environment fit theories emphasise this kind career guidance approach. The person-environment fit theories are sometimes called content or empowering theories. According to these theories, a career is seen as logical, stable, predictable, and measurable and it is a ladder which needs to be climbed (Esbroeck, Tibos & Zaman, 2005: 5–18). Person-environment fit theories include the trait-and-factor theory, Holland’s typology theory and work adjustment person-environment correspondence theory among others were discussed.

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4.2. Developmental theories There are a number of well-known career stage theories, including the works of Super (1957), Levinson (1978), Gould (1978), and Schein (1978). They take the view that choosing a career and managing one's career development involve a continuous process that carries on through life (Herr & Cramer, 1996: 228; Coertse & Schepers, 2004: 56-73). The single occupational choice at a point in time focus of the early practitioners of career guidance has given way to a broader, more comprehensive view of individuals and their development over the life span. The specific age focus of traditional career guidance is not valid as some fundamental decisions can take place during childhood and adolescence and pursue throughout the lifespan of the individual (Nazli, 2009: 1-9). Instead of the notion that a permanent occupational choice is made at some point, usually during late adolescence we now understand that occupational choice is a process which takes place over a period of time and is a result of a combination of interacting determinants. From among numerous developmental theories, those which attracted the attention of most researchers are Super’s developmental approach and Gottfredson’s developmental theory of circumscriptions and compromise. 4.3. Cognitive-behavioural theories The Cognitive-Behavioural Theories are sometimes called the Content and Process Theories or enabling theories. The individual differences view of occupations and the individual development view of careers are the two grand perspectives in vocational psychology (Savickas, 2002:149-205). Where the individual differences view of occupation on vocational behaviour and to fit an individual to a job, the individual development view focuses on personal development and how individuals fit into various occupations at different times in their lives. The cognitive-behavioural theories advocate the multiple sources of influences in one’s career development. The sources are not only related to those content and process characteristics, but also equally related to family, cultural contexts, social and cultural restrictions or socialization, work-related attitudes and values. The most recent theories that harmonise multiple factors in career development are Lent, Brown and Hackett’s social cognitive career theory and the cognitive information processing approach. 5. Prospective of Career Guidance in Ethiopia 5.1 Guidance Policy 88

Career guidance policies are guidelines designed to ensure assistance given to individuals at any point in their lives to make informed occupational, education and training choices compatible with their aptitude and personality to reduce market failures (Watts & Fretwell, 2004: I; OECD, 2004:7). The guidance policy also enhance economic development; ensure equitable access to education and employment opportunity; ensure labour supply and demand; reduce school dropout rates; reduce mismatches, dependency and increase adjustment to changing situation regardless of individual’s disabilities, gender, education, race, religion, age and occupational status (Sultana, 2003:6). So, career policy goals are improving the efficiency of education and training systems and their link with labour market; improving the match between labour market demand and manpower training to reduce market failure; and supporting equal opportunities and promoting social inclusion of the disadvantaged. These are possible by enforcing career guidance by including in education, training or employment policy; funding of career guidance services through schools, government or government agencies; drawing attention to career guidance through for example ministerial speeches. 5.2 Guidance programme A carefully planned guidance program and career education beginning in the elementary school as part of the school-based counselling programmes and creative infusion into school curriculum, continuing comprehensive career guidance programmes through secondary school and tertiary education help students to evaluate themselves, explore educational and career opportunities, make sound decisions, plan effectively, work independently and solve career problems (Ministry of Education and Training, 1999:5; OECD, 2004: 44). Work-based knowledge and skills such as on-the-job experience, practicum and internships, volunteering, mentoring and training that help students to build a bridge between work and education and career planning courses should help students acquire knowledge about different occupations and careers in secondary schools 6.3 Principles of career Interventions Useful in Primary, Secondary and Tertiary education Primary schools 1. Preventing premature foreclosure of educational and career goals - Primary school children should be open to pursuing a range of educational and vocational goals because their interests and skills are still emerging. 2. Preventing pre-mature foreclosure in self-identity – students should have the opportunity to try out different activities so that they could learn their abilities and interests. It is pre-mature to

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form definitive views about self because many aspects of the self, including interests, skills and values are still forming, especially, among younger primary school students 3. Early intervention on gender attitudes and prestige – educational intervention to prevent early elimination occupations from consideration in their choice of career based on sex role stereotypes and attitudes. Encourage students to consider choices that are “non-traditional” to their natural genders. Similarly, students should be encouraged to not give up educational and occupational goals that are deemed “too difficult” or “too low in social prestige” before they are able to have a realistic assessment of their abilities and career opportunities in the adolescent years. 4. Introducing career to primary students – it is important for primary students to acquire accurate and realistic knowledge about occupations and understand the different ways that workers from different occupations contribute to the society. To make more understandable for students multimedia tools, field trip visits books, speakers from different occupations and other powerful learning activities to enhance students’ exposure and knowledge about occupations. Secondary Schools 1. Encourage students to persist in their pursuit of career goals – give more opportunities to test out their aptitudes and competencies in a variety of subject areas. As a result students are likely to be confronted with doses of realities. Failure experiences and initial difficulties might force some students to go through a process of compromise. Consequently, it is important to provide students with support and encouragement, and to let them understand that abilities could emerge at later life stages and that skills could be developed through hard work and dedication. 2. Art or science: making an informed decision – whether the students follow a science track or an art track should be based on careful exploration, consideration of variety of relevant factors, including their interests, competencies, values and life goals in the process of making this decision. 3. Teach students how to achieve self-understanding – assist students to weave and integrate information about self, as well as to apply them to important educational decisions that they have to make. Though the process of self-understanding would never end as self is an evolving entity, adolescent must be assisted to further their self-understanding which even useful in important decisions they make in their later life stages. 4. Develop good decision-making skills – it is important for students to learn the steps to make their education and career decisions on an “informed” and “planful” manner, rather than being 90

unduly influenced by the environment or by significant others, such as their parents, siblings, teachers or peers. They need to be encouraged to make choices that are congruent with their personal qualities (e.g., interests and skills) with some backup alternatives in case of failure to obtain the first choice. 5. Acquire knowledge about the world of work – assist students to increase their career maturity, knowledge about the world of work and occupational options as there is a possibility to join the world of work or continue making connection between what they will study and occupational alternatives. 6. Acquisition of job search skills – besides helping students to develop their academic ability there is a need to help in their career development needs and equip them with the skills to obtain vocational training and employment after graduation. It includes skills such as locating occupational information through printed and multimedia sources, writing job search correspondence, writing resume and self-presentation and interviewing skills. Tertiary education 1. Assisting in pursuing their preferred areas 2. Provide curriculum standards that meet business and industry requirements. 3. Developing employment skills 4. Assisting in job hunting skills-preparing CV, writing application, preparing for interview 5. Training in career management, entrepreneur skills and career transition skills References Barrow, K. and Leu, E. (2006). Perception of Ethiopian teachers and principals on quality of education. Educational Quality Improvement Programme1,USAID Coertse, S. and Schepers, JM (2004). Some personality and cognitive correlates of career maturity. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 30 (2): 56-73. Costantinos,BT (2005). Eminence of assuring quality of tertiaryeducation: priming human qualities - excellence in education and learning. Keynote address and guest lecture presented at a lecture at the College of Education, Addis Ababa University Addis Ababa, June 2005. Dawis, R. V. (2002). Person-environment-correspondence theory, in Career Choice and Development, (4th ed.), editors D. Brown, & Associates. New York : John Wiley & Sons:427-464. Egbochuku, E. O. (2008). Assessment of the quality of guidance and counselling services to students’ adjustment in secondary schools in Edo State of Nigeria. Research Journal of International Studies, 8:42-49. Esbroeck, R. V., Tibos, K. & Zaman, M. (2005). A dynamic model of career choice 91

development. International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance 5:5–18. Gibson, R.L., & Mitchell, M.H. (1981). Introduction to guidance. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. Gottfredson, L. S. (2002). Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription, compromise, and self-creation. In D. Brown & Associates (Eds.), Career choice and development (4th ed., pp. 85148). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Gottfredson, L.S. (2002). Developmental and postmodern theories: Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription, compromise, and self-creation, in career choice and development, (4th ed.), editors D. Brown & Associates. New York : John Wiley & Sons:85-148. Johanna L., Raija K.& Kolawole R. (2005). Education and training in Ethiopia: an evaluation of approaching era goals. Institute for Educational Research Working Papers 23, University of Jyväskylä. Kolev, Alexandre and Robles, Pablo Suarez (2007) Addressing the Gender Pay Gap in Ethiopia: How Crucial is the Quest for Education Parity? This paper was undertaken as part of a joint research project by the French Development Agency and the World Bank on Gender Disparities in Africa’s Labor markets. Lent, R.W., Brown, S.D., & Hackett, G.(2002). Social Cognitive Career Theory, in Career Choice and Development, (4th ed.), editors D. Brown & Associates. New York : John Wiley & Sons: 255311. Levin, H.M. (1997a). Accelerated education for an accelerating economy. Hong Kong: Kong Institute of Educational Research, The Chinese University of Hong Kong. Ministry of Education (1994). Federal democratic republic government of Ethiopia education and training policy. Addis Ababa: Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education (2002). The education and training policy and its implementation. Addis Ababa: Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education & Training(1999). Choices into action:guidance and career education program policy for ontario elementary and secondary schools. Ontario: Ministry of Education and Training Ministry of finance and economic development (MoFED) (2010). Ethiopia: 2010 millennium development goals report (MDGs): trends and prospects for meeting MDGs by 2015. Addis Ababa:MoFED Niles, S. G. & Harris-Bowlsbey, J. (2009). Career development interventions inthe 21st century. (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD, 2004) .Career Guidance : A handbook for policy makers. Paris: The European Commission Peterson, G.W., Sampson Jr, J. P., Lenz, J.G., & Reardon, R. C.(2002). A Cognitive Information Processing Approach to Career Problem Solving and Decision Making, in Career Choice and Development, (4th ed.), editors D. Brown & Associates. New York : John Wiley & Sons: 312369. Rao, S.N. (2004). Counselling and guidance. (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. Richardson, M. Sue et al. (2008). Intentional and identity process: A social constructionist investigation using student journals. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 74: 6374. Scheerens, Jaap (2004).Indicators and benchmarks in career guidance. 92

Enschede: University of Twente Faculty of Behavioural Sciences, Netherlands. Sekiguchi, T. (2004). Toward a dynamic perspective of person-environment fit. Osaka Keidai Ronshu, 55(1): 177-190. Spokane, A. R., Luchetta, E. J. & Richwine, M. H. (2002). Holland’s theory of personalities in work environments, in Career Choice and Sultana, R.G. & Watts, A.G. (2005). Career guidance in Europe’s public employment services: trends and challenges. European Commission Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities. Tamire Andualem (1997). Attributions and academic achievement of education, medicine and polytechnic freshman students in Bahir Dar. The Ethiopian Journal of Education, 17(2):63-77. UNESCO (2010). World data on education. (7th ed.). Available At http://www.ibe.unesco.org/or http://www.ethiopia.gov.et/English/MOE/Pages/Home.aspx (Accessed on 12 March 2011) UNICEF (2000). Defining quality in education: a paper presented by UNICEF at the meeting of The International Working Group on Education Florence, Italy. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund. Watts, A.G. and Fretwell, D.H. (2004). Public policies for career development: Case studies and emerging issues for designing career information and guidance systems in developing and transition economies. London: UK Department for International Development. Wolleat, P. L. (1989).Reconciling Sex Differences in Information-Processing and Career Outcomes. Journal of Career Development, 16(2): 97-106. Young, R. A., Valach, L., & Collin, A. (2002). A contextualist explanation of career, in career choice and development, (4th ed.), editors D. Brown, & Associates. New York : John Wiley & Sons: 206-252. 6. THE CONCEPTS OF GENDER IDEOLOGY IN OROMO WORLD VIEW By Ginbar Negera Abstract This paper examines the socio-cultural discourses of gender ideology and its several means’s and ways of manifestations in the Oromo religious-philosophical conception, the Oromo world view. Even though gender ideology is a real of life, the way women were constructed and perceived and treated may varies from society to society a cross culture, time and space. Regardless of the feminist recode portrayal of gender in dominate-subordinate dichotomy, the egalitarian gadaa views construct feminine-masculine ideology symmetrical implicating to a variety of natural and social objects at their real environment. Constructing structural parallelism in a dualism abides females and males to a separate group and assuming a separate role and a back up parallel positions. It was in attributing to the views and gadaa values served as general guiding principles up on which life of the nation was 93

rested effect their everyday life including the features of labor division between female and male. However, gender ideology was hardened after the decline of the egalitarian gadaa system. The study adopted a descriptive research design. The sources were mainly dependent on oral traditions and written documents. Attempts have been made to include primary sources of data through observations and archives. The collected data were analyzed using qualitative techniques. The paper holds multiple faceted messages that it contributes to enrich the hitherto barely written documents on female; and equally imperative in the mainstreaming of gender equality. It is also evident to expound an alternative discourse on gender ideology. An Overview Gender is a contemporary heatedly debated issue among academicians; feminists, policy makers and politicians. It is a highly discussed and pressed subject, particularly in the disciplines of socio-linguistic, anthropology, psychology, inter alia. The theme focusing on concepts of gender ideology in Oromo world view refers to a myriad cultural expression ways and means through which gender and related orientations were perpetuated, manifested and presented under the gadaa system of governance. An assessment on multiple possible gendered lesson orientations helps synchronize the historical image and validity of gender in the egalitarian instructed society. Gender is the fundamental element underlying the structure of male and female power, access to property, participation in social activities and the generalized ideology of role assumption. Gender is rooted in the social (one's gender) rather than the biological (one's sex), and as the biological sexes was redefined, represented, valued, and channeled into different roles in various culturally dependent ways, it was transformed to a gendered concept. Gender is varied across culture, space, time and cross culturally even within a given country itself. Gender uses as the comparability of different societies (Tahir, 2005:4; Stets and Bruke, 1). There are two separate ongoing socio-culture dependent ideologies for the hierarchically laddered and egalitarian instructed society. In the hierarchical chained culture including the western society, female and male were defined in pecking order and feminine were inferior to masculine. However, the case was different in egalitarian society (ibid) which includes the Oromo under the egalitarian gadaa system; the structure assigns a female and a male being corresponding sideways.

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Nevertheless, even if gender use as a complete description of certain society, one of the unfortunate major topics parts dealt the gadaa system which has been treated less is gender. This reality brings experiences of the gadaa on gender and gender ideology and how it dealt with a female and a male being was to be null. On the absence of viable sources and documentations a claim made on the egalitarianism value nature of the gadaa from aside of the Oromo does not hold water and their experiences on the subject lacks evidence. Lacks of vigorous dedication especially aside of Oromo scholars pave a space for some noncustodian individual writers blindly accuse as if gadaa have no values and nothing for a female being and a feminine identity. Gender ideology was also effected with gender roles, gender identity and gender attitudes. Gender identity (femininity and masculinity) refers to the degree to which individuals see him/her self as masculine or feminine given what it means to be a man or woman in society. Gender roles (domestic-public) are shared expectations of behavior given one's gender and gender attitudes are the views of others or situations commonly associated with one's gender Roles could not stand by themselves but roles are interconnected that, for instances the role of a teacher could not be understood separate from the role of students. As just role of the females and males they are interconnected, however, they are contrastive (Stets and Burke.1-2). 1.1 Conceptualizing Gender and Gender Ideology, and the Means’s Indigenous people have traditionally held a holistic (or Cosmo-centric) view of the world. World view is the overall perspective from which one sees and interprets the world. It as a collection of beliefs about life and universe held an individual or a group. The Oromo have a religious-philosophical thought explaining about the origin of the universe, or cosmos, and the coming existence of things into being of social order. This conception which gives its own justifications and articulations about the creation of being and things: the physical and non-physical, and the material and non-material, is dominated by the concept of Waaqaa (the Divine God) (Gamachu, 1998; Dereje, 2005:20). This view which is sources of this notion is believed to be a temporal and religious life guiding principles of the nation under the historical gadaa system of governance. Gender ideology remains a real part of human life. It is one part of the larger community and the wider social inventions the society has designed as meditations in their real environment. The ideological view was originated from the conception of understanding biological anatomical body structure disparities amid 95

of a female being and a male being. As such male was born a more masculinity and strong physically than females being less muscular and physically soft. This is envisioned within the world of arduous, tough labour and muscular exercise demanding nature of the gadaa. Gadaa demands tough military and hunting exercise activities and fitness which a female being is thought to be unfit ascribed to females’ nature for life-giving quality along with the then prevalent socio-economic, geo-political, environmental, ecological, etc variables. It is natural that people or nation of the past had their own formulated rudimentary/ complex institutions, mechanisms and methods approaching natural and social circumstances at their surroundings. Since sociocultural and ritual mechanisms were often used to approach their world, resolve dilemmas or predicaments at their environment, social inventions were parts of bountiful apparatus a given society address and communicate the natural world. As like the past the present and the future society could not be free from gender globe. Even if beliefs vary from reality, imaginings and an idyllic realism indoctrinate in their culture and in an individual and groups member mind-sets served as a self control values. As a social animal, self worth values are imperative for controlling behaviors, traits and actions of an individual member of the society. Once inculcated in the religions and socializations, it can pose high moral and spiritual impositions and the extents of influences and effects weigh its cohesiveness. Thus, it is indispensable that the self meanings and self expressive concept categorizing once own and other as feminine or masculine beings was parts of the cultural life of the people comprehended in history. One of the foremost significant views for gender ideology is the Oromo indigenous belief system. The Oromo believe in the Divine God, Waaqaa and the belief in Waaqaa is known as Waaqeffannaa. Waaqaa is believed to be creator of all things. One very important point raised in the traditions is on the sex status of the Oromo Waaqa in general. It is explain that “Waaqni Oromo hindhalu; hindhalchu”, Waaqaa does not give birth and/ or does not have either male or female sex. In the creationist myth, Waaqaa have no sex identification and free of charge from sex biases unlike human beings (Bartles, 1983; Dani’el. 2002:50). In Waaqeffannaa the first creature that appears to be a predecessor was Horoo. Horoo was an apical ancestor, created by Waaqaa out of Walaabuu. First, Horoo was neither a female nor a male but it was later on by a glance of Waaqaa that Horoo was miraculously turned in to two, i.e. a male and a female (Dereje, 96

2005:20). Unlike the western holy scripted religion (Christianity and Islam) whose creator and the earliest creature were portrayed with a male being, the Oromo Waaqaa and the earliest creatures, Horoo have no sex identity. Based on the notions, it was these two early ancestors which are said to have given birth to the Oromo (Alemayehu and Boshi, 2006:114; Alemayehu, 2009:83). The myth communicates the event as the earliest points of reference for gender ideology. Adding that the first female and male being ancestors were created independently at the same time from a common origin. This creation parity stipulates independentinterdependent functional ideology theorizes that both together represent a full consolidated solid thing. But separately each implicated to a half part/side of one consolidated solid thing/object. As to this concept those both early human ancestors have assumed as blended personality, posses sameness in essence and appearance; as such the one is incomplete without the other. Missing of such positions implicates incompleteness of the natural worlds, violations of the laws for nature and social order. Since Waaqaa created the one for the cause of the other, as such they were originated from the same root at the same time, female and male are a separate-parallel entity. The theory rather is an inductive that both were created complementary simultaneously in equity. Although, the concept generally bears a gendered culture implication, the theory has basically founded itself on symmetrical mutual dependency prevails the absence of sex based gender prejudices from the creation. As to this expression gender is a marker of group identity for a female and a male being. Gender identity is a self meaning to be a female or a male being. Beginning at birth, the self-meanings regarding one's gender are formed in social situations, stemming from ongoing interaction with significant societal members decide what being male or female means and males will generally respond by defining themselves as masculine while females will generally define themselves as feminine. In order to be recognized as feminine and masculine, women and men must internalize gender based values and to construct their identities accordingly (Ganguli and Krihnan, 2005:2). By the implications of those earlier creatures, the myth strings assigning a female and a male being into an idealized twin world as the uumee (the She world) and uumaa (the He world). This sophisticated mythology of Creation, called Uumee and Uumaa(Jeylan, 2004:105), has dignified a gendered form of noun. The idea propounds a female and a male being dual in one cause of creation originally from a common root bewares both are separated categorically. For browsing, for instances, males are categorized 97

as life-taking while females are labeled as live-giver/saver. The categorical differentiations and parallelism of both worlds but mutuality blended is briefly vital to sense the concept. In the traditions owning to female’s nature of fecundity and fertility; creations of human beings are attributed to the world of uumee. Uumee is believed to be ascribed a supreme Females’ Divinity for fertility and generation tree seeds. Before the demolishing of the gadaa system, there were also other lesser Deities prayed for reproductive such as Ateetee, Maaramaa(ibid:110;Negaso:2001), Aayyoo Baar, etc(Ibsa, 2002:3). In the Oromo oral tradition there is also a dominant saying that Umeen Walaabuu Baate meaning all creatures came out of Walaabuu. Similarly, when odd events happen the Oromo say, erga dhuftuun dhuftee uumeen Walaabuu Baatee, dubbii akkanaa aggarree hin beeknu, meaning after creation we have never heard (seen) such things(Alemayehu, 2006:114; 2009:83). Here the core meanings of the sayings implied the creation of all life from Walaabuu. The derivative meanings of the term Walaabuu connotes an origin of creatures and centers of fecundity posses a female form of noun. This implies the Oromo imaginings of fertility and creation of human beings associating to female. However, as it underpins the concept is being articulated in a paramount cultural aspect and the understandings and meanings of the usage strides away from the globe of human being. Gender is a means to constructing nonsexual and non-biological things and objects in copulating and matrimonial mode corresponding to a female and a male being and whereby the affiliations amid are implicated the things and objects of their environment. 1.2 The Derivative Concept of Gendered Objects/things and Their Implications The elevated concept of gender ideology femininity-masculinity as its central elements is its tying of the subject associating to gender implicated nonsexual things and objects. The idea is a means through which a female and a male being were expressed corresponding to gender implicated things and objects and of their affiliations in matrimony dichotomy. Therefore, natural and social phenomenon also became parts of the gendered prejudge. To this view, the relationships between objects of the natural order were tied together as a wife (mother) and a husband (father) simulator. Those two things in which exemplarily femininitymasculinity expressed are respectively: Lafaa-Waaqaa (Earth-God), Aadaa-Seeraa (Culture-Law), Margaa-Bishaan (grass-water), Dukkanaa-Ifa (night-day), Bitaa-Mirgaa (left-right), 98

Jalaa-Irraa (down-up), etc (Ginbar, 2010:50). In this pace, things and objects having interdependent functions and purposes in the real orders of the natural world simulated with gender identity are used to implicate and express exemplary the affiliations amid of human being. This idea of expressing nonsexual things of the natural environment in the implications of gender in giving them a social meaning has elevated the concept of gender beyond the level of human worlds. This indicates the complex dimensions and the deep rooting pave of the ideology in their cultural life. What matters is not the prevalence of sex based category but the ways female and male were represented similarly or differently that makes issues of gender a sensitive and a highly pressed subject. The concept theoretically indicates unprejudiced gender based ideologies the fact that the things are a natural one and conjugated together purposes wises. But these natural objects have given a derivative social meaning in the context of their appearance and essence. The relationships between a husband and a wife in this regards are, for instance, a direct replica to the relationships between the sky where God is believed to dwell and the earth. In the traditions the sky is assumed as a father and the earth is supposed as a mother. Both parts of a universe should be matched for the reason that creatures live peacefully between the sky and the earth and whenever the two cosmos function interdependently and ‘communicate harmoniously. The duality of the sky and the earth, for an instance, is explicated in the following sayings that: waan Waaqni roobse dachiin biqilcha, which implies what God causes to rain and the earth, grows it well. The duality of Waaqaa and Lafaa constitute the central avenue in Oromo indigenous belief system. Waaqaa and Lafaa dichotomy are also clearly indicated in the gadaa laws ( Mamo, 2006; Ibsa, 2002:4). Gadaa has two main parts of laws: the cardinal laws and the supplementary laws. Cardinal laws are fundamental laws that are not changed or reformed in the every eight years enacting or promulgation of gadaa laws. The major cardinal laws include Seera Waaqaa (the laws of God), Seera Lafaa (the laws of Earth), Seera Abbaa (law for the father) and Seera Haadhaa (law for the Mother). From all the cardinal laws, the laws of God is the most respected and feared that God is a creature and control the relationships between creator-creatures including the relations between a male and a female. On the other hand, next to the God one of the most respected in the Oromo culture is the earth and her laws (Alemayehu, 2009:109110). 99

Earth is home of different creatures, a mark of fertility that bears water, pasture and other, and life could sustain as far as the ‘mother’ earth endures them likely a mother provides protections for her children. Mother bears a child with suffering and brings up her children with care as well as dedications. The surface of earth is assumed as if a mother who carries a child in womb before birth and feeds her breast carrying while after the birth likewise the earth carries the alive and dead body of human. These concepts imply that mother and earth are tolerant even if they are hurtled and they do not discriminate against different sections of their inhabitants in that it equally. The mother and earth are closer to creatures; however, since sky is located far from human beings it is assumed as had withdrew and located at a distance’ likewise a father too. However, this should be understood in its natural appearance, not in essence. The relations between the two duals as Bartles (1983:110-111) explains, the sky is like a father who goes away while Earth is like a mother she is always with us. Referring to sky’s withdrawal from human beings the Oromo tradition says that ‘we are born from the womb of our mother and we are buried in the womb of our earth (Ibid,). In the Oromo customary law, there are two distinct terms aadaa (custom) and seera (law) which use to implicate or interpreted in a gendered norm. The former is known to individuals who belong to the same culture while the latter is only known to who specialize in it. Aadaa refers to custom, habit, tradition, way of life etc and was a symbol of identity, unity and oneness. It is believed that the laws of human beings were derived from the laws of Waaqaa(Dereje. 2002: 52). Seera and aadaa are highly integrated and the former protects the latter. It also indicates females are more appropriate for maintenance of culture while the males are for the laws. The view assigned able bodied male provides protection for his family including his wife from an enemy. Owning to females cause of fertility and maternity women sought for males’ superior protections seemed to be viewed dependent on males. Similarly, the night and the day are other parts of universe which are comprehended implicating gender mode. Both together are assumed as a solid blended thing whereby gender ideology is replicated. While, the night is associated to femaleness, the day is to maleness. The night (halkan) is related to reproductive and this is termed to as halkan rimessaa, which implies the night is fecund that hundreds will be reproduced. In contrary, the day (guyyaa) is relatively considered with infertility as gogeessa, which implies an out dry in offspring. In brief, femaleness association with night is emanated from the view points of maternity. As a day is socially meaningless without a night and incomplete in appearance in the order of nature and its laws, male are incomplete without female since female constitute a half remaining complete portions of something solid used to be explicated as cohesive. As parts of their life and covers the other side portions of it and things they commonly represent. Here, there should not be confusing and 100

erroneously interpreting regarding the imaginings associate female to a night and male to a day since it does not imply the actual dark night in appearance to absence light and a day to the presence of light(Ginbar, 2010:53). In Arsii it is addressed that when women presents any complains on the assembly, it is said to have recalled the following utterances in front of the assembly saying, for Waaqaa fi lafaa (heaven and earth), Margaa fi bishan (grass and water), ifaa fi dukkana (for light and darkness), aadaafi seera (for custom and Law). Women are said to have made complain and the utterances to restore Wayyuu (Dani’el, 2002:52). These utterances strengthen the aforementioned views on female and male inseparable duality and constructive of parallelism. They uttered in the face of elders represented truth and laws to raise and restore justice and equality when it is being violated. The contrastive world illuminating a solid thing explained as accord, like the concepts of human rights and duties, that separation and discord of the one from the other. Superficially the copula justifies the completeness and appropriateness of the one if and only if the other party exists along. The copula matching is implied with natural orders and worlds governed under the laws of nature and norm of safuu. 1.3 Gender persona of Human Body Parts, and the Construction and Deconstruction Critics for Left-Right Dichotomy An alternative means of describing gender and manifestations of the ideology is from its traditional meanings associated to human body parts. A dominant tradition particularly among the Oromo of Arsii Arsii also constructs the image of femininity and masculinity simulated to parts of human body like: The two legs, The two hands, Eyes, Nostrils, Ears, Lips, (up-down) Tooth jaws, etc. ,,(Ginbar, 2010: As to this notion, each dual part, under normal circumstances, are identical in nature and also have sameness and alikeness in structure. Their differences lies in social constructed meanings positioned to their situations. It is explained that the dual are simulated to express a gender affiliations against their 101

location since the one is along on the opposite sides of the other, either on the left or right side. In line to this view, of the pair or dual complementary parts women were assumed to be created from the left side while men were from the right. The left sides are associated to life saving and peace-loving character of females, the one on the rights are symbolized to life taking and violent character of males. The left-right dichotomy has a contextual meaning in essence that women and the left side is life-saving category whereas reversely the male and right sides are life-taking category. But in appearance it implicates the inseparability of female from male as the right part is the integrated element to the left side. It is also customarily evidenced that male clinches his female lover in his left hands. Under normal circumstances, the two parts of our bodies were created correspondingly likewise a twin. As far as, the duals were caused identical in appearance and essences both are alike as the same time equal. The twin has similar duty as blended together accomplishing the same purpose in common understanding. Thus, the view acquainted from symmetrical natural phenomenon through which an alternative gender ideology is communicated and the place and roles of women and men could be depicted in view to these imaginings (ibid,). As to the tradition parts of our hands are also dominant alternative ways used to express the femininitymasculinity positions stimulatory. Accordingly, while the left hand sides of our body in comparable to the female, the right hand sides are categorized to the male. In view to this both have their own interpretations for which the literary connotative meanings of the right and the left hand sides bear different meanings. Hence, to be strictly represented to the left side simply does qualify liminality (soft-heartedness) and nonviolent nature of femininity (ibid,). The myth has it that Waaqaa listens to women’s desire and instantly responds to it (Jeylan, 2004:111). This is a part of the belief system that women are believed to have natured to meditate and invoke God than men and they are closer to nature in their nurturing and lifesustaining activities. The rationality of superseding femininity, on the other hand, was attached to the belief system in which traditionally females were assumed to be superior to males in spiritual worlds. This discourse, for instances, among the Arsii are expressed and witnessed in various ritual-religious practices and performances like the Wayyuu, Ateetee, etc (Sirna Ateetee, 2002); Ademsa Sirna Ateetee,2000; Ginbar, 2010:97). Indeed, the functions of left side hands is prominent that, generally it is assumed as a defender for an individual holds a shield from a spear that might be thrown at during fighting and others for which the 102

gumaa rules demanded more reparation payment for the left side hands than its opposite. This is said to be presumably emanated from the Oromo rules for defense that states ‘do not touch anybody unless you are being touched’, which gave more reliance to protect one’s own self than a hurry rush to offence, at a primary level. Regarding such positions of placement and left hand side symbolism to peace, one can also evident the presence of similar values in a given family from the Oromo customary house construction. The left hand side is symbolisms to peace and peace seeker (ibid,). It is said that the Oromo are said to have built his/her sons houses’ on his/her house’s right and left, based on their seniority in ages. Accordingly, when the elder son constructs his house on the right sides of his family’s house, the younger’s is to be on the left side (Mohammed,1990:16; Alemayehu and Boshi,2006:39-40). Therefore, being on the left or right side parts of the cultural expressions have no denotative and destructive meanings related to gender stereotypes that display subordination of females as Dani’el(2002:96) has expressed. The construction which also aimed at partly to deconstruct those misuses and wrong interpretations related to gender ideology which seemed to be emanated from negligence/ ignorance to culture of the people or intentionally for the personal cause and aspirations. Regardless of some dubious cultures deviated sources, particularly those non-governmental organizations and related individuals wish to raise funds from donators often construct the dichotomy in contrary to the traditions derogatively and prejudicially as gender stereotypes crooks. Originally, traditions in Arsii which have given a due consideration to this notion construct a deconstructive notion to such an erroneous assertion (Ibsa, 2002:4-5; Sirna Ateetee, 2002; Adeemsa Sirna, 2000). Such usual customs are also common in the family structure. Family structures of the Oromo hold three components: the father, mother and sons. Such representation is also commonly envisaged among the Oromo of Arsii, especially in the southern parts of Arsii land related to Siinqee, which is specifically known as Siinqee makkallaa (three limbs). Siinqee Makkallaa is one types of Siinqee which is dominantly found around Kokossaa, Dodolaa, Kofalee and others is attributed to the three limbs which are located on the top of the insignia. The makkallaa is said to reflect the tradition of family member arrangements in conventional ways and their placements in a given households that the middle limb is said to represent a husband, the left side stands for a wife and the right side limb bears children(Ginbar, 2010:55).

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Indeed, such values of the society has deep rooted in own their world-view which would only be realized from close and profound understanding of their past socio-political and religious life. It is argued differently, but logically for the reasons why the female were implied with the left sides as comparable to the male since literary both terms has a different connotation in meanings by which the left side is assumed to be ‘un equal to the right’?. The arguments against this view that, to be on the husbands left side does mean a right side for the wife and the wife stood on the left sides of her husband is simply to hold her right sides, which is assumed to be a proper position, right sides for her, for the fact that someone’s left side is right side for the other party and the vice verse is also true. 1.4 Position and Status Determine Insignias Gendered Meaning Gender ideology is also expressed through insignias representing images of a female and a male being. High socio-political and ritual emblems are bearable sources of power, prerogatives, rules for social order and a means to executing it in the temporal and religious worlds representing of feminine and masculine are determinants for positions and status of a wife and a husband of a given family. Affiliations amid of a wife and a husband could be elaborated subjects to these insignias played role regulatory. The insignias are as follows:

Female (wife)

Male (husband)

Qaallittii (Priestess)

priests (Qaalluu

Caaccuu

kallachaa

Hnafala Gadaa

Bokkuu

Siinqee

Horooroo/waddeessaa(;Ginbar,2010)

Bokkuu (scepter), Kallachaa, Caaccuu and hanfalaa were possessed by the members of the first born clans and could be found mostly in a single family and lineage. Bokkuu, on the other hand, is another respected emblem hold by male for political power. Holder of the Bokkuu(abbaa bokkuu) has his female intimates and equates as haadha hanfalaa. Parallel to the world of men, which are represented by Bokuu Women used to discharge their social obligations along every males of their corresponding class and represented by hanfalaa gadaa/baallaa shanii(ibid; Daaniyaa,2008). Kallachaa is hold by male spiritual leaders and the first born among the clans. Kallachaa is a highly respected ritual symbols which is considered as an object for cursing and life-taking while its matching 104

opposites representing femininity and assumed by wives of holder of the kallachaa is the caaccuu which signify blessing and life-raising symbolisms. Haadha Caaccuu was the symbolic leader of women which is responsible for praying invokes the uumee (the she creature) and uumaa (the he creature) to abundance of well prospered fertility. In the society, Kallachaa is said to have represented the Waaqaa while Caaccuu represented the earth. As a male is essential for the fertility of a woman, Waaqaa that drops water is also crucial for the fertility of earth. This magnifies the dual nature between the Waaqaa and the earth, and the male and the female. That is why female and earth is considered as fertile. In the society Abbaa Kallachaa and Haadha Caaccuu are identified from other members of the society by possessing the ritual insignias and by roles they play in the socio-political and religious life of the society (Alemayehu and Boshi 2006:105-106, Daaniyaa, 2008). In the same way male holder of Waddeessaa/Horooroo is also his own counter insignias siinqee. Siinqee is also an insignias for peace pacifier, fighting against the male holder of an iron objects like spear, knife, etc in peace. The insignias are a means through which women and men of similar gadaa class have assumed symmetrical responsibilities. Not only a matter of expressing one’s own status and respect in idyllic representations but it is a means of attainment a superb coinciding rituals, social, political, responsibilities for the two in the actual worlds(ibid,). 1.5 Comprehension the Normality and Familiarity of Gender and its Reversal

Gender contributes to a more complete description of a given society. Gender was not the only marker of group identity as far as the other gadaa born social classification like gadaa class, gadaa generation, age group, etc were apparent. The understanding of gender ideology, therefore, would be more elaborative within the sphere of the gadaa system since the temporal and religious lives of the nation were its main part and parcels and a drift made to understand the history and culture of the nation devoid of gadaa remains incomplete and to the worst distortion. There is a spatial general stratification and differentiation of the social sphere, roles, duties and economic activities between men and women which it helps to stratify. Variances in stratifications based on cultural variables within and out of one’s’ group category have designated members of the group to have enjoyed those prerogatives with the other selective group member or what the other group member have enjoyed. 105

Each marker of group identity was structured along certain lines, assuming certain roles and a task which qualifies to be meeting in the society. This was ways in which the societal members were promoted to what are discernable and the best utility and the maximum utopia in their life career. Boundlessly, this is natural for human being that everybody struggles to achieve some paramount of life for the self and his/her society or country. However, despite the aforementioned meanings of gender depending on traits, distinctive styles, orientations, etc on the rationality of sex identity and that understood the socio-cultural constructions as unbearable boundary and as an intolerable taboo; the gadaa system has reported that gender reversal was usual. In so far as gender reversal was its real practical parts and parcels, defining gender as usual only adhere to a female and a male being category and as a homogenous group marker of sex identity is an erroneous assumption and conclusion emanated from a misconception of the culture. In gadaa meaningful values males of some gadaa extreme continuum classes namely the early grade class the dabballee and exe-gadaa classes the gadamoojjii, (Asmarom, 1973:53 & 117; Kuwe, p. 127) the spiritual heads(the Qaalluus) and the pilgrims(the jilaa) joined the feminine category and identified with feminine expressive forms of nouns as she(ishii/ee). This class also assumed feminine roles. Inversely, women of high gadaa class, although female joined gadaa classes through males: of her brother as well her husband before and after marriage respectively, particularly a wife of the male gadaamoojjii were labeled as masculine and identified with male form of noun as he (isa). These symbolic women have stopped delivery and as well as completed her gadaa class and hence her main task were symmetric with her husband at public and involved in peace reconciliations, representativeness, counseling, advising, socializations, etc. As to the aforementioned definitions of viewing the either assorts homogenous are being disqualified with this notion (Ginbar.2010:79&87). In contrary to as often described in the works of Jeylan(2004) femininity does not set up homogenous female groups but it constitutes a heterogeneous class transversally across the usual sex’s boundary and joined by the male classes. This heterogeneous ‘feminine’ assort which includes male classes set up a liminal, peace-loving and non-violent character. The peace loving male class behaviorally descent and modest and imitating a continuum feminine traits refraining themselves from uttering bad words and curse, but provide blessing. Feminine modest qualities were also favored and imitated by males themselves in the ritual and spiritual worlds. Modesties were seminal traits acknowledged as the utmost qualifying behaviors 106

in the social, ritual and spiritual worlds and were those requirements for an individual meets the observance get recognitions of high social, ritual and spiritual status. If the descriptive of femininemasculine connotatively and denotatively had been in subordinate pecking and inferior-superior ladders, as it is described in the works of some feminists like Dani’el(2002:74.97,99), it would be men’s of these spiritually pure and high social class that refuse their representativeness with being a feminine dignity and less superiority. Subordinate pecking orders have no references for the egalitarian rule society. On the other hand, females of high gadaa class were inversely joined the masculine assort. Discourses on feminine gender ideology, in this regard, across violating the gender line boundaries remained non stereotypical and non prejudicial paradoxical to some feminine records. The facet had been realized in the time when the Oromo nation had shared common gadaa laws and values originated from the ancient and earliest forms as laws of Walaabuu and a time when the Oromo had received directives on temporal and religious matters from the same center and when they had been governed under uniformly made and promulgated rules from central common gadaa assembly at Madda Walaabuu. Regardless of the views imprecations, effects and influence ensuing in social, moral and spiritual life of olden days it could not indicate and be representative to what female appear to be now, in the modern period. The view, hence, seemed to be weird for contemporary realities and a recurrent sociopolitical status of women. In fact the recurrent status of female is largely accredited to the changes and rechanges in culture and values of the Oromo society demolished with the decline of the egalitarian gadaa system of governance.

1.6 Traits and Behaviors Based of Identity Construction and the Custom of Xundu (Copular) to the Western Binary Toning Another ways manifestation of gender ideology is the construction of femininity-masculinity using binary terms. The hitherto knowledge on gender is largely dominated by western culture which has been assumed as universal and representative. In the western trends masculine-feminine is defined using binary oppositions: subject/object essence/appearance, culture/nature, reason/passion, and active/passive, respectively. Gender ideology, in this regard, has been expressed stereotypically that men are aggressive, competitive and instrumentally oriented while women are passive, cooperative and expressive (Tahir,2005: 2-4;Stets and Burke.3; Diana .90). In fact, binary oppositions are part of human nature. However, the 107

western traditional family appears as a hierarchy having the man at the top and the wife and children - as subordinates. Opposite to this traditional model is the egalitarian family. The two partners share private and public responsibilities so that neither one of them is subordinate to the other. The traditional roles for women are those of wives and mothers, of beautiful objects and reproducers. Traditional women find their fulfillment in the private sphere, in nurturing the other members of their family. On the contrary, the emancipated women invest their time and efforts in their personal development, in building a career. For them marriage and motherhood are an option they might decide not to choose. In the public space, these women appear as professionally successful, rational, ambitious, talented and hardworking. They are endowed with the so called "masculine" features (Diana, .92). The Oromo traditions experience constructs femininity-masculinity in bipolar conceptions as such softhearted/hardhearted,

shrewd/muscular,

pleasant/rough,

liminal/aggressive,

spiritual/material,

equate/discriminate, life-giving/life-taking, sacredness/sinful, innocent/vindictive, descent/rude, tamed or cultured/beast

or

natured,

submissive/disobedient,

violent/nonviolent,

conscience/deterrence,

fertility/sterility, faithful/treacherous,

affectionate/unaffectionate, piety/impious,

purity/filthy,

transparent/imprecise, rational/emotional, etc respectively. As it indicated on the aforementioned bipolar dictions, similar to the western patterns of descriptive meanings, female and male assumed contrastive, contrary continuum worlds, domains of life, traits, etc. However, in contrary to westerner hierarchical patterned assigning females as inferior to the males, egalitarian natured and characterized of the gadaa system, symmetry to the egalitarian family structure indicated on the above view, constructs feminine as closely friendly to spiritual, sacredness, fertility, non-violent, life-giving, shrewd etc qualities which seemed to be more superb, modest, cultured, sophisticated, principled, honorable or ethical than the males associated to the worlds of material/secular, sinful, sterility, violent, muscular etc. Nonetheless, these contrastive domains of life both categorical fits are a compulsory feature which the either side assorts could not qualify. Characteristically imitating to be a descent, more of silent, affectionate, tolerance, patience, etc were those civil characters that any humble Oromo individual own to attain in life. In the history of the nation one of the superior Oromo mottos was categorically to be a leemmoo, which simply means a humble and trustworthy. It was the male leemmoo whose characters, personality and actions testified the utmost criteria of purity, truth and greatness that could visit the religious center and the land of anointment, Abbaa Muudaa(Salviac, 2008; Ginbar, 2010).

108

Normally, forms of couplings arrangement are vivid in myriad ways in the Oromo traditions. One of such exemplary motions is an understanding in the ethical and moral concept, safuu. In safuu arrangements two things and objects are defined and arranged in terms a philosophical outlook of distance and respect notion. Safuu chained things of natural and social environment in pairs and arranged them accordingly. Safuu defines guides, determines and judges the relationships amid of creator and creatures in gender, among creatures and cosmic things including the counter sexes. One result of this view is the arrangements in safuu(Jeylan, 2004:105). Based on the Oromo world view a performance in rituals and spirituals means are also indicatives to create and foster compatibility between opposites and pairs. Customarily, this concept is portrayed in several manners while they prepare a cultural food from coffee roasting, buna qalaa (slaughtering of coffee) during festivals and ceremonies. Pre-roasting arrangement follows a process of couplings the amounts of nutshell get processed in an even numerals, xunduu(coupling) which is thought to symbolize fortunate and being an odd in figures is termed as baaqqee(solitary), which simply imply in fortune. Couplings is a socio-cultural structure implicating an assignment or placing pairs side by side to implicate either their matching similarity or dissimilarity in character, temperament or purpose. In this case if the pairs are similar their mix up outcome constructs commensalism, otherwise they need not to touch or blend in the worlds of its counter. Traditional approach of assigning female and male beings into separate worlds and a means of expression of this view using binary toning is rooted its origin in the Oromo creationist myth(Ibsa, 2002; Sirna Ateetee,2002). Similar to arrangements in coupling in the Oromo nation is the clan moiety structure. For the appropriateness of marriage relations the Oromo nation is well-known in history as back in the olden days of the 14th century with the formation of clan affiliated moiety based on age seniority or as elder-younger relations. For instances, are the Maccaa-Tuulam, Siikoo-Mandoo, Sabboo-Goonaa, Kontomaa-Daarimuu, etc. Thus, natural birth age based seniority and the line should not be confused with superiority-inferiority. 1.7 Gender Based Labor Divisions, Principles and Its Rationality The Oromo had a well-developed age-based system grouping, the Gadaa System. Asmarom(, p. 81) in his extensive work on the Booranaa Oromo states, the concept standing for the whole way of life which more specifically refers to a period of eight years during which a class stays in power. Gadaa based on age, 109

ability and achievements wherein generation, age, sex, and class were the guiding criteria in labor division and the sharing of responsibilities. It is obvious that, gadaa based division of labor and the allocations of functions were a socially and culturally constructed phenomenon in conformity with the overall general property relations (Alemayehu, 2009:168; Negaso, 2001:125). Including gender there were other means and ways of group formations, differentiations along with role assignments among diverse social groups based on gadaa born principal variables. The variables were not only confined within a gendered environment among similar and/or dissimilar sex group members alone but it is applicable in a non-gender world. The African age set, is a segmentation that promotes specialization of function along effective lines. The segmentation harnesses the energies of the youth to the end of the society and gives to each age group a strong awareness of its own status. As an age-based social organization, the Gadaa System must have also been developed as a mechanism of motivating and fitting members of the society into social structure. Various socio-political functions and responsibilities are associated with initiation into and promotion from one gadaa to the next. The structural elevation follows an established procedure. Members of an age set are initiated into the next higher set with elaborated ceremony. The initiation obviously confers a culturally bestowed identity and imposes responsibilities on the elevated groups. The Oromo age set system provides clear structural reference for members of the society so that they may develop a consistent and stable sense of self and others (Jeylan, 2004:106) The division was parts of the entire aspects of their interdependent living. In the egalitarian gadaa system basically gender ideology did not go beyond the actual realizations of carrying out the entire aspect of their life, one’s own socially legitimized and assigned duties and encompass playing role assumptions responsibilities as a main aspect of existence in the day-to-day life. Simply, it was an affair for survival and a matter of structure of the society by which they made their lives sustainable and maintained peacefully. Hence, gender was one of the society’s allotments for dividing work for both sexes like any other categorizations within the society (Alemayehu.2009:168). Thus, gender based labor division was one of the important ways to understand the relationships along with male and female. The division was not only confined among the female and male sexes, but there are also similar role assignments and various responsibilities within the male and the female class themselves. The notion, however, seemed to be matter of assigning someone on his/her fitting compartments guided on those constituent enhances and promotes mutual understanding. This was also logical, scientific and reasonable that, for instance, everybody (either 110

female or male) would not carry out the same job in the same rate or speed for which the nature of the task, the ability of the performer, profession and other internal and external conditions are determinant factors owing to the amount of energy and time it takes and the results that would be gained at the end. Therefore, the division is the implication of all these factors. The roles of social groups, however, are not unchanged established fact (Ginbar. 2010:45). But it is unfair to judge because of simply a cultural or traditional ways of living, the past society had established a functional discriminatory institution whereby female identities were oppressed. Such blindly indiscriminate accusations are far from comprehending gadaa historical facts and sources. In response to the then socio-economic, environment, geo-politics, ecology, etc of olden days; arduous, physical labor and muscular demanding nature of the gadaa system, a compulsory requirements for muscularity to be stayed at gadaa centers and being deployed on hunting game for a long distanced away from one’s own residence, etc seemed to be some of those main grounds gadaa system had rationalized the gender identity, roles and attitudes. In myriad cultural imaginings females and males were expressed complementary assumed as blended heads communicate simultaneous. The concept articulating a variety of views outside human probe constructs a duality of things/objects in primordial perception. This way implicating the cohesiveness of female and male expounds discourse of parallelism together dualism (duals be parallels) of physical and non-physical qualities; not coherently mental capacities. Customarily, the cultural pattern of pairing is an alternative way expressing the functional interdependence-independence in modes of gender. Being a male and a female is identified, represented, characterized and syndicated to socially and culturally bestow traits used as a self expressive and constructive meanings assumed by each distinctive identity. As they are opposite, as the either party represent a half solid part and as opposites attract, absences of one being disqualify or incompletes an event full. However, it is not really expressing unfitting of qualities along gender lines and differences of positions and status. In the first place objects and things depicted and represented are not basically of less value and subsidiary but they were symbolized with respected, of elevated social categorical values and high socio-political insignias. The cultural driven discourses implicate feminine and masculine opposites are also used to describe inseparable; a completeness of nature and natural itself the fact that both assumed the either independent solid or a half part of one solid implicated. 111

Reasonably, females were naturalized in their confinement at and around their village territory in pretext of maternity limits their sphere of influence, shared experiences and knowledge of their counter sex group. From civil points of view, while one positively sees degrees of responsibilities assumed by both groups the amount of load weight distributions which seemed to have inconsiderate of nature of maternity, was more burdened and heavier on women than men. One could say that in the sharing of the responsibilities to females at a domestic and for a male at public disproportionately made women less beneficiary. However, in terms of its risqué men at public were more surfaces to danger than women. In saying natural does not mean the static conditions and irreversibility of gender identity, roles and attitudes and the idea also did not guarantee manifestations of gender reversal which have been common in the culture. The concept constructs the normality of gender and gender ideology as natural indicating the nothingness of gender based differentiating variables and prejudices regardless of sex identity. In stressing on issues of gender stereotypes other than condemning traditional society and their way of past living, feminist records and similar related documents did not visualize the cultural roots and historical changes and continuity. Gender stereotypes are largely products of late historical phenomenon and development owning to changes and over changes in culture, the decline of egalitarian rule and its replacement by oppressive colonial political and administrative system, the influences of one-sided monotonous western religion (largely Christianity and Islam), their culture and the sweeps across of their de-culturalization policy(Jeylan, 2002:110), compatibilities of modernity versus tradition or traditional harmful practices versus modern harmful practices, etc. Conclusions In discussing several avenues of future work in gender, it is a beginning to understand issues of stability and change in one’s gender ideology. The avenue of research is imperative since it display a diversified alternative discourses for the public and gender mainstreaming. Such studies will expound the hitherto little knowledge about sub-cultural, cultural, and cross-cultural differences in the meanings. It helps understand a society's division of labor, differential power and status structure, in general, how society's privileges and responsibilities are allocated. To modify the social system may mean first modifying individual beliefs since from the beginning they were family affairs in the cultural context.

112

The hitherto generalizations from western culture is not universal and representative. As a way to promote indigenous knowledge and elevate its values, the effort has also expounded an alternative discourses from experiences of the egalitarian society whose trends have been considerate of feminine cause. Except a matter of degree of its manifestations, within crossable period of human life gender is unrestraint and no time society appears genderless. Therefore, issues of gender are issues of human dignity for both males and females irrespective of any differences. Heading is a shift on mass socio-economic antecedent, rather than political precautions.

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Ginbar Nagara. “A History of Women Among the Oromo of Arsii During the Gadaa System of Governance (c.a. 15th –end of the 19th century)”, A.U School of Humanities and Languages, M.A Thesis, 2010. Kuwee Kumsa, “The Siqqee Institution of Oromo Women,” in the Journal of Oromo Studies, vol. 4, nos. 1 & 2, July 1991. Mamo Hebo. Land, Local Custom and State Policies. Land Tenure, Land Disputes and Disputes Settlement Among The Arsii Oromo Of Southern Ethiopia. Kyoto: Shoukadoh Book Sellers. 2006. Manji, Tahira.. “Binary Oppositions”. Online article, The Dr. Z Network, 2005. Mohammed Hassen. The Oromo of Ethiopia. A history, 1570-1860. Cambridge: 1990. Negaso Gidada. History of the Sayyo Oromo of South Western Wallaga, Ethiopia from about 1730 to 1886. Addis Ababa. Mega printing Enterprise, 2001. “Sirna Ateetee Godina Arsii Lixaa”( The Ateetee Ritual Ceremony in West Arsii zone ). Shashamannee. Unpublished Material. 2002 E.C. Stets, Jan E. and Burke, Peter J.. “Femininity/Masculinity”, in Edgar F. Borgatta & Rhonda J. V. Montgomery (Eds.) ,Encyclopedia of Sociology, Revised Edition. New York: Macmillan. Pp. 997-1005.

7. QUALITY EDUCATION, ACADEMIC STAFF AND MORALITY By Tenna Dewo (PhD) Abstract In education it is man who produces man; it is again man who is produced by man. Inherent in this is the quality of education. The course of human history is full of aspirations and strivings for the better quality of life. The making of individual and common life better, is the goal of education. In essence quality of education is the issue of quality of life. It is emphasized to promote life, and is evaluated in terms of its outputs. Whether it provides the out put that satisfies the expectation of the stakeholders is the crucial issue. But today the performance of school graduates indicates that quality of education is in crisis. Although some of its causes have been pinpointed and accordingly solutions have been figured out education is continuing having quality problem. This is because the very root of the problem might have not been addressed. The efforts so far have been exerted have given either little or no attention in considering the role morality has in affecting quality of education. This paper 114

hypothesizes that negligence of morality is the bedrock for the crisis occurred in quality of education. It argues that there is no more serious threat to quality of education than this negligence. The data of the paper is qualitative and accordingly literature, personal experiences and observations are its sources. The analysis of this data, is hoped, to demonstrate that the relegation of moral education is the chief cause for the deterioration of quality of education. INTRODUCTION In education it is man who produces man; it is again man who is produced by man. It is also man who develops the system of education, and again it is this man who runs the system. Education provides an opportunity for one to teach and for others to learn, and still for some others to facilitate its process. Thus through education man makes himself. The point is - what kind of man is to be made. Certainly, the answer is good man. The ultimate aim of education arises from the interest of man – the interest of creating, having and living good life. Good man is both a means and an end. Such a man is necessitated for the realization the good life. The best interest of man is to secure prosperous, comfortable, valued, delightful and realized life. Ideally the purpose of education is, therefore, to produce good man who is equipped with the knowledge and will of realizing man’s best interest. The question is whether education in general, academic staff and institutions in particular has produced the kind of persons that satisfy human ideals. Statement of Problem Quality of education has become a recurrent topic of discussions and researches. Although there are number of factors that affect the quality of education the role of academic staff is placed in the front line to consider. But to me, there is a missing cause which is more fundamental than the factors often singled out. In the recurrent discussion of quality of education the moral and ethical dimension of this education is not considered as important and relevant. Often hard facts and figures are used to analyze and explain the problem. Moral values are relegated as if they were irrelevant when in fact they are at the heart of any educational system. The aim of education precisely, is to produce “educated” persons. But what or who is the educated person? Can we say that the educated person is one who has spent a long time studying at academic institutions? Necessarily ‘not’. Can an award of degrees make one the educated? Not necessarily. Does the number of books read matter? Again, not. An educated man is, therefore, one who has transformed him self through education, and has acquired the power of transforming others and is also one in the continuous process of self transformation. A transformed person should not only be made to know the truth but also to think critically, acts and behaves correctly. The point is - what kind of education can produce such an educated person? This question will take us to the issue of quality of education and its moral dimension. Objectives: The general aim of this paper is to demonstrate the important role that moral and ethical values play in affecting the quality of education. The main aim of education is to make students good citizens. But it is unlikely to make school graduates good citizens in the absence of value-oriented education. Value education implies inculcating in This general aim can be enumerated as specific objectives of the paper. 1. explain the role that values in general and moral values in particular play in making the life and reality of human individuals and society. 2. show whether or not moral values are given due attention in education. 3. demonstrate the relationships between education and morality. 4. probe into different dimension of the problem of quality of education. 5. emphatically establish that the negligence of moral education is the 115

fundamental cause for the decline of quality of education. 6. find a way out of the problem of quality of education. 7. show the importance of providing and fostering moral education. Methodology: Critical reflection is important to undertake an inquiry in any area of investigation. The method of this research does not involve complex thought process. Indeed it is purely qualitative. The sources of its data are two – literature, personal experiences or observations. It critically analyzes the data of experiences and observations supported by theoretical and conceptual substantiation. Findings: Although man is a moral being his moral traits have not been cultivated through education. The finding of this paper would show that the omission of moral education from the education systems and school curricula of the present day is the fundamental cause for the deterioration of quality of education; and this quality cannot be improved provided that moral values remain in the backyard. Quality of Education Man values education because it opens his eyes to the truth of his reality and the reality of the world he lives in. With out education meaningful development is impossible. All round development of individuals, group of individuals, nations or countries unquestionably sought. “Physical, spiritual and moral development of a country is not possible unless its people are educated, and receive the right kind of education.” (Narain, 2006: 118) But there could be time when and situation in which education may not produce as many good people as possible. This is what obliges people to develop concern for quality of education. What does quality of education mean? Quality of education is defined in different ways. One thing however seems to be common to different definitions – the meaning of quality of education is grounded in the expectation of stakeholders. Individuals, families, organizations, society, state, etc. are all the stakeholders of education. It seems reasonable to understand quality of education in terms of the service that the graduates render to these stakeholders/ society. But what do stakeholders expect from the graduates of the higher learning institutions? Crudely speaking, they expect almost all good things [virtues such as efficiency, creativity, sociability, honesty, truthfulness, diligence, kindness, etc.]. But when is a thing, an act or a behavior is said to be good? Certainly, it becomes good when it satisfies certain desire or interest of an individual, group or society. The act, behavior, knowledge, etc. satisfies or serves certain purpose only when it is effective, creative, productive, helpful or beneficial. These are valued as good. An agent whose act, behavior or knowledge is effective, creative, productive, helpful or beneficial is one whose behavior is expressed in being honest, truthful, diligent, kind, compassionate, tolerant, etc. All these traits can be reduced into two categories- professional competence and moral character. Both competence and character expressed through performance/competence. Competence is not only a matter of knowledge but also an issue of character. Competence without character is vulnerable and character without competence is weak. Goodness embodies both personal character and professional competence. It is expressed through the pursuit of honesty, loyalty, integrity, compassion, tolerance, diligence, respect, etc. Without these moral traits excellence of knowledge is precarious. At this point we should establish one truth: character formation is one of the fundamental duties of education. But what does the present experience of man suggest? Can we say quality of education today is up to the desirable standard in view of the experience of the performance and character of graduates? I do not ask you to go elsewhere to find answers to these questions. Many of us here are graduates, so we need to look at ourselves to find answers. Are we competent in our profession and good in character? If we are honest to ourselves, our answer could be “No”, or at least we remain reluctant to say “Yes”. The answers are drawn on experiences and observations. It is in view of this that people are harping about 116

the decline of quality of education. The point is how to demonstrate that there is problem in quality of education. People unceasingly cry out about the decline of quality of education. The parameter that helps us to vividly demonstrate this is the performance of the graduates, in which we find both competence and character. Most of the economic, cultural, political and social activities of this world are being managed, run and implemented largely by the educated elites. But the existence of anomalies in the performance of graduates suggests that graduates do not live, work, and behave up to the expectations and hopes of stakeholders. This evidence proves that the defect of the present system of education. Unbecoming behaviors unceasingly evolve largely out of the minds and hands of those who claim to have been educated and trained. There is a lot of talk today about corruption, dishonesty, unethical and immoral acts and behaviors practiced by professionals, officials and business men. Most of corrupts are probably those who were students yesterday – those who were educated to serve the good cause of society. The graduates may have knowledge of facts, and certainly knowledge is power – the power of doing something, the power of being someone and the power of ruling over others. I presumably say the reason why they fail to render good service is because they lack the will to do right more than knowledge that helps do things. People could be corrupt, dishonest, selfish and indolent not because they necessarily lack knowledge but because they are deficient in the will to do right. We can understand that graduates are not up to the expectations of the society from the following experiences: • The domination of self-interest over public interest is alarmingly growing. • Carelessness and indifference about the issues of public good and advantage is increasing. • Inefficiency and corruption are alarmingly threatening the development of life and society. • Loss of respect for elders, disabled and aging, indifference to the common cause of people is mounting. • The approval and practice of corruption is implicitly growing rather than diminishing. • The belief that whatever means is justifiable for the pursuit of self-interest is rising. • Loss or lack of sense of responsibility is escalating. • Man-caused and induced destructions, pollutions, dirt and wastes are more threatening both the natural and social environments today than they had ever done before. • These experiences indicate that the quality of the present day education entails problems. • These problems are effects - then what are the causes? Multitude Causes To examine how quality of education is made or unmade it is important to consider the different agents, institutions and activities involved in the teaching-learning process. Some of these are:• negligence of moral education, • deficient education policies, • un-motivating remuneration rate, • Undeserved professional treatment, • lack of job satisfaction, • financial constraints and inefficient administration, • lack of opportunities for further academic developments, • decline of social value and respect for teaching, • lack of consolidated academic freedom and professional ethics, • failure of parental and societal follow up, • poor living conditions of teachers and students, 117

These are some of the factors that threaten the quality of education. Nearly all of them are more about moral problems than the problems of other things. Only the core ones are briefly discussed below. Negligence of Moral and Ethical Dimension of Education Although the basic principle of education is to produce good man, apparently there is a problem of figuring out the subjects that cultivate value and those that develop knowledge of facts in the learner. People seem to believe that any subject being taught at school creates both sound knowledge and good moral traits in the learner. But I argue that this is not always true. The knowledge of mathematics, hard science and language may make graduates good in competence, but not necessarily in character. But in reality it is character that decisively guides and rules the action of the agent. “Education is one of the most powerful agencies in moulding the character and personality of the individual and in determining the future of individual and nations.” (Narain, 2006: 101) Unfortunately the present education system undermines moral education that has the power to meaningfully mold the character of learners. Thus “the present education system is providing man with ample material comfort but has neglected his moral well being and spiritual advancement.” (Ibid, 57) Negligence of moral value, to me, is the basic problem that threatens the quality of education. The mere knowledge of hard facts cannot reflect, explain and guide the complex reality of humankind. Indeed human quality is constituted more by moral values than by state of facts. If the system of education disregards morality it develops, as Narain observes, not human beings but sophisticated computers and vile men. (2006: 119) In the reality of man we experience that morality is inextricably bound up with education. There is no education that does not embody the motive of distinguishing right from wrong, good from bad. The purpose of morality and the purpose of education overlap. Morality directs education and education shows the way to realize the ideal of morality. But the actual experience of the present day education system does not show this harmony. The teaching and knowledge of practically applicable subjects and hard facts are given more attention to that of moral values. Moral values constitute the essential core of human values. What could be more important for man to know, than these values. More emphasis is given to competence than character, when the reality of man necessitates character to guide competence. Moral education is indispensable for character formation. In moral terms, evils like personal greed, meanness, selfishness, indifference, laziness and the like threaten quality of education. Virtues like selflessness, kindness, honesty, truthfulness, integrity, etc. are required to promote quality of education. All these are embedded in the character of moral agents. Character helps us to understand who we are and what our interaction is. “Strong character is the foundation of life.” (Reddy and Rao, 2006: 36) Man is not born with character. Rather he acquires it. It is a learnt behavior. Good character is the outcome of adopting moral values. A moral person has presumably good character. Whether or not the character of a person is good can be known through the practice of the person. Persons of good character are truthful, honest, kind, considerate, caring and selfless, which are expressed in personal and professional life. Thus character is the combination or unity of manifold good qualities such as honesty, loyalty and integrity, courage, caring and sharing. Education is a powerful weapon in training the inner life of persons in order to build sound character. “Knowledge without character is very dangerous.” (Narain, 2006: 211) Often we evaluate the academic progress of students in terms of the grade they receive in exams. But what about the character or trait we want them to develop? What could we say about a student who excels in the subject of his specialization, but who remains very notorious in character (a cheat, liar, dishonest, cruel, rough, violent, selfish, etc.)? Bull in his book Moral Education (1966:15) writes: “The child is not born with a built-in moral conscience. But he is born with those naturally and biologically purposive capacities that make him potentially a moral being.” The purpose of moral education is to cultivate these potential capacities in 118

order to make them real power and trait. Men do not want their kids to look dirty, ugly and unhealthy. They rather want them to be good looking, happy and healthy. These are all about their external appearance. But it is not enough that they are good looking, happy and healthy. What matters most is its internal goodness. There is no other appropriate discipline than morality to cultivate internal goodness. “A human life without the benefits of morality is not an ideal or fulfilled life; it lacks too much that makes for human flourishing.” (Pojman, 2005: 34) Moral education carries the message and knowledge of love, respect, safety, and security, sense of belongingness, caring and sharing. It inculcates principles that keep individuals to be good sons or daughters, parents or offspring, neighbors or citizens, professionals or amateurs. “Several moral virtues like love, justice, honesty, wisdom, humility, mercy, respect for others and sincerity in action must be inculcated in the field of education” (2006: 58) Humanity misses all these when a given education system fails to incorporate the education of morality and ethics. This is the reason why I argue that the negligence of moral education is the basic threat to quality of education. Therefore, we can draw a conclusion the present education system itself is responsible for the quality of education to be below the desirable moral standard. If the purpose of education is to develop a well balanced personality the cultivation of character should have been the indispensable mission of education and its institutions. “At every class there must be lessons that exalt honesty and demean dishonesty. “ (Narain, 2006: 47) Otherwise every form of evils breeds. The world is suffering from barefaced and awful corruption because the present education does not demean it. Education should ingrain that corruption is the mother of evils in the minds of learners. A value system that welcomes it should be replaced by a value system that abhors corruption. The right approach to eradicate corruption is to change the social value system. If in most families an earning member who earns more by taking bribe is respected and valued more than the one who earns by fair means, then it is obvious that corruption is acceptable not only to some individuals but to the society at large. (Ibid, 2006: 46) ROLE OF ACADEMIC STAFF For enhancing or depressing quality of education the role of academic staff is crucial. Teaching is a profession and academic staff engaged in this teaching is a professional. Teaching precedes and breeds other professions. Teaching is the bedrock of professions. Consequently it is believed to be the mother of almost all professions. Teachers are the prime movers of teaching. In the account of Aristotle, “Teachers should be more honored than parents, for whereas parents give their children life, teachers give their children a good life. “(Grayling, 2002: 82) Making children to live and to be good is more considerate, tedious and moral than giving them life. Thus academic staff is the designer, architect and maker of the future of the society in general and that of students in particular. Teachers are the real nation builders. They influence not only the present but also the future generation by inculcating positive and healthy attitude in the learners through education. Every teacher is expected to present herself/himself not only as a professional but also as a role model. In the modern world the destiny of a nation or country is largely being shaped by what is done to the mind and personality of learners in the class rooms. The point is, what type of traits should an academic staff possess in order to discharge the responsibility entrusted to them? One cannot think that an incompetent, inefficient, biased, ill-informed and ill-educated staff produces good person. Or put straight forward, the good qualities of teaching staff is expressed in being honest, open-minded, truthful, friendly, loving, caring, charming, sensitive, diligent, role model, etc. Does experience show that the present day academic staff is up to the expectation of the society? No simple answer is possible. Anyway from the quality of the effect it is possible to infer something about its 119

cause. If the performance of graduates is below the expectation, then the quality of the academic staff is below standard. But why? “Unless the teacher is a flawless character it is hard for him/her to build up a character in others… Education aims at making-man. And this “making-man is possible only when the teacher possesses an exemplary character” (Reddy and Rao, 2006: 36) Teachers should also teach about good human relations. “The quality of life is very much dependent on the quality of relationships we form with others. The real satisfaction in living comes from warm, friendly, affectionate and loving relationships. In its absence life becomes drab, monotonous and unhappy.” (Tripathi, 2003: 88) Quality of education is a question of quality of life, and quality of life is a matter of how best should we live our lives. Pojman writes, “What question is more important than ‘how should we live our lives?” (2005: xi) Teachers are not born teachers. They are and ought to be trained as teachers. They need to be products before they become producers. Thus teachers are both the inputs and outputs of values and education of the society. Whatever we see in the personality and performance of teachers is the cumulative effect of whatever society has been putting in them in many ways and to what extent they have assimilated these inputs. Although society, academic institutions and students want the academic staff to be competent, honest, truthful, friendly, caring, and charming almost all teachers were not taught the subjects that help them become persons of these qualities. We expect them to have all possible virtues while denying them proper moral education that helps them develop and internalize the listed desirable moral traits. I do not think that we are right in expecting good traits without teaching them good things in advance. How academic personnel perform today is influenced by what was put in them yesterday. I am sure that many of us have not gone through moral education. But this does not mean that teachers do not have grains of moral and ethical values. No doubt, they do have even stronger values probably than other professionals. But we must note that these values are received more from the traditional values of the society than from formal education. The real value of a teacher is described Alexander the Great as “I am indebted to my father for living , but to my teacher for living well.” Reddy and Rao: 2006: 38) “Unless the teacher is morally upright, all moral education becomes merely conventional. “ (Ibid) “Character is more important in a teacher than in any other person in society because the whole society depends on him/her for moulding and shaping. Character is the foundation of life.” (Ibid: 40) Higher Learning Institutions Higher learning institutions have decisive responsibilities with regard to quality of education. Their academic goals, activities and out puts are based on the education system that the nation has adopted. Their objective, in precise words, is to emancipate and protect the minds of the learners from ignorance and indolence, bias and prejudice, arrogance and intolerance and inculcate all possible good qualities. In short their mission is to cultivate competence and excellence of character: competence in terms of subject-matter and, excellence of character in terms of personality. But today higher learning institutions are more concerned with knowledge and skills of hard facts than the inculcation of values. In witness to this Tripathi says, “Scholarship is no longer associated with virtues of intellectual honesty, humility and wisdom.” (2003: 118) To explain this let us consider the Ethiopian higher learning institutions as examples. Until very recently the system of our education has not made conscious and planned efforts to introduce and inculcate values. Except those values that are implied or referred in the text books and discourses there has been no formal education of values. The Ethiopian Government currently introduced 70:30 professional mix. Knowledge of science and technology without moral and ethical basis at its roots, is at least vulnerable, and at worse dangerous. In commenting on this Tripathi states, “Highly specialized professionals like scientists and engineers should have a moral responsibility to examine the larger social and human implications of their work. (2003: 127)There is paradox in the activities of higher learning institutions. Although they are supposed 120

to inculcate values in the learners, they do not even seem to have sound value system of their own to pursue. Basically institutions of higher learning should be the centers of values. Without value inquiry higher learning institutions cannot truly respond to national needs. To me, this is the other basic source for the problems being experienced in quality of education. It is a paradox that our learning institutions which are supposed to inculcate values in the learners, do not even seem to have developed sound value system of their own to pursue. To demonstrate this I will take a simple example. Addis Ababa University is the oldest institution of higher learning in the country. To a certain extent it teaches value inherent to some subjects. But as an old and pioneer institution of learning, it does not seem to have well developed and advanced value system of its own. It does not seem to be ethically considerate, when we examine how it runs its activities, treats its staff and students, and how it responds to different issues of the nation. I do not have data but on the basis of my observation I will try to make a small research with you right here and now. As an example I would like to consider Addis Ababa University, about which I have some obvious experiences and observations. Does Addis Ababa University as the oldest higher learning institution of the nation have reputable profile at the present? If it does not, why its reputation deteriorates? Is there transparency in the process of learning-teaching activities that it undertakes? Is academic freedom being practiced in the true sense of the word in the University? Is there efficiency and accountability as much as required? Is the University fair and just in terms of distribution of opportunities? Is there professional ethics that safeguards professions from being abused? Does the financial system and administrative chains encourage innovations, creativity, working environment, search of truth, etc? I do not have much doubt that the answer to most of these questions is “No”. Let us consider the other side of the coin. Is there nepotism and partiality in the functions of Addis Ababa University? Is there abuse of resources, opportunities and power? Is there inefficiency? Does it have disregard for the academic, support staff and its students? Is there disappointment about the University administration? Is there double standard? I am sure most of these questions can be responded with “yes” answer. If Addis Ababa University, the oldest academic institution in the country, is as defective as this, it cannot be a surprise if there is a problem in the quality of its graduates. But this should not overshadow the immense contribution in the process of nation building. My contention is that it has not developed its own value system that matches its longstanding history and reputation. Transparency, fairness, justice, professional ethics, academic freedom, efficiency and the like are some visible values that a good or a modest higher education institution should possess. Thus it is unlikely that higher learning institutions that are not equipped with these kinds moral and ethical traits do meaningfully produce quality graduates. From this one can reasonably draw a conclusion that the hitherto existing academic system and institutions have not adequately been producing morally suitable academic staff and citizens. Non-formal and informal Education In the process and activities of education people learn many things from different institutions, experiences, communities and events. As observed by Aggarwal different agencies and agents are directly or indirectly, formally or informally, consciously or unconsciously impart knowledge to learners. (2004: 165) These agencies can be classified into formal, informal and non-formal. The role each of these plays, has to some extent influences quality of education. Let me take family as one informal agency of education.

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Parents as Teachers Parents (family members) are teachers although they are unrecognized, unlicensed or unpaid ones. In the account of Aggarwal, family is “the first place or institution where we learn our first lessons of living together, working together, helping each other and learning lessons of mutual help and adjustment.” (170) Grayling also contends, that the contribution of parents “should not be restricted to merely biological duties; for they are teachers too; and moreover providers, care takers, protectors and custodians--- twenty four hours a day, seven days a week, for decades.” (2005: 82) Particularly moral education starts at home and early age, and goes on through out life. Although we may not notice it, we directly or indirectly teach our kids through our daily practices, communications, conversations and interactions. Particularly characters are largely acquired from parents and communities than from schools. Accordingly most of us use and live more by the moral values we received from our parents and communities than by the values we learned from schools. In principle parents do not allow anything that ruins their children. But not all parents know how to make their children good. Some even do not have the idea of what subjects could be crucial in inculcating goodness in learners. In family, we were taught and we also teach what is believed to be right and good, in contrast to wrong and bad indirectly and spontaneously. We are teaching and are being taught morality decisively not formally but in formally. We were taught what was believed to be morally right or wrong, good or bad indirectly. Moral rules were received from home, churches, mosques, communities, clubs, organizations, friends, etc. But the validity of knowledge received from such informal agencies may be questionable. In societies where there is no stronghold of moral thought inculcated through education, there is nothing that guards the mind of the learners against the bias and prejudice, the stereotypes and myth of their parents, peers and community. They receive good as well as bad ideas without discrimination. What some parents think as good and right could be wrong and evil when critically examined. While thinking to make their children good they may paradoxically inculcate in them bias and prejudice, hatred and jealousy, enmity and arrogance, aggressiveness and violence. More importantly the values we receive from parents are not theoretically substantiated, rationally and critically scrutinized; they are more of personal and subjective nature. This is another factor that negatively affects the quality of education. Efficiency of Academic Institution The way academic institutions run, their internal activities and external relations also matters. Efficient academic institutions and administration are strong tools for the promotion of quality, whereas inefficient ones hamper it. Not only how they run activities but also the policies and curricula they develop have impacts on the quality of education. Academic institutions, to a certain extent, are responsible to develop the curriculum and system of education of a given nation. Whether or not the curriculum is responsive to the needs of a nation depends on the quality service of the academic institutions. Sometimes the design of the system does not arise from the concrete need of home-society. It could rather be copied or adopted from others. One writer says, “Our education system is designed on the western education pattern that lays stress only on the physical sciences and almost completely overlooks moral … development.” (Narain, 2008: 119) As a result of this, Narain writes, “We are not developing human beings, but creating sophisticated computers and vile men.” (Ibid, 119) The problem is not that the education is borrowed but the fact that it may devoid of values and relevance. 122

Lack of Motivation As academic staff how teachers are paid, valued and treated is very important to consider the quality of education. Although teaching is an honorable engagement, Grayling points out, “it has never been a highly paid profession.” (2002: 82) Teachers are human beings with diverse kinds of interests, capacities and desires – desires to be satisfied and capacities to be cultivated, realized and promoted. But the remuneration they earn in relation to their work load and the purchasing value of the currency is low. It does not satisfy their interest and realize their capacities. This de-motivates their performance and hence it is a barrier to quality. More saddening is that they do not have sound recognition for the unparalleled role of their profession. Not only this. Very often, the way politicians, officials and offices treat teachers and their cases is not only aggressive but also tragic. This may not make them feel confidence and pride for being an academic staff and nationals. Unless the necessity of life or the love and respect they have for the profession persuades them teachers may not want to stay long in the academic environment. This has its own adverse effect on quality of education. Competent and brainy abscond the profession, in favor of better opportunities. Unbridled Pursuit of Money and Material Gains In the modern money has acquired the power of monitoring everything. Excessive craving for money is a threat to moral development and quality of education. The danger is with twofold edge. One, strong desire for money forces people to use any means to secure it. The other, as Grayling remarks, “good minds and hearts will be lost to honorable vocations.” (2003: 83) In other words, in an environment where money is the most admirable “many kinds of work that makes the world a better place suffer a loss of talent. “ (Ibid, 2005: 83) Not only education as a vocation, but also man as a human being has fallen under the control of money. Narain perfectly remarks, “… once money becomes more prized than the quality, values and morals of a man, corruption is bound to get a fill-up” (200: 43) A considerable number of graduates of higher learning institutions run after money and comfort with little or no sound concern for human values. The pursuit of money and benefit is not a curse. It becomes vile when it makes man use another man to satisfy this pursuit. Today, apparently human quality is declining, because materialistic interest and tendency is overriding it. Money and other material things acquired the power to control the knowledge of man, because morality has failed to empower people win victory over their lust and greed, anger and infatuation. The purpose of education is dictated by the hegemony of money. It is made to focus on the making of man, a development agent. It produces more technocrats than persons of versatile qualities. Indeed making man a development agent is unobjectionable, because education is necessitated by the need for a change. But the education that is concerned more with the development of material things [as an end], than with the development of man as an end, is missing its purpose. Basically what is placed at the centre of the idea of education is the development of man. A system of education that emphasizes the development of man as a tool for the attainment of material ends, and not as an end in himself is deficient. The excessive pursuit of money is the other threat to quality of education. Lack of Commitment of Students How committed students are to the cause of education also has relevance to the question of quality of education. Students must be well aware that education is to cultivate their internal and external life and personality. But today many students apparently do not work hard for knowledge but for certificate as a 123

license of job opportunities. Many of them do not commit themselves to get the best out of it. In actual fact, they can stand confidently on their feet only when they develop commitments for the cause of studentship. And this itself is possible when the personality of one is built both from inside and outside. Academia and Politics Politics and politicians have key roles in making the policy, working out the curriculum of education and in implementing it. From this angle, education had been one of the vulnerable battle grounds of conflicting political passions and views. Indeed politics is dominated by literate persons and elites. Those who are for or against the ideology of the ruling group are mainly drawn from the land of education. This itself plays important role in affecting the quality of education. A situation where there is healthy relation between politics and academia may encourage quality of education. In a system where there is discord between regimes and the academic staff the probability for the deterioration of quality of education is high. For example, most of the Ethiopian academicians had not been in accord with the ruling regimes of the country. Mostly those who were engaged in teaching had been working under harsh conditions of life. Haunted by fear, insecurity, poor living conditions and distrust how could they be expected to produce as good citizens as required? Academic Freedom Academic freedom is the essential feature of education of higher learning. Pandey defines academic freedom as a freedom to study, learn and teach. (2006: 57) The presence or absence of this freedom has a tremendous impact in enhancing or reducing the quality of education. Academic freedom is one of the essential qualities of academic life and environment. In principle academicians have the right to teach and undertake research freely. They also have the privilege to discuss freely on pertinent issues within the domain of their professional competence. Accordingly, institutions of higher learning are supposed to be venues for critical discussions. Academic freedom empowers academic staff to vigilantly fight for truth and justice. When this freedom is suppressed the vitality and dynamism of academic institutions and personnel lose the right track. It is hard to discover, develop, protect and advocate truth without sound academic freedom. Unfortunately it has not flourished in higher learning institutions as much as needed. It has constantly been under various threats. One of the brutal threats comes from politics. Political officials in different contexts and circumstances consider critical discussions, creative, inventive and innovative efforts of intellectuals as “dangerous” exercises. In most cases they, their political institutions, state machinery and armed forces harass the academic staff to silence their criticism and critical discourse. This results not only in creating a rift between the world of academics and politics but also tragedies of different kinds. That is why universities are very often considered as “ivory towers”. In view of the experienced tragedies, most professionals of the higher learning institutions fear politics and politicians. Probably this is the reason why today dead silence haunts many higher learning institutions. The present Ethiopian higher academic institutions can be the best example for this. In the higher academic institutions of the country there are no laws, rules and regulations that guarantee academic freedom to protect and cultivate the academic environments. Higher academic institutions do not creatively respond to the dynamism of their environments. Feeling of fear and insecurity made them to remain silent as if there were no problems. Honestly, a higher training institution, which is without an explicit critical minded scholars and discourse, is no better than a monastery. Intellectual discourse and public discussion on relevant and controversial issues of the country is almost none. Instead of vibrant academic pursuit there is dull (lifeless) silence. Where there is no academic freedom fear and insecurity grow, creative, inventive and innovative efforts 124

get hampered, intellectual docility becomes rampant. All these contribute to the decline of quality in education. Professional Ethics Owing to its vulnerability teaching as a profession needs professional ethics. It could run risk particularly when it is in the hands and minds of those who do not have moral and ethical enlightenment. As Francis Bacon said knowledge is power. This is true particularly of the specialized and professional knowledge of the modern world. But the possibility of the misuse of knowledge as a power cannot be ruled out. Because of temptation or motivation of personal gains, bias or prejudice there is a possibility for a moral agent to be lured by unprofessional and unethical acts. As Tripathi puts it, personal gain or expediency makes individuals and professionals lose sight of professional ideals and values. (2003: 238) Lawyers, teachers, journalists, physicians, engineers, judges, etc. have developed their professions and skill through education. These are all intended to serve the good purpose of people. But “Wily lawyers, corrupt judges, greedy doctors, irresponsible engineers, and insincere teachers are scourge on society. “ Tripathi, 2003: 236) Professional ethics is called forth to desist a profession and professionals from inflicting harm on the individuals and the public that needs the service of the profession. It is important for the public that needs the service of the profession, the professional that renders service and for the dignity and promotion of the profession. Tripathi observes that professional ethics is a “form of commitment to the public and let them know the level and quality of service they should expect from the professionals. In this way it tries to create a climate of trust between the professional and the general public. “(2003: 240) Thus it is not a surprise if quality of education is encroached when and where there is no professional ethics. Many academic institutions do not have professional ethics to observe. Indeed there are rules and regulations to administer the activities of academic institutions. But these rules do not arise from the internal commitment of agents but imposed from outside. Or, they are not the internal ethical obligations of agents that they voluntarily obey rather they are external sanctions that are coercively implemented. Professional ethics is deeper and more effective than the externally imposed laws, rules and norms. Thus the absence of professional ethics or the failure to observe it is a threat to quality of education. Corruption, bribery of different forms, abuses of professional power and skills certainly harm the quality of education. It is only when professionals value their professions that they also can be respected or valued as professionals. CONCLUSION Quality of education is seriously threatened. The present search of solution for the threat does not seem to be on the right track. Too much attention is given to technicalities and subjects of hard facts when the root cause of the problem is remained unaddressed. “The present education system has to be reviewed … to meet challenges in the future. To me all the issues of quality of education are derived from one premise. That premise is: The relegation of moral value. This is the basic problem out of which various forms of threats to quality of education arise. The failure to teach moral value makes man lose many desirable qualities. An agent who is not morally and ethically committed may not have as much desirable qualities as possible. Thus to alleviate the problems of quality of education the necessity of launching moral education should be a choice-less choice to consider. Without the inculcation of values in individuals and without the promotion of values in education the problems of the present era keep not only on lingering but also making matters worse and obscure. References Aggarwal, J.C, 2004. Teacher and Education in a Developing Society. New Delhi: Vikas 125

Publishing House PVT LTD. American Association of School Administrators. (1966). Imperatives in Education. Washington, D. C.: American Association of School Administrators. Authors and Forum for Social Studies (FSS). 2009. Quality of Higher Education in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa. Barrow, R. and Woods, R. 1988. An Introduction to Philosophy of Education. London and New York: Rutledge. Grayling, A. C., 2005. The Heart of Things: Applying Philosophy to the 21st Century. London: Phoenix. Grayling, A. C. 2002. The Reason of Things: Living with Philosophy. London: Phoenix. Narain, Ram, 2005. Will The Dreams Come True: Re-engineering the Systems and Processes. New Delhi: Indiana Books. Pandey, L. k. 2006. Teaching as a Profession. New Delhi: Cyber Tech Publications. Pojman, Louis p. 2005. How Should We Live? An Introduction to Ethics. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth. Reddy, D. Dayakara and Rao, Digumarti Bhaskara. Value-oriented Education. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House. Tripathi, A. N., 2003. Human Values. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers.

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8. THE ROLE OF TEACHERS’ CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) TO THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION: THE CASE OF GENERAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF EAST SHOWA ZONE By Feyera Beyessa Abstract: The purpose of this study was to assess the role of teachers’ Continuous Professional Development (CPD) to the quality of education in general secondary schools of east Showa Zone. To attain this objective descriptive survey research method was employed. The subjects of the study were 187[56 Newly Deployed Teachers (NDTs) and 81 Experienced Teachers (ETs)] and 36 key stakeholders. Purposive sampling technique was used to select the target schools and key stakeholders while stratified and simple random sampling techniques were employed to select the sample teachers. Together the necessary data, questionnaire, interview, and document analysis were used. The gathered information was analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative methods of data analysis. The result of the study showed that with statistically non significant difference between NDTs and ETs, they believed that as CPD has strong impact to improve quality of education. However, the relative average mean score shows that NDTs had higher position to recognize the significance of CPD to the quality of education and more involved in practicing it than ETs. Individually guided CPD model was dominantly applied by teachers in contrast to the development/improvement model, which was least leading to be functional. Evidence shows that CPD has positive impact on teachers’ pedagogical contents knowledge and to some extent it has focused on improving students’ achievement, which leads to enhance the expected quality of education. However, the program has feeble pressure to improve teachers’ subject contents knowledge. Thus, based on the findings of the study, recommendations are forwarded to mitigate the aforementioned problems.

Introduction Background of the study Professional development, in the broad sense, refers to the development of a person in his or her professional role to improve quality of education in school. More specifically, Continuous Professional Development (CPD) includes formal experiences (e.g. attending workshops and professional meetings, mentoring, etc.) and informal experiences, such as reading professional publications, watching television documentaries related to an academic discipline, etc. (Ganser, 2000).

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In this connection, the document National Association of Secondary School Principals of America (1996) states that: Educators cannot improve high schools without the proper preparation to take on new roles and responsibilities. Continuing in-service must have a valued place in their day-to-day professional lives…Teachers, administrators, and other educators who are part of a high school must regard their own learning as integral to their professional role. The school district should help educators create a learning community in which substantive professional development, linked primarily to content knowledge and to instructional strategies, plays an ongoing part in their work. It is therefore, believed that successful teachers’ CPD experiences have a noticeable impact on teachers’ work and students academic achievement, both in and out of the classroom, especially considering that a significant number of teachers throughout the world are under-prepared for their profession (AbdalHaqq, 1995).This upholds the view that the new generation should not only to be conveyed with the educational activities and practices of the past generation. In-stead, education has to make necessary changes in one’s activities and practices to make the new situations to be met successfully (Aggarawal, 2004:9). In this regard, it is important to note that Ethiopia has placed education at the center of its strategies for development and decentralization, with strong polices promoting quality of educational provision (TGE, 1994). Teachers have to be well developed professionally with the latest teaching-learning knowledge and skills, to meet the challenges of modern society and capable of adapting to the ongoing professional reforms (Ibid). Regarding this, teachers need to update and improve their own knowledge and technologies throughout their life time. Moreover, with the guideline and framework of CPD, the Federal Ministry of Education strongly believes that CPD should extend to all Ethiopian teachers until the end of their career as an educator so as to enhance quality of education in the school (MoE, 2004 and MoE, 2009). In spite of the above believes, however, issues related to quality education have become common concerns being shared by most stakeholders recently in Ethiopia. The reports of Ministry of education (MoE) in its ESDP III document also reveals that as teachers do not continuously update their competences and skills, it negatively impacts on the quality of learning and students’ achievements (MoE, 2005). This testifies the strong believes of many educators. For instance, Craft (2000) discussed that the dynamic nature of the educational development cannot be easily managed without continuous learning. TESO (2003) also points out that “teachers should be competent in order to produce responsible citizens, in the subjects and content of teaching, in communication and approaches to learning and teaching, in classroom organization and management, in assessment, in areas relating to 128

the school and the education system, and in values, attributes, ethics and abilities essential to professionalism that contributes to the quality of education” (pp. 38-40). However, in the National Education Conference Document (July, 2002) as cited in Gizaw (2006), it was found that teachers are not committed to their profession for they do not have the necessary professional and academic knowledge to employ modern methods of teaching in Ethiopia schools in line with the expected quality of education. Furthermore, the Ministry of Education (2004) reported that the quality of teaching-learning process in Ethiopian schools is very low. That is, problem solving, cooperative learning, and learning by doing approaches are limited or not completely practiced. To this end the study was intended to assess the role of teachers’ CPD to the quality of education in general secondary schools of east Showa Zone. The study was therefore, designed to answer the following basic question. 1. 2. 3. 4.

What are the beliefs of teachers on CPD program in relative to quality of education? To what extent teachers have practicing different models of CPD? Are there statically difference between NDTs and ETs in their beliefs and practices of CPD? To what extent the practices of CPD have impact on teachers’ work and students’ achievement?

It is believed that the findings of this study would have immense contributions to the improvement of effective teaching learning process in the schools. Therefore, it may help: I. II. III.

teachers have proper awareness on the objectives and importance of CPD to be benefited from its practice; to strengthen the scope and practices of CPD to improve quality of education at schools level; to throw more light for policy makers to modify the approaches of CPD in order to have powerful contribution to the quality of education.

Methods Sources of Data In order to get relevant and reliable information, data were gathered from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data sources included teachers, school principals, Parent- teachers Associations (PTAs), Kebele Education and Training Management Boards (KETMB), School Cluster Resources Centers (SCRCs), Woreda Education Offices (WEOs), Woreda Education and Training Management Boards (WETMBs), and Zonal Education Offices (ZEOs). The secondary data sources were government policies guidelines, reports, portfolios of teachers, and other school records which were recorded with respect to CPD activities. Samples and Sampling Techniques Purposive sampling was employed to select 5 (31%) schools from 16 government general secondary schools of the Zone. First, stratified sampling was used to divide the total teachers of each school into 129

two groups (newly deployed and experienced teachers). Second, equal proportion of sample size teachers were identified from each group of the schools. Finally, out of the 76 NDTs, 56 (74 %) teachers and out of the 110 ETs, 81 (74 %) teachers were selected using simple random sampling techniques. The representatives of key stakeholders’ educational structural organizations including school principals were purposely selected as the respondents for this study. Data collection instruments Close-ended items of the questionnaire were based on the Likert-type opinion of four and five scales. In addition, 4 set of interviews for key stakeholders and unstructured observation was used to investigate any behavior or events relevant to answering the research questions. Furthermore, document analyses were carried out on government policies, guidelines, reports, individual and group teacher’s portfolios, annual plan and other school documents Procedure and Data analysis strategy The instruments were constructed by the researcher on the bases of theoretical knowledge from the review of related literature and its relevance to acquire the necessary data. Pilot test of instruments was made in one school (Boset secondary and preparatory school) for 20 respondents to make the instruments dependable and to be finally used in the actual study, with Cronbach’s alpha 0.88. Data gathered through the closed questionnaire (5 and 4 degree of agreement) were analyzed using both descriptive (mean &standard deviation) and inferential statistics (t-test& Chi-square). T -test was employed to see whether there were mean differences between newly deployed and experienced teachers’ attitudes towards CPD, and Chi-square (X 2) test was used to see the statistical significance relationships between NDTs and ETs in their actual practices of CPD programs at 0.05 confidence levels. Quantitative data were also analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) 14.0 version. Finally data gathered through interviews, document analysis, open-ended questionnaires and observation techniques were analyzed qualitatively. Review of the related literature Meaning of CPD Various concepts on the subject of CPD are found in the literatures on teachers and teachers’ education that indicate the improvement of student learning through enhanced teacher performance. For instance, Phillips (1991) defines continuous professional development as a complex process incorporating the sum total of all activities, in which teachers improve and develop their instructional skills, their curriculum development, and implementation and evaluation skills, carried out to promote teachers’ growth, students’ learning and development of the school. He also asserts that, as a result, teachers develop a wide range of beliefs and attitudes that support effective teaching practices by various means and in a variety of contexts. Similarly, Guskey and Huberman (1995) argue that professional development is at the centre of every modern proposal to enhance quality of education. To this end, regardless of how schools are formed or reformed, structured or restructured, the renewal of staff members’ professional life is considered as fundamental to improvement the quality of education. Objectives CPD

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The main objectives of continuous professional development is to enable teachers to offer students the learning opportunities that prepare them to meet world-class standards in a given content areas and to successfully assume adult responsibilities for citizenship and work (American Federation of Teachers, 2002). In line with this, CPD is expected to promote, active learning, continuous assessment, classroom management, time management and collaborative learning so as to achieve the target for the development of education in Ethiopian in terms of access, equity, quality and relevance (MoE,2004). Moreover, teachers are empowered as professionals, and therefore should receive the same treatment that they themselves are expected to give their students (McLaughlin and Zarrow, 2001). Hence, CPD program that is not supported by the school or curricula reform is not effective (Schifter, Russell, and Bastable, 1999).

Forms of CPD Teachers’ continuous professional development is a lifelong process, which begins with the initial preparation of teachers and continues throughout their teaching career (Fullan, 1991). Similarly, in Ethiopia, teachers’ continuous professional development (CPD) has two forms (MoE, 2005:19); the first form is a two years induction program for newly graduate teachers while the second one is for those who are already in the system. In practical, school-based teachers’ CPD are given to primary and secondary school teachers, are of two forms: Induction for Newly Deployed Teachers (NDTs) and Regular for Experienced Teachers (ETs). Both forms are considered as school-based CPD programs. Models and Practices CPD Prominent educators in the field of continuous professional development have produced models that incorporate practices and characteristics of CPD Programs. Purposely, five models and practices relevant to teachers’ CPD are selected for discussion first because of the wider application of them in many countries both in the developed and developing world. These five models were developed by Dennis Sparks and Susan Loucks-Horsley (1989) who took an in-depth look at the range of models of teachers’ continuous professional development. Even though NDTs and ETs have to undergo CPD programs in different courses/modules, there is no clear demarcation between their actual professional practices in schools. Individually-guided Model This model acknowledges that effective teachers’ CPD would take place when teachers set their own learning agenda (Sparks and Loucks-Horsley, 1989).This refers to a process through which teachers 131

plan for and pursue activities they believe would promote their own learning. The key characteristic of the individually-guided professional development model is that the teacher himself/herself designs the learning. The teacher also determines his or her own goals and selects the activities that will result in the achievement of those goals. Likewise, Hall (1997) explains that using this model individual can best judge their own learning needs and are capable of self-direction and self-initiated learning. In this regard, teachers need to have a clear philosophy for their teaching and be able to identify ways to apply this in practice, and also identifying areas needing to improve quality of education. Observation/ Assessment Model This model provides a structure by which teachers can be supervised while developing professionally. Basic assumptions of this type of professional development are that teachers learn most effectively when they have a need to know or a problem to solve and that those at the work-site will have the best understanding of what is required to improve their performance (Sparks and Loucks-Horsley, 1989).The scholars indicate that analysis of the supervisory or coaching or mentoring process provides participants with an opportunity to reflect on the value of the observation/ assessment process and to discuss modification that could be made in future cycles. Development/Improvement Process Model Involvement in a development/improvement process engages teachers in developing curriculum, designing programs, or engaging in a school improvement process to solve general or particular problems. Teachers are sometimes called upon to develop or adapt curricula, design programs or engage in systematic school improvement processes that have, as their goal, the improvement of classroom instruction and/or curriculum. Typically these projects are initiated to solve a problem. Their completion often requires that teachers acquire specific knowledge or skills, for example, in curriculum planning, curriculum organization, research on effective teaching and group problem- solving strategies. This learning could take place through reading, discussion, observation, training and /or trial-and-error (Futrell et al., 1995). Training Model When many teachers think of professional development they think of the training model. The traditional training model involves teachers in acquiring knowledge or skills through appropriate individual or group instruction. Training is a powerful process for enhancing knowledge and skills. As pointed out by Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1989); it is clear from the research on training that teachers

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can be wonderful learners. They can master just about any kind of teaching strategy or implement almost any technique as long as adequate training is provided. Inquiry Model Teacher inquiry as a professional development model could take different forms (Sparks and LoucksHorsley, 1989). It could be a solitary activity done individually or in small group or in a large group. It could be done informally or formally. This model requires that teachers identify an area of instructional interest, collect data and make changes in their instruction based on an interpretation of those data. Fullan (1991) and others, however, suggest that the “Inquiry Approach” will become more widely used by the teacher as a researcher, as a learner, and as a reflective practitioner. Similarly, case study approach also comes under the inquiry model, as another practice of continuous teacher development. Case studies are inclined to identify causes and find solutions systematically for an identified problem situation for an individual student or group of students (Howey and Zimpher, 1996). To conclude this sub-section, it is evident from the foregoing descriptions that the practices described under the models examined in this paper are effective practices for continuing professional development of teachers. It is also important to note that a single model may not be sufficient for an effective teachers’ continuous professional development. A contribution of models provides teachers with rich professional skills to influence teaching learning positively. Results and Discussion This section deals with the presentation and analysis of data regarding teachers’ beliefs towards CPD and their practices, in relative to quality of education. Also the impact of CPD on teachers’ work and students’ achievement were seen. The data organized in the form of tables were analyzed based on the responses obtained from teachers. Furthermore, the data obtained from interview and secondary sources, were described in such a way that they show the reality on the ground, at the school level. Table 1 : Respondents’ beliefs on the role CPD to the quality of Education

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No

Items

1

CPD is significant for professional developmen t.

Respondent s NDTs ETs

Mean (M)

S.D

3.89 3.88

1.11 1.03

t-value

p-value

0.09*

0.93

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

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CPD contributes to students’ achievemen t CPD improves the sum total of formal and informal learning experiences CPD brings professional networking in staffs CPD provide modern professional teaching methods CPD enhance teachers’ professional competence and students’ engagement . I hope CPD helps teachers to improve the educational reforms. I feel happy in practicing CPD for school improveme nt CPD promotes high quality learning CPD to be continued to strengthen quality of education

NDTs ETs

3.79 3.79

0.97 1.11

NDTs ETs

3.81 3.74

1.02 1.03

ND ETs

3.95 3.78

1.12 0.94

NDTs ETs

3.91 3.69

1.13 0.93

NDTs ETs

3.79 3.6

1.0 1.44

NDTs ETs

3.79 3.73

1.17 1.1

NDTs ETs

3.88 3.07

1.34 1.12

NDTs ETs

3.48 3.23

1.24 1.05

NDTs ETs

3.18 3.02

1.43 1.2

0.02*

0.98

0.85*

0.4

0.96*

0.34

1.2*

0.23

0.97*

0.33

0.31*

0.76

1.4*

0.16

1.2*

0.26

0.68*

0.49

NDTs ETs

Average mean scores

3.74 3. 55

N.B *=P> 0.05, degree of freedom (df) = 135 In the table 1, the overall mean score of NDTs was relatively higher (3.74) than the mean score of ETs (3.55). This may be taken as an indication that both groups strongly believe and recognize CPD as a means for bringing effective professional networking among staff members and promotes high quality learning, enhancing total sum of formal and informal learning experience and strengthen quality of education that results in school improvement. Similarly, Ethiopian ministry of education also emphasize that CPD should continue until the end of teachers’ career as an educator in terms of lifelong professional development so as to improve quality of education (MoE, 2004). Thus, one can possibly argue that to be competent of the global workers, teachers have to engage the practices of new technologies through CPD in their professional time so as to get better quality of education. As can be seen from table 1, the t-test for all items (df =135, P > 0.05) showed that there was statistically non significance difference beliefs between the respondent groups. Meaning, they had strong views on the contribution of CPD to improve high quality of teaching learning in the school, which directly implies to enhance the quality of education in the school. Similarly, the interview made with WEOs, CRC coordinators and ZEOs indicated that from the very beginning when CPD was introduced, teachers looked it as it makes them busy and they looked negatively. In the year 2009, they were being introduced about the importance of CPD and its objectives deeply as it engage teachers’ professional knowledge. Then, after training was given on the Ethiopian educational quality package programs to enhance students’ achievement in the schools, and they have been positively recognized CPD so that it is directly related to improve students’academic achievement. From the above ideas one can say that CPD is an engine to enhance the quality of education in the school. Table 2: Teachers’ responses to the practice of CPD. Mod elS I

No 1

I plan and peruse CPD program individually

2

I practice CPD through my readings

3

I directed myself in CPD programs

4

I am participating in peer-coaching and comentoring I have discussions on best practice of CPD

II 5 6

8

I have communications on daily learning activities I participate on developing school curriculum I design school improvement program

9

I have evaluated text books and syllabus

10 11

I have given demonstration and lecture on training CPD presenting new ideas on CPD trainings

12

Practicing with in the workshops

7 III

IV

Items

Practicing active learning

V

13 Conducting action and case studies 14 15

The overall practices CPD program

Using project-based learning NDTs ETs

N.B * = P< 0.05, df = 3 135

2.9 2.8

Respondent s NDTs ETs NDTs ETs NDTs ETs NDTs ETs NDTs ETs NDTs ETs NDTs ETs NDTs ETs NDTs ETs NDTs ETs NDTs ETs NDTs ETs NDTS ETs NDTS ETs NDTs ETs

Mean Chi-square(X2 3.47 3.24 3.3 3.22 3.3 3.17 2.96 3.06 2.95 3.22 3.12 304 2.58 2.16 2.5 2.28 2.61 2.23 2.72 2.81 2.69 2.2 2.63 2.56 3.11 2.93 2.59 2.91 2.69 2.56

*

PValue

8.61

0.04

2.24

0.52

1.56

0.6

1.56

0.67

3. 86

0. 28

1. 44

0. 69 6.79

1. 50

0.79 0.6

4.42

0.22

5. 68

0.13

2. 36

0.5

. 51

0.21

3. 97

0. 26

4. 09

0.25 0.91

0.82

As indicated on Table 2, the overall mean practice of NDTs and ETs are 2.9 and 2.8 respectively shows that teachers have practiced CPD fairly and the less the experienced teachers (NDTs) the better they involved in practicing it than ETs. Yet, ETs are mentors and line manager for effective practice of CPD program at school level (MoE, 2004). Thus, one can safely said that to improve quality of education in the schools ETs would actively participate in practicing CPD programs and make themselves to be more productive and good example in applying CPD models at school level. Thus, the researcher can possibly argue that experienced teachers would have been act as role models, advisors and providers of their best practice for NDTs and school environment as well. From table 2, the result of 14 items, the practices of teachers ( X 2 < 8.61, df = 3 , P > 0.05) showed that there was statistically non significant between their actual practices of CPD in different models. However, the result (X2 = 8.61, df = 3, P < 0.05) shows the statistical significance difference between NDTs and ETs in planning and pursuing CPD activities individually (item1). This implies that, the less the experienced teachers the more put into practice the plan and activities of CPD practices individually that help them to improve students’academic achievement. One can possibly say that this was may be due to NDTs have higher motivation, responsibility and commitment to practice the new strategic program than ETs. Chart 1: Mean score Teachers' Practices for CPD Models by Phase

As shown in the chart 1, the mean score practices of NDTs and ETs in model I

was 3.35 and

3.17 respectively. This indicated that NDTs were applied individually guided model to greater extent while ETs used to some extent and this model of CPD was most dominantly applicable by both groups of respondents so as to improve quality of education in the school. Parke and Coble (1997) declare that 136

practicing development model provides teachers vigorous participation on effective teaching, interact with colleagues from inside and outside the school who have had success in development/ improvement process and learn new group and interpersonal skills. However, mean score of 2.56 and 2.26 were rated by both NDTs and ETs respondents respectively on development model (model III). It shows that in the practicing CPD programs, both respondents were using development model to the least extent relative to the other models and teachers engage themselves to work collaboratively with colleagues to improve school programs and curriculum. Therefore, one can realize that this may be due to the fact that teachers were supposed to implement the prepared and given CPD models and school curriculum rather they did not get the opportunity to prepare them. On the other hand, teachers were practicing inquiry, and training observation models fairly. As the close examination to the document review of the researcher, it was sure that teachers had their own plan of action, portfolios and different activities of CPD for both NDTs and ETs. However, the recorded portfolios vary from school to school. It was up to the teachers whether the recorded documents were according to the intended objectives of CPD or not. To this end, there was less commitment pointed by or any CPD professional experts in order to make them to practice CPD to enhance the quality of education at school level. Regarding inquiry model, majority groups’ portfolio contains research conducted on “teaching methods, student discipline, less participation of females, and continuous assessment”. To some extent teachers were involved to practice this mode. Chart 2:Teachers’opinion on the impact of CPD to their work and students’ achievement As can be seen from chart 2 the mean score 4.6, 4.1, 3.9, 3.8, and 3.8 shows teachers’ opinion on teachers activities like collaborative learning, active leaning, continuous assessment, time management, classroom management respectively. Similarly with regard to the effect of CPD on students academic achievement (M=3.5) the same chart shows that CPD has moderate contribution in increasing levels of students’ achievement. Likewise, Valli (2000) sees that the new approach of CPD is considered as a vehicle not only for teacher development but for students’ performance and whole school improvement as well. Similarly; the interview made with WEOs, SCRCs ,WETNBs, ZEOs, and School principal that “CPD has direct relation to students’academic achievement, teaching learning process, managing the students, assessing students learning progress and staff development to bring necessary quality of 137

education”This point out that CPD has positive impact on teachers’ pedagogical knowledge and that such changes are associated with changes in their classroom instruction and students’achievement in particular and associated the positive change to quality of education in general. On the other hand, chart 2, indicates that mean score (M=1.1) related to the contribution of CPD to the teachers’ subject matter skills. This illustrates that CPD has very low contribution to improve teachers’ subject matter knowledge. Yet, CPD program which is not supported by the school or curricula reform is not effective (Schifter, Russell, and Bastable, 1999). Successful professional-development experiences have a noticeable impact on teachers’ work and students’ academic achievement, both in and out of the classroom (Abdal-Haqq, 1995). Hence, one can say that low pressure of CPD practices to the subject matter /the curriculum may cause in effective quality of education in the schools. Conclusion and Recommendations Based on the analysis, the following were the conclusions: 1 As can be seen from the analysis, with statically non significant difference between the groups, teachers believed that as CPD improves their formal and informal learning that prompts high quality of education. 2 Although, teachers practiced CPD program fairly, it can be concluded that NDTs were at higher position and committed in practicing CPD to achieve the expected quality of education in the schools. 3 From the results of investigation, individually guided model was dominantly applied in contrast to the development/improvement model (developing school curriculum, school improvement program, and evaluating text books), which was least leading to be functional. 4 The result of the finding reveals that practicing CPD program has significant impact on teachers’pedagogical contents knowledge and students’achievement, which leads to bring the expected quality of education. However, the program has least contribution to improve teachers’subject content knowledge that may directly hinder the quality of education in the school. In light of the findings, the following recommendations could be made: 1

It was found that slightly NDTs believed positive impact of CPD to the quality of education than ETs. Therefore, to realize role of CPD to the quality of education, educational offices should give trainings on the current issues, values, objectives, and principles of CPD for teachers in general and for ETs in particular so that they can believe and internalize strongly.

2

The research results pointed out those NDTs were more involved in practicing teachers’ CPD program than ETs. Therefore, in order to actively play effective practices of CPD program,

138

seminars, workshops and short-term trainings on principles, values and objective of the program should to be given by WEOs/ZEOs to all teachers, particularly to experienced teachers. Moreover, teachers (NDTs) have to be committed to work collaboratively with colleagues to improve their teaching and learning, and quality of education at schools. 3

Among the five CPD models, applying wide use of a model alone does not guarantee to meet the expected quality of education. Thus, to improve quality of education in Ethiopia, MoE has to distribute practices of various models in the form of guideline so that teachers and educational officials would aware of the mixed approaches of CPD models and apply the pertinent techniques regularly.

4

The study shows that in practicing CPD programs, both respondents were using development model to the least extent relative to the other models. Thus, to improve the quality of education in the school, MOE has to design and distribute clear guideline that helps teachers to practice various models of teachers’ CPD.

5

The role of teachers’ CPD highly focused on the improvement of teacher’s pedagogical knowledge and to some extent focused on improving students’ achievement. Nevertheless, CPD has low pressure to improve teachers’ subject matters (curriculum).Therefore, in order to increase the quality of education in the schools; CPD should be in alignment with the professional development of teachers’ subject contents.

References Abdal-Haqq, I. (1995). Infusing Technology into Pre-Service Teacher Education. ERIC Digest. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education. Aggarwal, J.C. (2004).Theory and Practices of Education.52th le. Ed, New Delhi: Vikas. America Federation of Teachers (2002).Principles of Professional Development: AFT’s Guidelines for Creating Professional Development programs that make a difference. Washington, DC 200012079. Retrived from http://www.aft.org/pubs- reports/downloads/teachers/PRINCIPLES.pdf (accessed 2009). Craft, A.(2000).Continuous Professional Development: A practical Guide for Teachers and Schools.(2nd ed).Rutledge, Flamer Darling-Hammond, L. (1999).“Target Time toward Teachers”. In: Journal of Staff Development, 20(2), and 3136. Fullan, M. (1991). The New Meaning of Educational Change. New York, New York: Teachers College Press. Futrell, M.H.; Holmes, D.H.; Christie, J.L.; Cushman, E.J. (1995). Linking Education Reform and Teacher Professional Development: the Efforts of Nine School Districts. Occasional Paper Series. Washington, DC: Center for Policy Studies, Graduate School of Education and Human development. George Washington University. 139

Ganser,T. (2000). “An Ambitious Vision of Professional Development for Teachers”. In: NASSP Bulletin, 84(618), 6-12. Gizaw Tasissa (2006).Teaching Professionalism: School level Continuous Professional Development. Case Study of Holy Primary School Proceedings of the Conference on Teacher Education for Sustainable Development in Ethiopia. May 5-6, Ethiopia Management Institutes. Deberezeit College of Education Addis Ababa University. P.76-103.Journal of Educational Development, 22(6), 659-672. Guskey, T. R. & Huberman, M. (1995). Professional Development in Education: New Paradigms and Practices. New York: Teachers College Press. Hall, D. (1997). Professional Development Portfolios. In Kydd, L., M. Crawford &C. Riches (eds.) Professional Development for Educational Management: (pp.169-177). Buckingham: Open University. Howey, K. R. & Zimpher, N. L. (1996). Patterns in Prospective Teachers. In The Teacher Educator’s handbook: Building a Knowledge Base for the Preparation of Teachers (pp. 465-505). San Francisco.: Jossey-Bass. Jasper, M. (2006). Professional Development, Reflection, and Decision-Making. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. McLaughlin,M.W.; Zarrow, J (2001)“Teachers engagement in evidence-based reform :trajectories of teachers’inquiry, analysis, and action”.In: Lieberman, A.;Miller,L(Eds),Teachers caught in the action: Professional development that matters: New York :Teachers College Press. MoE (2004). Continuous Professional Development. For school teachers. (A guideline). Addis Ababa, June. MoE (2005).Education Sector Development Program III (ESDP). (2005/200620010/20011). Program Action Plan, Final Draft, Addis Ababa. August. MoE (2009).Anew framework of Continuous Professional Development for Teachers, School Leaders and Educators in Ethiopia. First Draft. Ministry of Education. National Association of Secondary School Principals. (1996). Breaking Ranks: Changing an American Institution. National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1904 Association Drive, Reston, VA. 22091, (Order #2109601). Parke, H. & Coble, C. (1997). Teachers Designing Curriculum as Professional Development: a Model for Transformational Science Teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 34(8), 773-789. Phillips, H. (1991), Teachers’ Professional Development: Printed by Australian Print Group. Schifter,D;Russel.S.J; Bastable,V. (1999) “Teaching to the big Ideas”.’In: Solomon, M.Z.(Ed), The diagnostic teacher: Constructing new approaches to professional development. New York: Teachers College Press. Sparks, D. & Loucks-Horsley, S. (1989). Five Models of Staff Development. Journal of Staff Development, 10(4), 40-57. TESO (2003b). Teacher Education System Overhaul (TESO) Final. Addis Ababa, March. TGE (1994).Transitional Government of Ethiopia, Education and Training Policy, Addis Ababa. Valli, L. (2000). Connecting Teacher Development and School Improvement: Ironic Consequences of a Preservice Action Research Course. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(7), 715-730. 140

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9. ASSESSING THE STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES IN DISTANCE

EDUCATION OF RIFT VALLEY UNIVERSITY (RVUC), ADAMA COORDINATING CENTER BY Temesgen File Huluka Abstract The study was aimed at assessing the student support services in Distance Education which can be understood as a variety of systems or procedures that are purposefully designed and effectively utilized by Distance Education institutions to support and/or facilitate teaching and learning at distance. Having this in mind the paper critically examine the existing work tradition on student support services by Center for Distance Education (CDE) of RVUC, Adama coordinating Center; to come up with suggestions and recommendations that could promote Educational Quality in Distance Education. The purpose of the study is to assess student support services and come up with recommendations to enhance educational quality. This is beneficial not only to the service seeker, but also to the service providers. And the researcher also hopes that, other institutions offering distance education will be benefited, from the finding and recommendations by promoting student support services in the program. Different approaches (qualitative & quantitative) research methods with varieties of research tools are used. Structured questionnaires were designed to gather data from distance learners at Adama coordinating center during the face-to- face (tutorial program). In addition, Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with CDE expertise, structured interview set for top and senior management staff of RVUC, relevant document analysis is all used to gather reliable and valid data. Analysis of the (statistical data, interviews and FGD) reveal deficiencies in the orientation system, services to be offered at the coordinating center, timely distribution of the study materials, quality and standard of the self study materials, support services during the face-to-face programs etc. Accordingly, recommendations are also made to address those deficiencies. 1. Background of the study Knowledge contributes to the individual well being, societal and economic development. In the 21 st C of knowledge society, lifelong learning is becoming mandatory because, of the short “shelf life” of knowledge, skills, and occupations, and as a result there is the growing importance of Continuing education in general and Distance education in particular. Therefore regular updating of individual capabilities and qualifications is decisive. It has long been realized and recognized that lack of education and unequal access to education has emerged to be a potential cause of socio-economic backwardness, poverty, ill-health and all forms of human deprivation. All this fact necessitated the growing significance of Distance Education According to Keegan (1986; 1996) Distance Education can be defined based on the following premises; Separation of teacher and learner, Influence of educational organization/institution, Use of technical media, Provision of two way communication, Separation of learner from peer group, Industrialization of Education, Individualization of learning. 142

Distance Learning is type of instruction that takes place outside of a classroom or training facility. It transcends the barriers of time, age, race, gender, nationality, physical disability, income, social class, space, creed community, and religion. Distance Education is a potential alternative for the marginalized section of the population. Recently, there is the growing significance of Distance Education all over the globe due to various factors like (globalization, proliferation of Knowledge economy, revolution in ICT, formalization of General Agreement for Trade and Tariffs (GATS) in World Trade Organization (WTO), International and National commitments for education to realize Millennium Development Goal, social commitment for lifelong learning, increasing demand and thrust for quality education, increasing commercialization of education, Flexibility of Distance education and structural rigidity of the conventional system of education, ( Sociology of Education, Indra Gandhi National Open University IGNOU, 2008). Historically Distance Education has passed through three (3) phases of development. Namely; Correspondence Education, Open Education, and Virtual Education. (Rumble 1989, Manjulika and Reddy 2002, htt: //www...icdl.open.ac.uk), Distance Learning has the following Advantages: Cost effective not only for the institution offering the distance learning, but also for the learner. It incurs less cost per student, per graduate and per credit when compared with the conventional one. The program can be operated with less man power for the entire work. The initial high investment in launching the program can be overcome by subsequent high enrolment rate by maintaining quality to ensure profitability. • For the learners distance learning does not require commuting (No travel expenses), it is possible to complete most of the classes at their convenience (Self-paced learning), learners can live anywhere, study from anywhere while pursuing the education of their choice. • Learners gain extra knowledge which is the driving force of the economy. • Accessibility- reaching those who have less access to the availability of educational opportunity to the formal educational program and adequate student support services • Flexibility of Distance program and structural rigidity of the conventional one. • Quality of Distance Education can be maintained at the level of developing learning materials, transportation, timely delivery of the learning materials, mechanism of assessing the quality of educational services, efficient student support services. Research results have consistently shown that with good instructional design there's no significant difference between distance learning and the conventional learning. (Distance-Learning-College-Guide, University of Phoenix (source), Htt: // www.quintcareers.com,by Dr Randall S..Hansen), Rumble, (1986), (IGNOU, 2008), Disadvantages of distance learning: •

• • • • • • • •

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It may demand costly and complex technology. It requires advanced planning. There are hidden costs in the program Distance learning does not offer immediate feedback. Distance learning does not always offer all the necessary courses. Distance learning may not be acknowledged by all employers. Distance learning does not often give students the opportunity to work on oral communication skills. Social isolation. (Hansen, 2004)

Naturally, there are advantages and disadvantages to distance education programs. However, contrary to varied beliefs and opinions, the distance education advantages far outweigh the disadvantages. : (http://EzineArticles.com/expert=David_Cassell) Rift Valley University College (RVUC) is the giant private institution in Ethiopia. It has 12 campuses. These are: (Adama, Bishoftu, Gotera, Gulele, Nekemte, Jimma, Batu, Shashemene, Assella, Chiro, Dire Dawa and Harar). These campuses conduct the regular and evening programs. In addition, they also coordinate distance education programs run by the Center for Distance Education (CDE) of RVUC since, 2004 G.C. Because of it cost effectiveness, self paced learning, the need for new and extra knowledge, its flexibility and structural rigidity of the conventional one ; there is a growing significance of Distance Education particularly for developing countries like Ethiopia. But, the challenges between its social responsibility in accessing education to the marginalised and the commercialisation of knowledge need serious attention. The interest, in this research work is therefore to analyse the possibility of enhancing quality education through distance learning by promoting student support services in the case of the distance education program run by the Centre for Distance Education (CDE), of RVUC with major emphasis on Adama coordinating center. 2. Research question This research work is targeted to give answer for the following questions; • What are the major challenges faced by students attending Distance Education in RVUC? • What is the current status of student support services in Distance Education program of RVUC? • What is the Potential of RVUC in promoting student support services to enhance educational quality? • What are the major student support services that can be introduce to enhance educational quality? 3. Objectives of the study • To assess the status of student support services in Distance Education run by CDE of RVUC • To investigate the prevailing challenges in promoting student support services for educational quality in RVUC. • To suggest good practices on student support services in distance learning program of RVUC. 4. Scope of the study This research work is designed to analyse the prevailing work tradition in student support services of distance learning program run by the Center of Distance Education (CDE) of RVUC with major emphasis on Adama coordinating center and to suggest ways of altering those traditions to enhance educational quality. 5. Significance of the research The finding from the research can serve as the bench mark for corrective measures to be taken on those weaknesses to promote quality education. Enhancing quality by improving the student support services will benefit not only the learners, but also the institution in general. Moreover, the management, administrative staff, course tutors, program advisors, course designers, and the students attending the program could get important points that would help them in running the program for better distance education program. Other similar institutions could also learn from results of the study. 144

6. Literature Review Education is the primary vehicle by which economically and socially marginalized society can lift themselves out of poverty, and obtain the means to participate fully in their communities. Hence, it is the cornerstone of social and human development, a tool for national integration, a tool for mainstreaming the marginalized. (UNESCO, 2006), (HD report 2005, EFA, HDR, 2005, Sen and Derze (2002).Accordingly, all heads of states in the United Nations Organization (UNO) have committed themselves to make education a tool for empowerment of the marginalized in the world development summit, 1995. They have also committed themselves for “Education for All”. The Millennium Development Goal of the UNO has pledged to eradicate illiteracy by 2015. Most of the member states of UNO have also signed General Agreement Trade in service (GATS) of the World Trade Organization (WTO). This has paved the way for commoditization of education by designating education as a tradable service. Higher education is necessary for those who wish to work and prosper in an economy that is becoming dependent not on sheer muscle power but, on brain power. Today, the workforce is rewarded for how well and how fast problems are detected and solved, (Saba, 2001). According to UNESCO, there have been several commitments to enhance access to education both by the state, international bodies and civil society organizations. Distance Education is an optimistic enterprise in the provision of lifelong learning in which learners are independent of teachers, which he defined as independent study, Charles Wedemeyer (1977). Its courses represent a common process that is felt to have the characteristics of a conversation; only the students will be motivated and useful than if it has an impersonal text book character (Holmberg, 1981). Today with the onset of online learning, an aspect of Distance Education, which have cooperative learning type, learning process is not seen as an individual pursuit but as a part of a social process where learners help each other development, understanding of content in an enjoyable and stimulating process, and at the same time construct knowledge which could not have been possible individually but only in a group (Johnson, 1990 and MC Connell, 2000). In a situation with ever escalating demands for enrolment along with the paucity of human and financial resources, one practical choice was to opt for Open Universities in order to provide higher education (Yadav and Panda 1999).The unit cost of teaching is also lower in distance mode than the conventional mode. Greeter number of distance learner can hence be educated by spending less amount of money through distance mode, a cost analysis carried out in institutions offering distance education in different part of the world reveals that they incur less cost per student, per graduate and per credit, Rumble, (1986). It has been found that Distance Education system become financially self supporting earlier due to the regular income generated from fees, sales of forms, etc. And lower recurrent expenditure (Ramanujam, 2000). Among the various operational costs in Distance Education, the fixed costs on development and production of self learning materials do not change significantly with increase or decrease of enrolment (Pillai and Nanda 1999), Networking and consortia formation provide a forum for diverse participation and reduce territoriality and competition. (Rumble 1986)

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Distance Education is the most industrialized form of education which shares a host of characteristics of modern industrial production process and that these Distance Education institutions are essentially bureaucratic in character (Otto Peter, 1967/1983). He also highlighted that Distance Education has entered its fourth phase with a pedagogical revolution caused by the increasing use of digital learning process that has taken Distance Education to hitherto un known territory; the virtual learning space. John Daniel (as quoted by Ramanujam, 2000), has highlighted the main aspects with in distance education that demand quality like the quality of (learning materials, student support services, logistics, research base, etc). Universities of the future will also be variable, adaptive and flexible enough to provide tailor-made programmes for all kind of students, as well as for persons who want to continue their education at tertiary level (Otto-Peter 1967, 1983). Several research studies have also found that distance learning is equally or more effective than the traditional instruction when the method and technologies used are appropriate to the instructional tasks, when there is student-to-student interaction, and when there is timely teacher-to- student feedback (Moore & Thompson,1990; Verduin & Clark,1991). In a study conducted at California State University, students who participated in a web based course achieved significantly higher test score (Schutte. J.G.1996). Distance Education Pros; • Convenience • Flexibility • Availability • Cost effective • Self Directed • No time spent in class room • Accessibility • Better for some learners • No travel expenses • No interrupting job/Career Distance Education Cons - No instructor/face to face interaction/ - Perceptions/Reputation - Require new skills/ technologies - No social interaction - Little support - No campus atmosphere ( S.Hansen, 2004 Washington D.C.). Molefi, (1999) has made the comparison between distance learning and the conventional learning as follows; Distance Learner Face to face learner 1. Physically removed from the Has face-to-face contact with teacher teacher 2. Isolated from other learners Is in contact with other learners throughout 3. Feedback is delayed Get immediate feedback 4. Chooses his own time-table Works according to a set schedule 5. Sets his own working pace Learning pace is set by the teacher 6. Chooses his own sequence of Follows the sequence of the institution subjects 146

7. Motivated students can achieve their goals in less than the stipulated time 8. Independent learning fosters self discipline, maturity, and a sense of responsibility for one's own learning 9. Likely to have committing demands. During study time e.g home responsibilities 10. Has limited access to resources e.g. school libraries 11. Often disadvantaged by breakdown in communication 12. Distance education is often considered a second rate education 13. The learner is at his place, does not have to leave home and therefore has other household chores to attend to. (Home situation is not often conducive to studying ) 14. Material distribution delays 15. Poor radio reception 16. Feedback comes after a long time; it takes a long time to change materials 17. Inefficient postal system affects learners

Must progress at the rate of the whole class Classroom students want and expect direction, are more dependent, sometimes exercise less initiative Just a full time student Has access to resources Less disadvantaged because of proximity Considered real education The learner has to leave home for an educational institution where there is presumably no disturbance(Educational Institutions are conducive to studying) Material readily available at institutions Is not affected by radio programmes Material made to suit learner's needs and can be changed soon after feedback

Learners are not affected by postal system as they do not need any learning materials to be posted to them Such understanding of the deficiencies of distance education when compared with the face to face learning will direct us to what type of student support services to be designed to curtail the inherent shortcomings of distance education. More resources should be invested in the learner support system if the distance education enterprise is to be successful (Gunawardena, 1996, 271). Dillon and Blanchard (1991) described four types of support systems: i. Learner support and learner needs ii. Learner support and content iii. Learner support related to the institutional context, and iv. Learner support and technology. Garrison and Baynton (1987, 7) define learner support as the resources that learners can access in order to carry out the learning processes. Garrison (1989, 29) observes that in distance education "support is concerned with a range of human and non-human resources to guide and facilitate the educational transaction". 147

Learners in distance (higher) education system are adults and so ,if we want to know learner needs in a distance education system, we must know the adult learner characteristics; Ference and Vockell (1994) gave a list of adult characteristics. These characteristics were the following: 1. Active-learner, 2. Experienced-based, 3. Experts, 4. Independent, 5. Hands-on, 6. Life-centered, 7. Task-centered, 8. Solution-driven, 9. Value-driven, 10. Skill-seeking, 11. Self-directing, 12. Motivation (External),and 13. Motivation (Internal). According to, Sewart, D. (1993), ( Molefi, F June 1999, Botswana Student support systems in distance education may include: • class teaching at study centres, e.g. Weakened courses • tutoring and counselling • individual tutorials at study centres or other locations; • annual residential schools (compulsory or optional); • study or self-help groups; • social events; • counselling sessions at study centres; • correspondence with tutor and counsellor; • electronic communication technologies such as phones, radio, audio tapes, video, television, computer mediated communication, student news papers, etc • record keeping and administration - pre admission counselling • admission or enrolment and registration information - administrative assistance • Books despatch by mail - library service. The amount of support services an institution can offer largely depends on that particular institution's capacity and resources at its disposal. However these can be put into two categories which are: • •

Academic; these include such packages as tutorial, advising an counseling services. Administrative functions such as: enrolment, admission and registration, record keeping, information provision and delivery Of study materials The importance of student support services are basically, to facilitate learning so that students reach their ultimate goal. • To help students realize the institutional objective of the course by minimizing the negative effects of isolation and the lack of regular personal contact. • To minimize the drop-out rate. • By helping students deal with the teaching institution and to augment the package of course materials. To improve the students' learning experience. 148

• To provide extra assistance to weaker students and to provide counseling for those who have personal difficulties ( Molefi, F June 1999, Botswana 7. Research Methods In conducting this research, the researcher designed to gather the necessary data from primary sources by using questionnaire, interviews, and focus group discussions (FGD). a. The Target groups and tools used for this research are; S.No Target group Tool Remark 1. Distance Learners (TVET & Questionnaire Degree) 2. CDE expertise Focus Group Discussions 3. Top senior management staff, Interview Course Tutors, exam setters, Interviews were conducted by using interview guide to obtain mainly qualitative responses from Course tutors, exam setters, top and senior managers & students. Carefully designed questionnaire was used to gather data from 15% of 204 TVET trainees and 15% of 340 Degree distance program students of RVUC to assess student support services mainly on the quality of the learning resources, Course Evaluation system, timely feedback on the assessment results, modern technology based student support services, orientation and advisory services, support services during the face- to- face programs, etc. Analysis of the institutions policy document was also carried out. Moreover, Focus Group Discussions (FGD) with CDE expertise to assess the overall status of prevailing student support services run by CDE and its plan to enhance the services. 8.

Result and Discussion 10.1. Statistical data on students’ feedback to the questionnaire 10.1.1 Total number of the respondents by program of study S.No Program Total Number of Total number students respondents 1. TVET 204 21 2. Degree 340 71

of % 10.2 20.8

•

This shows that all students who attended the face-to-face (tutorial) program were covered in the research. (22.8% TVET and 77% Degree) 10.1.2 Respondents distribution by department

•

This is to show distance learners from all departments are covered in the research.

10.1.3 Respondents Distribution by sex 149

•

This shows that both sexes (M/F) are included in the research. Larger proportion of the Male population is due the existing sex ratio in the student population. 10.1.4 Respondents Employment status

•

Nearly about 95% of the respondents are already employed (Government, NGO, Self), where as 5% are not yet employed. 10.1.5. Employment type

•

This shows 77% of the respondents are government employees, 15% Non government employees and 8 % self employed. 10.1.6 Respondents distribution by term

•

This shows distance learners of term 3-9 are included in the study

10.1.7 Relationship between respondents’ occupation and their field of study •

67% of the respondents’ current field of study is directly related to their profession for which they are employed. • 33% of the respondents’ current field of study is not directly related. 10.1.8 Respondents level of satisfaction on the service types •

The above data (graph) shows that in most of the services, the respondents agree that still there are deficiencies in the services. 10.2. Summary on the feedback gathered from student through Questionnaire (statistical data) The % analysis from distance learners can be interpreted to assess the status of student support services. Accordingly, the findings can be summarized as follows; 150

1. Orientation system • Statistical data shows that about 70% of the respondents are satisfied with the orientation system during admission. But, through interview it was noted that no well designed study program specific orientation system during registration and re-registration. • No student hand book/program guide which could be used throughout the entire study program is provided to distance learners. ⇒ CDE is thus expected to work hard to address such deficiencies. 2. Services at the coordinating center • Although it seems that 55% of the respondents satisfied when they came to CDE demanding the services, significant proportion of the distance learners (45%) are not still satisfied. ⇒ CDE is thus expected to work hard for further improvement. 3. Distribution of complete package of study material at a time • The higher proportions (56%) of the respondents are not satisfied with the service. ⇒ CDE thus expected to design strategy to ensure timely distribution of complete package of study materials for each course at a time. 4. Quality and standard of self learning modules/ study materials • The higher proportions (60%) of the respondents are not satisfied with the service. ⇒ CDE & the top Management of RVUC are expected to promptly react to such inconveniency. Now days, due to fierce competition in the sector the learning modules of distance program must be designed at high standard. 5. Modern Technology (ICT) based student support services • 72% of the respondents are not satisfied with this support services. ⇒ Even though, this service is at its infancy stage in RVUC there is a good beginning on this modern approach. If effectively used, it can provide the following supplementary services for distance learners; the tutorial and exam schedules, registration and re-registration schedules, assignment and worksheet papers, sample final exam papers, feedbacks, additional reference materials, declaring students grades, any notices, e. mail communication with coordinators, program advisors, tutors, course writers, etc. 6. Communication/ correspondence system • 57% of the respondents are not satisfied with the existing communication system, where as 43% are satisfied. • In addition, to the response from student, response from CDE staff, shows timely feedback for students’ assignment work and announcing schedule of the final exam result demands careful planning. 7. Support services through face- to-face/tutorial program • 60% of the respondents are not satisfied with the services where as 40% were satisfied. • 68% of the respondents agree that the current tutorial program duration is not sufficient and the remaining proportions of the respondents are satisfied. • 57% of the respondents agree that the counselling and advisory services not sufficient. But 43% of the respondents agree that the service is sufficient. ⇒ CDE is thus expected to seriously revise the prevailing services through face-to face program. 151

10.3. Summary on the feedback gathered through FGD and interview designed to check the validity and reliability of the data obtained through questionnaire  Orientation systems for new admission, registration and re-registration programs are not adequately planned. No study program specific orientations.  The existing manpower and organizational structure of CDE in general and specifically the registrar and finance section assignment to run the program could not facilitate student support services for the program.  Due to the internal and external factors CDE is in a difficulty to ensure the timely distribution of complete package of the self study materials for the courses.  To seriously address the prevailing problems related to module quality; CDE and the top Management of RVUC should work hard together to recruit course writers, editors with strong contractual agreement to provide highest quality self learning modules to ascend RVUC distance program to the competitive standard not only at the national level but also to the international standard particularly in east Afirica.  Although modern technology based student support services in RVUC is at its infancy; some important documents are uploaded for RVUC distance learners in RVUC official website.  Currently distance learners regularly communicate the center coordinator for support mostly through line phone, and sometimes through Fax . Organizing information desk and promoting student support services by using modern technology based communication is believed to promote the services.  CDE services do have deficiencies to timely provide corrected assignment papers /projects to students on time.  CDE announce students’ grade at regular intervals. I.e. during the preceding tutorial program.  CDE do have deficiencies in providing sufficient tutorial based student support services for all courses and programs.  No student hand book or program guide is timely provided for the distance learners to enhance student support services.  The tuition fee collection schedule is not well planned.  In addition the following challenges are also seriously addressed during the FGD and interview o The existing manpower profile of CDE need to be revised to effectively manage the program o Loose coordination between the CDE and the branch campus coordinators. o Centralised/Decentralized dilemma on major activities in running the program o The capacity building activities (workshops, seminars, training, etc) for CDE staff and its branch coordinators is lacking or not sufficient on the modern approach of distance education and related issues. o Rapid rise up the prices of the supplies. o Absence of the well recognized indigenous model Distance Learning institutions in the country. o The frequency of changes in educational policy in relation to the private higher distance learning institutions. o Lack of well trained man power to manage distance educational program. 11. Conclusion and Recommendations

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Based on the above findings and experience of the well known Distance Learning programs from abroad mainly ( IGNOU and UNISA), the following conclusion and recommendations can be made; • Empowering the CDE Management by the top management of RVUC by giving power and by creating power in it to ensuring the systematic management of Distance Education in general and student support services in particular for quality education based on the modern approach of Distance Education. The deficiencies in the student support services revealed in the finding are the manifestations of other limitations in CDE services in general. Therefore, it is highly recommended to transform CDE services to the 3rd phase of Distance Education i.e. Open and Distance Learning (ODL), whereby the program will be supplemented with frequent face- to-face contact and e-learning services mainly at RVUC coordinating centers/branch campuses or by creating partnership with other higher learning institutions found near the coordinating centers. Accordingly, revising the duty and responsibilities of CDE & its coordinating centers is highly recommended. Advancing the current CDE services to higher standard by using modern technology (ICT) based support services by promoting network services, student-to student interaction, timely feedbacks, fast & two way communication systems, providing supplementary resources for the learners, etc. Providing student handbook/program guide to all learners designed based on their specific study program. Student hand book / program guide may encompass; (Brief introduction about RVUC, its vision & mission, program structure run by CDE, eligibility for admission, duration of the study, fee structure & schedule of the payment, courses to be offered in the program & total credit hours to be completed, registration and re registration schedule, dispatch of the study materials schedule, face-toface program schedules, evaluation systems, eligibility for final examination, final examination schedule, assignments and their submission schedule to course tutors, schedule to collect corrected assignment/project papers, re-grading application procedure and schedule, re-admission application procedure and schedule, credit transfer rules, course description and course content for the program, different formats to be used in the program) and other valuable information and key addresses. The present quality, relevance and standard of the self learning Distance learning modules of CDE/ RVUC; its development procedure, edition, quality assurance system, duplication and dispatch stipulate serious attention. Since in principle, it is quite logical to justify that through best self learning modules of distance education program, it is envisaged that the learner gets the chance to learn from the best teachers and from the best institution at their own pace assisted by best student support services. Working towards different forms of collaboration with different Higher learning institutions offering Distance Education program, (indigenous and overseas). As revealed among different Distance Education offering institutions over the last 20-30 years (Mason 1994). Which could be in the form of; I. Franchise Type – where by one partner designs develops, examines and make awards, while the other provides student support services. E.g. IGNOU vs. St. Mary UC II. Marketplace Type – where by one institution purchases course materials from the other adapts and delivers them and examines and make awards. E.G. The Open Learning Institute of Hong Kong. III. Collaborative Type – where by several institutions jointly design and develop courses which they use in their respective institutions independently of each other. E.G. The multimedia Tele school project funded by European community. 153

IV. Technology based type – whereby student from the other countries access the host institution via electronic communication possibly enhanced by print materials, occasional video conferences or even face-t-face meetings. E.G. UNISA Source: Mason (1994) • Government shall promote; I. Accessibility of quality educational opportunity for the citizens through distance mode II. The establishment of model distance learning institute to advice, supervise, assess, and accredit other distance programmes in the country. III. Any changes in the educational policy should take a care of the investment policy in the sector. References IGNOU – MSOE-001, October 2008. Sociology of Education. India Rumble, G.1986. The planning and management of Distance education. UK Rumble, G. 2001. Economics of Distance Education. UK Distance Education and Training council (Web Site: http:// www.detc.org), 1999.Benefits of Distance Education. WashingtonD.C. Charles, Wedemeyer. 1977. Vol.13.The American journal of Distance Education. Saba,F and Shearer.R.L.1994. The American journal of Distance Education. Mark Malloch Brown, Administrator, UNDP Human Development Report, 2005 UNESCO,2006 S.K.Pulist.New Delhi, India. Journal of Distance Education on Student Support services in correspondence/distance Education. 2000. Marew Zawude, the Impact of Globalization on Distance Education, Ethiopian Journal of Educational Researchers Association, January 2002, Addis Ababa.

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Dr. Renu NANDA, Issues and challenges for Non Formal Education.2003. India David Sewart,(Director of reginal Academic services at the Open University UK). Paper on student support services presented on the 16th ICDE World conference in Bangkok, November 1992, Deborah L. Floyd, Deborah Casey-Powell, Paper presented on New Roles for Student Support Services in Distance Learning S.Raja Rao,Paper on Administration of student support services, case study on Dr.Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad, June 20011. Dr. Salih USUN, A Case Study on Learner Support Services in Distance Education System, Turkey Department of Educational Sciences, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University (Canakkale-Turrey). Sandra Frieden, Ph.D. Support Services for Distance Education, Texas, USA,1999 Gearóid Ó Súilleabhain and Ray Coughlan, DEIS Department for Education Development, A student Support services for E-learning, Cork Institute of Technology Isabel Nohemi Vallejo, Quality in distance education: Student support services and their role in student satisfaction Quality in distance education: Student support services and their role in student satisfaction, University of Texas in the yeart, 2001. Molefi,F. Support Services for Distance Education Students at the Department of Non-Formal Education Molefi, F June 1999, Botswana. Sandra Frieden, Ph.D, Support Services for Distance Education, University of Houston Texas, USA, 1999 •

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10. THE CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF ENTREPRENEURIAL DEVELOPMENT: A CASE STUDY OF MICRO AND SMALL ENTERPRISES FOUND IN ADAMA TOWN By Messele Kumilachew/MBA ABSTRACT This paper attempted to examine the challenges and opportunities on the developmental issues of entrepreneurship in MSEs found in Adama Town. The overall objective of this study is to identify the challenges that hinder the growth of entrepreneurial activities and examine available opportunities that encourage entrepreneurship in MSEs found in Adama Town. The paper presents the survey conducted on a sample size of 116 MSEs. The sample was taken from the five strata formed by the type of business they engaged in (Urban Agriculture, Industry, Construction, Service, and Trade) by using proportional stratified sampling, besides simple random sampling was used in order to select each MSEs determined from each stratum. The finding of the study shows that the severity of challenges that entrepreneurs faced during establishment and in operation varies from one enterprise to others. Initial capital was a severe challenge during establishment because financial institutions did not have favorable policy of credit that enables them to get loan. And commitment of all members, price of raw materials and access to finance are also the major challenges of MSEs in operation. The available opportunities for entrepreneurs in MSEs found out by this study include exemption of tax, demand for produce, free access to land and services given by MSEs Development Agency. In addition the study indicated factors that motivate individuals to create one’s own job and the responses of respondents on the performance of MSEs Development Agency towards entrepreneurial development of MSEs. And finally the finding of the research leads to plausible recommendations. 1. Background of the Study A number of people are choosing to become entrepreneurs currently, starting their own business that enables them to lead meaningful careers. Entrepreneurship is now the driving force behind the economic development of every country. One of the major factors of economic growth is the level of entrepreneurial activity in that particular country. According to International Labor Organization (ILO) (2003), throughout the world, entrepreneurship plays a pivotal role in socio economic development; as a means of generating sustainable employment and generating income for those involved in it. Currently that is why governments in developing countries including Ethiopia give more emphasis to this sector. The Global Entrepreneurial Monitor (GEM) report provides conclusive evidence that promoting entrepreneurship and enhancing the entrepreneurial dynamics of a country should be an integral element of any government’s commitment to boosting economic well-being (Coulter, 2003). Entrepreneurs in MSEs as part of business community contribute to the country’s economic welfare. They produce substantial portion of our total goods and services. Thus, their economic contribution is comparable to that of big business. According to Zewde and et.al (2002), the Micro and Small Enterprise sector is the natural home of entrepreneurship. It has the potential to provide the ideal environment for enabling entrepreneurs to optimally exercise their talents and to attain their personal and professional goals. In all successful economies, MSEs are seen as an essential spring board for growth, job creation, and social progress. The small business sector is also an important force to generate employment and more equitable income distribution; activate competition; exploit niche markets; enhance productivity and technical change, and through the combination of all of these measures, to stimulate 156

157

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

Source: Developed based on HERQA’s Focus areas for Quality and Relevant Higher Education in Ethiopia

As can be seen from the diagram, HERQA uses ten core areas as salient endogenous determinants to the quality and relevance of the education service provided by HEI. These core areas provide a measure of quality and relevance of the higher education provided by higher education institutions - the decisive factor for augmenting governance and achieving the MDGs-sensitive targets set in the country’s poverty reduction and sustainable development plan (PASDEP). The table blow shows a description of ten pillars of quality. Table 1- Pillars of Organizational/Institutional Capacity Assessment S.N

Elements/Components of Capacity

Brief Description/Indicators

1

Vision, Mission and Educational Goals

2

Governance and Management System

3

Infrastructure and Learning Resources

4

Academic and Support Staff

5

Student admission and Support Services

The university’s aspirations are clearly/boldly defined/stated, are widely shared, alignment of goals to the broader level strategies of producing qualified and relevant HR, and dictate day to day activities Decision making framework along with factors that influence accountability, transparency, participation and partnership; powerrelationship between governance and management structure, strategies for human, physical and financial resource management, etc Also capacities for acquisition, allocation and utilization of financial resources and Constituency development and communications Information on soft and hard infrastructure –both physical and technological will be collected to highlight current status/ deficiencies and future needs/priorities for investments in infrastructure development; Material provisions-availability and accessibility of user friendly and up- to- date learning and teaching materials Staff deployment: number, qualification and performance of academic and support staff and distributions by faculties/depts, comparing expected vs. actual, teaching/learning strategies, educational concept, motivation scheme etc Student profile, student guidance and support to gender equality, disabilities, environment, HIV/AIDS etc.

6

Program relevance and Curriculum

7

Teaching, Learning and Assessment

8

Student Progression and Graduate Outcomes

Demand-driven or tailor-made programs, curriculum description including goals of the curriculum, benchmark with respect to content level aspired etc Dynamism and level of participation in the teaching and learning processes, periodic assessment mechanisms, etc Students intake, progress and satisfaction; Graduate profile and results /success rates, quality of graduates/, feed back from employers etc

S.N

Elements/Components of Capacity

Brief Description/Indicators

9

Research and Outreach Activities

10

Internal Quality Assurance

Research outputs, consultancy/training services, inputs to regional policy making process, service like positively influencing livelihood of localities etc and mainstreaming conflict prevention/management Involvement of internal and management procedures to comply to regulations that govern quality, organizational learning and practices including teamwork and information-sharing

On the basis of these ten areas, a questionnaire was designed to assess the adequacy of quality assurance policies and the impacts of the quality assurance audits conducted. 1.4.2. Research Methods The research chiefly focused on 14 higher education institutions (9 public universities and 5 private institutions) audited by HERQA. All these institutions were selected because they had conducted internal quality assessments before they were assessed by external quality auditors. The findings of the external audits of these institutions were published and communicated to the stakeholders. Secondly, they were selected because since they have implemented the quality assurance guidelines, they know the strength of the quality assurance policy. The

other public universities and private higher educations were not included in this study because they have not yet completed external auditing processes. With these sampling procedures in place, the research tools employed for this research include questionnaire survey, in-depth interviews and document analysis. A questionnaire with 35 items was designed and distributed to the presidents, vice presidents and deans of 14 higher education institutions in the country. A total of 40 questioners were successfully filled out and returned. The main purpose of the questionnaire survey was to find out the impact of the quality audit process. Interviews were made with selected top management members of HEIs, employers and professional associations. Five questions were prepared and addressed to 16 respondents comprising the presidents, students’ association leaders, board members of higher education institutions, a factory manager, professional association members and ex-members of the association of private higher education board. Major themes raised during the interview include: the major impacts of HERQA's quality assurance policy, the adequacy of quality assurance procedure, the major factors which affect the quality of educational and research outputs in Ethiopia, the adequacy and strength of ten pillars of quality assessment tools and policy options which can advance the quality of the Ethiopian higher education. While analyzing and presenting these qualitative data, only major themes which were repeatedly raised by the respondents were used. A substantial number of policy documents, strategies, sector development plans, and Growth and Transformation Plan (2003-2007 E.C.) and other relevant documents of higher education were critically reviewed including 14 quality audit documents published by HERQA. To assess and capture the impact of institutional quality audits undertaken by the agency, analysis on the major findings of the audit reports were undertaken and issues that lead to further scrutiny for policy intervention identified. 1.5.

Scope of Work

The assessment was made:

•

To review the policies related to quality assurance, and the institutional arrangements for implementation of these policies.

•

To take a stock of quality assurance activities completed to date.

•

To assess the impact of quality assurance on the quality of higher education through a review of related documentation and stakeholder consultations.

•

To review the government plans for carrying forward the quality assurance agenda.

•

To review the scope for engaging professional societies in quality assurance.

•

To review the collaboration with agencies responsible for quality assurance in other countries.

•

To review criteria and procedures for quality assurance.

•

To review sample pre-accreditation, accreditation and quality audit reports.

•

To suggest measures for making quality assurance more effective.

2. REVIEW OF GOVERNMENT PLANS AND POLICIES 2.1. Legal Framework and Government Plans The starting point in the evaluation of the adequacy of quality assurance policy was the review of the various government proclamations, polices, plans and strategies. In the Ethiopian context, HERQA gets fundamental policy backings from Higher Education Proclamations (HEP 2003 and HEP 2009), ETP (1994), ESDP III and IV and Growth and Transformation Plan (2003---2007 EC). A review of these documents, hereunder, was made to find out the adequacy of the legal frameworks, the institutional arrangements and government plans for the assurance of quality in the Ethiopian HEIs. Education Sector Development Plan III (ESDP III) (2005) and ESDP IV (2010) (the latest plan) give due coverage to quality. ESDP IV presents that the quality of education must be planned from early childhood education through tertiary education.

In contrast, ESDP III

focuses on expansion. During the ESDP III planning period, degree program admissions to government institutions increased from 36,405 in 2005 to 73,991 in 2009/10. As indicated in ESDP III, expansion was to be realized through both the expansion of the existing eight universities and the construction of additional 13 universities (ESDP IV, p. 67). In this planning

period, the academic population increased from 4,847 in 1997 EC to 11,238 in 2002 EC. The overall enrollments increased from 149,694 to 319,217 in the year 2007 GC. In the year 2009/10, postgraduate enrollment was 10,125, from 3,884 in the year 2005. Currently 378 academic staff are attending PhD programs abroad and within the country. Compared to ESDP III, ESDP IV places due emphasis on the quality of education rather than on the massification of higher education although massification has continued. During this planning period (2010-2015), some key of the outcome targets include:  Total enrolment in undergraduate higher education (regular government program) will increase from 185,788 in 2002 to 467,445 in 2015  Admission for post graduate program from 4,878 in 2002 to 16,100 by 2007(EC) (3000 PhD)  Graduation Rate will increase to 93 % in 2015  Staff to student ratio will evolve to 1:25 for S&T, 1:15 for medicine and health sciences, 1:20 for agriculture and life sciences, and 1:30 for social and human sciences (SHS) by 2015  Number of teachers by 2015 will be 23,000, including 17,250 (75%) with masters and 5,750 (25%) PhD  Number of quality audited HEIs will increase from 20% in 2009/10 to 100% in 2015  Number of Strategic Planning Agreements with universities approved will be 31 in 2015  Pervasiveness of Good Governance in Public Institutions by 2015 in 31 universities  Satisfaction of students and academic staff with administrative services will be 80 % in 2015 (ESDP IV, P. 73-74) ESDP IV implies that the current quality assurance system for HEIs is backed by proclamations, therefore, plans and strategies will be deployed in the planning period to reach the strategic program outcomes. In the planning period, the policies which will be designed include: angles of access, quality, equity and governance. These policies are intended to form a coherent and comprehensive set of actions. The plan also states that: In order to further improve the teaching learning conditions within the universities, capacity for internal quality management will be developed at the institutional level including systems to assess the employability of higher education graduates such as through tracer studies. In the development of their IQA system, HEIs will be guided by an expanded Qualifications Framework which will establish generic and subject specific learning outcomes for academic programs. HEIs will be supported in establishing an assessment policy and a system which can assure that exams are set to measure appropriate learning outcomes of individual courses and also fair grading

systems. HEIs will be equipped with libraries, laboratories and ICT to improve the teaching learning process as well as management. Furthermore, it is envisaged that Education and Training Quality Assurance Agency will establish a system for identification and dissemination of best practices in Higher Education available locally and internationally and develops a national mechanism for the assessment of graduates’ competences (Ibid, P. 72) The other significant policy document which clearly describes factors affecting the quality of education is the Education and Training Policy (ETP) (1994). The policy document states that ''Inadequate facilities, insufficient training of teachers, over- crowded classes, shortage of books and other teaching materials, all indicate the low quality of education provided (ETP, 1994:3).”

The Policy’s Article 2 sub article 2.2 also states that promoting relevant and

appropriate education and training through formal and non-formal programs is one of its objectives (MOE, 1994a). It lays policy grounds for demand driven curriculum, nexus between education, training, research and development, and the roles of educational management, input, and educational finance. Although the document does not explicitly present quality as a policy issue, factors affecting quality are clearly spelt out in this policy document. Considering the development of the Ethiopian higher education and the changes globally and locally, this policy document requires critical revision. In August 2010, the government of Ethiopia, in a circular distributed to all regional education offices, bureaus, agencies and authorities communicated that serious measures will be taken to address areas of weakness in the quality assurance system and its achievements in public and private higher education institutions. The circular included the following: a) all public and private higher education institutions were urged to produce competent graduates to meet the high demands of industry; b) they were also advised to focus on the Sciences and Engineering (70%) and Social Sciences and Humanities (30%) program mix. It was the position of the Government that the demand for business related disciplines had already been saturated and therefore institutions were advised to re-orient themselves and invest in engineering fields; c) local TVET agencies informed private providers to deliver technical fields after conducting market surveys. All programs offered by TVET providers were to be based on the findings of the labor market survey and had to satisfy the current labor demand of the respective regions.

The Ministry also stated that higher education institutions (both public and private) should stop distance delivery till the existing distance education programs accreditation procedures are critically reviewed and a robust outcome based system for quality assurance is introduced. In the same month, the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) (2003-2007 EC) was aggressively promoted and is currently widely being discussed. The” Growth and Transformation Plan” (GTP) (2010/11-2014/15) indicates that in the coming years, special focus will be given on science and engineering education. The quality of the Ethiopian higher education shall be made to maintain international standards during the planning period. Enhancing higher education management and systems, educating many Ethiopian teachers and researchers at a higher level, quality higher education are also foreseen in five years plan (GTP, July 2010).GTP has presented several goals. Quality education is one of the major goals. It presents, “improving university administration and management and training many teachers and researchers, the government should build sustainable system for quality education (GTP, 2010, 2:3). The Engineering Capacity Building Program (ecbp), another important document, has included university reform program as a strategic issue for the industrialization initiatives of the country in its strategic plan (2006-2010). In this Program, key issues such as governance reform, university-industry linkage, human resources development, infrastructure development and engineering reform and TVET teacher reforms are taken as critical issues to be addressed (ecbp, 2006-2010, P.667). Although the strategy focuses on engineering reform, the plan indicates that the universities will develop their strategies towards modern and demandoriented education in their wider field of engineering, a cooperative and sustainable interface with the economic sector and new effective and cost conscious organizational structure (Ibid, P.67). Core quality assurance issues such as preparation of demand driven curriculum, benchmarking, technology transfer, partnerships, upgraded labs, e-learning facilities, and IT based library are addressed in the plan. These are factors which greatly affect the quality and relevance of educating and training till today. Education Sector Development Program IV (ESDPIV), which is being implemented beginning from 2010, states that in order to further improve teaching learning conditions within the universities, the capacity for internal quality management will be developed at the institutional level. The employability of tertiary education graduates, ascertained through tracer studies, will

be one mechanism to assess the quality. In the development of their IQA system, TEIs will be guided by an expanded National Qualifications Framework which will establish generic and subject specific learning outcomes for academic programs. TEIs will be supported in establishing an assessment policy and a system which can assure that exams are set to measure appropriate learning outcomes of individual courses, and use a fair grading systems. TEIs will be equipped with libraries, laboratories and ICT to improve the teaching learning process as well as management. Furthermore, it is envisaged that Higher Education Relevance and Quality Agency will establish a system for identification and dissemination of best practices in tertiary education available locally and internationally. Functioning in these legal, policy and strategic contexts, Higher Education Relevance and Quality Agency, an “autonomous organ having its own legal personality” (HEP 351/2003, Article 78.1), prepared its own strategic and development plans. In the development plan (2006-2010), HERQA has stated its vision and wants ''to be a nationally and internationally recognized centre of excellence in safeguarding, accreditation and enhancement of relevance and quality in higher education” (HERQA, Development Plan, 2006-2009, P.3). As presented in this plan, the main mission of HERQA is ''to ensure a high quality and relevant higher education system in Ethiopia.'' 2.2. The Status of HERQA The Government of Ethiopia has allowed the expansion of the higher education system to ensure fair distribution, access and equity. Concurrently, it has issued proclamations, plans and procedures for quality assurance. To that end, the Higher Education Proclamation 351/2003 for the first time made provision for the creation of the Higher Education Relevance and Quality Agency (HERQA) with the aim of safeguarding and enhancing the quality and relevance of higher education in the country. The Agency’s mission is to ensure that accredited HEIs are of an appropriate standard, that the programs of study offered by these HEIs are of an appropriate quality and relevance to the world of work and the development needs of the country, and that the higher education sector is adequately supported to enhance the quality and relevance of its education provision. Another higher education proclamation, with more emphasis on enhancing the quality and relevance of higher education, was issued in 2009 (650/2009). The proclamation states the following objectives of the Ethiopian HEIs:

1.

prepare knowledgeable, skilled, and attitudinally mature graduates based on

demand and in proportional balance between fields and disciplines so that the country shall become internationally competitive; 2.

promote and enhance research, focusing on knowledge and technology

transfer consistent with the country's priority needs; 3.

ensure that education and research promote freedom of expression based on

reason and rational discourse and are free from biases and prejudices; 4.

design and provide community and consultancy services that shall cater to

the developmental needs of the country; 5.

ensure institutional autonomy with accountability;

6.

ensure the participation of key stakeholders in the governance of

institutions; 7.

promote and uphold justice, fairness, and rule of law in institutional life;

8.

promote democratic culture and uphold multicultural community life;

9.

ensure fairness in the distribution of public institutions and expand access on

the basis of need and equity (650/2009, Article 4) HERQA’s development plan states that one of its specific objectives deals with the development and publication of internal and external quality standards and systems or quality assessment policy for Ethiopian higher education institution (Ibid, P.10).

Following the

formulating of the 10 focal areas, the Agency so far has audited 12 private and 9 public higher education institutions and published institutional quality audit reports for 5 private and 9 public higher education institutions and distributed to stakeholders. By the end of 2010, the agency has planned to increase the documents from 14 to 21 (Guideline for Follow-up Visits to HEIs, 2010, P.2) As in August 2010, HERQA audited only 20% of higher education institutions. This may be due to several factors. One of them, as indicated in the trial audit report of the Agency, is shortage of human resources (HERQA, 2010). The document points out that the workload of the HERQA expert staff is high. There is a heavy pressure because of the number of institutional quality audits to be conducted and the large number of applications for (pre)accreditation of private HEIs.

In order to evaluate the impact of quality auditing, the agency has designed a guideline for follow-up visits. The visiting team will chiefly focus on the enhancements made following the essential recommendation of the external auditors. So far these planned impact assessment visits have not yet been started. Since its establishment in 2003 as an “autonomous organ having its own legal personality” (HEP 351/2003, Article 78.1) HERQA has undertaken several activities including preaccreditation, accreditation and re-accreditation of a number of programs in private higher education institutions; external institutional quality audits in nine public and five private higher education institutions; training of its staff, both locally and abroad, on issues of quality and relevance assurance and enhancement; convening of consultative and training workshops with stakeholders (public and private institution leaders, managers and academic staff and representatives from government organizations and professional associations); development of draft benchmarks for selected subjects; and the publication of procedures for external quality audits and accreditation processes. 2.3. Review of Institutional Quality Audit Reports 2.3.1 Procedures and Outcomes of the External Institutional Quality Audits HERQA currently uses external institutional quality audits for both public and private higher education institutions on ten quality focal areas to assess and assure quality education provision. An institutional quality audit is an in-depth analysis and assessment of the quality and relevance of programs and of the teaching and learning environment. Equally importantly, an institutional quality audit assesses the appropriateness and effectiveness of a HEI’s approach to quality care, its systems of accountability and its internal review mechanisms (HERQA Profile, 2006). The quality audit focuses on the evaluation of the quality of HEIs as a whole, assessing what mechanisms for quality assurance are in place and to the extent possible, whether the degrees awarded by the institution in fact reflect the level of the graduating students. The institutional quality audit proceeds through a number of stages. The initial action is a self evaluation by the HEI to be audited. The external institutional quality audit itself is carried out during a-four-day visit to the HEI by a team of trained auditors from HERQA and from other HEIs. The key purpose of the audit visit is to validate the self evaluation document submitted

by the HEI being audited. During the visit the team studies documentation, observes the facilities, meets with staff and students and observes teaching. Following the institutional quality audit visit, the audit team drafts an audit report. Further to the issue of the external institutional quality audit report, the HEI is asked to prepare an action plan that seeks to enhance the quality and relevance of its provision. HERQA requests a copy of this plan and monitors its implementation in subsequent institutional quality audits which evaluate the extent to which the HEI has been able to use its action plan to enhance quality and relevance. Since 2006, HERQA has conducted 21 external quality audits of 9 public and 12 private HEIs. Prior to these, 4 pilot quality audits had been made. HERQA has completed and published the reports for 9 public universities and 5 private HEIs. Some of the major outcomes of the quality audits indicated in these audit reports are summarized as follows: 2.3.2. Quality Assurance System or Mechanisms Analysis of all the audit reports shows that HEIs are aware of the necessity of assuring quality in the institutions. The major problem is that the quality assurance system or mechanisms are not fully in place. In most of the audited HEIs, there are no systems in place for obtaining data that can be used to judge the quality of the institutions. For instance, the audit report for Bahir Dar University, located in the north western part of the country, indicates that the University has a plan to establish a quality assurance office although it is noted that “quality assurance [body] does not yet appear in the organizational structure”. Neither does the university seem to have recognized that “quality assurance requires the establishment of robust procedures and a cycle of monitoring feedback and actions that ensures development”. The quality audit report of Adama University also states that although there are signs that the University is committed to quality assurance, “it has no written policy on quality assurance nor as yet any designated committee or unit with a specific and unique responsibility for this function”. This is also the case with some of the private higher education institutions such as Royal University College, Unity University and Admas University College when they were audited. The Self evaluations for the institutional quality audits were mainly undertaken by committees established for the purpose. In general all the audit reports show that the institutions do not have a comprehensive and robust system for quality assurance that operate effectively and, consequently, it is very difficult for them to make any claims regarding the quality of the education they are providing.

2.3.3. Assessment There seems inconsistency of assessment methods used in all the audited HEIs. Grades are awarded relative to other students (norm referenced) rather than the achievement of predetermined performance criteria (criterion referenced). In most of the audited public universities, the departments do not assessment techniques such as the use of external examiners and double marking. The reasons are: •

the number of students admitted by the institutions is growing from year to year and this has made it very difficult for the instructors to go through the question papers more than once.

•

most of the instructors lack experience and training in using efficient, valid and fair forms of assessment. In the audited private HEIs, however the second reason is mostly the cause for not applying techniques of moderation of assessment.

The audit documents also show, although some departments have introduced other assessment methods, student assessment is mostly limited to mid semester and end-of-semester examinations. The Royal University College report, for instance, indicates that the EQA team found no evidence that continuous and formative assessment is widely practiced. 2.3.4. Curriculum Review and Design Procedures Every HEI is expected to justify the relevance of its program and to have robust procedures for curriculum design, approval and review. HERQA auditors investigate the extent of involvement of external professionals and employers in the process of curriculum design, evaluation and review. The institutional quality audit reports illustrate that while all audited HEIs do engage in curriculum development, some HEIs: •

use curricula developed in other institutions.

•

use curricula “given by the Ministry of Education”.

•

involve external peers and other stakeholders in curriculum development workshops only when they consider they lack the necessary expertise themselves.

•

have not always been able to involve external stakeholders from business and industry. In some cases this is because of time constraints, in others it is lack of awareness of

informed stakeholders and in others it is reported as an unwillingness of colleagues from business and industry to participate. With regard to curriculum review, external institutional quality audit teams know that the legislation requires regular review of curricula and the need to involve external stakeholders in the review process. However, this is not what actually been practiced in the audited universities. 2.3.5. Research and Outreach Activities in the Higher Education Institutions The quality audit reports show that all of the audited private and public HEIs aspire to contribute to the development of the country through research that provides solutions to problems. This is mostly reflected in the vision, mission and goals of the institutions which usually are stated in the strategic plans and other legislative documents. From the mission statements, one can deduce that all of the audited universities have firm convictions that research plays a crucial role in developing the economy, thereby reducing the levels of poverty and attendant risk of strife in the country. Arba Minch University, for instance, aspires to conduct relevant, fundamental and problem solving research, whereas Jima University promises to undertake academically rigorous and socially meaningful cutting edge research, disseminate knowledge and technologies, and provide consultancies to the public. Jima University also claims to train high caliber professionals through community based teaching and team based research. Unity University on the other hand aspires to be the Leading African center of academic excellence, respected for the range of academic programs it offers, for the capable and confident graduates it produces and for their contribution to local and global development. In all the HEIs there are Research and Publication Officers to help the Academic and Research Vice Presidents assigned by the administration. Some of them even have developed research policies and guidelines and published various journals. In this Regard St Mary’s University College has been publishing a journal called Mizan for sometime now. The guidelines of research prepared by Jima (or Bahirdar) University can be a case in point. It is also encouraging to see that the audited universities have created links and research collaborations with organizations within Ethiopia and abroad. These collaborations provide funding, training and technical and managerial support. As the external audit reports show, Mekele, Hawassa, Jima and Haramaya Universities and Addis Ababa from the public HEI s

and St Mary’s University College from the audited private HEIs have been doing a great deal of work in this regard. Regardless of these efforts, senior staff and administrators who responded to this survey indicated that there are a number of hurdles such as work overload and insufficient budget that have to be tackled if the institutions want to realize what they claim to achieve in their mission and vision statements and, ultimately, contribute to the development of the economy. 2.3.6. Infrastructure and Resources It is in the government’s plan to build and purchase more and more learning resources to go with the expansion of the Higher Education institutions across the country. However the quality audit reports show that: • most of the audited universities are still suffering from shortage of classrooms and learning resources. (The Bahir Dar University external audit report indicates that the University is suffering badly from long delays in the completion of buildings and the new buildings that have been handed over for uses are poorly finished and not up to the standard). • In spite of the good provision of laboratory equipment and chemicals for practical work by the government, most classrooms are reported as over-crowded and minimally equipped. The audit report for Hawassa University indicates that, “most classrooms accommodate only 70 students. Crowded classrooms compromise the quality of teaching and learning”. • There seems to be a systemic lack in the management and maintenance of resources. In Hawassa University for instance some expensive lab equipments were not used “because of lack of software”. In all, while the Federal Government of Ethiopia has made a huge investment in higher education, including a massive building program, external institutional quality audits indicate that many public higher education institutions suffer from shortage of facilities and few institutions have sound systems to ensure efficient resource management. 2.3.7 Expertise and Experience of Staff All of the audited HEIs reported that they have a lack of experienced and trained staff in teaching and research skills. As part of the government’s expansion of the higher education system, new graduates have been assigned to teaching posts. Although the Academic

Development and Resource Centers (ADRCs) - established in the 9 established public universities by the Education Quality Improvement Program (EQUIP) 2 - have provided training to instructors in teaching methods and assessments, during the external quality audits it was established that instructors almost always use the lecture method while teaching and use norm referenced assessment. Most of the staff members who are engaged in research in the audited institutions complain that there are a number of problems that make it very difficult for the staff to engage actively in research activities. One of these is that there are no incentive mechanisms to encourage them to encourage researchers. Further, the instructors in all the audited universities indicated that the heavy load of teaching has made it hard for them to employ 25% of their time to do research as prescribed in the legislations of the institutions. Lack of training in research skills is also one of the problems pointed out by the instructors. 2.3.8 Communication with Stakeholders Doing research is not an end itself, neither is it a stand-alone process. The result of research projects should be communicated to the public so that it can be - instrumental in improving the lives of the community. Regarding this, most participants of the discussions during the external quality audits explained that there are not enough journals published by the HEIs where the instructors can get their researches published. Some of the instructors even reported that it has become difficult for their institutions to initiate and sustain their own journals due to financial and shortage of experts in the area. The few research journals available are not open to inexperienced researchers. In addition, not many research symposia and workshops in which the staff could present their research are organized by the universities. In most of the reports, it is indicated that the audited universities do not have the culture of publishing annual research reports. 2.3.9 Consultancy and Outreach Activities One of the areas that link research with the community is the provision of consultancy services. Regarding this issue, it is heartening to see in the legislations of the audited universities that it has been understood that it is the job of universities to provide consultancy to industries and other social and economical establishments in their localities. There are even some instances of 2 EQUIP is an outreach NGO of Frei University, Amsterdam and supported by the Dutch Government Funding Agency, NUFFIC

involvement of the audited HEIs in the areas. Mekele and Hawassa universities, for instance, are extending the service in the areas of agriculture, education, finance and health. Hawassa University has designated chemical industries as an area of interest for consultancy. However, the reports show that some of the audited universities’ instructors tend to provide the consultancy services in a disorganized manner individually and without the knowledge of their institutions. This is due to the lack of sufficiently robust research and outreach policy in most of the HEIs. 2.3.10 Strategizing Higher Education The first pillar in the assurance of quality is the strength, implementation and communication of the vision, mission, goals and values of higher education institutions. Reviewing the strategic plans of 14 HEIs, the external quality audit teams made recommendations classifying as essential, advisable and desirable. The team has made desirable recommendations to all 14 institutions. Commonly, the team recommended that it is desirable to regularly review their vision, mission, goals and values and revise these as necessary. However, the team has not made the main reasons for the need to make the revisions and reviews. It is noticeable that many of the vision statements are confused with the objectives of HEIs as presented in the proclamations. Public Universities lack consistency in the total number of years which their strategic plans cover; the minimum is five and the maximum being 20 years. Almost all public Universities envision being a leading University in research, teaching and community services. A leading University in what? Except Arba Minch, Jima and Gondar, the remaining Universities did not highlight their areas of excellence. Instead, three key words recur 14 times in these vision statements: teaching, research and community services. The vision statement need to be clear, simple to grasp and realistic. The objectives of Ethiopian higher education institutions as stated in proclamation 2009 are mixed up with the visions of the universities. Visionary leadership is

required to set a concise, valued, shared and simple

vision statement focusing on their areas of excellence. As clearly stipulated in the proclamation 2009, the planning period should cover a total of 5 years. During the field survey, it has been observed that institutional transformation, implementing Business Process Reengineering (BPR), has taken place in many of public universities. Many

of the presidents interviewed expressed that they are organizing planning teams to design a five year strategic plan. The questionnaire survey also shows that in terms of creating awareness on the significance of sharing the vision, mission goals and values of sharing the vision, mission, goals and values of an educational institution, HERQA's impact has been evaluated very high. Almost all the institutions responded that they have started posting their vision, mission and values decorating colorfully to help the HEIs’ community embrace the vision, mission and values and work towards their realization. 2.3.11 Governance and Management of Higher Education Institutions To evaluate the effectives and efficiency of higher education governance and management, the external quality audit team from HERQA chiefly audited senate legislations, organizational structures, and minutes of meetings (board, senate and departmental councils), hand books, and manuals which are used by 21 higher education institutions. The audit reports of the 14 higher education institutions show that all public universities follow almost similar governance structure with a president accountable to the board which is accountable to MoE. The team uniformly commented that the board is not very active in ensuring the quality and relevance of education. The minutes of the board, the profile of its members and the communication strategy of the board were not easily accessible to the quality assurance teams. Although in many of the public universities institutional transformation through the implementation of BPR has taken place , none of the audit reports commented on the progress of BPR in private higher education institutions so as to enhance services. As presented in the audit documents, almost all 9 audit reports of public universities indicated that there is no effective communication among the academic units and it is assumed wrongly that the staff and students have a profound knowledge of the legislation and other guidelines. The external teams commend all 14 HEIs for the establishment of more than 10 senate standing committees. However, the field survey and the interviews with higher education management show that of these 14 standing committees, the quality assurance committee remains the weakest. Some of the universities have not even established a senate standing committee for quality assurance. In some cases, the duties and responsibilities of the quality care officer, the regularity of meetings, the powers of the quality assurance unit have not yet been clearly spelt out. The quality assurance unit needs to have autonomy to ensure quality and relevance of an

institution. Some universities have established quality care unit, developed quality assurance package, assessment centers are being established, and trainings on quality assurance are being conducted. Research conferences and works are supporting quality.

Coupled with the

implementation of BPR, the universities have become more accountable and inclusive. Teachers and students are made members of decisions making organs. 2.4. Accreditation The accreditation process mainly focuses on input parameters. The assessor teams reach a consensus after considering the existence of physical facilities such as the number and availability of classrooms, library (with sufficient books to run a program), computer labs, demonstration rooms, workshops, science labs etc along with relevant apparatus, instruments etc and teachers profile to effectively start/run the program judged against the criteria set by HERQA. Summary of pre-accredited, accredited and reaccredited private HEIs from 1998-2001EC

1998

1999

1

Pre-accredited

2

Pre-accreditation denied

3 4

Accredited

2000 N 87 47

2001 % N 64. 6

% 46

N 35

% 36.

N 97

% 71.9

9 35.

3 7

54

62

1 63.

38

28.1

1

4 3

49.

89

9 73.

70

70.7

6 3

3 50.

32

6 26.

29

29.3

7

7 16

4 94.

56

81.2

1

1 5.9

13

18.8

64

Accreditation denied

5 6

Reaccredited Reaccreditations denied Table: From HERQA’s Archives

As it has been depicted in the table, 35.1% of the programs that were applied by HEIs for preaccreditation in 1998 were denied re-accreditation permit. In 2001EC, however, this figure was reduced to 28.1%. Similar reduction was also witnessed in the number of programs which were denied accreditation permit. This could be because of the support the private HEIs are receiving from the Agency before, during and after site visits by external assessors. The

system according to the SED prepared by the Agency experts, however, is beset with some challenges (HERQA, 2009): •

It is mainly based on putting human, material inputs and financial resources in place. So it is open for fraudulent activities on the part of some private higher education institutions. To counteract this, the Agency has started planning and undertaking surprise visits. In 2007/8 for example, more than 30 higher education institutions in and outside Addis Ababa were visited.

•

Another challenge in this area is unavailability of external assessors when the Agency requires them for site visits. To alleviate this problem a pool of trained assessors from the higher education institutions and professional associations who are willing to participate in the assessment is being developed.

3. MAJOR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 3.1. Questionnaire Survey A questionnaire with 35 items was designed and distributed to the presidents, vice presidents and deans of 14 higher education institutions in the country. A total of 40 questioners were successfully filled out and returned. The main purpose of the questionnaire survey was to find out the impact of the quality audit. Interviews were made with selected top management members of HEIs, employers and professional associations. 3.1.1. HERQA’s Policy on Quality Assurance As the objective of the research was to evaluate the adequacy of the current policies related to quality assurance in higher education for ensuring the quality of higher education and research outputs, a question, in the questionnaire, was intentionally directed at finding out the opinion of respondents about HERQA’s quality assurance policy.

(SA= Strongly Agree, A= Agree, N= Neutral, D= Disagree, SD=Strongly Disagree)

Opi SA A N D nion Pr Pu Pr Pu on QA poli cy 1 HERQA’s quality assurance policy is adequate. 2 HERQA’s quality assurance procedures are adequate. 3 HERQA’s assessment of “input” in HEIs is sufficient. 4 HERQA’s assessment of academic “output” is sufficient. Key : Pr= Private HEIs ;

SD Pr

Frequency Total Pu Pr Pu

Pr

Pu

4

1

8

2

0

3

2

4

1

15

40

0

0

11 2

0

3

3

19

1

1

40

3

0

8

3

0

4

1

18

3

0

40

8

0

7

2

0

0

0

5

0

18

40

Pu= Public HEIs

The result shows that most of the management from the public HEIs (19 out of 25 respondents) did not agree that the Agency’s quality assurance policy is adequate while most of the private HEI officials responded positively (12 out of 15). This is perhaps HERQA has closer contact with the private HEIs than the public ones due to the accreditation process the private HEIs have to go through before they open programs. While HERQA’s accreditation of only the programs of private HEIs is argued as being double standard, the opportunity seems to have created a better understanding between the private HEIs and the Agency. The procedure HERQA uses to assure quality is also another point where the private and the public HEIs differ. Most of the respondents (20 out of 25 ) of the public HEIs disagree that the Agency’s procedures for quality assurance are adequate while most of the management (12 of the 15) of the private HEIs who responded to the questionnaire were of the opinion that HERQA is using adequate procedure to assure quality in the higher education institutions. As it has been discussed under section 2.5 of the previous part of this paper, currently HERQA is using mainly input parameter to assess private HEIs. This however is not true of the institutional quality audit which the Agency uses for public HEIs. Concerning using input for assessment, the majority (11 out of 15) of the private HEIs support the idea while almost two-

third of the respondents (18 out of 25) from the public HEIs insist that HERQA does not focus on input for assessment. The finding rather seems contradictory that all the private HEIs also agree that the Agency should focus on output for assessment while almost all the respondents (23 out of 25) from the public HEIs again disagree that the Agency should focus on output. 3. 1.2 The Effectiveness of HERQA’s Communication with stakeholders Quality assurance and control systems should normally have open channels of communication (HEOC, 1996). In this regard, it has been clearly pointed out by the Higher Education Proclamation that establishing effective communication with stakeholders is one of the duties of the Agency (HEP 650/2009). When asked about the effectiveness of HERQA’s means of communication, all the respondents (25) from the public HEIs said that they do not agree HERQA has effective means of communication to create awareness about the issues of quality in the external stakeholders and only a few of the officials (4 out of 15) of the seven private HEIs agreed that the Agency has effective means of communication. It appears that on this point, there is greater agreement between participants from both public and private HEIs. This could be due to, as it is clearly stated in its self-evaluation document (2009:25) the Agency’s communication with the stakeholders is very limited. In order to effectively discharge this responsibility; in 2007 the Agency designed a Communication Strategy with the assistance of the ASSIST project. The Self Evaluation Committee however is aware that there remains much to be done to familiarize the Communication Strategy to the staff, stakeholders, the HERQA management and the HERQA Board. The Strategy is expected to improve the current level of communication in order to enhance the services the Agency is trying to render to private and public HEIs, the students in particular, and to the public at large. In connection with this, the majority of the respondents (12 out of 15) from the private HEIs believed that HERQA had introduced its strategic plan to

higher education institutions

adequately where as, on the contrary, almost all the respondents from the public HEIs disagreed that the Agency had introduced its strategic plan to HEIs. 3.1.3

The Adequacy of HERQA’s Quality Assurance Procedures to Devise Quality Assurance Procedures in an HEI

The majority (16) respondents from the public higher education institutions neither agreed nor disagreed that the Agency’s quality assurance procedures are appropriate to devise their own

quality assurance procedures in their HEIs and most of them (20) disagree that the Agency’s external quality assurance procedures are adequate to establish quality assurance structure in their institutions.

On the other hand, almost all (13 out of 15) respondents from the private

HEIs agree that HERQA’s procedures are appropriate to devise internal quality assurance policy. 3.1.4

The Contribution Of HERQA’s Institutional Quality Audit Procedures and the External Quality Audit Reports and their Recommendations enhanced :

(SA= Strongly Agree, A= Agree, N= Neutral, D= Disagree, SD=Strongly Disagree)

SA Pr

A Pu

N Pr

D Pu

CRIT ICAL ISSU ES 1. Strategy making and implementation 2. The governance and management system 3. Infrastructure and resources utilization 4. Program relevance in your institution. 5. Curriculum design and implementation system 6. The staff development 7. The teaching process 8. The learning process 9. The assessment methods 1 Student progression 0. 1 Graduate outcomes 1. 1 Research outputs 2. 1 Community participation 3. 1 The internal quality assurance 4. system

Pr= Private HEIs

SD Pr

Frequency Total Pu Pr

Pu

Pr

Pu

3

0

10

0

2

7

0

18

0

0

40

3

0

10

1

2

20

0

2

0

2

40

3

0

10

2

1

17

1

5

0

1

40

4

0

8

2

0

16

3

5

0

2

40

4

0

8

3

3

3

0

17

0

2

40

4 4 3 4 1

0 0 0 0 0

9 8 9 7 8

4 17 3 3 3

1 1 2 3 4

15 3 4 2 15

0 1 1 0 2

4 5 17 19 5

1 0 0 0 0

2 0 1 1 2

40 39 40 39 40

0

0

10

16

4

6

0

0

1

3

40

2

0

8

4

4

17

0

1

1

3

40

2

0

9

18

3

2

0

3

1

2

40

8

0

7

16

0

6

0

2

0

1

40

Pu= Public HEIs

As indicated in the table, in relation to the contribution of HERQA’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations to the strategy making and implementation in HEIs, almost all public HEI participants (22 out of 25) reacted negatively. The opposite was true regarding the respondents from private HEIs (13 out of 15).

Regarding governance and management system of HEIs, 20 of the respondents from the public HEIs were undecided while the majority (13 out of 15) of private HEIs believed that HERQA’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations enhanced the governance and management system of their institutions. Most (13 out of 15) of the respondents from the private HEIs believed

that HERQA’s

institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations enhanced the infrastructure and learning resources utilization of their institutions. Here again respondents

from the public sector had a different opinion. Almost

two-thirds (17 out of 25) of them failed to decide whether HERQA’s institutional quality audit procedures have helped them to enhance the infrastructure and learning resources utilization of their institutions. Regarding program relevance in HEIs, the respondents from public HEIs had more or less the same result as above one; 16 of the total 25 respondents could not decide whether or not HERQA’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations enhanced the program relevance in their institution. The result is the opposite when it comes to private higher education institutions; 12 of the 15 participants agreed that the Agency’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations have helped them to assure the relevance of the programs they are offering. Almost three-fourth (12) out of the 15 respondents from the private HEIs agreed that HERQA’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations enhanced curriculum design and implementation system in their institutions. This again was the opposite of the view of the public respondents. Few (3 out of 25) of them believed that the Agency’s Institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations had any effect on their institutions’ curriculum design and implementation system. Staff development is one of the key areas a higher education institution should work on in order to assure the quality of education. Regarding staff development, most of the public higher education institution respondents remain neutral as they seemed to be unable to decide whether or not the Agency’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations enhanced the staff development of their institutions. The majority

of private HEI respondents (13 out of 15) nevertheless assumed that the procedures have a positive effect on the staff development of their institutions. Teaching–learning which is one of the core areas of a higher education was also covered by the questionnaire distributed to participants selected from both public and private higher education institutions. The result shows that the majority (12 out of 15) of private HEI respondents believe that HERQA’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations have contributed positively to the enhancement of teaching and learning in the institutions. This could be due to HERQA’s recommendations given while and after pre-accreditation, accreditation and reaccredidation assessments to private HEIs with the intention of helping them improve their practices. This was not however fully shared by the participants from the public higher education institutions as most of them (17 out of 25) said that that the procedures have helped them improve the teaching process but this has had no enhancing effect on the learning process of the students. As it is the case with other issues, the majority (20 out of 25) of the respondents from the public HEIs did not have the same opinion that the Agency’s institutional quality audit procedures and external quality audit reports and their recommendations enhanced the assessment methods in their institutions. These responses however differed from the ones given by the private higher education institutions where no one disagreed with the statement. 3 of the participants from the private HEIs nevertheless couldn’t decide whether to agree or disagree with the statement. A good number of the participants from the public HEIs (15 out of 25) remained neutral about the enhancement role of the Agency’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations of student progression in their HEIs while nearly the same number of them (16 out of 25) concurred that the procedures had assisted them in enhancing graduate outcomes. The responses from private HEIs clearly indicated that a good number of them (11 out of 15) think that HERQA’s Institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations enhanced their institutions’ research output and community participation. The bulk (18 out of 25) of the public HEI respondents was also of the opinion that the procedures have a positive role in enhancing their institutions’ community participation

while only a few of them (4) agreed that the procedures have the same effect to enhance research outputs in their institutions. The bulk of respondents from both public (16 out of 25) and all the participants(15) from private HEIs agreed that HERQA’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations enhanced the establishment of internal quality assurance system in their institutions. 3.1.5

Adequacy of HERQA’s Quality Assurance Procedure to Build Capacity of the Staff in the HEIs

With respect to building the capacity of staff to assure the quality of teaching-learning, research and community services, the majority of respondents from private and public higher education institutions were in agreement that HERQA’s quality assurance policy is adequate. This is one point where respondents from both public and private higher education institutions converged. 3.1.6

MoE’s Student Admission Policy

(SA= Strongly Agree, A= Agree, N= Neutral, D= Disagree, SD=Strongly Disagree)

1

SA

A

N

D

SD

Frequency Total

Pr

Pu

Pr

Pu

Pr

Pu

Pr

4

16

Adequacy student policy

of MoE’s 0 admission

0

Key : Pr= Private HEIs

Pu

4

Pr

2

3

Pu

5

4

2

40

Pu= Public HEIs

The table shows that student admission policy of Ministry of Education is adequate for only one-third of respondents from the private sector (4) where as two-third of the participants from the public HEIs (16) concur that the admission policy is adequate. This perhaps has something to do with the fact that most of the students who have scored well find place in the government higher institutions where there are costs sharing and other boarding benefits. As the cut off point for entrance is decided by the Ministry of Education and most students are placed in government universities which results in very few students remaining to join private higher education institutions 3.1.7

What should be done to assure the quality of the process and output?

3.1.7.1 Professional Competency Tests (PCT) for Degree Graduates

The majority of respondents from the public (18 out of 25) and private (11 out of 15) HEIs are in agreement that in order to assure the quality of the output, there must be professional competency test for those who are graduating from HEIs at undergraduate and graduate levels. Regarding this, in this document, it was mentioned that HERQA is attempting to establish a professional assessment system where by graduates of higher education institutions will take tests in order to make sure that the education and training of citizens are up to standard. 3.1.7.2 Professional Certification of Teachers The government of Ethiopia adopted a policy that instructors in the teacher trainer institutes and education faculties of universities receive additional training on methods of teaching assessment and the like. Teachers who have received the training will be given a Higher Diploma (FDRE, 2004). Regarding this training, most (23 out of 25) participants from the public HEIs do not agree that there must be a policy framework which compels teachers to be professionally certified before they go for a teaching job. Good number of (13) respondents from the private HEIs, however, support the idea of having a policy framework which allows professional certification of instructors. 3.1.8

Autonomy of HERQA

With respect to HERQA’s ability to make decisions on its own without the interference of higher bodies, a good number of the public HEI respondents (17 out of 25) are of the opinion that the Agency is independent enough to make decisions on its own with out the interference of higher bodies. None of the private officials, however, think that HERQA has the autonomy to pass decisions on its own. The Agency however believes that “until recently, decisions of the review committee on accreditation needed to be endorsed by the Minister of Education. Presently, however, as the result of the business process reengineering undertaken at Ministry level, the need for endorsement of accreditation by the Minister has been ruled out” and this gives the Agency more autonomy than before (HERQA, 2009 a: 16).

3.1.9

Familiarity of Instructors In The HEIs with The Issues Of Quality Education

The bulk (13 out of 15) of private HEI officials and only one-fifth of the public HEI respondents believe that instructors in the HEIs are familiar with the issues of quality education. Nearly three- fifth of the public officials remain skeptical about the familiarity of instructors with the issues of quality in education. 3.1.10 Engagement in Tracer Studies in HEIs The majority of the management from private HEIs (12 out 15) believe that their institutions have a system for conducting tracer studies that can follow graduate outcomes while only 3 out of 25 respondents from participants from public HEIs agreed that their HEIs has the system to undertake tracer studies to follow up with graduate outcome. 3.2 Open-ended Questions 3.2.1. Factors That Negatively Affect the Quality of Education in HEIs The factors that negatively affect the delivery of quality higher education have been summarized as follows: These are based on the open-ended responses. Reference to them indicate consensus among respondents. 3.2.1.1.

Staff Related Challenges

Concerning staff of HEIs, lack of skilled manpower in the market, instructors’ turnover, lack of professional commitment and low levels/caliber on the part of instructors, under-qualification on the part of instructors and lack of pedagogical knowledge have been singled out. 3.2.1.2 Student Related Challenges Respondents reported that most of the students who join higher education institutions lack basic communication skills in general and the ability to use English as instructional medium in particular. The academic level of students who join higher education institutions have also been found inadequate Low attitude of students towards hard work, low academic level of fresh students (mixed group of students joining HEIs). 3.2.1.2.

3. Government Related Challenges

The participants further reported that lack of adequate government support such as access to land for constructing buildings, technical support and teacher development, hostile and unpredictable government policy changes, lack of independence on the part of HERQA and communication gap between higher institutions and policy makers in general as factors affecting quality higher education negatively.

3.2.1.3.

Concerning Higher Education Institutions

Lack of research and other academic facilities, inability to establish links with alumni and undertake tracer studies were mentioned as negative factors affecting public HEIs. The mismatch between class size and teaching staff, the inadequacy of facilities such as books, computers, labs, chemicals, ICT infrastructure and teaching aids, failure to deliver courses practically, lack of research culture and failure to integrate research and teaching, critical shortage of highly qualified and experienced staff and engagement of higher education management and staff in other chores rather than teaching and research activities are also identified main hurdles of quality education provision. Externalizing problems of quality (Who is responsible for the loss of quality?) is also mentioned as one of the problems prevalent among the public university management and staff. 3.2.1.4.

Concerning Quality Assurance Procedures

In general, the quality assurance procedures are not yet effective because the quality of the Ethiopian higher education is still greatly affected by problems which are assumed to continue in the future until such time concrete measures are taken. 3.2.2 How could HERQA improve the policy to advance quality and relevance? HERQA, the respondents believe, can improve its policy to advance quality and relevance by enforcing stronger accreditation policy and rules and regulations for both public and private HEIs. The Agency has to also monitor equipment and teaching learning and research facilities put in place by HEIs before and after accreditation processes, support HEIs through the provision of guidance and advice and develop nationwide quality assurance framework. It was also suggested that HERQA must involve stakeholders to revisit its criteria for assessment on the basis of international experience and to actively develop an integrated, refined and stable guideline system of QA. 3.2.3

Positive impacts of the current quality assurance procedure in Ethiopia

In general, the respondents argued although the Ethiopian higher education is gripped with various complex problems, the quality assurance procedures and the government policy interventions have positive impacts. The following is the summary of the impacts of these interventions: 1. The establishment of quality assurance system in HEIs for the first time.

2. Building the capacity of HEIs so that they can prepare SEDs and quality enhancement plans. 3. In HEIs, after the introduction of quality assurance measures, community outreach activities have become the agenda of the universities. 4. Research engagement has become more fruitful and applicable. More problem solving research and industry focused proposals are given top priority now. 5. University-enterprise linkage has improved. 6. The need to design demand-driven curriculum and modularization of the curriculum. A very good example is the implementation of modular curriculum at Hawassa University’s degree programs. 7. HEIs have created awareness on the ten commandments of quality assurance and quality has become an agenda in the universities. 8. Gradual development of quality culture on quality in the universities in a more professional way due to the introduction of institutional audit by HERQA, 9. The training quality assurance auditors for quality audits by HERQA, involvement of private HEIs in assessment of other HEIs, 10. The training of quality assurance auditors for quality audits by HERQA, involvement of private HEIs in assessment of other HEIs, were assets for the HEIs as they have engaged in training of their own staff in each university they come from and supporting of SED preparation. 3.2.4. Measures to be taken to improve the quality assurance procedures in HEIs Participants believe that awareness raising on quality and relevance among all stakeholders, involving other professional organizations, spreading the idea of quality assurance to primary and secondary schools and discussion on quality assurance with all stakeholders will improve the quality assurance procedures in the HEIs. It is also important that HERQA should work hard to increase the involvement of HEIs in formulating regulations and quality assurance procedures, applying the accreditation rules strictly to both public and private HEIs, opening a network of QA offices across the country, granting accreditations after quality audits are conducted and improving the accreditation and accreditation capacity of HERQA.

Participants also believe that the Ministry of Education, for its part, should be able to create an environment in which HERQA can work more independently. It should also work towards having a more stable policy and improve the students’ admission policy that is required to join an HEI. 3.2.5. Challenges HEIs Faced Due to Quality Assurance Procedures Implementations Participants, especially from the private HEIs, stress that they usually face challenges due to lack of expertise in certain specific programs and shortage of instructors trained at PhD level. This has made it difficult to fulfill the staff mix requirement of MoE (20% bachelor, 50% masters and 30% PhD holders). The respondents also argue that the stringent rules (when compared with the public HEIs) due to the accreditation criteria that private HEIs have to adhere has caused challenges. They insist that MOE should come up with more stable policies and support private HEIs in teacher development and other areas. Some respondents believe that quality assurance measures are new to the Ethiopian Higher Education system and faced with some challenges: 1. The ten pillars of quality assurance lack standards and polices. 2. There is a lack of experienced staff on quality management at university levels. 3. There budget is insufficient to improve the ten areas of quality at the institutional levels. 4. There is resistance to change by the students and teachers especially on the implementation of student centered and practical teaching. Many students have a negative view of student centered education especially in the social sciences. 3.2.6. Policy Choices That Should Be Taken To Advance The Quality And Relevance of Education in Ethiopia While designing quality assurance policy, participants recommended the following measures: 1. The quality assurance policy must have standards. On the basis of these standards, universities must be evaluated every year. 2. Equal focus must be given to the assessment of inputs and outputs (for example employability of the graduates should be a criterion.) 3. Ethiopian qualification framework must be implemented. 4. The quality assurance policy needs to be supported by other policies such as graduation policy, progression policy, examination policy, and accreditation policy. 5. HERQA must be given the authority (capacity) to follow up the enhancement plans of

HEIs. 6. All HEIs must conduct tracer studies. 7. There must be a policy statement which enforces all gradates to take an exit exam. The exit exam results must be used to allocate budgets and the selection of best performing universities. 8. The universities must create a nexus between research and teaching. Those who cannot conduct research shouldn’t be allowed to teach in higher educations. 9. To increase the competence of graduates, there must a policy framework on collaborative teaching. Business enterprises need to sponsor internships. 10. There must be a public private partnership policy for the Ethiopian higher education institutions In addition, respondents argued that in order to advance the quality and relevance of education in Ethiopia, private and public HEIs’ associations should be strengthened and the government should develop links with the HEI associations to consult and develop an understanding with HEIs before a policy is promulgated. They further suggested that HERQA and the government should adopt an open door policy towards solving problems through negotiation, discussion to abreast with possible dynamism in the future. In addition, the respondents insisted that HERQA/MoE should review the current policy on private/public HEIs. And HERQA should be more autonomous and establish a staff development center so that it can improve its staff qualification. 3.3. Interview Responses Interviews were made with 16 respondents including some presidents, vice presidents, deans, student council leaders, board members of HEIs, senior staff, HERQA director, staff association leaders and selected employers. Major themes focused include: the impacts of HERQA, factors affecting quality, policy options, employability and graduate outcome. Focusing on these thematic areas, among others, the following questions were raised: 1. What are the major impacts of HERQA's quality assurance policy? 2. Is the quality assurance procedure adequate?

3. What are the major factors which affect the quality of educational and research outputs currently? 4.

Do HERQA’s ten pillars of quality adequately assess the quality and relevance of education and training in your institution?

5. What policy options do you recommend to advance the quality of education and research in the Ethiopian higher education institutions? 3.3.1. The Adequacy and Impact of Quality Assurance Policy HEP 2009/650 provided the legal and policy background for the accreditation of private HEIs but there is no legal frameworks and standards for the external quality audits being undertaken in public universities. The respondents expressed that accreditation is legally mandatory for all private providers. However, although HERQA audited only five private institutions out of 64, external quality audit also became mandatory as of September 2010 (MoE 2003). Due to lack of qualified staff, HERQA has not audited all private providers. Accreditation of public universities does no exist at all. Some quality audit processes are going on in public universities. There are some universities which even do not have quality assurance office. Respondents also asked whether HERQA has quality assurance policy and standards. The respondents interviewed also expressed that the current quality assurance procedures are far from being adequate. For many of them, they could not even see the interrelation between quality assurance and accreditation. The legal framework for external quality auditing has been questioned. The current quality assurance procedures have given due focus on the assessment of inputs and processes. An important step has been missed out, that is, the evaluation of outputs. The involvement and roles of professional association in accreditation and external auditing is negligible. In accreditation and quality assurance decision making processes, professional associations must take the lion’s share. Some of the respondents also expressed the existence of double standard between private and public providers. Only private providers should undergo accreditation. HERQA’s quality assurance process begins from the preparation of self evaluation documents by HEIs and is followed by a visit from HERQA external auditors. In both methods of the evaluation process, the following ten core pillars are assessed: vision, mission and educational

goals, governance and management system, infrastructure and learning resources , academic and support staff student admission and support services, program relevance and curriculum, teaching, learning and assessment, student progression and graduate outcomes, research and outreach activities, internal quality assurance. However, although HERQA identified these components of quality, it has failed to set standards. At what level of these components that quality is achieved? The respondents interviewed expressed that the impacts of HERQA are many. However, the impacts of HERQA on private providers can be visibly seen because HERQA has roles to play in accrediting private providers. Coupled with the institutional transformation, HERQA has also had an impact on public universities which have completed BPR impacting the managerial capacity and services delivery in higher institutions. The respondents from public universities expressed that the preparation SEDs has prompted the institutions to revisit their strategic plans,

research outputs, curriculum, legislation, facilities and manpower requirement. In

both cases, it has made the institutions revisit the way they have been delivering the programs in terms of inputs and processes. Some of the institutions have established quality care units focusing greatly on ten pillars of quality measurement. Due to quality assurance evaluations, the institutions have revisited some areas which were given less attention years ago. Facilities were revisited, the number of books per students checked, staff profile and ratio assessed, research relevance streamlined, and staff development plans developed due to the influence of HERQA. Although they are just beginning to implement the plans, many of the institutions audited by HERQA have prepared quality enhancement plans which will be followed up by HERQA. Bold steps to adequately assess the outputs have not yet been made. In public universities, student involvement in decision making has increased.

Student

representatives of the councils in public institutions have now the right to table agendas to the presidents and vice presidents of the universities. The vice presidents are informed about some of the challenges so that they can make informed decisions. Deans have meetings with student representatives. Students are represented in academic commissions and senate meetings. Therefore, decisions can be communicated to students transparently. Conversely, student involvement in private institutions decision making process is negligible. Only few private

providers have student councils. All these responses of student representatives were crossed checked with the minutes of academic commissions and senates. In terms of the management teams’ roles on the quality of education, differences exist even among the different public universities. A senior president said, “One size does not fit all.” At MoE level, consultative management meetings are held. However, the presidents of public universities expressed that they are just “listeners” because the Ministry has a strong desire for the prompt implementation of all government policies. The presidents and vice presidents of the new and old universities are told to implement the policies in the same manner and uniformly because ''One size fits all 22 universities”. Some of the great good practices that are being implemented by the new universities are routine practices for the older ones. Some of the new policies must have been clarified to the new presidents. Although proclamation 2009 has given greater autonomy in selecting qualified and experienced board members, some of the political elites lack the vision and an understanding of the mission of higher education institutions. Quality has not been an agenda of board meetings. To be a board member, one must have superior experience and knowledge of the higher education system. Therefore, careful selection must be made while selecting board members, presidents and teachers. It is not only political commitment but also academic excellence which greatly matters in higher education leadership. The other quality indicator often addressed by HERQA is research relevance and community outreach. Due to the attention given to research after HERQA’s quality audit, two of the vice presidents expressed that the institutions have strengthened the linkages between the research and the problems of the community. They have begun to think that the universities now are not islands. They know that the research works need to support the local community and the enterprises. Only some private providers have established a sustainable research and conference culture. Many of private providers and new universities have not yet started research works and research conferences. The respondents from private institutions repeatedly mentioned the following impacts of HERQA: o Increased implementation of continuous assessment o Preparation of quality assurance packages o Establishment of ICT and e-learning

o Technology and knowledge transfer and interchange initiatives to reach out the community o Establishment of university enterprise linkages o Increased the involvement stakeholders o Established Alumni office in some cases o Greater staff development schemes o Greater Support Services to female students 3.3.2. Factors Affecting Quality As per the views of the respondents, the Ethiopian higher education is gripped by a multitude of factors affecting the quality of education. o The Ministry of Education assigns student who successfully passed the national exam to only public universities. However, some of them fail to understand concepts, theories and principles that form the basis of higher education. o The quality of high school students joining higher education is very low. When the universities voice this critical and persistent problem to the Ministry of Education or to the regional education bureaus, they point at the graduates of the universities saying that they lack the right teaching competencies. The graduates lack the qualities of an effective teacher when they join the world of teaching. An integrated effort has not been made at all levels of education to improve quality. One cannot improve higher education quality without improving quality at primary and secondary levels. o Students in new universities generally have a negative attitude towards the quality of education delivered in these universities. Resources are scarce, teachers lack higher education experience, libraries are full of copied books, research seminars are totally absent, public lectures and conferences do not exit at all. As the interview with some academic vice presidents of older universities show, many students apply a transfer from the new universities to the older ones. o The problems facing new universities are entirely different. Critical shortage of facilities, lack of experienced and qualified staff, failure to attract senior and mid level academic managers and negative attitude of student towards new university greatly affected the quality of education.

MoE does not have the capacity at least to simplify the legal

frameworks and give them policy directions. Quality assurance policies and standards should have been communicated explicitly to these new universities. o The older universities’ leadership have identified problems such as less motivated academic staff, huge class size, attitude of students towards hard work, low work culture (attitude, behavior and competence), staff dissatisfaction, promotion irregularities, poor living condition of teachers, irregular capacity building trainings, scantily research fund and facilities, consulting services are not supported by policies and guidelines. Senior staff members are overloaded with several courses and committee assignment. Sometimes a teacher plays triple roles as a teacher, researcher and academic manager. Some students are not mentally and emotionally prepared for higher education. The training is theoretical. Practical classes are limited. The way students and teachers manage time must be corrected. Teachers do not have time to support students. Some of them never return assignments. o Lack of excellence. Not all universities should run identical programs. Quality must lead to choice. The universities must declare their area of excellence: water, engineering, law, agriculture, humanities, or literature. It is suggested that that each university must identify its disciplinary strength. o There are attempts on conducting tracer studies by public universities. However, since the public institutions are challenged with uncontrolled massification, they have not made tracer studies. In this regard, the quality assurance policy needs to evaluate heavily the outputs with the greater involvement of the employers (industries). o The problems that private providers have faced are unique. Initially the government encouraged the expansion of private higher education institutions. It promised them land and access to good students who have successfully passed national examinations. Later on they were viewed as ''money-collectors.” Frequently, the government changed the curriculum and entry requirement regulations. Many of the respondents expressed that they have not even participated when the ministry drafted HEP 650/2009. Meaning while MoE drafted the proclamation, the participation and contribution of private providers were negligible. Initially, unsystematic accreditation method resulted in the establishment of poorly resourced private institutions. Some poor colleges which should not have been established survived for many years destroying the reputation of those colleges which tried

to deliver quality education with greater accountability. The accreditation agencies at the federal and regional levels lack manpower and quality assurance standards. The association of private higher education failed to single out “money-making” private institutions. The association does not include colleges located in the regions. It centers in the capital city only. 3.2.2. Employability and Graduate Outcome Some selected factory and bank managers were interviewed on the competence of the graduates of universities who assume new job responsibilities in banks and factories. According to the respondents, the attitude of new entrants towards the world of work and the factory and the bank has generally declined recently. The usual tendency is that they leave their job even when they get a small amount of salary increment. It is the money which has become more important. Unemployment has also increased drastically. On the employability of the graduates, one of the interviewees said, “Last week, our factory advertised a vacancy to recruit 4 nurses. It registered 700 applicants most of them are fresh graduates. Later, it was decided to short list those who have above 90% points and selected 102 and sent them to Black Lion Hospital for practical tests. The result from the hospital and colleges were entirely different. Grades in the university and colleges do not measure the capacity of the graduates. The factory wanted to recruit graduates of Sugar Engineering. But no university in Ethiopia has this department. The universities must build dependable partnership with factories like ours and train what we want. The universities must advance enterprise-university linkages to enhance the capabilities of their students. Sometimes they send some students for practical training. However, there is no follow up. Since we are very busy, we can't deliver the right kind of practical training and guidance. There must be a winwin situation. The universities should plan what they deliver to the industries for training their students.” From the interviews, it can be generalized that some the shortcomings of new entrants include: o

Failure to communicate efficiently with colleagues and customers.

o

Overdependence on other staff even for minor duties.

o

Lack of awareness of the importance of quality and customer services.

3.3.4

o

Lack of values like good personality and time management.

o

Lack of efficiency and work ethics.

o

Negligible problem solving ability and resourcefulness.

Policy Options

According to many of the interviewees, in terms of the African standards, the Ethiopian government has taken bold steps for massification and this must be appreciated. However, the respondents generally agreed that the quality assurance policy and procedures are far from being adequate. The quality assurance procedures fail to measure the competency of the graduates. They heavily rely on inputs and processes. When designing quality assurance policies or reviewing the current procedures, the respondents suggested the following: o Program diversification should lead to the identification of core areas of excellence. The universities should know their areas of excellence. They should declare their areas of excellence to the entire public. o Ethiopian universities must have quality standards. Transparent criteria must be communicated to all.

Best universities must get additional budgetary support.

Research and graduate outcome must be the criteria for ranking universities. o Partnership between private and public or public with public should be very strong. Some of the new universities need coaching, the old ones are looking for research partnership. o The University should outsource all student services and focus on only the quality of education and research. o MoE shall seriously consider the intake capacity of the respective public universities. Good performing private universities also should get access to good students. o Exit exams should be conducted by regional education bureaus in collaboration with MoE. o Budget allocation shall be made on the basis of merit. o Professionalizing the leadership and experiences sharing for the university leadership.

o In order to advance the quality and relevance of research, there must be a research strategy.

Research standards must be prepared. The number of research labs,

research budget and fund for publication must increase. There must be a policy framework properly communicated and implemented by all universities. MoE’s policy which states that each academic staff must allocate 25 % of the total load to research work must be made practical. Research staff should not handle more that 3 courses at a time. There must be sufficient ICT infrastructure, research journals, and places to conduct research to offer a favorable research environment. There must be a very strong linkage between research outcome and teaching. Teachers must also study the effectiveness of their own teaching at least. o Each university must specify how it will implement the established QA policies. The top management must establish quality assurance systems and always present quality as an agenda at all levels. Since quality needs quality, efforts must be made to improve the quality of life for all teachers. o MoE should break the iron wall which separates private and public providers of higher education. o MoE must mobilize the public for undivided and quality educations and training at all levels is needed. o MoE must help HEIs share the objectives of the Growth and Transformation Plan of the country. Private providers should also be helped to share the vision of the country. Poverty must be eradicated jointly. o The association of private higher education must be supported to champion quality education.

Professional associations must be supported by quality assurance

policies to accredit colleges. o How come policy makers like HERQA assure quality? They make policies and standards and at the same time they use these policies to measure private provides. 4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 4.1. CONCLUSION

Following the review of the government plans, policies and strategies, it can be generalized that, although massification is continuing, there is a significant shift from focus on massification of the Ethiopian Higher Education to the provision of quality higher education. Ethiopia's new Five Year “Growth and Transformation Plan" (GTP)

(2010/11-2014/15)

indicates that in the coming years, special focus will be given to science and engineering education, that the quality of the Ethiopian higher education shall be improved to approach international standards during the planning period. Enhancing higher education management and systems, educating many Ethiopian teachers and researchers at a higher level, quality higher education shall also be established in the planning period (GTP, July 2010). Hereunder are the conclusions:  The survey of the secondary sources has shown that HEP 2004/350 and HEP 2009/650 provide the legal framework for the quality assurance activities and accreditation work of HERQA. HERQA does not have quality assurance policy instead it has quality assurance procedures which chiefly focus on ten pillars of quality education.  The survey has also shown that the top management of the public HEIs did not agree that the Agency’s Quality Assurance Policy is adequate while most of the private HEI leadership responded positively. This is perhaps HERQA has closer contacts with the private HEIs than the public ones due to the accreditation process the private HEIs have to go through before they open programs. HERQA accredits only the program of private HEIs and this is considered as being a double standard. Nonetheless, this seems to have created a better understanding between the private HEI s and the Agency. The procedures that HERQA uses to assure quality are also another point where the private and the public HEIs differ. Most of the respondents of the public HEIs disagree that the Agency’s procedure for quality assurance are adequate while almost all the management of the private HEIs who responded the questionnaire decided that HERQA is using adequate procedure to assure quality in the higher education institutions.  The review of the audit reports of 14 higher education institutions shows that almost all public Universities envision being a leading University in research, teaching and community services. Except Arba Minch, Jima and Gondar, the remaining Universities did not highlight on the areas of their core areas of excellence. The objectives of Ethiopian higher education institutions as stated in proclamation 650/2009 are mixed up with the

visions of the universities. Visionary leadership is required to set a laconic, cherished, shared and simple vision statement focusing on their areas of excellence. As clearly stipulated in the proclamation 2009, the planning period should cover a total of 5 years.  The external quality audit teams commend all 14 HEIs for the establishment of more than 10 senate standing committees. However, the field survey and the interviews with higher education management show that the quality assurance committee remains the weakest. Some of the universities have not yet established a senate standing committee for quality assurance. In some cases, the duties and responsibilities of the quality care officer, the recurrence of the meetings, and the powers of the quality assurance unit have not yet been clearly spelt out. Developing its own institutional quality assurance policy implementation systems, the quality assurance unit needs to have all autonomies and powers to ensure quality and relevance of an institution and must be accountable to the President of the University.  Compared to the private providers, public institutions have not yet changed their strategic directions and plans due to the impacts of HERQA’ external evaluation.  Government institutions have almost completed institutional transformation implementing Business Process Reengineering (BPR) where as private providers have not yet implemented BPR to improve their governance and management systems. Public institutions still suspect the impacts of HERQA on the governance and management systems.  Likewise many private providers, the newly established public universities have faced critical shortage of facilities. Due to the increment of student intakes every year, even the older public universities expressed their concern over the critical shortage of resources.  The assessment shows that the degree curriculum has not fully depended on the demand of the economy and hence produces unemployed graduates. The Growth and Transformation Plan dictates that the economy looks for competent science and engineering graduates so that the country meets its MDGs. Regarding program relevance in HEIs, the respondents from public HEIs have more or less the same result as above one; the respondents could not decide whether or not HERQA’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations enhanced the program relevance in their institution. The result is the opposite when it comes to private higher education institutions;

the participants agreed that the Agency’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations have helped them to assure the relevance of the programs they are offering. It shows that HERQA has greater impacts on private providers than public institutions.  Almost three-fourth of respondent officials from the private HEIs agree that HERQA’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations enhanced curriculum design and implementation system in their institutions. This again turns out the opposite when it comes to the public respondents. Few of them believe that the Agency’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations have any effect on their institutions’ curriculum design and implementation system.  Both private and newly established universities expressed their concern over the absence of experienced and qualified staff which has become the major factor affecting quality and relevance. Regarding staff development most of the public higher education institution respondents remain neutral as they are unable to decide whether or not the Agency’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations enhanced the staff development of their institutions. The majority of private HEI respondents nevertheless assume that the procedures have a positive effect on the staff development of their institutions.  The assessment shows that the majority of private HEI respondents agree that HERQA’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations have contributed positively in the enhancement of teaching and learning in the institutions. This was not however fully shared by the participants from the public higher education institutions as most of them said that that the procedures have helped them to improve the teaching process while it has no enhancing affect on the learning process of the students.  Although they have faced several obstacles due to massification, public universities are implementing student-centered delivery modes and continuous assessments. As it is the case to the other issues, the majority of the respondents from the public HEIs do not have the same opinion that the Agency’s institutional quality audit procedures and external quality audit reports and their recommendations enhanced the assessment methods in their

institutions. The responses however differ from the ones given by the private higher education institutions where no one disagreed with the statement. 3 of the participants from the private HEIs nevertheless couldn’t decide whether to agree or disagree with the statement.  A good number of the participants from the public HEIs remain neutral about the enhancement role of the Agency’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations of student progression in their HEIs while nearly the same number of them concur that the procedures has assisted them in enhancing graduate outcomes. The private HEI officials, on the other hand, are of the opinion that HERQA’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations have helped their HEIs to enhance both student progression and student outcomes.  The responses from private HEIs clearly indicated that a good number of them think that HERQA’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations enhanced their institutions’ research output and community participation. The bulk of the public HEI respondents is also of the opinion that the procedures have a positive role in enhancing their institutions’ community participation while only a few of them agreed that the procedures have the same effect to enhance research outputs in their institutions.  The bulk of the respondents from both public and all the participants from private HEIs agree that HERQA’s institutional quality audit procedures and the external quality audit reports and their recommendations enhanced the establishment of internal quality assurance system in their institutions.  The procedures heavily depend on ‘Ten Commandments’ and give less focus on inputs and outputs. The ten pillars of quality assurance lack standards and polices.  The assessment shows that the following are major factors which affect quality:  Lack of experienced staff on quality management at university levels.  Lack of sufficient budget to improve the ten areas of quality at the institutional levels.  Resistance to changes by the students and teacher especially on the implementation of student fronted and practical teaching. Many students suspect student centered

education especially in social sciences. 

Massification of higher education resulted in large classes.

 Staff qualification and experience. Fresh graduates taking up senior courses.  Lack of attractive research incentive and attractive salary.  Negligible fringe benefits for the top management and staff.  Critical shortage of resources and teaching facilities.  Change resistant teachers and students  Very low attitude towards hard work.  Failure to integrate research and teaching.  Very weak linkage between enterprises and universities and among public and private providers.  Absence of exit exams for the graduates  Failure to follow up the graduates. Unemployment rate has increased. 4.2. RECOMMENDATIONS Hereunder are the recommendations:  HERQA must design quality assurance policy to advance quality and relevance by enforcing stronger accreditation policy and rules and regulations for both public and private HEIs. HERQA’s quality assurance policy must provide a model for public universities to develop their own quality assurance policy. The Agency has to also monitor equipment and teaching-learning and research facilities put in place by HEIs before and after accreditation processes, support HEIs through the provision of guidance and advice and develop nationwide quality assurance framework. It is also suggested that HERQA must involve stakeholders to revisit its criteria for assessment on the basis of international experience and develop an integrated, refined and stable guideline system. There must be a policy framework which evaluates the outcomes of each HEI. The quality assurance policy must have standards. On the basis of these standards, universities must be evaluated and ranked every year. The roles of professional associations in the evaluation of quality must increase.  There shall be a policy framework which enforces that all graduates of both public

and private institutions take exit exams and assure the employer that they are competent. The HEIs must be held responsible and supported to conduct tracer studies as a means to promote university-enterprise linkages.  The involvement of professional associations in the accreditation and quality assurance process shall increase. Awareness-raising on quality and relevance among all stakeholders, involving other professional organizations, spreading the idea of quality assurance and discussion on quality assurance with all stakeholders shall improve the quality assurance procedures in the HEIs. It is also important that HERQA should work hard to increase the involvement of HEIs in formulating regulations and quality assurance procedures, applying the accreditation rules strictly to both public and private HEIs, opening a network of QA offices across the country, granting accreditations after quality audits are conducted and improving the accreditation and quality assurance capacity of HERQA.  There shall be a policy which clearly presents the independence of HERQA.

The

Ministry of Education, on its part, should be able to create an environment in which HERQA can work more independently.  The QA agency should be accountable to the Prime Minister of Ethiopia and presents its annual report to the Parliament.  The quality assurance policy shall create the context for designing curriculum which responds to the demand of the local and international economy. To zip the gap between the supply and the demand of the graduates, the curriculum needs to be economy-driven. The economy is competing with the international markets and demands. The demand for relevant workforce keeps changing. It is observable that many of the universities are following the same curriculum. Internationalization and partnership must be streamlined so that demand driven curriculum can be designed.  The quality assurance policy shall encourage technology and knowledge interchange. To increase the relevance and quality of research, universities need to establish quality technology and knowledge interchange offices properly funded and staffed. The relevance and quality of the research conducted by postgraduate students and staff has often been questioned. What is the relevance of conducting research in the university? Is it to package knowledge or solve the problems of the society? There must be a policy on technology and

knowledge interchange. Universities research should advance the economy through technology and knowledge transfer.  There shall be a policy which helps allocate budget on outcome basis to each public HEI. Best performing private providers need to have budget subsidies from the government.  The government shall ensure working conditions that are conducive to efficient and effective performance. To advance quality, increasing the higher education budget is strongly recommended. Due to critical shortage of budgeting, the Ethiopian higher education has faced several challenges. Low academic staff salaries, critical shortage of modern technology, poorly equipped and outdated laboratories and workshops, critical shortage of research funding, underdeveloped infrastructure (dusty and muddy road side, slow Internet connectivity in some universities), shortage of latest publications, lack of educational soft wares, poor ICT infrastructure and shortage of classroom facilities all require huge funding and have tyrannically gripped the quality of education. How can a PhD holder continue to survive on birr 5500 (less than 350 dollars) a month?  The quality assurance policy shall enhance staff qualification and motivation Aggressively increasing staff qualification and mix in private providers and newly established public universities is strongly recommended. Recent attempts are made to raise the qualification of the staff in some public universities. The existence of professors and PhD holders in a university will advance quality and increase research out put. Since many of the staff members are not motivated, staff turnover is very high.  The quality assurance policy shall balance massification and quality. The government has aggressively expanded higher education. New ten universities are going to be established. Private provision is also increasing. Massification at the expense of quality should not continue.  The quality assurance policy shall help enhance the quality of students joining universities.  The quality assurance policy shall have a section on University–enterprise partnership. The partnership between universities and enterprises is weak. The universities must open their doors to the industries. REFERENCES

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Plan of

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