K S U - C O LT ’ s RA I T Research Articles In Interpretation and Translation

Issue 5 - Spring 2016

King Saud University

TO OUR DEAR READERS... RAIT is a compilation of research articles in the fields of translation and interpretation. All the articles presented in this magazine are written by a new generation of researchers; students enrolled in "Research Methodology" offered at the College of Languages & Translation, KSU. My deep gratitude to Mrs. Dania and Dr. Hind for their continued support in such endeavors. Happy reading! ~ Dina Al-Sibai, Course Instructor

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Toledo School of Translation By Azhar A. Basalama The definition of translation is "The process of changing something that is written or spoken into another language" ("Oxford Dictionary," 2010, p. 1588). In our life, we should learn

more to have a good life and to improve ourselves, and one of the best ways to learn more is to translate books. There were a lot of special great schools and universities for translation in the past. In fact, the most famous school in the 12th and 13th centuries was the Toledo School of Translation in Spain, as there were a lot of great translators who studied in that school and they changed the continent of Europe by the books they translated. According to Introduction to Translation, n.d., the strangest translation period in history is in the "Toledo School of Translation", Spain. Toledo in that time was the perfect place to find the most famous cultures. On one side, you could find the Islamic culture, and on the other, there was

also Christianity and Judaism. Also, what made that time perfect is that all these three religions were at peace and interacted together in a civil manner. The notes also mention that "First of all, they translated the old cultures from Arabic to Latin language, then translated into new European languages." (p. 7). Toledo School of Translation embraced a lot of famous translators and one of them was Gerard of Cremona. He was born in Italy and studied in Spain. In addition, he translated a lot of Arabic works about medicine into Latin because that was the golden Islamic time in which all the Muslims were so clever and had the knowledge about a multitude of things. However, his trans-

lations had some errors, especially when it came to Arabic idioms. Also, he translated from Greek into Latin (Aybar, Alfonso, & Raio, 2015; Gerrit, Michael, & Joseph, 2014). Another famous translator who studied in Toledo Translation School and was the source of inspiration for some translators was Adelard of Barth. He was an English translator and scholar. He visited so many countries such as Asia, Egypt and Greece. Moreover, Adelard of Barth was one of the first people who translated Euclid into Latin and he used Arabic books to facilitate the translation process.

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In addition, there were some sources mentioned that he translated, like the astronomical tables of Al-Khawarizmi (Smith, 1958). According to Culbertso, (1995), at that time, the love of learning and translation was so deep, so there were a lot of families who were famous for their translation skills, and one of them was the Iibn Tibbon family. They had so many books about the study of translation. In addition, they were the first who translated a book from Arabic to Hebrew and the name of that book was The Duties of the Heart by R. Bahye ben Yosef ibn-Paquda. Fnally, the Toledo School of Translation helped pave the way that gave the European continent the lights of knowledge. The scholars of that school made it easier for people to have the knowledge and translate it to the languages that the other countries used. In addition, they used the knowledge they learned and evolved their own native countries. Till now, we can see the results of the Toledo School of Translation. Indeed, it is a piece of history that all translators should be proud of. References Aybar, A., Alfonso, L., & Raio. (2015). Toledo school of translators and their influence on

anatomical terminology. Annals Onatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger, 198. Retrieved from 10.1016/j.aanat.2014.12.003 Culbertso, P. L. (1995). A word fitly spoken. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ books Gerrit, B., Michael, M., & Joseph, S. (2014). The Latin translation from Arabic by Gerard of Cremona. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 104(5). Retrieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds Lecture on Introduction to Translation. (n.d.). Personal collection of S. Aldawood, KSU, Ri-

yadh, Saudi Arabia. Oxford dictionary. (2010). J. Turnabull (Ed.), Oxford, U.K. Smith, D. E. (1958). History of mathematics. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ books

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Translation and Poetry: Poetic Translation Difficulties By Moneerah B. Al-Barakah

Poetic translation is a job that must be done in an artistic way, but some may argue that poetry is untranslatable. According to Dastjerdi (2004), because poetry is in large part re-written by

the translator, it can be conserved if a good task is done. The original poetic contexts actually cannot be transposed and they must be arranged. However, the new arrangements can be more luminous. In fact, translating poetry can be difficult due to the differences in religions, cultures and languages. According to Robinson, 2012, the original writers are responsible for their inspiration, techniques, languages, materials, themes and readers. However, poetic translators have a completed work of art as their guide. They must find an equivalent rightness in another language and be expert and inspired. Translators can never photograph from one language to another due to the

fact that it is not responsible and sensitive at the level of rhythm, rhyme, enjambment and the matching of syntax to stanza. Languages are not analogous, and trying to transform the sense is to lose the form whereas trying to imitate the form unavoidably loses the sense. Shalaby, Al-Ahaydib, and Al-Azzam (2014) stated that national and patriotic songs are allusive, contextual, thematic and metaphoric. They also reflect a cultural composite which has many aspects, so that poses specific challenges in the process of translation. It is challenging to translate the frequent use of figures of speech, words with different shades of meaning and the interrelationships between texts derived from ancestral history or religious contexts that cannot be

harmed or damaged. Allen (1999) stated that Bloch’s writing is composed of tension, energy, colour, subversion and a prophetic vision. His writing components are similar to his values and principles. In addition, he renewed concepts and elements ruined or demolished by time itself. He used the German language by its very root. Furthermore, other minor pieces of language worn out by massive daily use were brought back to their original strength and sense.

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Al-Thebyan, Al-Shalabi, Salamah and Al-Omari (2011) stated that "The goal of translation theory is to help find the most effective techniques, and the soundest strategies to achieve what is called, ‘equivalence.’" (p. 65). Achieving a high level of equivalence is difficult because of the differences in culture, lexicon, phonetic systems, syntactic features and structures, word order and style. Therefore, failure in these differences can cause the ‘unfaithful’ rendition of the text. Consequently, translating poetry can employ many figures of speech, acoustic devices, puns, word play, and cultural expressions that charge the text with multiple meanings. In conclusion, Raffel (2010) clarified that the aesthetic traditions play an important role in the poetic sound-system. The linguistic and the aesthetic meet, integrate and affect each other. He also confirmed that “poetic composition is a manifestation of culturally determined elements-simply an-other set of social acts” (p. 24). Shalaby, Al-Ahaydib, and Al-Azzam (2014) stated that the poetic translator can use cultural shift, narrowing or broadening of meaning, compensation, and hence the components do not remain identical in the original and the translated texts are allowed. References

Allén, S. (1999). Translation of poetry and poetic prose: Proceedings of Nobel symposium 110. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Al-Thebyan, Q., Al-Shalabi, N., Salameh, F., & Al-Omari, K. (2011). A critique of Jabra’s Arabic translation of Shakespeare’s The Tempest. Department of English language and literature, 7, 65. Retrieved from http://www.cscanada.net/index.php/css/article/ view/j.css.1923669720110706.022/2096 Dastjerdi, H. (2004). Translation of poetry. Translation Journal. Retrieved from http:// translationjournal.net/journal/30liter.htm

Dugdale, S. (2015, November 14). Modern poetry in translation is Ted Hughes’s greatest contribution. The Guardian [London]. Retrieved from http://www.magatopia.com/ Raffel, B. (2010). A rt of translating poetry. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Robinson, P. (2010). The art of the impossible. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Shalaby, M., Al-Ahaydib, M., & Al-Azzam, B. (2014). The socio-cultural, historical, and political allusions in the translation of the saudi national day poetry: “Peace, O Gracious King” as a case study. Studies in Literature and Language, 33. Retrieved from http://cscanada.net/index.php/sll/article/view/5910/6722 7

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Arabic Translation History By Najla Z. Al-Dofian Translation was one of the factors that helped people through ages to communicate and exchange their ideas. Nady (2014) clarifies that “Arabs started to pay attention to translation with the rise of Islam” (para. 3). She also added that Prophet Mohammad motivated

Muslims to study other languages and translate the Quran and Islamic beliefs to spread Islam all over the world. Without a doubt, Arabic translation has changed the ancient history of humanity. According to Baker and Saldanha, 2009, "the first centres of education started to appear in the early eighth centry in Egypt and Iraq and early Abbasid caliphs subsequently began to take an active interest in translation" (p. 331). The authors gave some examples of Abbasid caliphs and their works like, Al-Mansur founded a translation chamber. Al-Rashid also gave every translation activity all the support it needs. However; Al-Mamun opened Bayt al-Hikma in 830 (the House of Wisdom) in Baghdad which was the most important convention of higher learning in Islam and the famous centre of translation in Arab history. In 2011, Bennison emphasized that early Arabs respected older nations’ knowledge in areas like the Mediterranean, Middle East and India. Muslims worked with non-Muslims to search, translate and clarify the sciences and spread the knowledge all over the Islamic world. The author clarifies that, “theses sciences included mathematics, physics, metaphysics and philosophy, medicine, astronomy and what are now considered pseudo-scientific pur-

suits such as astrology, alchemy and magic” (p. 175). There were many great translators in the history of Arabic translation. According to Freely, 2009, “the two most famous translators of the period in Baghdad were Hunayan ibn Ishaq and Thabit ibn Qurra, both of whom were employed by the Banu Musa for full time translation” (p. 79). In an article titled “Medieval Arabic Translation”, it was reported that “Banu Musa were ready to pay 500 dinars - which was the equivalent of the salary of a senior employee in an administrative office at that time” (para. 20).

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It was added that Arabic translators did not restrict themselves to only one language but they expanded their knowledge and translated from many languages and many resources. Also, the rewards that caliphs gave to translators encouraged them to translate better. In addition, Arabic translators used professional innovative methods and techniques in their work and because of these reasons, Arabic translation reached the top of its success (“Medieval Arabic Translation,” n.d.). To conclude, “the awareness the rulers of that time showed towards translation and

its importance . . . brought the light of knowledge and strength not only on the ArabIslamic polity but also on Europe at the same time” (para. 36). However, in 2014, Mehawesh clarifies that Arabic translation in the present time is deplorable and away from the Golden Age of Abbasids and Umayyads eras. I hope in the near future that the present state of Arabic translation improves and peaks at the top as the old era of translation did. References Baker, M., & Saldanha, G. (Eds.). (2009). Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Bennison, A. (2011). The great caliphs: The golden age of the A bbasid empire. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Freely, J. (2009). Aladdin's lamb. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Medieval Arabic Translation. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://ls-localise.com Mehawesh, M. I. (2014). History of translation in the Arab world: An overview. David

Publishing, 12(8). Retrieved from http://www.davidpublishing.com Nady, H. (2014, October 20). Arabic translation history [Blog post]. Retrieved fromhttp:// blog.globalization

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Toledo School of Translators By Noura A. Al-Qahtani Historically, Arabs were strongly interested in translation and paid attention to challenges that may face translators so they constituted places where translators could translate and share

experiences "which made major contributions to the cross-cultural and linguistic challenges of translating between Arab and non-Arab civilizations (AL- Zubaidi, 2013, p. 3). The most important one is Bayt al-Hikmah (The House of Wisdom) in Baghdad, Iraq where Arabs translated knowledge from many languages into Arabic. After 300 years, Toledo School of Translators were created where Arabic books had been translated (Wahjuae, 2009). In fact, Toledo School of Translators leapt into translation and offered a lot of translation services and it was a school for translators in Spain in the 12th and 13th centuries (Child, 2012). In the Toledo School, many scholars were translating philosophical and scientific books from Arabic into many languages especially Latin. The school played a prominent role to transfer important knowledge from Arabic into various other languages (AL-Zubaidi, 2013). The Toledo School of Translators attracted translators from everywhere in the world, especially from Europe "regardless of race, religion and nationality" (AL-Zubaidi, 2013, p. 3). Those translators redounded in the development of science and knowledge by transforming the science and knowledge into their mother tongue (Delisle & Woodsworth, 2012). Some translators were more famous than others, such as Gerard of Cremona and Maimonides. According to Buchmann, 2015, "Gerard of Cremona is the most important translator among the Toledo School of Translators" (p. 51). He was an Italian translator. He translated scientific books from Arabic to Latin. In 2012, Child emphasized that Maimonides, a Jewish scholar from Cordoba, Spain, had an important role in the transfer of knowledge. He referred to the translator's problem of word-for-word translation which does not give exact and deep meaning of the text.

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Generally, Jews were the main scholars in the Toledo School of Translators because they knew Arabic and Latin. They translated Islamic books in libraries and spread the contents of these books. So, those who wanted the knowledge that was in these books could get it after the translation process (Child, 2012). According to Farmer, 1925, “Arabian sciences played an important part in the intellectual awakening of England, there cannot be much doubt. Mathematical sciences especially attained a height with the Arabs which had never been reached before in Western Europe” (p. 61). Some scholars say that there was an injustice that Arabs and Muslims suffered from which is when Europe was developed, it denied the role of Islamic civilization while it played a great role in the conservation, protection and development of human heritage. And it played a special role in transfer of human knowledge, scientific, mathematical, mental, medical, and engineering fields from East to West (Nwehed, 2009). References AL-Zubaidi, K. O. (2013.). Is Kalima project a new Arab think tank/ intellectual hub? Arab World English Journal (AWEJ). Retrieved from http://awej.org/images/ AllIssues/Specialissues/Translation2/letter.pdf

Buchmann, H. (2015). The esoteric codex: Medieval astrologers. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Child, J. (2012). Introduction to Spanish translation (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Delisle, J., & Woodsworth , J. (2012). Translators through history. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Farmer, H. G. (1925). Clues for the Arabian influence on European musical theory. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (New Series), 57(01), 61. Retrieved from http://

journals.cambridge.org Nwehed, W. (2009, January 30). Dawr attarjamah w annaql fe etlaq annahdhah alorobiah [The role of translation in the launch of the European Renaissance]. Alwasat news. Retrieved from http://www.alwasatnews.com/news/35276.html Wahjuae. (2009, June 26). Nakl alhadarah alarabiah w aleslamiah ela oroba [The transfer of Arab-Islamic civilization to Europe] [Video file]. Retrieved from https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jv2az-l3Jx0

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Arabic Translators: Hunayn bin Ishaq’s Achievements in the Field of Medical Translation By Shorouq A. Al-Zahrani Have you ever asked yourself how we got those ancient, valuable translated manuscripts, books and so on? If you are concerned about translation, you did for sure. There is no doubt that there are a number of mighty people behind those gigantic works. In fact, writing about Arabic

translators will definitely result in a myriad of pages. Alternatively, one that must be especially noted is the most magnificent, multi-talented named Hunayn bin Ishaq. Rashid, 2014, states that Hunayn “was a famous and influential scholar, physician, and scientist of Arab Christian descent” (p. 33). Despite Hunayn’s miraculous accomplishments in science domains, most of us, unfortunately, never heard about him before. Indeed, there are a lot of remarkable, life-changing achievements that have been done in all translation fields, especially the medical one, by the forgotten legend Hunayn ibn Ishaq. For instance, his translations play a pretty significant role in the development of medicine since he trans-

lated the most valuable Roman, Greek, Indian and other cultures' manuscripts and books regarding this issue (Tschanz, 2003). According to Samir, 2002, “he [Hunayn ibn Ishaq] translated into Syriac 95 and into Arabic 39 books of Galen” (para. 11). As it was mentioned above, Hunayn gave a lot of significance to the medical aspects - way much more than any other field. One of those translations was Questions on Medicine which made such a resonance in the medicine world. Furthermore, as Peter, 2008, said: Galen's "Commentaries" on the Hippocratic "Epidemics" constitute one of the most detailed studies of Hippocratic medicine from antiquity. The Arabic translation of the "Commentaries" by Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq (d. c. 873) is of crucial importance because it preserves large sections now lost in Greek, and because it helped to establish an Arabic clinical literature (para. 1). If I mention Ishaq ibn Hunayn, this name might sound like a misnomer, but it is not. Ishaq is Hunayn’s son and his father made a memorable translator of him. According to Glick, 2008, Hunayn was not a mere translator, he also "trained a number of younger scholars to assist him in his translation of the Galenic medicine" (p. 233). Samir, 2002, states that “six more Syriac versions and about 70 Arabic versions were made by his pupils and mostly revised by himself” (para. 11).

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Some might be wondering what makes Arabic translated works so distinguished and diverse from European’s. In fact, many thanks are largely due to the resolution that was taken by Hunayn when he decided to translate Greek works rather than transliterate them. Therefore, his works are thoroughly free of Greek terminology and understandable to all Arabic readers as well, whereas European translations are filled with perplexing Greek terms which could not be comprehended by non-specialists (Al-jubouri, 2004). Therefore, Al-jubouri, 2004, states that “Hunayn’s method introduced a new style of accurate translation that has been followed ever since” (p. 193). In conclusion, this was a mere abstract about Hunayn’s achievements in the medical translation field. His accomplishments, indeed, are way much more than what has been written. The undeniable fact is that when we mention his name, the only thing that flashes in our minds is translation. However, he was such a glorious writer besides his work as a physician. Nagamia and Puyan, 2008, state that “he [Hunayn] was a product of the crucible of early Islamic civilization that fostered advancement of art, science, medicine, and philosophy like no other civilization before it” (p. 9). For that reason, he was called the multi-talented man. References

Al-jubouri, I. (2004). History of Islamic philosophy: With view of Greek philosophy and early history of Islam. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Glick, T. F. (2014). Medieval science, technology, and medicine: A n encyclopedia (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Nagamia, H., & Puyan, N. (2008). Abū Zayd Ḥunayn ibn Ish ̣āq al-‘Ibādī: A physician translator par excellence. History of Medicine, 40(1), 14. Retrieved from DOI: 10.5915 Peter, P. (2008). Case notes and clinicians: Galen's "Commentary" on the Hippocratic "Epidemics" in the Arabic tradition. A rabic Sciences A nd Philosophy : A Historical Jour-

nal, 18(2), 247. Retrieved from http://sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com/search? Rashid, R. (2014). Classical mathematics from A l-Khwarizmi to descartes (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books Samir, J. (2002). Hunayn ibn-Ishaq: A forgotten legend (5th ed.). Retrieved from http:// search.proquest.com Tschanz, D. (2003). Hunayn bin Ishaq: The great translator. History of Medicine, 1(5), 39. Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com/scholar

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Speedy Translation Applications on Smartphones By Balsam H. Al-Otaibi According to Krasnova and Vanushin, 2015, "People of different cultures get closer and distance between countries are swept away with the rise of new communication technologies" (p. 1). The only factor that can get the different cultures closer is language. Indeed, the world wide

technologies and the internet made a marvelous impact on translation. They also point out that "We can call it a digital revolution in translation. Alongside with reliable professional applications there is a rapid proliferation of automated online translation services and translation applications for smartphones" (p. 1). Android needs are increasing and most of the people use it instead of the personal computer such as for studying and working. Indeed, "Now with Android, the phone will become extremely handy pocket dictionary with more features than a translation dictionary" (Hwang & Lee, 2014, p. 1). On the other hand, there are many helpful translation apps for iPhone that also work

without the internet, for example "World Lens . . . that translate text visible in the viewfinder and overlays the results on the screen in real time" (Hsueh, 2011, p. 4). In 2011, Hsueh emphasized that "Mobile OCR" is particularly useful and very quick when the user needs to translate a foreign language script. For example, this would be useful for a traveler in a foreign country who does not know the input method or the knowledge to enter the foreign language into his or her smartphones. This user needs to translate a piece of text but has no convenient way of doing this. So, mobile OCR has solved the problem because as we know "Object requiring quick translation can include anything from signs or product labels to restaurant

menu items" (p. 3). Hsueh (2011) stressed that "Solutions combining recognition and translation services on mobile devices have come largely from the industry" (p. 4). Indeed, the most popular offering is "Google Goggles" which is an image analysis and visual search tool available for Android and iPhone devises too. He explains "It supports recognition and search of a growing variety of subjects including landmarks, barcodes, and everyday objects. He also points out that "Google Goggles works by capturing images of interest on the device and then sending them over the internet for recognition in the company's databases" (p. 4). 14

According to Gaikar, 2012, "Trippo Mondo is a lightweight, reasonably powerful language translation tool" (para. 5). Moreover, it speaks translations for the user at a changeable speed with relatively precise pronunciation. He added that "For voice-to-voice (as well as text-based) translation, try Google Translate or one of the individual BabelFish Language Packs, available for free from the market" (para. 5). "Interlecta Translator" is one of the most user friendly apps available. Indeed, the user can translate any text on his or her screen, whether an E-mail, SMS message or a document. Also, he or she can share this translation with his or her classmates or colleagues (Gupta, Mittal, & Gupta, 2010, p. 215). Finally, translation is an exercise in a foreign language class which must not be ignored, "Whether translation is regarded as a type of exercise or as a professional skill is of little importance as long as teachers and students have a clear concept of what they are trying to achieve" (Nord, 2005, p. 156). If the teaching objective is clearly defined, then the previous considerations on the applications of translations will extremely help the translator because they are quick and easy to use. References Gaikar, V. (2012, February 27). 7 top education apps for android. Retrieved from http:// www.tricksmachine.com Gupta, N., Mittal, K., & Gupta, S. (2010). Books for professionals by professionals. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Hsueh, M. (2011). Interactive text recognition and translation on a mobile device. Electrical Engineering and Computer, 3,4. Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com Hwang, S. M., & Lee, J. (2014). A development of translation dictionary krdict on Android.

Security Engineering, 1,11. Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com Krasnova, I. T., & Vanushin, S. I. (2015). Machine translation error analysis. Y oung, 1. Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com Nord, C. (2005). Text analysis in translation: Theory, methodology, and didactic application of a model for translation-oriented text analysis. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa/books

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The Ethics of Translation By Suzan H. AL-Halaiqah What is translation? Is it a talent that some people have and others don’t? Is it a knowledge that can be taught? Or is it a branch of arts? Indeed, translation is a combination of all of them. Translation is the main way of transforming knowledge, sciences, arts and cultures

between countries. People who take on this profession hold a big responsibility since they have to translate the information accurately without making any changes which sometimes might lead to a disaster. Therefore, translators should put the ethics of translation in their minds while translating. According to Meschonnic, 2011, "The goal of the translator cannot be to make money" (as cited in Lovejoy, 2013, p. 237). If this is the case, he may not consider some principles while translating, such as cultural, social and religious differences. On the other hand, İÇÖZ clarifies that a translator sometimes cannot stick to a word-by-word translation and uses free translation

instead. Also, he can add or remove from the source text as necessary, but "does it mean that, while translating, the translator can make "any" changes in the source text?" (p. 131). Can the translator add some suggestions and propositions even if it is not in the source text? The answer to such questions is implied behind the ethics of translation (2012). Some important things that a translator should consider are "the rhythm of the text, the movement of speech and different meanings of words culture-specific. When the movement of speech is not translated, a significant part of the text can be easily lost" (Lovejoy, 2013, p. 238). This means that the translator should understand the source text completely before translating it in

order to avoid missing or mistranslating any single word. Also, he should try to keep the coherence of the text he is translating as it is. Another thing that should be considered when translating is religious texts. It is very important for the translator to be punctual and careful while translating sacred texts because any little mistake might cost his life. As in his 2013 article, the author mentioned a translator called Etienne Dolet who added three words when he translated one of Plato's speeches because he thought that would benefit the text. Dolet added rien du tout which means "nothing" as an answer to the question "what is after death?”. Then, a theological committee burned him (AlAli). 16

Sometimes the translator faces some problems while translating and he does not know how to deal with it. For example, if "the translator is working on a deposition which contains several lies" (para. 18) what he should do is translate the lies as they are since his job is transforming the information provided, not finding what actually happened (Nogueira & Semolini, 2009). In addition, if there are mistakes or incorrect ideas, the translator can mention that in the footnote or, if possible, contact the original author and take the permission to correct this information. The last point worth mentioning is what Gouadec (2007) explained that the translated ideas should fit the target society or the group of people, for example, translating "wine" to "juice" if you are translating to Muslim kids. Undoubtedly, translation is not an easy profession since the translator must be aware of how to deal with the text he is translating, and not just switching letters. In any case, according to Indurt (n.d.) "You must translators ultimately have to be loyal to the people you are working with and loyal to the author, loyal to the receiver, reader or the audience, or loyal to your client" (as cited in Pym, 2012, 4:40).

References AlAli, k. (2013). Mar'yat w la mar'yat altargama [The visibility and invisibility of translation]. Retrieved from http://www.alnoor.se/ Gouadec, D. (2007). Translation as a profession. Retrieved from https://sdl.edu.sa İÇÖZ, N. (2012). Considering ethics in translation. Electronic Journal of V ocational Colleges, 2(2). Retrieved from https://sdl.edu.sa Lovejoy, H. (2013). Ethics politics of translating. Cadernos de Tradução, 1(31). Retrieved

from https://sdl.edu.sa Nogueira, D., & Semolini, K. (2009, July). Ethics 101 for translators. Retrieved from http:// www.translationdirectory.com/ Pym, A. (2012, April 11). Notes on the ethics of the translator, part 1 [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/

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Translating Profanity: Methods to Deal with Swear Words in Movies Subtitles By Reem A. Badeeb Since media plays a significant role in shaping communities, many countries and cultural groups impose a certain level of censorship on translating foreign movies and TV shows. Translating swear words is one of the most complicated issues which face subtitlers (i.e. subti-

tle translators). According to Andersson and Trudgill "swearing is a type of language use in which the expression (a) refers to something that is taboo and/or stigmatized in the culture; (b) should not be interpreted literally; (c) can be used to express strong emotions and attitudes” (as cited in Dobao, 2006, p. 53). However, subtitlers can deal with such troublesome words in many ways. The reason why we should focus more on translating swear words is the increasing usage of "explicit language" (p. 6); especially among teenagers (Golan, 2006). This increase affected the media content and communication in general. Our culture is still conservative about the media content regardless of the openness the Arab world has been facing recently. Therefore, subtitlers cannot avoid the crucial issue of translating swear words. Hence, here are three methods of translating swear words and cultural taboos in different degrees. The target audience determines the method of translating subtitles; in general, and profanity. Therefore, omitting swear words is one option in subtitling. In 2014, Han and Kenny emphasized that some subtitlers adhere to self-censorship while translating cultural taboos, therefore they might omit some swear words deliberately or undeliberately. They also pointed that their purpose is "to meet the assumed expectation and degree of tolerance of the target audience" (p. 14). Hence, subtitlers are subjected to cultural constraints to reach the most acceptable subtitle; especially for programs and movies showed on TV for all the family members. However, another opinion on translating taboos argues that even swear words convey meanings regardless of their offensiveness (Muho, 2014). In his 2001 book, the author favors translating swear words using an emotional equivalent rather than literal translation (Landers).

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He doesn't pay much attention to the moral and social constraints, but he develops a linguistic

point of view to use the idiomatic equivalent. In my opinion, I do not find this way suitable for the Arabic content since such offensive words are rarely used even by vulgar people. Taking a middle stance, Omar (2009) demonstrates that Arabic subtitling are culturally filtered to exchange offensive swear words with less offensive Arabic equivalents. Han and Kenny (2014) agree with him stating that "more free translations in the presence of creative language . . . to retain the original meaning and intention" (p. 14), such as translating "what the hell" into ‫بحق السماء‬instead of .‫بحق الجحيم‬ In conclusion, swear words can be translated in three methods; by omission, adaptation and free translation. However, subtitlers must take into consideration the culture of the target audience when they translate media content. In my opinion, free translation is the most suitable method for TV shows and movies. The Arabic language does not lack creativity, so be creative in choosing less offensive phrases. References Dobao, M. A. (2006). Linguistic and cultural aspects of the translation of swearing. Babel,45 (2). doi:10.1075/babel.52.3.02fer Golan, J. (2006). Muni. Retrieved from http://is.muni.cz/th/53045/ff_m/?lang=en Han, C., & Kenny, W. (2014). Subtitling swearwords in reality TV series from English into Chinese. Translation & Interpreting, 6(2). Retrieved from http://trans-int.org/ index.php/transint/article/viewFile/271/160 Landers, C. E. (2001). Literary translation: A practical guide. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Muho, H. A. (2014). Taboo words and expressions in English. Zanco, 18(2). Retrieved from http://zancojournals.su.edu.krd/index.php/JAHS/article/view/100/92 Omar, H. C. (2009). The sustainability of the translation field. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa

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The Role of Interpretation in World War I and II By By Reema Al-Arifi In World War I and II, translation and interpretation had played a very strong role. The interpreters in World Wars time were members of the military who had a special talent to know how to speak two or more languages. Military interpreters were called to work at times of war in

a great variety of situations which ranged from intelligence to counter intelligence activities, and so many other important roles in the wars (Baigorri-Jalón, 2011). As what he said, we can see and feel the importance of interpreters’ roles in the 1st and 2nd World Wars. Moreover, it was reported that "knowledge of languages by the military should be considered as important as the development of a weapon" (para. 3). In the 19th century, the best way to learn more than one language was by working as a messenger in war time. Playing the role of an oral postman made the soldier learn two languages or more because he took the message from the enemy then he kept looking for a good translation

to the message; after that, he conveyed it to the controller. Being an interpreter for the military means that he is the channel between the country he serves and the other one. Also, in 2014, Wolf and Ocampo emphasized that wars and violent conflicts are the best places to contact people of different nations and ethnicities, and by learning about them, it will be easy to understand their languages and culture. The interpreter in that time could be a man or a woman who served for the military. Interpreters worked in the middle of the battlefield or in the meetings and conferences with other countries. The interpreter’s mission was sitting inside a small glass booth, which keeps him away

from other sounds, to concentrate on what they said so he or she can translate it in a very clear and fast way. According to Endrst, 1991, “in individual soundproof glass booths situated inside the meeting rooms, these men and women orally translate speeches being delivered on the floor of the hall at that very moment. It is no easy feat” (para. 3). There were a lot of famous interpreters during the 19th to 20th centuries. For example, André Kaminker was known for his photographic memory. He could interpret one-and-a-halfhour speeches without taking any notes. He was able to translate with emotions and use the same tone that the person who he translates from uses. André Kaminker was an interpreter 20

for the United Nations during World War and post-World War II. Roberts, 2009, reported that “Kaminker reproduced every significant phrase, every telling pause, every emotional tone and even every dramatic gesture, and, having used no notes at all, sat down amid a thunder of applause” (p. 343). During World War II, MacArthur and Willoughby had employed a department of the US intelligence agency called “Allied Translator and Interpreter Section” (ATIS). As it is reported in the biological history of the ATIS, it was established for many aims, the most important of which is to seize Japanese materials and provide interpreters for interrogations of prisoners; also included was an analysis of Japanese military objectives and capabilities and political and psychological interpretations of Japanese military and civilian activities (King’s college, 1999). Therefore, interpreters’ roles in World War I and II were strong and important. Interpreters were usually standing in front of the cannons because they would receive the enemy’s speeches and messages; after that, they had to translate it in a correct way otherwise it would bring harmful results to the country which may lead to losing everything. Andrè Kaminker was only one example of the famous interpreters at that time. Also, ATIS was one of many

organizations that witnessed the importance of translators and interpreters in wartime. References Baigorri-Jalón, J. (2011). W ars, languages and the role(s) of interpreters. Retrieved from University of Salamanca website: https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/ Endrst, E. B. (1991, September). Interpreters: Inside the glass booth. UN Chronicle, 28(3). Retrieved from https://www.questia.com/magazine/ King's college. (1999). W artime translation of seized Japanese documents: A llied translator

and interpreter section reports, 1942-1946. Retrieved from http:// www.kingscollections.org/ Martinez, N. (2013). Some members of the A TIS in 1943. Retrieved from http:// traidlation.com/traidlation/ Roberts, I. (2009). Satow's diplomatic practice. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Wolf, M., & Ocampo, A. F. (2014). Framing the interpreter: Towards a visual perspective. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

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Issues of Translating Braille Language By Wasan M. AlJbairi The term Braille was known since the 18th century. In 2013, Ali and Saad defined Braille language as “a tactile method of reading and writing for blind people developed by Louis

Braille” (p. 83). They also added that “the braille system uses six raised dots in a systematic arrangement with two columns of three dots, known as a Braille cell” (p. 83). Though Braille language has been known since 1837, unfortunately, people still have issues while translating it from one language to another. According to Sullivan, 2009, "There are countless other challenges to developing braille translators, since nearly every aspect of braille translation is constantly changing, presumably in the direction of improvement, although some "improvements" are certainly debatable" (para. 12). He points out that the computer hardware in the braille embossers developing and as a result any

translation software interacts with them will not work and they need to change it into a newer version. Also, he was added that "all the various braille codes supported by such software (including codes in other languages, braille mathematics codes and the international music code) change" (para. 12). Moreover, the authors illustrate that the developments in a braille translator could help braille users [blind people]. Another problem is that braille users can not depend on braille translators. Since there are different types of documents, braille users will need human interference in order to translate them. As Lazzaro (2001) points out “more complex documents, like spreadsheets and tables can be

more problematic and often requires human intervention to reformat the table” (p. 37). He also clarifies that “fine-tuning of braille translators’ formatting capabilities is still continuing” (p. 37). Johnson (2000) explains that braille translators convert different types of documents, like Microsoft Word and displayed documents, and that could solve one of the problems that blind people (braille users) have. However, unfortunately, they may face some trouble when it comes to communicating with the normal readers.

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Since Microsoft Word converts many types of files but not yet into braille, so this could make the communication process much harder for braille users. Adding to this, it is a fact that no one can assume that the document is completely converted without any mistakes in translation. NewsRx (2015) explain that as technology has developed, we have come into contact with different types of devices like smartphones and so on. People of different ages have become more attached to high technology as well as blind people. However, the only problem is these types of technology are not designed to serve this category of users. For example, when it comes to smartphones with screen touch, it would be a difficult task for the Blind. To conclude, translating braille language can be difficult task; according to the Office of the Federal Register, 2013, “manufactures may wish to consider producing braille documents ‘in house` using a personal computer, braille translation software and a braille printer. The disadvantage is the difficulty in ensuring quality control and accuracy” (p. 518). As a braille translator, it is important to understand the target language and that could be a problem since every braille system does work the same way. However, as translation professionals, we should always be ready to develop our field and with new solutions for every one. References Ali, A., & Saad, A. (2013). Image steganography technique by using braille method of blind people. International Journal of Image Processing, 7(1), 83. Retrieved from http:// www.cscjournals.org/manuscript/Journals/IJIP/Volume7/Issue1/IJIP-723.pdf Johnson, D. (2000). Braille translation software. Library Hi Tech News, 17(7). Retrieved from http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/full/10.1108/ Lazzaro, J. (2001). Adaptive technologies for learning & work environments. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books NewsRx. (2015, November 19). Portable multilingual braille reader with words translator device and method. Politics & Government Week [Atlanta]. Retrieved from http:// search.proquest.com/docview/1732612592 Office of the Federal Register. (2013). L.s.a., list of c.f.r. sections affected. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books Sullivan, J. (2009). Braille becomes electric: The trials and triumphs of braille translation software (Doctoral dissertation, American Foundation for the Blind). Retrieved from http:// search.proquest.com/docview/222059941?accountid=142908 23

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Problems in Translation of Poetry Between Arabic and English By Miad A. Al-Nefaie

Translation in general is translating the text from the source language into the target language; as a result, the meaning must be translated correctly, so the readers understand it well

(Hassan & Eddin, 2011). Translators face many difficulties with the translation of poetry, which is always an issue that has been constantly discussed (Rahimkhani & Salmani, 2013). According to Connolly (1998), "The translation of poetry is generally held to be the most difficult, demanding … form of translation" (as cited in Rahimkhani & Salmani, 2013, p. 782). In addition, poetry is a unique style of writing that has "challenging features" (Lahlali & Hatab, 2014, p. 45), specially, in Arabic and English, which are two different languages. One of the difficulties that the translator faces when translating poetry is the culture. In fact, the content and meaning of the poem depend heavily on the culture of the source lan-

guage, especially in the translation of Arabic poetry, like Hafez's poetry. Many researchers said that the difficulties that were faced in translating the poetry of Hafez were a "result from the lack of understanding in English language communities of Islamic principles and concepts, the meanings of metaphors connoted by the poetry" (Rahimkhani & Salmani, 2013, p. 782). As Darwish said (2010), "A lexical gap in translation occurs when there are cultural gaps between languages" (as cited in Rahimkhani & Salmani, 2013, p. 782). Al-Haddad adds that another difficulty is ambiguity in the poems, especially the Arabic ones. The Arabic language is a complex language that requires adding affixes to the words to

indicate the grammatical categories and vocalization or using short vowels to deliver the required meaning correctly. In addition, nowadays poets forget to use short vowels, vocalization and that puts the translator in a difficult position because he needs to go back to the previous lines, and as a result, it takes the translator a lot of time translating the poem (1990). shift the grammar to make it easier for the readers to understand it and it must be without any change in meaning (Al-Salem, 2014).

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The third difficulty is the grammar, which is an important factor in every language. The grammar rules are quite different from one language to another and even the poets use different structures or unusual words, which is different from their own language and that makes the translator's job harder than usual. For instance, the fact that the English language has twelve tenses and the Arabic language has only two, so the translator needs to understand the meaning and a final difficulty, according to Smadja, McKeown, and Hatzivassiloglou (1996), is collocation (word pairs or phrases). The structure of collocation ranges differently from a language to another. For example, catch fish or catch a cold has a different translation in Arabic using different verbs unlike English, which is translated as ‫ يصاب بنزلة برد‬،‫يصطاد سمكة‬and that poses a problem for the translator. In addition, there is collocation that is specific to one language in particular like eat the soup in English and drink the soup in Arabic. Therefore, the translator must find an equivalent in the target language and use it. In conclusion, poetry translation, as we mentioned, is the most difficult type of translation and it depends on the language itself since every language has a different structure, grammar rules and collocation. Therefore, the translator needs to know how to deal with these problems and the translator must convey the meaning, thoughts, and feelings of the poets to the readers correctly.

References

Al-Haddad, H. N. (1990). A linguistic investigation of translations of Iraqi poetry (1950-1986) (U040732) (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (U040732) Al-Salem, M. N. (2014). The translation of metaphor from A rabic to English in selected poems of Mahmoud Darwish with a focus on linguistic issues (Master's thesis, University of Leeds). Retrieved from http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/7703/ Hassan, A., & Eddin, B. (2011). Literary translation: Aspects of pragmatic meaning. Retrieved from http:// site.ebrary.com/lib/sdl/detail.action?docID=10676966 Lahlali, E. M., & Hatab, W. A. (2014). A dvanced English-Arabic translation: A practical guide. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Rahimkhani, M., & Salmani, B. (2013). Lexical gaps in translation of Qur'anic allusions in Hafez's poetry: Strategies and difficulties. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 3(5). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1367045498?pq-origsite=summon Smadja, F., McKeown, K. R., & Hatzivassiloglou, V. (1996). Translating collocations for bilingual lexicons: A statistical approach. Computational Linguistics, 22(1). Retrieved from http://dl.acm.org/ citation.cfm

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Fears of Translation By Buthaina A. Alamr This paper explores some of the major sources of fear, or anxiety, in translating, and occasionally interpreting, between English and Arabic. It makes some notes on the effects of hatred and ignorance and how fear of translation translates in practice. There are a lot of fears like fear

of technical vocabulary and neologisms, fear of idioms and metaphors, fear of ambiguity, fear of mechanics, and fear of rhythm and rhyme, etc. However, this paper focuses on fear of the unknown and the unfamiliar also fear of mistranslation and of written texts (Bahaa-eddin, 2014). Where do those fears come from? Basically, those fears have to do with these: the text, the translator and the context of translation, including the cultures where the text is produced and where it is translated (Mazid, 2007). So, what creates tension and anxiety in translation? Fear of certain genres and text domains such as political, medical and legal discourse of transcription; of conference interpreting; of not writing like a native writer; of not being able to put transla-

tion theories into practice; of not being able to establish cohesion in a paragraph; and of not being able to meet the deadline (Bahaa-eddin, 2014). Besides, fear of dealing with foul language is yet another concern that Mazid (2006) has pointed out. A vicious cycle contains three concepts; Fear: Not feeling comfortable/safe with somebody or something. Ignorance: Not knowing somebody or something; being unaware, uneducated, uniformed. Hatred: Not liking/not loathing somebody or something; aversion; hostility. These three enemies of translation are often referred to in translation studies as problems or difficulties of translation or issues in translation (Bahaa-eddin, 2014). As stated above, this paper

points to some major areas of fear and trouble in translation. In particular, fear of the unknown and the unfamiliar besides fear of mistranslation and of written texts. Solomon (2004) thinks that "Translation is difficult and risky" (as cited in Bahaaeddin, 2014, p. 5). According to Bahaa-eddin, 2014, translation students feel relaxed when working with literary and social texts. On the contrary, they panic when working with a technical text although it is not that difficult to translate a technical text if they were well trained and get exposed to technical terminologies. Clearly, translating and choosing the right word in a nontechnical text has obviously more options than a technical text, but anyway, it depends on 26

the context. In addition, he has pointed that translating from another language into one's own is easier than translating from one's own language to another. Newmark (2008) suggests that serious texts are texts about life and death, about good and bad, etc. For example, a religious text, a political speech, and a courtroom hearing are examples of such serious works. However, one factor that helps determine how serious a text is how serious the consequences of a mistranslation thereof might be. Bahaa-eddin, 2014, admits that literal translation can be harmless, e.g., the Arabic ‫يضعنا في موقف محرج‬into "he puts her in a critical situation", sometimes funny, e.g., the Arabic ‫خطر على بالي‬into "danger on my mind" where ‫خطر‬means "occurred to me" is confused with ‫خطر‬means "danger". A literalism can slow down the reading of a translated text and can make it sound unnatural. It has been stressed that "Saying that ‘if you can speak a language, you can translate it’ is like saying ‘if you can breathe, you can be a pulmonary specialist'" (Russell-Bitting, 2003, p. 3). The author adds that "A man is an enemy of anything he does not know" (Reese, 2007, para. 2). As translators and interpreters are human ideologues and culture-carriers. They have their aspirations, ideals, interests, affiliations, biases and their fears. However, The fears are manageable; they can be overcome with more knowledge, more mastery of the two languages involved, and more training and practice. Remember: “fear has legs, because it can walk" (Bahaa-eddin, 2014, p. 4).

References Bahaa-eddin, M. (2014). Translations of fear and (basic) fears of translation. Egyptian Journal of Linguistics and Translation, 1(1). Retrieved from http://supc.sohag-univ.edu.eg/ejlt Mazid, B. M. (2006). English-to-Arabic subtitling. Translation Quarterly Hong Kong Translation Society, 42: 1-39. Mazid, B. M. (2007). Politics of Translation: Power and Ideology, Culture and X phemism in Translation between Arabic and English. Munich, Germany: LincomEuropa. Newmark, P. (2008). A new theory of translation? The 1st International Conference on Translation/

Interpretation and the Impact of Globalization. UAE University, College of Information Technology, 18-20 Nov. 2008. Reese, C. (2007). Hatred and fear. Accessed Mar. 29, 2010. Retrieved from http:// www.lewrockwell.com/reese/reese401.html Russell-Bitting, A. (2003). Translation and terrorism. ITI Bulletin, Jan-Feb, pp. 20-23. Accessed Mar. 29, 2010. Retrieved from http://www.iti.org.uk/uploadedFiles/events/terrorism.pdf

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Effective Impact of Translation on Spreading Islam in Europe

By Wassayif A. Aldosarey

Translation is the most imperative way to transfer Islam and Islamic culture among nations, so we cannot ignore the role of translation and competent translator also in spreading an idea or religion or culture to a society. There are still much of our culture and religion that needs to be

transferred to various languages all over the world. In addition, translation helps to spread Islam all over the world. Without a doubt, an effective Impact of translation helps Muslims to spread Islam in Europe and all over the world. Translation has an important impact on spreading Islam and it helps people to appreciate others and respect their ways of thinking and their culture. In addition, translation helps to share ideas and knowledge between nations. Rendering to Adewuni, n.d., "Translation helps people to appreciate others and respect their ways of thinking as summed up in their cultures. It weakens barriers between languages and communicates messages, spreads cultures, and increases

understanding among neighbors near and far." (para. 3). First of all, Islam has The Holy Quran and the Sunnah that are the resources of Islam. Furthermore, Muslims in their worships follow The Holy Quran and the Sunnah in order to do the duties and avoid mistakes. "The Holy Quran is the Last and Final Word of God Almighty and a message to all mankind. It is a collection of 114 chapters or surahs that were revealed to Prophet Muhammad by revelation through the Archangel Gabriel over a period of 23 years and The Quran is the holy book which Muslims recite and turn to for guidance in all aspects of their life." (The Islamic Center Of Johnson County, 2011).

Secondly, "Sahih Muslim is a collection of sayings and deeds of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) (also known as the sunnah). The reports of the Prophet's sayings and deeds are called ahadith." (Siddiqui, 1973, p. 1). Sunnah is a second resource of Islam and it is so important for Muslims because they need it to understand The Quran and know it correctly. In addition, the Holy Quran and the Sunnah came for all people in the world. According to Marshall, 2011, "The Quràn was revealed at a particular time in a particular locality and in a particular language, but it states that its message was intended to be universal, for all places and times." (p. 59). He also points out that the Quran came for all 28

people, Arabs and non-Arabs. On the other hand, we need an effective way to transfer Quràn from the Arabic language to the language of non-Arabs. Moreover, translation is an efficient way to transfer Quràn and Islamic culture to the world. Translation helps non-Arabs to transfer all concepts of Islam into their languages. In addition, there were many non- Arabs who converted to Islam and they understood Islam after (A.D. 1734) because George Sale translated The Quràn into English. " George Sale translated The Quràn in to]into[ English in 1734. In the introduction to his translation he gave detailed information about Islam." (Harput, 1993, p. 23). On the other hand, translation helps Muslims to access to European knowledge, culture, and ideas. Lewis (1994) stated that "Muslims access to European knowledge because the development of the translation movement." (p. 35). There are many people in the world who do not know about Islam or they might know a little bit about it because the language of the resources of Islam is Arabic. Nowadays, the problem is solved by translation. In summary, we cannot disregard the role of translation and competent translator also in spreading an idea or religion or culture to a society. There are still a lot of areas of our culture and religion that needs to be transferred to various languages all over the world. Also, translation had certainly a great role in dissemination of Islamic civilization. It is obvious that many books, sciences, culture and even Islamic civilization were translated and transferred to the east and west parts of the world. As a result, there are

many people who became Muslims when they knew about Islam.

References Adewuni, S. (n.d.). Globalizing translation what hope for the translator? Retrieved from http:// www.translationdirectory.com/article1190.htm Harput, I. (1993). Could not answer. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Lewis, B. (1994). Islam and the west. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Marshall, D. (2011). Communicating the word: Revelation, translation, and interpretation in Christianity and Islam. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/ grhgKwK4C&dq Siddiqui, A. (1973). Sahih Muslim. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books?id=d_The Islamic Center of Johnson County. (2011, August 7). The Origin of the Quran. Retrieved from http://www.whyislam.org/the-origin-of-the-quran/#

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Issues in Translating Religious Texts By Da'ad Almadhyani Translation has been the key factor of human interaction in history, according to AlMa'ani, Salman and Kharusi (2014) it provided an access to original texts in different fields. Eve-

ry text has its own typology, formal structures, coherence, cohesive devices, lexico-syntactic, and real world properties. Therefore, "translators are obliged to adapt diverse strategies to carry over a message from one language to another" (p. 53). For example, religious texts sensitiveness in translation is a must for translators. Indeed, the translation of religious texts had an important role that has been played in history, so a deeper look reveled some issues surrounding their translation. In 1997, Simms emphasized that in translating religious texts, historical interpretation almost always poses a problem. For example, the phrase ruach elohim in Genesis 1.2, its meaning may have originally meant "a mighty wind" or "a wind of Good" or the "spirit of Good" (p.

190). This indicates that for the Old Testament, assuming the correct meaning in a text is when it becomes canonical for the community. He stressed that "The choice of the appropriate interpretation depends on the selection of a correct interpretative time frame" (p. 190). Another problem is the availability of the texts that are chosen for translation. The prioritized writings have a clear impact on how their translation is viewed and effected. Words such as "church" and "priest" are difficult to translate into a new target language when such ones already exist as part of the cultural occupation with indigenous referents in the target language. It is a peculiar issue because "text as a whole accumulates models of exegesis that become embed-

ded and make translation difficult without some form of commentary" (Millán & Bartrina, 2013, p. 467). Taha, Al-Jarrah and Khawaldeh (2013) discussed the matter of conveying the message as it fails most of the time whenever attempts are made to translate it. They stressed that "Sentences like Bring that one, I want this are ambiguous unless they are contextualized" (p. 18). Malownisky due to his failure to translating into English in the early decades of the 20th century,

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he noticed that meanings in the languages are being categorized differently and such categorization once it's decontextualized, it could almost be pointless. Also words that functions socially such us greetings are meaningless when decontextualized. To convey words and expressions into the exact meaning, equivalence in translation is essential and that is another problem that translators face. In other words, to achieve pragmatic components, "translators ought to work within the cure of the target culture and know the rules of the target language community" (p. 183). Take for example the word " "‫الشريعة‬it is not easy to translate from Arabic to English due to no equivalence in the target language (Agliz, 2015). It has been reported that St. Jeromo studied Hebrew so he could translate the Old Testament into Latin. He translated Moses head as "Radiance" which is "Karan" in Hebrew into "horns" which is "Karen" , as it's written without the vowels in Hebrew. The author stated that "The resulting Latin version, which became the basis of hundreds of subsequent translations, contained a famous mistake" (Okrent, para. 7). He also added that from this mistake came centuries of portraits of Moses with horns (2016). References

Agliz, R. (2015). Translation of religious texts: Difficulties and challenges. A rab W orld English Journal , (4). Retrieved from http://www.awej.org/ Al-Ma'ani, M. A., Salman, A., & Kharusi, N. S. (2014). Reading and translation: Suggestions for integration. International Journal of English Linguistics, 4(5). doi:10.5539/ijel.v4n5p35 Millán, C., & Bartrina, F. (2013). The Routledge handbook of translation studies. Milton Park, Abingdon: Routledge. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Okrent, A. (2016, February 16). 9 Little translation mistakes that caused big problems. Retrieved from http://mentalfloss.com/ Simms, K. (1997). Translating sensitive texts: Linguistic aspects. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Taha, K., S. Al-Jarrah, R., & Khawaldeh, S. (2013). Determining the intended meaning of words in a religious text: an intertextuality-oriented approach. Canadian Social Science, 9(4), 13. Retrieved from http://www.cscanada.net/

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Challenges That Face Translators in Islamic Translation By Malak A. Al-Shkrah

Translation is a process of seeking suitable equivalent transforming expressions. Without a doubt, translation has played a role in the dissemination of Islam. However, there are some chal-

lenges that face translators in this field. According to Mahmoud, n.d., "The main challenges lie in overcoming ideational hurdles in translation as well as in dealing with terminology" (p. 4). He also points out that Islamic translation is dissimilar from other kinds of translation. It is one of the hardest translations because it needs wariness, exactness, and accuracy. In an article titled "Some Linguistic Difficulties in Translating the Holy Quran from Arabic into English", it was reported that "The major problem encountered by the translator of the Quran is the difficulty in rendering some lexical items. One of lexical problems in translating the Holy Quran is the lack of equivalence or the absence of the equivalent of some Islamic terms" (p.

588). It was added that these terms have no direct corresponding item in English, compelling the translator to transfer them in a communicative manner. For example, taqwā (piety – ,‫(تقوى‬kufr (disbelief- ,)‫كفر‬and shīrk (associating other gods with God – .)‫ﺷ ﺮك‬The English translations of these terms only give estimated meanings (2012). Ahmad (2006) discussed that semantic problems that come across by the translators of the Quran are of two kinds. The first kind is common to all translations. Languages lexicalize things differently (though there are some linguistic universals) and they diverge in the cultural and social orientations, among many other things. The second kind, on the other hand, is peculiar to the translation of the Quran itself. He points out that "Using a word in more than one sense in a particular language. The word ‫آثار‬as used in the Quran is a good example" (p. 63). Such a word can be ُ ‫(فَا ْن‬ ‫ت ه‬ rendered into (effects) in the verse: ۖ ‫ض بَ ْعدَ َم ْوتِ َها ۚ إِ هن ٰذَلِكَ لَ ُمحْ يِي ْال َم ْوت َٰى‬ ِ ‫ار َرحْ َم‬ َ ‫ْف يُحْ يِي ْاْل َ ْر‬ ِ َ ‫ظ ْر ِإلَ ٰى آث‬ َ ‫َّللاِ َكي‬ ‫ض فَأ َ َخذَ ُه ُم ه‬ ) ‫َيءٍ قَدِير‬ into (traces) in: َ‫َّللاُ بِذُنُوبِ ِه ْم َو َما َكانَ لَ ُهم ِمن‬ ِ ‫ارا فِي ْاْل َ ْر‬ ً َ ‫(كَانُوا ُه ْم أ َ َشده ِم ْن ُه ْم قُ هوة ً َوآث‬ ْ ‫وه َُو َعلَ ٰى ُك ِل ش‬and َ ‫ه‬ .)‫ق‬ ٍ ‫َّللاِ ِمن َوا‬ One of the major problems in translating Qur'an is the presence of big numbers of difficult and archaic words with a wide range of contextual meanings. According to Abdelwali, 2007, "Arabic lexical terms, however, are not always translation-resistant. Rather, at times

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translation requires deep knowledge of the denotational and referential system in Arabic as well as in English. For example, English has alternatives to the word waswasa in Arabic. One can find the verbs 'tempt' and 'hiss' as possible equivalents to waswasa." (para. 17). According to Siddick, 2012, "Literal (verbal) translation of Quran is religiously impossible. It is also impossible in reality; because experiments demonstrated that the transfer of words from one language to another, with all original words is impossible in human languages, so how would it be with the miraculous Word of God? And religiously" (p. 21). ( ‫قل لئن اجتمعت اإلنس والجن على أن‬ )‫ ( يأتوا بمثل هذا القرآن ال يأتون بمثله ولو كان بعضهم لبعض ظهيرا‬88 ) which means that {Say, (Mohammed), while mankind and jinn met to produce the like of this Qur'an, they could not produce the like of it thereof, even if they, each came to help each}. This translation is impossible because it means coming up with a new version of the Qur'an and it was stated from Allah. To conclude, translation of the Holy Qur'an is difficult and complex. According to Alshae'a,2014, "Translating Qur’anic verses should be given appropriate attention. Taking this attention into consideration plays a major role in achieving better understanding on the part of the TL reader"(p. 63). Religious texts contain beliefs and ideas; therefore, translators need to master both languages. They must be translated with high carefulness and precision. References

Abdelwali, M. (2007). The loss in the translation of the qur'an. Translation Journal. Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/journal/40quran.htm Abobaker, A., Alsaleh, M., Zarirruddin Fikri Bin, M., & Fazliyaton, S. (2013). Some linguistic difficulties in translating the Holy Quran . International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 2(6). Retrieved from http://sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com/ Ahmed, M. (2006). Investigating some semantic problems in the translation of the holy Quran. Iraq Academic Scientific Journals. Retrieved from http://www.iasj.net Alshajea, H. (2014). Issues in translating collocations of the Holy Qur'an. Issues in Translating

Collocations of the Holy Qur'an, 14(8). Retrieved from http:// sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com Gumaa Siddiek, A. (2012). Viewpoints in the translation of the Holy QURAN. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 1(2). Retrieved from http:// www.journals.aiac.org.au/ Mahmoud, M. (n.d.). Challenges of translating Islamic religious items from Arabic into English. Retrieved from http://www.google.com.sa/

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The Difficulties of Medical Interpreter By Muneera E. Al-Subaie Medical interpreters use their skills in English and a foreign language to provide invaluable services to patients and medical practitioners alike. The ability for patients and healthcare professionals to communicate is important to the safety and comfort of the patient during care according

to (Alobaidy, 2015). The author also added "over 24 million Americans do not speak enough English to communicate effectively with their healthcare provider. Professional interpreters bridge this gap to ensure that patients receive accurate diagnoses and appropriate treatment" (para. 1). Indeed, there are so many difficulties that medical interpreters faced in hospitals. Hudelson (2005) explains how the medical interpreters felt that physicians needed to be more aware of how difficult it can be to translating medical concepts and terms. The author added "some physicians demanded word-by-word translation, which was often impossible and itself a

potential source of miscommunication" (p. 5). It is unsuitable also to use medical concepts that were unknown to patients. Interpreters said that communication would be facilitated by the use of simpler, less technical language. At present, the engagement of the most interpreters by the governments is based primarily on the ability to speak two languages. But the ability to speak two languages does not necessarily mean that it is possible to transmit meaning exactly from one language to the other. Many interpreters have little formal education or training in the medical field, therefore, they can often find themselves ill-equipped to function efficiently within the work setting. Although train-

ing for medical interpreters is available as (Carr, Roberts, Dufour, & Steyn, 1997) confirmed. In an article by Pöchhacker and Shlesinger (2007) it was reported that "relaying from doctor to patient. All other pronoun shifts occurred in connection with interactional problems caused almost exclusively by the interpreters lack of knowledge about medical terminology even though the terms used were in fact non-specialized ones" (p. 53). It was added that the interpreter's difficulties with medical terminology can dominate the directness of communication between primary members and That is because of repeating one-language talk (2007).

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According to Davidson, 2001, physician-patient discourse, even same-language discourse, may be viewed as a kind of cross-cultural interaction. Inside the US, there is a large and increasing number of adult Third World immigrant patients who do not speak English. For these patients the "cross-cultural" aspect of First World medical practice is highlighted by the presence of the medical interpreter. Davidson added "Analysis shows that, through variable patterns of how and when utterances are interpreted, the interpreter functions" (para. 1). In conclusion, there are so many difficulties that face medical interpreters, but it does not mean that we can dispense from medical interpreters in the hospitals. Moreno, Sabogal, and Newman (2007) said that they found a small number of medical interpreters who find a job compared to the large number of healthcare organizations. They also confirmed that healthcare organizations should consider assessing their staff's English and second language skills. References Alobaidy, M.(2015,December16).Careers.Retrieved from http://www.innerbody.com Carr, S. E., Roberts, R. P., Dufour, A., & Steyn, D. (Eds.). (1997). The critical link: Interpreters in the community: Papers from the 1st international conference on interpreting in legal, health and social service settings. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Davidson, B. (2001). Questions in cross- Linguistic medical encounters: The role of the hospital interpreter. anthropological quarterly. A nthropological Quarterly, 74. Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com Hudelson, P. (2005). Improving patient– Provider communication: Insights from interpreters. Family Practice, 22(3). doi:10.1093/fampra/cmi01 Moreno, M. R., Sabogal, R. O., & Newman, J. (2007). Assessing dual- Role staff-Interpreter linguistic competency in an integrated healthcare system. General Internal Medicine, 22. doi:10.1007/sl1606-007-0344-8 Pöchhacker, F., & Shlesinger, M. (Eds.). (2007). Healthcare interpreting: Discourse and interaction. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

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Human Translation vs. Machine Translation By Jumana H. Hassan Decades ago, humans’ translation (HT) was the only source to interact with others and this helped them through the centuries. Few years ago, inventors came up with something called machine translation (MT) to make the communication with others easier and faster as well by using

this tool of translation. Although machines that are used for translation have pervaded all over the world rapidly, we will not forget the soul and the touch of HT because we will never find, for example, that MT is taking on the consideration of the culture differences as HT does. This research paper will focus on the differences between HT and MT and the usages of both of them in different contexts with supporting examples. Many theorists have shown that people can decide which tool of translation should be used depending on the contexts. One of them is Jakobson (2011) who clarifies that the use of machine translation and human translation only depends on some factors to translate a text; some of

them are important vs. informal data, quantity vs. quality, “secure vs. insecure”, information driven vs. progress driven, “cost effectiveness and user friendliness” (p. 17). Therefore, all of these factors will decide which kind of translation should be used, for example, he illustrates that the informal data is mostly used by machine translation for personal use since it is more hurried and does not include an agent. Accordingly, contexts are not the only way to differentiate between them, but actually each tool has its own features. First, Yule (2010) discussed that human beings have 6 properties that make their language different from other creatures and two of them are, “Arbitrariness” (p.

12) which means no obvious relations between the lexical form and its content. Also, the second feature he said is, “Duality” (p. 15) which means people have two scales of language: one is that people can pronounce sounds individually and the other is, they can create meanings of these sounds. Similarly, Ashraf and Ahmad agreed with him and stressed that people learn culture through their language and this is basically what translators do (2015). Due to this, translators are concerned about the accuracy, the culture of the target language and words and how they are translated depending on the types of contexts in translation such as medicine, policy, military, etc., whereas “With advancements in technology, computer 36

systems have facilitated the translations of languages and achieved results in minimal amount of time” (Ashraf & Ahmad, 2015, p. 25). Likewise, Ulitkin (2013) shared the same idea that the machine has been accomplished an extended movement in the field of translation; however, he said that “Although great progress has been made in the field of machine translation, fully automated translations are far from being perfect” (para. 1). In addition to MT features, in his article, he clarified that advanced machine translation such as Google has different languages to use (Tufis, 2012). This means that if anyone wants to know a word from different languages in the world, he/she just uses an online translation and will get the word. Also, he stressed that “Translations are available for many language pairs, but with very different quality. This is not arbitrary [unlike human translation], but a direct consequence of the quantity and quality of the available linguistic resources” (p. 229). Last but not least a comparison between HT and MT shows that MT gives you the available translation for what you have written because simply this is what it has for you and what is the most usable for these words. Nevertheless, according to Nemark, 2004, “There is no such thing as a perfect, ideal, or 'correct' translation. A translator is always trying to extend his knowledge and improve his means of expression; he is always pursuing facts and words” (p. 6). We may need the online translation more nowadays even if we know that it gives us the wrong translation because we are not capable of opening the dic-

tionaries to translate a word maybe because of our laziness. However, all of us will always agree that human translation is the best. References Ashraf, N., & Ahmad, M. (2015). Machine translation techniques and their comparative study. International Journal of Computer Applications, 125(7). Retrieved from http:// search.proquest.com/ Jakobsen, A. L. (2011). Human-machine interaction in translation: Proceedings of the 8th international nlpcs workshop . Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Newmark, P. (2004). Manual de traduccion / A textbook of translation (Linguistica / Linguistic). Retrieved from http://www.goodreads.com/ Tufis, D. (2012). Finding translation examples for under-resourced language pairs or for narrow domains; the case for machine translation. Computer Science Journal of Moldova. Retrieved from https:// doaj.org Ulitkin, I. (2013). Human translation vs. machine translation: Rise of the machines. Translation Journal, 17. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com Yule, G. (2010). The study of language (4th ed.). Retrieved from https://lms.ksu.edu.sa

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Translation and Humor: Challenges Faced in Translating Humor

By Arwa N. Basaleh

The term "humor" could be anything that causes amusement. It is as Random House Dictionary defined "a comic, absurd, or incongruous quality causing amusement" (Tarvin, n.d. para.

3). According to Paris (2010) humor has several types which have different features. The first is universal humor which talks about "subjects that are incongruent, unexpected, exaggerated", cultural humor that is "ethnic jokes", and linguistic humor which is "puns" (para. 4). Through the process of translating humor, a translator indeed face difficulties due to many factors. Vandaele (2010) stated that humor is a feature that is related to humans, and it differentiates us from animals (as cited in Liendo, 2013). The basic challenge in translating humor is that languages differ in their linguistic and cultural features. According to Chiaro (2010) when humor crosses geographical boundaries it comes to terms with linguistic and cultural elements

that is only typical of the produced or source culture, therefore it loses its power to amuse in the new place. He also added that such culture and linguistic-specific characteristics create challenges not only for professional translators of comic literature, but also for any person who tries to tell a joke in any other languages than their own. Tisgam (n.d.) similarly has the same point of view as Chiaro when she expressed that culture creates an obstacle for the translator since readers of the target language are not acquainted with the source language culture. For that reason, she clarified that the translator faces difficulties when attempting to "dig in the area" (para. 15) of rendering source language cultural jokes

into target language. Spanakaki (2007) clarified that when translating humor, a translator deals with the intended effect and its possible unsuccessful reproduction. There is a trick in translating humor that Bellos (2011) mentioned which is to abandon the notion of perfect commitment and instead try to come with a joke that "rings some of the same bells" (para. 4) as the original joke (as cited in Hoffman, 2012). Bellos also added that it takes a bit of creativity and a bit of luck to translate a joke.

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In 2010, Paris, mentioned that in order to overcome the technical challenge of translating humor, two linguists can corporate in translating the new message. One of them should be a native speaker of a language and an expert as well. The other one should be an expert and a native speaker of the target language (despite the fact that both of them speak the two languages). The author describes the good aspect of this by saying "the icing on the cake would be that both linguists also have an acute sense of humor" (para. 8). In conclusion, although translating humor might be complicated, Tisgam mentioned that it is not preferable for the translator to use footnotes and explanation as much as he\she can. Hoffman agreed completely with this point by quoting from Shteyngart that “Nothing is worse than killing the joke by over--explaining” (para. 6). He added that even if the translator was ingenious, he\she might not be able to translate and transform all jokes. To support that he added a quote from Ingo Herzke which says "More often than not you have to let a joke go" (para. 16). References Chiaro, D. (Ed.). (2010). Translation, humour and literature. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa/

Hoffman, J. (2012, October 19). Me translate funny one day. New Y ork Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/21/books/review/the-challenges-of-translatinghumor.html?_r=1 Liendo, P. J. (2013). The challenges of interpreting humor (a.k.a. “don’t kill the killjoy”). Translation Journal, 17(1). Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/ journal/63humor.htm Paris, A. (2010, October 21). Translating humor: achieving the universal chuckle. Retrieved from http://www.acclaro.com/blog/translating-humor-achieving-the-universal-chuckle/

Spanakaki, K. (2007). Translating humor for subtitling. Translation Journal, 11(2). Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/journal/40humor.htm Tarvin, A. (n.d.). What is humor? Retrieved from http://www.humorthatworks.com/learning/ what-is-humor/ Tisgam, K. H. (n.d.). Translating cultural humour: theory and practice. International A ssociation of Japan Studies. Retrieved from www.iasj.net/iasj?func= fulltext&aId= 19938

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Translating Polysemous Words in the Holy Quran By Ghada Al-Sultan The Holy Quran is the guide and the source of various kinds of knowledge for Muslims around the world. Therefore, it is extremely important to understand the specific meanings, especially for translators who take the responsibility of translating it. However, Alhaj (2015) empha-

sized that every translation must pass through some difficulties, especially when translating the Holy Quran. He stressed that “Muslims scholars unanimously agree that any translation of the Holy Quran can never replace the original text . . . it has to be read in its language, Arabic” (p. 9). Indeed, understanding the Holy Quran is difficult even for Arabs due to polysemy; therefore, translators will face difficulties translating polysemous words. Kreidler (1998) defines polysemy as “a lexeme has several apparently related meanings” (p. 52). The noun head, for example, is polysemous because it has some related meanings; we can say the head of a person, the head of the company, head of a bed or table, a head of lettuce

or cabbage. Moreover, he adds that in distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy, we need to consider that dictionaries treat them in two different ways. Polysemous items are put in the dictionary as a single entry while homonyms are two or more separate entries. According to Al-Azzam (2005), "When a polysemous word stands alone and out of context, the first meaning that comes to one's mind when spoken or written is normally the one that is most prominently used" (p. 100). He clarifies that with some examples. For instance, with the word "table" and "plain", you can neither think of table as a mathematical table nor plain as a tract of a flat country until you read them in contexts. Usually, the first thing comes in our mind

when we hear the word table is a piece of furniture. It is the same in Arabic with the word Salat ,‫صالة‬it has many different meanings depending on the contexts. Abdul-Raof argued that “the referential versatility of Quranic lexemes undergoes semantic reduction when Quranic translators render a polysem as monosem” (as cited in Alqinai, 2011, p. 83). For example, the word al-falaq ‫الفلق‬as stated in the Holy Quran ”‫عوذُ بِرب الفَلَق‬ ُ َ ‫(“قٌ ْل أ‬Quran 113:1) is translated in many different ways. Pickthall and Arberry translated it as “daybreak”, while Asad, Shakir, and Ali translated it as “dawn”. It can be used in totally different meaning that related to the process of splitting like in cell multiplication including seeds, molecules and 40

biological entities. Another example is the word Libas ,‫لباس‬which is stated in the Holy Quran “ ‫اس لَ ُكم َوأَنتُم‬ ٌ َ‫ُهن ِلب‬ ) ”‫اس لَ ُهن‬ ٌ َ‫ ِلب‬Quran 2:187). Yusuf Ali translated it as “garments”, while it can be found as “vestment” in Arberry’s translation. These two transitions did not provide the real meaning of the word Libas in the verse. Both of them refer to types of clothing which have nothing to do with the situational context of the verse. A better translation for the word Libas in this verse is “repose or tranquility” (Abobaker, Alsaleh & Fikri, 2014). To conclude, this paper has discussed some polysemous words in the Quran as one example of its various lexical creativity. Abobaker, Alsaleh, Fikri, and Fazliyaton (2012) clarify that “The major problem encountered by the translators of the Quran is the difficulty in rendering some lexical items” (para. 4). Therefore, translators should avoid literal translation since such translations may lead to confusion and ambiguity of meaning. Instead, they should focus on a translation that conveys the intended and contextual meanings. References Abobaker, A., Alsaleh, B., & Fikri, M. (2014). Transferring polysemic words from Arabic into English: A comparative study of some samples from the Holy Quran. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 8(23), 38-43. Retrieved from http://ajbasweb.com/ Abobaker, A., Alsaleh, B., Fikri, M., & Fazliyaton, S. (2012). Some linguistic difficulties in translating the Holy Quran from Arabic into English. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 2(6). Retrieved from https://sdl.edu.sa/ Al-Azzam, B. H. (2005). Certain terms relating to Islamic observances: Their meanings with reference to three translations of the Qur'an and a translation of Hadith. Retrieved from http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1775/ Alhaj, A. A. (2015). New theory of the Holy Qur'an translation: A textbook for advanced university students of linguistics and translation. Anchor Academic Publishing. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Alqinai, J. (2011). Convergence and divergence in the interpretation of Quranic polysemy and lexical recurrence. Studies About Languages. Retrieved from https:// scholar.google.com/ Kreidler, C. W. (1998). Introducing English semantics. New York: Routledge.

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Translation and Literature: Difficulties in Translating Arabic Literature

By Fulwah M. Al-Matrafi

Literary translation is mostly in the heart of many cultures. It denotes any written text or body of texts from a culture's famous and admired works. Over the centuries, the world's litera-

tures have spread in massive numbers of foreign countries. At the same time, awareness has grown of the fact that literary translation is not simple (Classe, 2000). Actually, she emphasized that "the transference of a work from one language into another are neither simple in themselves nor without fundamental problems and hidden implications" (p. 7). No doubt, translating Arabic literature is important, but there are many difficulties when translating it. Translating Arabic literature into English has some issues. For instance, such obstacles are faced when translating Muhammad Zefzat stories. One of these issues is the allusions and the occurrence of it is more challenging (Albakry, 2004). He stressed that "not only does the

translator of Zefzat have to cope with the usual linguistic difficulties of translating from such a foreign language as Arabic, but also has to handle different references and allusions" (para. 33) Hambleton and Zeniski (2011) stated that grammatical structure is one of the problems in translating literature because every language has different way of word structure to express its ideas. The differences between the languages can cause problems when creating parallel versions like the arrangement of sentences, verb tenses, plurals [Arabic expresses dual and plural unlike English] and pronouns (as cited in Dweik & Thalji, 2015). According to Classe, "differences between SL culture and TL culture may cause

translation loss because there are some contextual aspects that have features related exclusively to SL culture and they are not found in the TL culture" (as cited in Dweik, 2015, p. 51). Some communities usually give expressions to their culture to create a way of living, meaning for their lives, and presenting their history and tradition (Al-Azzam, Al-Ahaydib & Shalaby, 2014). Moreover Classe argued that punctuations may cause problems to translators if it is used wrongly (as cited in Dweik, 2015). The uses of punctuations such as commas, periods, and

42

paraphrasing in Arabic are more subject to the writer’s discretion and do not have be one-toone relationship with English. Also, question marks and an exclamation point are possible in Arabic to produce a dramatic effect (Albakry, 2004). To conclude, translating literature is important and it is one of the most beautiful translations that carry the emotions and feelings from a culture to another. Although translating literature is not simple, it makes it more special than any other fields of translation. Muhaidat, Neimneh, and Hussein (2013) points out that in translating literature there are some problems involved in the form of rhythm, meter, and assonance that must be recognized. References Al-Azzam, B., Al-Ahaydib, M., & Shalaby, M. (2014). The socio-cultural, historical, and political allusions in the translation of the Saudi national day poetry. Studies in Literature and Language, 9(3). Retrieved from http://www.cscanada.net/index.php/sll/article/ view/5910 Albakry, M. (2004). Linguistic and cultural issues in literary translation. Translation Journal, 8 (3). Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/journal/29liter.htm Classe, O. (2000). Encyclopedia of literary translation into English: A -L. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Dweik, B. S., & Thalji, M. B. (2015). Obstacles faced by the Jordanian novice translators in translating Arabic proverbs. IJ-ELTS, 3(4). Retrieved from http://eltsjournal.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/05/5-3-4-15.pdf Landers, C. E. (2001). Literary translation: A practical guide. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa/books? id=tlk5u2rtkkIC&dq=challenges+literature+translation&source=gbs_navlinks_s Muhaidat, F. M., Neimneh, S. S., & Hussein, E. T. (2013). King lear on the Arabic stage: Linguistic social and cultural considerations. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 3(2). Retrieved from http://ojs.academypublisher.com/index.php/tpls/article/view/ tpls0302244253/6281 Qualey, M. L. (2015). Can Arabic literature ever be fully understood in English? The National. Retrieved from http://www.thenational.ae/opinion/comment/can-arabic-literature-everbe-fully-understood-in-english%23top

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Political Texts Translation Problems By Hanan A. Al-Khudair Nowadays, translation has a variety of definitions. Some scientists define translation as a talent and art, while others see it as a science or a process that transfers the meaning from one language to another. According to Lederer, "Translation is a process which attempts to establish

equivalence between two texts expressed in two different languages. These equivalents are, by definition, always dependent on the nature of the two texts, on their objective, on the relationship between the two cultures involved" (as cited in Sárosi-Márdirosz, 2003, p. 161). One of the most important areas in translation is political texts and speech. Since, there are no certain rules for translating political texts, it requires a rich cultural and historical background (2015). What do we mean by a political text and speech? It is a text or speech that is concerned with state, government or public affairs. Most translators want to influence the readers; they want the audience to consider the translated text comprehensible and not just intelligible. In fact, a

wrong or inappropriate word choice in the context of politically sensitive issues can lead to great misinterpretations (Schaeffer, 2004). Firstly, one of the problems that might face translators is that political discourse is often ambiguous and unclear which makes it have a variety of interpretations. Secondly, translators cannot comment on the political discourse or interfere; therefore, they must translate the text honestly and accurately. Thus, this is not an easy task since politicians in their speech usually tend not to commit themselves to explicit words, but to be imprecise and use general, vague and hazy language (Sárosi-Márdirosz, 2015). So, translators must be able

to understand not only what the words or sentences mean, but also what political or historical impact it could have. As Hatfield, 2012 states, "The political value of translation lies in its ability to promote what is often referred to as "cultural understanding" (p. 8). Thirdly, one of the translation issues in political journalistic texts is the translation of unusual neologistic formations nouns, so Patriann (2015) said: The translation of a noun such as 'democratization' is seen to be derived from

44

the loan form' democracy' ‫ديموقراطية‬dimugratiyyah which is morphologically utilized to derive the verbal noun

‫دمقرطة‬according to the mold

Fa‫؟‬LlaLah, a derivation which is unusual since the Arabic lan-guage is not used as a source of deriving loan forms which are five-literal words. Some examples Of such unusual neologistic formations, ‫أفغنة‬for Afghanization, ‫لبننة‬for Lebanonization, ‫تمصير‬for Eygptianization, and ‫بلقنة‬for Balkanization (p. 482). Besides, Patriann (2015) claimed that a single English expression may have two or three Arabic equivalents. For example, 'globalization' is seen to be translated as ‫الكوكبية‬ alkawkabiyya, ‫العولمة‬al?awlama, and ‫الكونية‬alkawniyya which are three different words . Therefore, according to Schäffner and Adab, 2000, "The objectives of translating political texts will focus on the identification of lexical items and the development of a list of key words; learning to make a final decision for only one variant" (p. 106). To conclude, the translator’s main task is to create a text that will transmit the core of the message included in the original text. Also, translators must be able to use language effectively to express the most important political concepts in order to achieve the desired effect. They may use some helpful techniques such as: omission, expansion and exoticism (SárosiMárdirosz, 2015). Consequently, " Schäffner, 2009, p. 10). References Hatfield, C. (2012). Translation and politics revisited. Translation Review, 83(1), 8-11. doi:10.1080/07374836.2012.703457 Patriann, S. (Ed.). (2015). Cross- Cultural approaches to language and literacy development. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Sárosi-Márdirosz, K. (2015). Problems related to the translation of political texts. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae: Philologica, 6(2), 161. doi: 10.1515/ausp-2015-0012 Schäffner, C., & Adab, B. (Eds.). (2000). Developing translation competence. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Schaffner, C. (2004). Political discourse analysis from the point of view of translation studies. Journal of Language and Politics, 3(1), 117. doi:10.1075/jlp.3.1.09sch Schäffner, C. (Ed.). (2009). Political discourse, media and translation. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa 45

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The Challenges and Aspects of Video Games Translation By Wala F. Al-Mijiwl

The video games industry has grown from 1970's, and became a worldwide phenomenon enjoyed by children and even adults. Mangiron and O’Hagan (2006) pointed out that “although

most games are developed in Japanese and English, the globalisation of popular culture and the desire to expand to new markets have led most producers to localise their games into many target language versions” (p. 10). However, there are a lot of challenges and aspects surrounding the translation and localization of video games. Translating video games require the translator to have more advanced skills when dealing and translating games. It is because “in addition to text you also have audio and visual components as well as game interface to deal with, so when translating you must also take into account aspects such as cut-scenes, dialogue, and game control” ("Aspects and Challenges," 2014,

para. 2). In addition, subtitles and dubbing are two modes of translation the translator needs to focus on (Sajna, 2013). Another challenge besides advanced language skills is the need for the translator to have in-depth awareness of the culture of the country that created the game. For example, a circle stands for the enter button in Japan, but this is indicated by an "x" in other countries. So, “although such things may be common knowledge in Japan, the localization may not be successful if the translator does not understand such cultural differences” ("Aspects and Challenges," 2014, para. 3). Fortunately, as stated by Liubiniene, 2011, “translators are often given freedom to

modify, adapt, and remove any cultural references, puns, as well as jokes, or any other element they think is not suitable in the target language” (p. 46). Some video games have conversation paths within them. According to Bernal-Merino (2014), the translation of all conversation paths into several languages has two challenges for translators. The first one is a notional challenge, which is “the way people address each other in different languages and cultures may differ depending, for example, on age, professional profile, level of kinship and gender” (p. 140). This means that translators need to differentiate between

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these modes of address depending on the understanding of the story and its game world. The second one is a linguistic challenge, which is “the way these modes of address manifest in each language may differ in terms of grammatical rules” (p. 140). The final challenge for the translator is the players. Like novels and movies, games are expected to submerge players into an alternative world. As stated by Skoog (2012), “even small translation errors can result in a jarring experience for the player. As such, translations are heavily critiqued by fans, and if the game translation isn’t up to par, they experience decreased enjoyment of the game” (para. 12). Therefore, translators normally play the game before they translate to avoid translation mistakes. In conclusion, even though video games translation has many challenges, it is different and unique from all other types of translation. The translator needs to focus on so many areas to make sure that he is producing ”a target version that keeps the ‘look and feel’ of the original, yet passing itself off as the original” (Mangiron & O’Hagan, 2006, p. 20). At the end, the translator will be satisfied to know that he is the reason for the enjoyment of children and adults players around the world. References Aspects and challenges of video game translation. (2014, December 8). Retrieved from http:// www.arc-japanese-translation.com/blog/ Bernal-Merino, M. A. (2014). Translation and localisation in video games: Making entertainment software global. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Liubiniene, V. (2011). Video game localization: The analysis of in-game texts. Kalbų Studijos, 19(19), 46. doi:10.5755/j01.sal.0.19.945 Mangiron, C., & O’Hagan, M. (2006). Game localisation: Unleashing imagination with‘restricted’translation. The Journal of Specialised Translation, (6), 11. Retrieved from http://www.jostrans.org/ Sajna, M. (2013). Translation of video games and films –A comparative analysis of selected technical problems. Retrieved from http://ptbg.org.pl/ Skoog, K. E. (2012, September 25). How video game translation differs from other types of translation. Retrieved from http://www.lai.com/blog/

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Translation Studies: The Importance of Translation Studies By Lama Al-Massad

From the beginning of the 20th century, some countries continued to use a method called the grammar-translation method in learning a foreign language. This method later lost its popu-

larity with the appearance of the communicative approach in the 1960s and early 1970s. A new generation of scholars worked on the same goal in the second half of the 20th century, which is establishing a more systematic analysis of translation (Pardo, 2013). Even though, written and spoken translation have played a crucial role throughout history in human communication, and providing access to important texts for scholarship and religious reasons. Yet the beginning of translation study as an academic subject was in the past fifty years. This discipline is now known as ‘translation studies’ in the English-speaking world and it is continuing to strongly develop across the globe (Munday, 2015).

The acceptance of the expression "Translation Studies" is relatively recent, which perhaps would be surprising to those who think this concept already existed and is known by the term ‘translation’, specifically in the process of learning a foreign language. But actually the systematic study of translation is still so limited. Precisely because of the consideration of translation as an intrinsic part of the process of learning a foreign language, it has been rarely studied for its own purpose (Bassnet, 2015). Translation studies was conceived as a linguistic discipline. Attempts were made to develop a ‘‘science of translation’’ (El-dali, 2011). According to Bassnet, 2015, "The common threads that link the many diverse ways in

which translation has been studied over the past two decades are an emphasis on diversity" (p. 10). Diversity is an emphasis on the common things that connect between so many different ways that translation has been studied over the past two decades, and refusing the old term of translation as infidelity and betrayal of the original, reflects the changing nature of the world we live in.

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Translation studies emerged with James Holmes and André Lefevere based on Russian structuralism, and the study of translation as an academic subject began when James Holmes considered it important to study it as a discipline in itself around sixty years ago. The name given to Holmes’s discipline was translation studies or traductología and traductologie in Spanish and French respectively. Holmes thought that ‘translation studies’ would seem to be the most appropriate term of all those available in English, and its adoption as the standard term for the discipline as a whole would remove a fair amount of confusion and misunderstanding (Pardo, 2013). In conclusion, translation is much more than interpreting or replacing a form of word with another. Translation helps us to enhance our understanding of development issues (Bernacka, 2012). Translation and translation studies are valuable not only to the organization’s products and services but also to society as a whole, and to develop the intellectual capital system in the future. Translation studies and teaching can be of major assistance by showing the tools that are available beyond translation memories (Gile, Hansen, Kocijan & Benjamins, 2015).

References Bassnett, S. (2015). Translation studies. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Bernacka, A. (2012). Creating new economic paradigms: The role of development education. Retrieved from http://www.developmenteducationreview.com/issue14-perspectives4 El-dali, H. (2011). Towards an understanding of the distinctive nature of translation studies. Journal of King Saud University–Languages and Translation, 23, 29-45. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/

Gile, D., Hansen, G., Kocijan, N., & Benjamins, J. (2015). W hy translation studies matters. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Munday, J. (2015). Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications (3rd ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Pardo, B. (2013). An introduction to the history and development of (audiovisual) translation. Linguax. Revista de Lenguas Aplicadas, 29. Retrieved from http://www.uax.es/ publicacion/translation-studies-an-introduction-to-the-history-and-development-of.pdf

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Difficulties in Literary Translation By Razan A. Al-Dewaihy Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Holmes (1988) point out that "in the literary theory of the

1950s and 60s many of those who wrote about literary translation were inclined to take their own way of translating" (p. 2). In addition, translation is an old and helpful method of communication with others and there are many areas of translation depending on what the conversation is about, one of which is literary translation, but it is the most difficult one as translators may face many difficulties when they want to translate these kinds of texts. According to Kolawole (2008), literary translation is about culture, linguistics, etc. Therefore, the translators may face many problems when they want to translate a literary work. The language may have many cultural borders, for example, "English and French are Indo-

European languages but belong to different cultures. There are generally problems in the translation of cultural words in a literary text unless there is a cultural overlap between the source language and the target language" (para. 4). In addition, the translators must transfer the senses and emotions that occur in the source language text readers to the target language text readers and that creates another challenge for them. The first problem that may face the prose-translator is when the source and target language belong to different cultures is "finding terms in his or her own language that express the highest level of faithfulness possible to the meaning of certain words. For example, there are

some words that are related to typical fabrics, cookery specialties, or jobs" (para. 2-3), that words reflect the culture of the language or the author and the translator must pay attention when he/she translates. Another difficult matter that may face a literary translator is translating some titles of stories or novels that are obscure (Haque, 2012). Some problems occur when a translator has a text in a period that is different from the one that he/she lives in now, so the problem is the movement from one period to another and translating their words and idioms. A translator must read about that particular period to consider

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the meaning of the structure. Clearly, it is more difficult to understand a late nineteenth or early twentieth century play in the modern period. It is, for instance, "difficult to imagine a late1970’s version of Wilde’s Lady Windermere’s Fan or Pinero’s The Second Mrs. Tranqueray the attitudes to women and marriage simply will not wear contemporary costumes") Zuber, 2014, p. 4) In 2009, Sanchez said that one thing that a translator should decide is what translation steps can be used to a dialectal literary work. In this case, the difficulties that face a translator is the greater difficulty in understanding the ST non-standard words that an author used and how to find alternative words in the TL since the translated text must be comprehensive, including what the author said. He also points out that "the problem clearly goes beyond the question of comprehension. The translator may have understood the meaning of the original text, but what is the right sort of language to be used in the translation?") p. 201). To conclude, while there are difficulties and problems in translation, there are solutions for this, too. If the translator is a student who has a text that must be translated, there is a way to avoid some mistakes in translating; according to Salas, 2000 "The students should read the whole text at least twice: The first reading will be comprehensive and general, to become acquainted with the topic and to understand the original, always bearing in mind that meaning is context-determined") para. 33). References Haque, M. Z. (2012). Translating literary prose: Problems and solutions. International Journal of English Linguistics, 15. doi:10.5539/ijel.v2n6p97 Holmes, J. S. (1988). Translated!: Papers on literary translation and translation studies. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Kolawole, S. O. (2008). The literary translator and the concept of fidelity. Translation Journal. Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net Salas, C. G. (2000). Teaching translation: Problems and solutions. Translation Journal, 4. Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net Sanchez, M. T. (2009). The problems of literary translation: A study of the theory and practice of translation from English into Spanish. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Zuber, O. (2014). The languages of theatre: Problems in the translation and transposition of drama. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

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Problems in Translation of Poetry Between Arabic and English

By Miad A. Al-Nefaie

Translation in general is translating the text from the source language into the target language; as a result, the meaning must be translated correctly, so the readers understand it well (Hassan & Eddin, 2011). Translators face many difficulties with the translation of poetry, which

is always an issue that has been constantly discussed (Rahimkhani & Salmani, 2013). According to Connolly (1998), "The translation of poetry is generally held to be the most difficult, demanding … form of translation" (as cited in Rahimkhani & Salmani, 2013, p. 782). In addition, poetry is a unique style of writing that has "challenging features" (Lahlali & Hatab, 2014, p. 45), specially, in Arabic and English, which are two different languages. One of the difficulties that the translator faces when translating poetry is the culture. In fact, the content and meaning of the poem depend heavily on the culture of the source language, especially in the translation of Arabic poetry, like Hafez's poetry. Many researchers said

that the difficulties that were faced in translating the poetry of Hafez were a "result from the lack of understanding in English language communities of Islamic principles and concepts, the meanings of metaphors connoted by the poetry" (Rahimkhani & Salmani, 2013, p. 782). As Darwish said (2010), "A lexical gap in translation occurs when there are cultural gaps between languages" (as cited in Rahimkhani & Salmani, 2013, p. 782). Al-Haddad adds that another difficulty is ambiguity in the poems, especially the Arabic ones. The Arabic language is a complex language that requires adding affixes to the words to indicate the grammatical categories and vocalization or using short vowels to deliver the required

meaning correctly. In addition, nowadays poets forget to use short vowels, vocalization and that puts the translator in a difficult position because he needs to go back to the previous lines, and as a result, it takes the translator a lot of time translating the poem (1990). The third difficulty is the grammar, which is an important factor in every language. The grammar rules are quite different from one language to another and even the poets use different structures or unusual words, which is different from their own language and that makes the translator's job harder than usual. For instance, the fact that the English language has

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twelve tenses and the Arabic language has only two, so the translator needs to understand the meaning and shift the grammar to make it easier for the readers to understand it and it must be without any change in meaning (Al-Salem, 2014). The final difficulty, according to Smadja, McKeown, and Hatzivassiloglou (1996), is collocation (word pairs or phrases). The structure of collocation ranges differently from a language to another. For example, catch fish or catch a cold has a different translation in Arabic using different verbs unlike English, which is translated as ‫ يصاب بنزلة برد‬،‫يصطاد سمكة‬and that poses a problem for the translator. In addition, there is collocation that is specific to one language in particular like eat the soup in English and drink the soup in Arabic. Therefore, the translator must find an equivalent in the target language and use it. In conclusion, poetry translation, as we mentioned, is the most difficult type of translation and it depends on the language itself since every language has a different structure, grammar rules and collocation. Therefore, the translator needs to know how to deal with these problems and the translator must convey the meaning, thoughts, and feelings of the poets to the readers correctly. References Al-Haddad, H. N. (1990). A linguistic investigation of translations of Iraqi poetry (1950-1986) (U040732) (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (U040732) Al-Salem, M. N. (2014). The translation of metaphor from A rabic to English in selected poems of Mahmoud Darwish with a focus on linguistic issues (Master's thesis, University of Leeds). Retrieved from http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/7703/ Hassan, A., & Eddin, B. (2011). Literary translation: Aspects of pragmatic meaning. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/sdl/detail.action?docID=10676966 Lahlali, E. M., & Hatab, W. A. (2014). A dvanced English-Arabic translation: A practical guide. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Rahimkhani, M., & Salmani, B. (2013). Lexical gaps in translation of Qur'anic allusions in Hafez's poetry: Strategies and difficulties. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 3 (5). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/ Smadja, F., McKeown, K. R., & Hatzivassiloglou, V. (1996). Translating collocations for bilingual lexicons: A statistical approach. Computational Linguistics, 22(1). Retrieved from http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm 53

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Cultural Problems in Literary Translation from English into Arabic

By Ohoud A. Al-Swihan

According to Petrulione, Tylor states that, "Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society" (cited in Petrulione, 2013, p. 127). All the mentioned elements of culture

create a system that a society uses to confront their world as well as with each other and transfers through generation. Literary works are read and approved in a different way by natives and foreigners. Therefore, translators face many problems and difficulties in translating literary works because of the different cultural features of every language (2013). Translation is an attempt to find an equivalent meaning from the source language text into the target language. We can say that; translation is a type of literary creativeness where the literary work of one language is re-created in another. Therefore, translators must be aware of what the author intended, and what the components of the source language expressions mean, es-

pecially, when the source and target languages associate to different cultural groups. Also, translators should be skilled enough to translate feelings, cultural nuances, humor and other delicate elements of literary pieces because the translators do not only translate meanings but also the messages (Samantaray, 2015). According to Toper, 1979, "Literature is verbal, it is the only art that is subject to linguistic barriers. Unlike music, painting or sculpture the literary work is accessible only to those who know the language in which it is written" (para. 1). Literature is essential from language and culture. Cultural context is very necessary in translating any literary works because translation of

literature is related to cultural studies (Petrulione, 2013). Thus, the first problem faced by translators is finding terms in their own language which express the highest level of faithfulness to the meaning of certain terms. For instance, there are some words that are related to typical costumes, teasing, and puns which represent a specific culture. (Samantaray, 2015). Additionally, some of the most particular problems the translators may face contain illegible text, missing references, dialect terms and neologisms, irrationally vague terminology, inexplicable acronyms and abbreviations, untranslatability, intentional misnaming, and particular cultural references. Also, a word in one language often contains meanings that involve 54

some words in another language (Haque, 2012). Take poetry as an example of literary translation, which is the hardest type of translations of all literary works because poetry has many linguistic factors to account for that should be unalterable such as notably sound, rhyme and metre (Newmark, 2004). Moreover, Newmark (2004) reported that literary translation can be accurate to some degree because it is looking for the implied and the referring meaning, which has many aspects that can only grasp a limited amount. Also, it uses two languages which are unequally and variably equipped with words. Even though the translators try to manipulate all these factors and attempt various compensatory procedures, each language still has different sounds, grammars, word-orders, lexical gaps and deficiencies. Finally, in 2014, Ghazala stated that, Like any professional, the literary translator has to command certain capabilities and qualifications. I must insist that inasmuch as we do not have an ideal, perfect translation literary or other. Therefore, we have to come down to earth, be realistic and lower our expectations regarding the translator's potentials. Some of these potentials are shared by all types of translators; others are unique to literary translators only (p. 17). This is his view point, and I agree with him because it is close to reality; no more, no less. References Ghazala, H. S. (2014). Literary translation: A literary stylistics-based perspective. Retrieved from http://www.google.com.sa Haque, Z. (2012). Translating literary prose: problems and solutions. Retrieved from http:// www.google.com.sa Petrulione, L. (2013). Correlation of cultural and translation studies in the process of literary translation. Filologija, 18. Retrieved from http://www.google.com.sa Samantaray, P. (2015). Problems of translating Oroya literature to English. International Journal of English Language, Literature and Translation Studies, 2(1). Retrieved from http:// www.google.com.sa Toper, P. M. (1979). Literary translation. Retrieved from http:// encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com Newmark, P. (2004). Non-literary in the light of literary translation. The Journal of Specialised Translation, (1), 13. Retrieved from http://www.google.com.sa 55

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Translation Dialect Words From Arabic into English By Atheer M. Al-Ghamdi Arabic can be divided into two types. One of them is called classical Modern Standard Arabic that is used as a writing system across the Middle East. The second type is the various Arabic dialects which are used as the spoken language depending on the region. According to El-Baz, 1968, "spoken Arabic has deviated from the original language in most parts of the Arabic World. The situation is that of a classical language and various dialects." (p. 1). He also points out that the spoken Arabic nowadays is classified into six major divisions. So, the translators have to be aware of this. El-Baz (1968) explains that the six major divisions are divided into the classical language which is still the medium of daily expression of all the inhabitants of that region, also it is the language of the nomadic communities throughout the Arabic World. In addition, the second division is the dialect languages which are divided into Mediterranean, Iraqi, Northern and Southern Nile Valley, and the North African dialects.

Figure 1. Translation Arabic dialect (Kenstowicz, 1989)

Figure 2. Translation Arabic dialect (Elmasry, 2015) The first dialect is the Mediterranean which is spoken by those who live beside it. According to ElBaz, 1968, "This dialect is spoken in the geographical region which lies to the north of the Arabian Peninsula and includes the modern states of Jordan, Israel. Lebanon and Syria" (p. 2). He also said that the basic pattern of the dialect remains the same and it is about the closest to the classical language.

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Figure 3. Translation Mediterranean dialect (Benmamoun, 2000) The second dialect is Iraqi which has different sub-dialects. According to El-Baz, 1968, "Its distinguishing feature is the frequent incorporation of Kurdish, Persian and Turkish sounds and expressions." (p. 2). He also explains that the third dialect is Northern and Southern Nile Valley witch is known as "Cairo dialect''. It is derived from classical language. In addition, the Northern dialect is used in the most parts of Lower Egypt and the Southern dialect is spoken in the South of Egypt and in Sudan. The last dialect is the North African which is spoken by the Arabs that live in Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. They have their own dialect but they are not the same. According to to El-Baz, 1968, "Although still based on the classical language, it is distinguished by the incorporation of terms and ex-

pressions from the Romance languages'' (p. 3). According to Zaidan, 2014, "Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), differs in a non-trivial manner from the various spoken regional dialects of Arabic" (p. 264). Translation dialectal Arabic to English is not that easy because different dialects may make different lexical choices to express concepts. According to Darwish and Sajjad, 2013, "the concept corresponding to "Oryd" ''( ‫اريد‬I want") is expressed as "EAwz" ‫عاوز‬in Egyptian, "Abgy" ‫ابغي‬in Gulf, "Aby" ‫ابي‬in Iraqi, and "bdy" ‫بدي‬in Levantine2" (p. 1). They also point out that words have different or opposite meanings in different dialects. References Benmamoun, E. (2000). Feature structure of functional categories [Photograph]. Retrieved from http://

site.ebrary.com/ Darwish, K., & Sajjad, H. (2013). Translating dialectal Arabic to English. Association For Computational Linguistics. Retrieved from www.qcri.com/ El-Baz, F. (1968). Say it in Arabic: Egyptian dialect. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Elmasry, M. A. (2015). Sentiment analysis of Arabic slang comments on Facebook. International Journal of Computers & Technology [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/ Kenstowicz, N. (1989). The null subject parameter. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/ Zaidan, O. F. (2014). Arabic dialect identification. Computational Linguistics [Photograph]. Retrieved from http://sj9sr8sb5k.search.serialssolutions.com/ 57

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Does Translation Change Our Culture? By Amel K. Al-Harbi Translation plays a big role in the modern world and you can notice it by the different variations of translation nowadays. Since the time that the Internet appeared in the world, has been more connection than before. Because of that, more civilizations are closer to others so they can share their cultures together and as a result of that communication, translation appeared. However, is it true or not that translation has changed our culture? This is what we will focus on in this research. Also, we will learn the meaning of translation and culture and how translation influences our culture. According to Katherine (2004): The history of translation is the history of foreign. That which for centuries has been varyingly interpreted as "other" to the domestic or to be obliterated and subsumed under the domestic. From Cicero to Diderot translation was seen as the way to enrich one's own language and culture with culture with little or no regard for fidelity to the original (p. 13).

Therefore, the term of translation has been changing over years but the most recent definition according to Hornby (2010) is "The process of changing something that is written or spoken into another language" (p. 1588). While anthropologists define culture as Hornby said (2010) "The way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time'' (p. 357). As you can see, there is not relationship between translation and culture, yet how does translation influence our culture? Culture is constituted by traditions while translation is related to languages so according to Petrescu, 2008: Translation theories discussed so far referred to cultural items that do not include the language itself, which do not consider the language as a component or feature of

culture. In contrast, language is considered a basic cultural feature by anthropologists and in their philosophy translation appears to be a real contest between languages and cultures, a fight for imposing or/and preserving cultural identity (p. 3). Both culture and translation have their own identity; there are some examples that prove the influence of translation in culture, e.g., "The variety greens distinguished by Amazonian Indians, as opposed to the few greens that we distinguish" (para. 10). However, that does not mean we do not see shades of green. It simply means that in our world that linguistic distinction is not as important as it is for the Amazons. Therefore, this example shows that there is always

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a linguistic equivalent in another language, and an automatic translator cannot always resolve everything. We conclude that it is true that translation influences our culture both of them depend on each other (S., 2010). As we live in a connected world in order to understand each other's culture, we need to translate their books, poets, and everything related to their cultures. However, every culture is different from the other; their differences might be in their languages, religions, and their values. Therefore, when it comes to translating two languages, it also means translating two cultures. As Peeter Torop said about the relationship between translation and culture (2010) "Translation is a cultural phenomenon and thus everything associated with translation is connected to culture. As such, translation studies cannot be treated apart from culture and the various sciences of culture" (para. 1). Translating brings new ideas that might badly effect the young age group. There are some people who do not like to read a translated book for many reasons. First of all, the fear of the new ideas that it might have. Secondly, because they are not familiar with that culture they might not understand the sense of humor in the translated book. It is true that translation effects our culture but that does not prevent you from reading a translated book. Actually, reading a translated book will brought you to a new culture, and the most translated books is children books (expect religious books) according to Chiara, 2015, "The story is always the same, of course. What changes are the words - or better, the languages into which they are translated" (para. 1). In conclusion, translating is the main means that helps the different cultures to understand each other bet-

ter, however, it cannot change a whole culture there is a bigger thing that change a whole culture but translation can change one single new idea in the person. Every year we can see how the numbers of translated books are increasing and that proves many people are reading more books of other people's culture. Therefore, their cultures have remained the same they did not change so that confirms that translation does not change a whole culture. References Hornby, A. S. (2010). Oxford advanced learner's dictionary. Oxford: Author. Katherine, F. (2004). Translation and culture. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Petrescu, C. (2008). Professional communication and translation studies. Translation and Culture. Retrieved

from http://scholar.googleusercontent.com S. (2010). How culture influences language. culture. Retrieved from http://translationblog.trustedtranslations.com Torop, P. (2010). Culture and translation. Applied Semiotics. Retrieved from http://french.chass.utoronto.ca Vitali, C. (2015). Behind the numbers: the most translated book ever. Culture. Retrieved from http:// www.cafebabel.co.uk

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The Journalists’ Guide to Translating and Making News By

Mashael A. Bin Khudair

One could think that being a journalist is such an easy task, all what should be done is to transfer some news and get paid. That concept is incredibly and totally wrong, being a journalist

means being a translator, a researcher, and a linguistic. ("American press institute," n.d.) define journalism as “the activity of gathering, assessing, creating, and presenting news and information. It is also the product of these activities” (para. 1). The media community doesn’t comprehend the fact that it must understand the news before translating it to another language, but a lot of journalists see journalism as rebroadcasting the news regardless of the need to rephrase it and understand it to make it perfectly fit the other language. Almaghary (n.d.) states a clarification of the issue saying that "The translator lacks this knowledge consequently he or she undoubtedly translates this word or this expression in a

way the is quite painstakingly wrong therefore there will be a kind of gap semantically within the text itself" (para. 3). The press should always take into consideration the linguistic and cultural differences between the two languages, and to make sure that the audience can’t know whether the news was translated or not. Conway and Bassnett (2006) state that “press translation is looking at the target readers’ perception of a translated journalistic text.” (p. 129) which means that the good journalist must be fully aware of the nature of the target language’s culture so he or she can guarantee that the target audience will be satisfied with the way you present them in the news.

There are so many reasons why journalists can make mistakes while translating or making news, and one of the most common reasons is misunderstanding the news or the script. As we know every language and every culture has it own style in writing, speaking, and generally using words. Gambier and Doorslaer (2010) clarify that “Translation ‘errors’ can be caused by misunderstanding of the translation brief or of the content of the ST, by not rendering the meaning of the ST accurately, by factual mistakes . . . between ST and TT” (p. 385).

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Another widespread reason why journalists make mistakes is lack of accuracy. A good journalist should be very accurate and careful while understanding the news and choosing words specifically that fit the topic or catchy words to attract the readers’ attention. Brewer believes that “Accuracy is essential if journalism is to inform the public debate. Accuracy comes ahead of speed. If you are not sure, hold fire. Being first and wrong is not a model to aim for. Being right, always reliable and measured” (para. 2). Journalism plays a huge role for the societies around the world. Every member of the society wants to know what is happening around him. The journalist provides this needed knowledge to the society in a professional way by presenting it in the news, and that is why the journalist has a huge responsibility on his shoulder. Brown (2015) states that “Whenever certain news is credible; people will trust to the media for further information” (para. 3). References Almaghary, I. A. (n.d.). Translation problems amongst Arab translators. Retrieved from http://

www.translationdirectory.com/article362.htm American press institute. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.americanpressinstitute.org Brewer, D. (2016, January 15). Media helping media: Free journalism training resources. Retrieved from http://www.mediahelpingmedia.org Brown, R. (2015, December 2). How journalism play its role in the society. Retrieved from http://vizthink.com Conway, K., & Bassnett, S. (2006). Translation in global news. Proceedings of the Conference Held at the University of Warwick, 129. Retrieved from http://

humanities.ufs.ac.za/ Gambier, Y., & Doorslaer, L. V. (2010). Handbook of translation studies. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

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Functionalist Theory in Translation By Nada M. Al-Hoshan Translation is the act or process of translating, especially from one language into another. According to Ordudari, 2008, "Being utilized as a means to act as a bridge between two cultures,

translation seems to be a complicated and multi-faceted activity or phenomenon" (para. 28). Because of this complication, many translation theories have been established. Although there are several translation theories, one of the most sufficient and useful ones is the Functionalist Translation Theory. In 2001, Mendi clarified that “Functionalist Translation Theories, which appeared in Germany during the seventies and eighties, have transferred the translation process from a solid linguistic theory into a performance of cultural communication” (p. 112). Consequently, these theories have been combined with Skopos theory which emphasizes that only the function of the

target text in the target culture can determine which translation strategy should be followed. Varmeer clarified that Skopos theory was established in the 1970s, which means "aim" or "purpose" in Greek. He stated that "Skopos theory proposes that the translated text may have the same or different functions with the source-text functions" (as cited in Chang, 2000, para. 9). Chang also pointed out that the translator's function is to create a new text with the same function that the source-text has made for. Skopos theory aims mainly to make the translation purposeful, and the most workable part is the principles of Skopos theory: the Skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, which can be applied in the translation practice.

Toro (2008) stated that the functionality of the translation is what determines its criteria, including its style, genre, and so forth. She also emphasized that functionality can make the translation functionally communicative by placing it within its sociocultural context. Experts usually use the word Skopos as a key concept which is “a technical term used to speak about the purpose of the translation and the translational action” (p. 16). In 2015, Dan pointed out that since Skopos theory appeared in Germany during the end of seventies, it has been making considerable widespread influences; it has played an important role

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in the improvement of the history of translation theories. He also emphasized that “Under the background of globalization, the international exchange and cooperation needs the functional bridge of translation to better communicate among countries” (p. 1). Gentzler (2001) emphasized that the functionalist approach is flexible to the point that allows the translator to decide which approach would work better in a particular text. Consequently, the translator enjoys the right of active participating in the creation of the final text.

He also pointed out that “the functionalist approach views the translator as a cross-cultural professional, not as a secondary, mechanical scribe” (p. 71). He added that the functionalist theorists did their best to empower translators and elevate them to equal status with authors and editors.

References Chang, Y. (2012). On some dialogue translation mistakes in little women (1933)-From the

perspective of skopos theory. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 3(4). Retrieved from http://sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com Dan, J. (2015). An Overview of German’s Functionalist Skopos Theory of Translation Cognition,3(3), 1. Retrieved from http://www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/selt/article/ viewFile/325/304 Gentzler, E. (2001). Contemporary translation theories. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Munday, J. (2001). Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Retrieved from

https://www.goodreads.com Ordudari, M. (2008). Good Translation: A rt, Craft, or Science? Retrieved from http:// translationjournal.net Toro, C. G. (2008). Translation Studies: A n Overview, 7. Retrieved from https://doaj.org

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Difficulties in Translating the Qur’an from Arabic into English

By Khawla A. Al-Hammad

A good translator must have a deep knowledge of the subject he is working on especially if it is the Holy Quran and must read a lot to know the expressions and the culture. According to Ali, Brakhw, Nordin, and Shaiklsmail, 2012, “Lexical, syntactic and semantic problems arise when translating the meaning of the Holy Quran into English” (p. 588). Translating the Holy Quran from Arabic into other languages is followed by several linguistic issues because languages are not similar and differ in meaning given to a particular object in addition to the structure of sentences and phrases. They also said that a translator of the Quran may have difficulty in translating some words. One of the problems in translating some lexical items is when a translator cannot find a correlation between words in Arabic and English. A translator may describe some words because they do not have an equivalent in English. For example, “taqwa (piety- ,)‫تقوى‬kufr(disbelief- ,)‫كفر‬shirk(associating other gods with God,)‫شرك‬ghaib(the unseen/unknown- ”)‫(غيب‬Ali et al., 2012, p. 588). According to Alhaj, 2015, “there is an urgent need to study the importance of translating the meanings of the Holy Quran, which is warranted by

the elevated place of the Quran itself (p. 34). Mufti (2011) discussed that the Quran has many topics and subjects. It talks about the belief and the existence of Allah. In addition, the Holy Quran includes other topics such as religious doctrine, social values, morality, history, stories of past prophets, and science. Some of the significant features of the Holy Quran’s style are: (1) ”The use of parables to stir curiosity of the reader and explain deep truth”. (2) “More than two hundred passages begin with the Arabic word Qul - ‘Say’ - addressing Prophet Muhammad to say what follows in replay to a question, to explain a matter of faith, or to announce a legal ruling” (p. 3).

According to Moradi and Sadeghi, 2014, some of the lexical items in the Holy Quran have been translated literally, for example “the term ,‫سجيل‬none of the translators have used explanation about the kind of stone that god used for scratching the enemy” (p. 1738). He also concluded that “In the case of concepts such as ‫ اليتامى‬, ‫ الدين‬,‫ الدم‬, ‫الهدية‬,etc. all translators have used the same English equivalent since there is no cultural gap between such terms in the SL and TL and they are among the most-widely used lexical items in both the source and target language” (p. 1738). Table 1 Terms translated using the procedure "literal translation” (Moradi & Sadeghi, 2014)

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According to Dastjerdi and Jamshidian, 2011, this ayah ‫سو ِل‬ ُ ‫الر‬ ‫َو ِإذَا َجا َء ُه ْم أ َ ْم ٌر ِمنَ ْاْل َ ْم ِن أ َ ِو ْالخ َْوفِ أَذَاعُوا ِب ِه ۖ َولَ ْو َردُّوهُ ِإلَى ه‬ ‫و ِإلَ ٰى أُولِي ْاْل َ ْمر‬has been translated in various ways as in ”Pickthall: and if any tidings, whether of safety or fear, َ

come unto them, they noise it abroad, whereas if they had referred it to the messenger and to such of them as are in authority, Arberry: When there comes to them a matter, be it of security or fear, they broadcast it if they have referred it to the Messenger and to those in authority among them” (p. 139). To conclude, Behbudi and Turner (1997) said that the Quran in not untranslatable but it came from a divine source, so we should be careful to not lose its meaning. Quran has its unique syntax and structure because it is holy unnatural. Additionally, a translator has to know the target language’s strategies and the metaphors because it will make his translation professional. In my opinion, translating the Holy Quran is not difficult but it needs focus and concentration.

References Alhaj, A. (2015). New theory of the Holy Qur'an translation: A textbook for advanced university students of linguistics and translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Ali, A., Brakhw, A. M., Nordin, M., & Shaiklsmail, S. (2012). Some linguistic difficulties in translating the Holy Quran from Arabic into English. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 588. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.7763/IJSSH.2012.V2.178 Behbudi, M. B., & Turner, C. (1997). The Quran: A new interpretation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Dastjerdi, H., & Jamshidian, E. (2011). A sacramental wordplay: An investigation of pun translatability in the

two English translations of the Quran. Asian Social Science, 7(1), 139. Retrieved from http:// search.proquest.com/docview/849233166?accountid=142908 Mufti, K. (2011, December 14). Beginners guide to the Quran (part 1 of 3). Retrieved from http:// www.newmuslims.com/lessons/32 Moradi, M., & Sadeghi, H. (2014). Translation of culture-specific phrases in the Holy Quran.Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 1738. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1552152588? accountid=142908

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Effective Impact of Translation on Spreading Islam in Europe

By Wassayif A. Aldosarey

Translation is the most imperative way to transfer Islam and Islamic culture among nations, so we cannot ignore the role of translation and competent translator also in spreading an idea or religion or culture to a society. There are still much of our culture and religion that needs to be

transferred to various languages all over the world. In addition, translation helps to spread Islam all over the world. Without a doubt, an effective Impact of translation helps Muslims to spread Islam in Europe and all over the world. Translation has an important impact on spreading Islam and it helps people to appreciate others and respect their ways of thinking and their culture. In addition, translation helps to share ideas and knowledge between nations. Rendering to Adewuni, n.d., "Translation helps people to appreciate others and respect their ways of thinking as summed up in their cultures. It weakens barriers between languages and communicates messages, spreads cultures, and increases

understanding among neighbors near and far." (para. 3). First of all, Islam has The Holy Quran and the Sunnah that are the resources of Islam. Furthermore, Muslims in their worships follow The Holy Quran and the Sunnah in order to do the duties and avoid mistakes. "The Holy Quran is the Last and Final Word of God Almighty and a message to all mankind. It is a collection of 114 chapters or surahs that were revealed to Prophet Muhammad by revelation through the Archangel Gabriel over a period of 23 years and The Quran is the holy book which Muslims recite and turn to for guidance in all aspects of their life." (The Islamic Center Of Johnson County, 2011).

Secondly, "Sahih Muslim is a collection of sayings and deeds of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) (also known as the sunnah). The reports of the Prophet's sayings and deeds are called ahadith." (Siddiqui, 1973, p. 1). Sunnah is a second resource of Islam and it is so important for Muslims because they need it to understand The Quran and know it correctly. In addition, the Holy Quran and the Sunnah came for all people in the world. According to Marshall, 2011, "The Quràn was revealed at a particular time in a particular locality and in a particular language, but it states that its message was intended to be universal, for all places and times." (p. 59). He also points out that The Quràn came for all 66

people, Arabs and non-Arabs. On the other hand, we need an effective way to transfer Quràn from the Arabic language to the language of non-Arabs. Moreover, translation is an efficient way to transfer Quràn and Islamic culture to the world. Translation helps non-Arabs to transfer all concepts of Islam into their languages. In addition, there were many non- Arabs who converted to Islam and they understood Islam after (A.D. 1734) because George Sale translated The Quràn into English. " George Sale translated The Quràn in to]into[ English in 1734. In the introduction to his translation he gave detailed information about Islam." (Harput, 1993, p. 23). On the other hand, translation helps Muslims to access to European knowledge, culture, and ideas. Lewis (1994) stated that "Muslims access to European knowledge because the development of the translation movement." (p. 35). There are many people in the world who do not know about Islam or they might know a little bit about it because the language of the resources of Islam is Arabic. Nowadays, the problem is solved by translation. In summary, we cannot disregard the role of translation and competent translator also in spreading an idea or religion or culture to a society. There are still a lot of areas of our culture and religion that needs to be transferred to various languages all over the world. Also, translation had certainly a great role in dissemination of Islamic civilization. It is obvious that many books, sciences, culture and even Islamic civilization were translated and transferred to the east and west parts of the world. As a result, there are many people who became Muslims when they knew about Islam. References Adewuni, S. (n.d.). Globalizing translation what hope for the translator? Retrieved from http:// www.translationdirectory.com/article1190.htm Harput, I. (1993). Could not answer. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Lewis, B. (1994). Islam and the west. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Marshall, D. (2011). Communicating the word: Revelation, translation, and interpretation in Christianity and Islam. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/ grhgKwK4C&dq Siddiqui, A. (1973). Sahih Muslim. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books?id=d_The Islamic Center of Johnson County. (2011, August 7). The Origin of the Quran. Retrieved from http://www.whyislam.org/the-origin-of-the-quran/#

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Punderful Language: Strategies in Translating Puns By Reema A. Al-Saeed A pun is according to the shorter Oxford English Dictionary, “the use of a word in such a way as to suggest two or more meanings, or the use of two or more words of the same sound with different meaning, so as to produce a humorous effect; a play on words” (as cited in Delabastita,

1993, p. 57). Girard discussed that some scholars consider puns to be untranslatable. However, the author argued that puns can be translated, but losing information of the signifier and the signified cannot be avoidable (as cited in Dastjerdi & Jamshidian, 2011). Indeed, since there are many obstacles in translating puns, there are also useful strategies to translate them. Many researchers tend to use Delabastita’s list of techniques, like Zavišić (2014) who used them and added short clarifications to them. Only three will be presented and they are: Pun > pun: where translator tries to have a conformable TT (target text) pun. Pun > non-pun: where translator cannot create a conformable pun in the TT.

Non-selective non-pun: puns in the TT will not have the form of a pun. Selective non-pun: only one linguistic meaning of the ST will be translated. Diffuse paraphrase: puns in the ST will be paraphrased. Pun > punoid: “a punoid can be a play on words by the use of rhyme, alliteration, allusion, etc.” (p. 13). Like we have seen before, it is not easy to fulfill punning conformity in translation. A translator must find a strategy to maintain the pun if it was really important to the context. One of the easiest strategies is providing a separate explanation which means “explaining separately both

the literal meaning and the connotative meanings of the ST pun” (p. 10). One problem a translator will face is overall contextual effects. Thus, the translator must do his best to make up for the loss of punning impact (Jing, 2010). Another technique is rewriting. It is a strategy much more complicated than the previous one. It will force the translator to forsake part of or all the original literal meaning in order to express the meaning of the pun. From one point of view, it will make great changes, such as changing lexical meanings, which is bad for the original text. From other point of view, its goal

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is to have mostly the same effect as the ST (Wu & Pan, 2012). The last strategy is sacrificing secondary information. In 2010, Jing emphasized that it should be the last strategy that a translator must resort to, especially if the meanings of the pun are not equal or they are very important to express the writer‘s intention. The translator will use this strategy based on many things, such as assessing the specific context. Jing stressed that “the translator also needs to resort to other creative means to compensate for the loss of the punning effect” (p. 12). Last but not least, there is no perfect solution for translating puns. A translator must seek for the most suitable translation, and he must also try as mush as possible to amuse the readers because puns are supposed to be funny (Chu, 2013). According to Wu & Pan, 2012, “try to stimulate the same response in the readers’ minds of the translated text as of the original text; the remaining thing is to deal with the specific problem in the specific situation” (p. 6). To conclude, a person would really realize the difficulty of translating puns if he reads this sentence “How much wood could a woodchuck chuck if a woodchuck could chuck wood?”. References Chu, C. (2013). NPTU institutional repository. Retrieved from http://140.127.82.166/ handle/987654321/15303?locale=en-US Dastjerdi, H., & Jamshidian, E. (2011). A sacramental wordplay: An investigation of pun translatability in the two English translations of the Quran. Asian Social Science, 7(1), 137. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/ Delabastita, D. (1993). There's a double tongue: An investigation into the translation of Shakespeare's wordplay, with special reference to Hamlet. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Jing, H. (2010). The translation of English and Chinese puns from the perspective of relevance theory. The Journal of Specialised Translation, (13), 19. Retrieved from http:// www.jostrans.org/ Wu, Y., & Pan, Q. (2012). Strategies on translation of English puns. Academy Publication Co., Ltd, 2(10), 7. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/ Zavišić, M. (2014). Puntastic solutions: The treatment of puns in Russian and Croatian translation of Alice’s adventures in Wonderland. Hieronymus, 24. Retrieved from http:// www.ffzg.unizg.hr/hieronymus/ 69

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Issues in Translating Humor By Badur A. Alnajada Translating humor is one of the most frequent issues that translators face while practicing their job. It makes translators always aware of what they are translating since translating humor in a wrong way can change the intended meaning of the author or speaker. In addition, it might

result in some sort of ambiguity in the message that the translator wants to convey, or it may make the readers laugh at the translation rather than the joke itself. These negative results are not expected results from a professional translator. Hoffman (2012) discussed when difficulties do appear; usually the reasons are two tricky areas: cultural references and wordplay, according to those seasoned in the art. What often represents a problem is culture-bound humor: there are two things you can do; either you lose readers with implicit connotations or you can add explanatory footnotes. He stressed that in an increasingly English-speaking world, the best solution is sometimes to let it stand. To take one

recent example, the Danish edition of Gary Shteyngart's "Super Sad True Love Story," a satirical novel set in near-future New York, leaves untouched such chat acronyms as timatov ("think I'm about to openly vomit") (para. 5). Any type of translation depends largely on cultural basis and linguistic differences. Linguistic errors my cause an ambiguous meaning. Also, finding the equivalence in the target language, literal translation and substitution of some words would distort the meaning. As a result, translators should be creative when it comes to translating humor. The authors point to the fact that some people could consider some elements as humorous while others might consider

them as taboos "A good example is the sexual jokes in American culture which can be found enormously in situation comedies but these jokes occurring in the Iranian-Islamic culture are not only not" (Sadeghpour & Omar, 2015, p. 1997). Green (2015) discussed Sebastian's experience, the German translator of the American humorous show Seinfeld. She stressed that bringing the sense of humor to the German audience through translation was not that easy, and she found that these difficulties are mainly because of linguistic and cultural differences. She also added, "It wasn't just the wordplay that was difficult to translate, but the delivery of the lines, the way Jerry, for example, spit out the word 70

'Newman'" (para. 2). In 2014, Damenehm, Amirian and Zahra emphasized to translate humor there are several micro strategies, but the best way to do it is to understand the different types of humor. One of the micro strategies is the incongruity theory and it is "it is based on the element of surprise. Humor based on the incongruity theory arises through the conflict between the expected and what actually happens" (para. 3). There are also other micro strategies like structural ambiguity, allusion, intertextuality, parody and more. Translating humor is not an easy job at all since translators might face some untranslatable jokes. However, there are several micro strategies to translate humor, and the best way is trying to get the point of the joke not because it is funny but to know why it has been written and how it relates to the meaning of the text. Then, a brief explanation should be added such as "the speaker is making a joke comparing the commotion propose on the leaky boat" (Lourdes De Rioja, 2012, 5:20). Finally, according to Alison at Accredited Language (2011) humor translation tends to create more confusion than laughs if translators do not work with it creatively. References Alison. (2011, July 8). Accredited. Retrieved from https://www.alsintl.com Dameneh, S. S., Amirian, & Zahra. (2014). Microstrategies employed for translation of English humor subtitled into Persian. Journal of Intercultural Communication, (34). Retrieved from sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com Green, A. (2015, August 27). Why is 'Seinfeld' so hard to translate? Mental_Floss. Retrieved from http://mentalfloss.com Hoffman, J. (2012, October 19). Me translate funny one day. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com Lourdes De Rioja. (2012, February 22). Interpreting jokes [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Gjf_RfhHpE Sadeghpour, H. R., & Omar, H. C. (2015). Humor translation in Persian subtitled comedy movies into English: A case study of 'Lizard'. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 5(10). Retrieved from sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com

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Types of Figurative Language and Ways of its Translation

By Najd Suliman Aloraini

Mcarthur reported that “The precise definition of a figure of speech has proved to be as difficult as determining the limits of figurative usage. For centuries, rhetoricians have debate what each

presumed figure refers to and how various figures relate to each other.” (para. 5). Without a doubt, it is difficult to understand the various types of figurative language, however at the same time, learners of the English language must comprehend all the types and learn the different ways to translate them to another language. It was added that figurative language is important in general use as to poets, critics, etc. to achieve the unique stylistic effects in the language (2016). According to Lord, 1854, “A Figure of Speech is a mood of expression in which a word or thing is used in artificial manner, in order to a more forcible presentation of thought, or the illustration and embellishment of that to which it is applied.” (p. 7). Figurative language is a wide field

and it has various types like metaphor, simile, personification, hyperbole, symbolism, alliteration, idioms and onomatopoeia. He also points out that the figures have their own rules and laws and each type of them has a totally different meaning from the other type. In 2014, Cochran and Valentine did a study related to idiom comprehension strategies for both native and English language learners. They emphasized that figurative language is considered a challenge and the students should have extensive knowledge to be able to comprehend it. They stressed that, “Idioms are prolific in the English language and can pose a real challenge to both children with language deficits and English language learners alike (Nippold, Moran, & Schwarz, 2001). Research has shown that after the 4th grade, students encounter 4.08 idioms per minute in both the teacher's verbal instructions and in the curriculum texts" (Nippold et al., 2001; Pollio & Pollio, 1974, p. 18). The definition of metaphor confused specialists because it has a different meaning to each person. Glucksberg (2001) said: The metaphor derives from the Greek Metapherein, transfer, as META= + pherein, to bear (Oxford English Dictionary, 1996). Metaphor challenges definition for at least two reasons. First, the term is used in several different,

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albeit related, senses. Second, both within and between its different senses, definitions vary to reflect sharply different theoretical agendas and assumptions. Sometimes the theoretical boundaries coincide with scholarly disciplines; thus, philosophers; linguists, and psychologists might each define metaphor in their own terms (p. 2). According to Cochran and Valentine, 2014, "The purpose of this study is to examine the extent to which English language learners use their knowledge of idioms in their native language and culture" (p. 19). Idioms are considered as a challenge for English language learners, so they have to get unique knowledge in learning English to understand the idioms. They also point out that there are idioms familiar to people, so they are easy to understand and process. On the other hand, some idioms are less familiar and less frequent. As previously mentioned, every type of figurative language must be treated in its own way. In 2000, Samuel and Frank emphasized that translation is not an easy task and much more than the substitution of the words from one language to another. They stressed that, “Often, to translate an idiom word-for-word is equivalent to translating half-way. To translate a metaphor literally without checking to see if it is understood is to translate inadequately. Proper translation must take into consideration the appropriate use of words, grammatical constructions, idioms,

verbal artistry, ambiguity, and discourse style.” (para. 4). References Cochran, M. E., & Valentine, D. T. (2014). Cultural duality of figurative meanings of idioms. World Journal of English Language, 4(4), 18. doi:10.5430/wjel.v4n4p18 Examples of figurative language. (2014). Retrieved from http://examples.yourdictionary.com/ examples-of-figurative Glucksberg, S. (2001). Understanding figurative language: From metaphor to idioms (2001 ed.). doi:0198027125, 9780198027126

Lord, D. N. (1854).The characteristics and laws of figurative language (18541854th ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ McArthur, T. (1998). Figure of speech. In Concise Oxford companion to the English language. Retrieved from http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/figure_of_speech.aspx Samuel, P., & Frank, D. (2000, August). Translating poetry and figurative language into stlucian creole. , Mona, Jamaica. Retrieved from http://www.saintluciancreole.dbfrank.net/ workpapers/translating_poetry.htm

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Online Translation vs. Human Translators By Shahad A. Al-Dhidan Electronic machines, especially computers, have made advances into the translation movement, but will they supplant the human translators? Such a circumstance may not emerge soon,

since completely programmed, excellent machine translation appears to be unfeasible (Sudarsan, 1987). Machine translation (MT) is automated translation or “Translation carried out by a computer” (Oxford Dictionaries, n.d., para. 1). In fact, no translation program can and ever will be able to take the place of human translators. According to Semericov (2015), we should take a gander at the condition of machine translation the way it is today. In spite of all the build-up, it remains futile for most business purposes. There are a lot of free engines out there on the web, yet even the best translation programs tend to deliver ungainly, stilted wording, and the translations they offer are often wrong. Different organ-

izations have tried different things with giving a machine a chance to translate first before giving it over to an expert human translator to revise or post-alter. However, most translators report that such occupations take the same amount of work a typical translation takes without any preparation, if not more. Furthermore, Kay (2014) stated that machine translation might show up as a decent approach to spare money and time, but be careful. These sorts of translators first examine the structure of every term or expression inside of the source language. Then, they separate this structure into components that can be effortlessly interpreted and recompose a term of the same structure in

the target language. This technique might appear to be right, yet the nature of the translation is much lower than a human translation on the grounds that the structure of every language is distinctive, and it is something that most machine translators don't consider. In addition, in spite of the fact that there are machines that can do translations, human translation is still the best of all. A machine translation job is restricted and it is not able to do what a human translator can do, which is to consider aspects like "the grammar, idioms, conventions and most of all, the context of the original language while translating it into the

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target language" (para. 3) and maintaining the importance as near as the first as possible. Furthermore, mistakes in machine translation can result in bad reputation of a company or institution ("What is human translation and why is it important?," n.d.). Moreover, machine translation sometimes may even translate words literally, so it will not appear natural at all. It ''may comprise a certain number of grammatical mistakes'' (para. 4) and the structure will be bad. Also, it may change the meaning in the source language. Furthermore, some words may have different meanings according to the context, so an accurate comprehension of the original text is very important, which machine translation doesn't have. This is why human analysis is essential (Kay, 2014). In conclusion, individuals disregard to check machine translations although it never creates any substantial amount of content you can rely on. What's more, non-linguists often trust the result and encounter embarrassing and costly errors. Therefore, if you need to pass on your message abroad, you should engage an expert (Dale, 2016). Human translators cannot be replaced by machine translation because translation is a complicated process that needs both understanding the culture and the idioms of the source language in order to transfer it correctly to the target language. References Dale, L. (2016, February 24). What's wrong with google translate and machine translation? Retrieved from https://theopenmic.co/whats-wrong-with-google-translate-and-machinetranslation/ Kay. (2014, October 20). Why machine translation cannot replace human translation. Retrieved from http://www.oneworldlanguage.com Oxford Dictionaries. (n.d.). Machine translation. Retrieved from http:// www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/machine-translation? q=machine+translation Semericov, O. (2015, September 21). Will machine translation ever replace human translators. Retrieved from https://www.linkedin.com Sudarsan, R. (1987). Machine translation-prospects and problems. DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology. Retrieved from https://doaj.org/article/ e0a8571b1a09490d8b204311c46e16c7 What is human translation and why is it important? (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.daytranslations.com/blog/2015/01/human-translation-important-588 75

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Difficulties in Translating Poetry By Nada A. Alshabani Talking about translating poetry, we must be all aware of how hard it is to work on that. Poets choose their words wisely so they completely express their feelings and thoughts to the readers and so does the translator who must also make the poem clear and understandable, even

though it's nearly impossible to accurately translate poetry. Thus, translators face many difficulties when translating them. According to Shu Cai (2012), "There is no poem that no one can understand, because if no one can understand a work, who would be bold enough to call it a poem" (p. 50). According to Ray, 2002, the process of translating poetry is way harder than translating prose. Working on translating prose is not as complicated as working on poetry. In poetry a small change of word choice from source language to target language will not work, he also said, "poem contains the best words in the best order and it will not be incongruous to say that metre

and style originated from this choice of words and their order is an essential elements of poetry" (p. 34). Switching from one language to another can attain harmony. A creative work of translating will not mainly focus on the vision contained in it or with its expressions, but in adjusting words from one language to another and remaining a creative work instead. One of the major problems translators of poetry face is translating a poem of an interesting and rich language to a totally different one in some aspects, such as: the structure, the grammar, forms and metaphors etc. Every language has its unique way of representing poetry in the most beautiful way so the translator must also make his piece as beautiful and comprehensive. Accord-

ing to Robinson (2010), "Those specific effects of form, structure and meaning cannot by definition be reconstituted using the material of another set of interrelations from a different culture" (p. 24). Preservation and changing some words and phrases from the source language to the target language is an important part of translating, yet many people argue that changing words and phrases make the original text lose its meaning when in fact, it is the right thing to do when there are no similar ones in the target language. Allen (1999), clarifies that "Both preservation

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and change are essential for it to qualify as translation, change is therefore not loss but one of the defining characteristics of translation." (p. 9). Translators must not only be interested in translation but must be talented too, as they must be capable of choosing the right words to express the poet’s feelings and thoughts the best way possible. Not every translator, no matter how hard s/he tries, has this talent, so even though when he does his best so it is a huge challenge that a translator tends to face when translating poems. Raymond and Schoder, 1987, point out that "True poetry is created only by skillful arrangement of the right words, those best suited to convey the poet's thoughts and feeling" (p. 87). To conclude, poetry translation is known to be the hardest to translate because poetry is rich with words, feelings, expressions that cannot simply be translated with basic translating methods such as literal translation. Day after day, translating becomes even harder and challenging but that is what makes the whole thing fun and interesting. According to Broome and Bales, 2005, "With each fresh generation the challenges which it contrives are bound to be new and arduous; but tackling them is mandatory and endlessly rewarding" (p. 28). References Allén, S. (1999). Translation of poetry and poetic prose: Proceedings of Nobel symposium 110. Retrieved from https://books.google.nl/books Broome, P., & Bales, R. (2005). Challenges of translation in French literature: Studies and poems in honour of Peter Broome. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books Ray, M. K. (2002). Studies in translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.nl/books Raymond, V., & Schoder, S.J. (1987). The art and challenge of translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books Robinson, P. (2010). Poetry & translation: The art of the impossible. Retrieved from https:// books.google.nl/books Shu Cai, S. (2012). The possibility of the impossıble on the translation of poetry. Chinese Literature Today. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com

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The Importance of Training Translators By Nouf F. AlWahbi People use translation every day; we translate our feelings into words and our thoughts into actions. However, the hardest translation is the concrete translation, which is translating a text from one language to another. As in 2003, Robertson and White mentioned that translation is

what stands between two languages and cultures. Because a language reflects one country's culture, a translator should be honest and well trained to translate. In order to be a professional translator, a translator needs to get the right knowledge and the appropriate training. Translation is such a beautiful job because it provides a wide variety of translated books to readers, and a big number of translated sources to scientists. Besides, it delivers one country's culture, science, art, history, and so on to the whole world. However, a non-well trained translator could deliver the wrong meaning by making a word choice mistake, or by adding his opinion. Therefore, it may reflects the wrong idea about a country and that could lead to political

and economic problems. We, as translators, try our best in order to deliver the right meaning, taking care of the outlook of a text. A translator could have the most expensive dictionary and a pen made in France, but without the proper training, he cannot give an accurate translation. A translator could be a reader with wide knowledge, but still he cannot provide a good translation without the proper training. Robinson emphasized that the secret to successful translator training is to go from the slow taught in classroom analytical processes to the fast subliminal processes that real life translators rely on in work (2008).

A translation student has to study Grammar, Vocabulary, Morphology, Syntax, and Semantics besides Writing skills. So, he has the right knowledge, but he does not know the right principles on how to apply it correctly. Therefore, professional training must be provided for translation students. Kussmaul (1995) claimed that, "we need methods for training translators, and that these methods should be concerned with the actual process of translation" (p. 2). As a translation student, it is difficult for me to know my strengths and weaknesses in detail in translation due to the fact that translation students need extreme focused training and a teacher cannot do this on her own. According to Durban, Martin, Mossop, Schwartz, & Searls78

Ridge, 2003, translation schools are limited in what they serve to prepare translation students for the workplace, so usually translation graduates arrive in the work field without the ability to translate quickly or well. Besides, "with a class of 20, the teacher can only look at a couple of hundred words a week per student, which isn't much." (para. 9). Unfortunately, translation science is not limited in a certain subject, or a certain book. Therefore, it is usually hard for a translator to define or notice his syntactic or semantical errors while translating. Razmjou emphasized that translation trainees must be trained in an academic environment under supervision of an expert to provide them with theories to enhance their knowledge (2004). Moreover, formal training programs have also other social and professional benefits for the student (Gile, 2009). Therefore, a student will develop and be ready for work environments. Finally, here are some suggestions that can help any translation academy or college with training students. The first suggestion is that a trainer should give the students translation assignments to do at home with feedback. Secondly, the trainer should keep an evaluation sheet throughout the semester for each student and the evaluation sheet must have the strengths and weaknesses for a student's translation. Thirdly, the trainer could give the class practices with a time limit. Also, the trainer could divide the students into groups of three, and give each group a different text but all in the same field. Lastly, after translation, each group has to give their paper to the next group in order for them to correct the mistakes and learn from them. References Durban, C., Martin, T., Mossop, B., Schwartz, R., & Searls-Ridge, C. (2003). Translator training & the real world: Concrete suggestions for bridging the gap. Translation Journal, 7. Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/journal/23roundtablea.htm Gile, D. (2009). Basic concepts and models for interpreter and translator training. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Kussmaul, P. (1995). Training the translator. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Razmjou, L. (2004). To be a good translator. Translation Journal, 8. Retrieved from http:// translationjournal.net/journal/28edu.htm Robertson, S., & White, K. (2003). Globalization: Specialized applications and resistance to globalization. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Robinson, D. (2003). Becoming a translator: an accelerated course. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/ 79

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Difficulties in Translating Legal Terms By Ghada A. Aljathlan Legal language differs throughout the world as legal systems, languages and cultures differ. As legal language differs from country to country, there are major difficulties that might be

faced when translating legal translations. Marcu (2014) clarifies that "The legal translation generates many difficulties due to the difference between and within legal systems, which are further complicated by their evolution in history and by their culture specificity" (p. 101). According to Morris (1995), “The translation of legal texts of any sort, from statute laws to contracts to courtroom testimony, is a practice which stands at crossroads of three areas of theoretical inquiry: legal theory, language theory (broadly defined, to include the interests not only of linguistics but of rhetorical and textual theory as well), and translation theory” (p. 17). He also said that each and every one of these theories massively differ due to the influence of post struc-

turalism that aims to expose almost the absence of a foundation in their study. They try to create a myth by owning such a foundation and hiding the truth. Nowadays, practices of these theories are based on the ideology of people which is mainly politics and beliefs. The process of translation on its own is already a difficult process that requires certain skills. However, it is much more difficult when translating legal documents as any minor mistake could produce legal dilemmas for all parties. The major conflict arises in these texts when the language structure of the source text might not contain the accurate terminology in the target language. According to Cincan (2015), "Terminology and usage poses another problem in legal

Translation. Unless the translator is well-aware of and experienced in the nuances of each language’s legal-speak" (para. 6). Dumitrescu, 2014, stated that "Translators of legal texts must have a complete understanding of legal classification, legal processes and the systems of both of the source and target languages" (p. 503). He also points out the problems behind terminology mistakes in the translation of legal documents, which could cause real bad consequences and results, like losing a case or responsibility in the work area.

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According to Chirila, 2014, “The greatest difficulty for the translator is caused not by the use of terms and phrases which are fixed in specialized dictionaries but the use of those inguistic units which are connected with the cultural aspects regularly used in legal texts” (p. 492). She found that a translational script does not have much of a big importance, but helps in the ultimate understanding of translated legal texts, which also fills in the gaps in the readers’ knowledge about the background of the target text. To conclude, in legal translation there is no room for error, such as the likes of direct word for word translation. Translators in the legal field should not only have a wide knowledge and legal terminology but also they are required to have a broader, more accurate comprehension of many worldwide cultures and legislation that involves around translation. According to Cao (2007), "It is commonly acknowledged that legal translation is complex, and it requires special skills, knowledge, and experience on the part of the translator to produce such translation" (p. 3).

References

Cao, D. (2007). Translating law. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Chirilă, C. (2014). Errors and difficulties in translating legal texts. Management Strategies Journal, (4), 487 - 492. Retrieved from http://www.strategiimanageriale.ro/ Cincan, A. (2015, June 10). Challenges in translating legal documentation. Retrieved from http://inboxtranslation.com/ Dumitrescu, A. (2014). Difficulties and strategies in the process of legal texts translation. Management Strategies Journal, (4), 502 - 506. Retrieved from http:// www.strategiimanageriale.ro/

Marcu, N. (2014). Effective communication within legal translation. Philologia, 101-106. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com Morris, M. (1995). Translation and the law. Retrieved from http://libro.eb20.net/Reader/ rdr.aspx?b=670548

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Strategies of Translating Idioms By Alhanouf B. AlAbdan A translator may face challenges when translating a text from one language to another especially when translating idioms. In 2015, Al-Hammad stressed that "a translator should learn about strategies of translating an idiom to be a professional translator" (p. 8). Although idioms

are a very important part of every language, there are a lot of strategies for translating idioms and it is an interesting subject to debate. Chinwuba (2015) discussed language as being a tool or a link for creating a relationship between nations in order to cooperate and solve the human problems generally, and reflect our ideologies and beliefs in particular. He stressed that "language is a means used to make a discourse possible" (p. 1). In this way, language as a means to make this discourse is very important. According to Al-Shawi and Mahadi, 2012, "idioms are used more often in speaking than writing and therefore sixty to seventy percent of idioms are associated with spoken lan-

guage" (p. 140). An idiom is an artistic expression of the language. Usually, the individual meanings of its components are different from its literal meaning. It often carries meanings which cannot be deduced from its individual components. They discussed that "The most efficient strategies used by students in translating these idioms are literal translation followed by paraphrasing" (Smadi & Alrishan, 2015, p. 9). However, the majority of idioms are used interchangeably between both speaking and writing. General strategies for a good translation. The first step is extensive reading of different translations of different kinds of texts; since translating requires active knowledge, the second

step is having knowledge of both source and target language. The third step for being a good translator is writing and the forth step is listening so we should have a good ear for both source and target languages. He stressed that "the mentioned criteria for being a good translator can be dedicated to the strategies for good translations as well. Indeed this is the translator who uses those strategies and criteria for making a good translation" (Akbari, 2013, p. 34). Farahani and Ghasemi (2012) reported that: 200 different idioms were found in the corpus. 12 idioms, in other words, 6%, belonged to the first strategy, that is, using an idiom of similar meaning and form, 80 idioms or 40% belonged 82

to the second strategy, that is, using an idiom of similar meaning but dissimilar form, 86 idioms or 43% belonged to the third strategy, that is, translation by paraphrasing and 22 idioms or 11% belonged to the fourth strategy, that is, translation by omission (p. 19). Finally, that we must not always expect to find equivalent idioms and fixed expressions between languages. According to Shojaei, 2012, "An idiom or fixed expression may have a similar counterpart in the target language, but its context of use may be different" (p. 7). In addition, Al-Shawi and Mahadi, 2012, state that "These strategies, however, may offer some solutions and guidelines to a translator in such cases" (p. 9). References Akbari, M. (2013). Strategies for translating idioms. Journal of A cademic and A pplied Studies, 3. Retrieved from http://academians.org/media/default/articles/ Al-Hammad, G. M. (2015). Translating idioms by the descriptive strategy. Research A rticles In Interpretation and Translation, (4). Retrieved from http://fac.ksu.edu.sa/sites/ Al-Shawi, M. A., & Mahadi, T. S. (2012). Strategies for translating idioms from Arabic into English and vice versa. Journal of A merican A rabic A cademy for Sciences and Technology, 3. Retrieved from http://www.amarabac-magazin.com/ Chinwuba, E. C. (2015). Difficulties and strategies in the translation of idioms and fixed expressions: The example of nasarawa state polytechnic, lafia. IIA RD International Journal Of English Language And Linguistics, 1. Retrieved from http:// www.iiardonline.org/journals/ Farahani, A. K., & Ghasemi, M. (2012). The naturalness in translation of idioms and proverbs: The case of a persian translation of pinocchio. Journal of Language and Translation, 3. Retrieved from http://www.sid.ir/en/vewssid/ Shojaei, A. (2012). Translation of idioms and fixed expressions: Strategies and difficulties. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2. Retrieved from http:// www.academypublication.com/ Smadi, O., & Alrishan, A. (2015). Strategies used by Jordanian EFL university graduate students in translating idioms into Arabic. Journal of Education and Practice, 6. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ 83

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The Difficulties in Translating Idiomatic Expressions from English to Arabic

By Amjad Algaith

Idiomatic expressions are “frozen patterns of language, which allow little or no variation in form and often carry meanings which cannot be deduced from their individual compo-

nents” (Baker 1992, p. 63). Besides, Newmark defined translation as "a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language” (1981,p. 7). Idioms usually represent cultures or they are specific such as business idioms which makes it hard task for the translator to translate them. Teilanyo (2007) stressed that “The difficulty arises from the problem of finding adequate target language equivalents for terms conveying culture sensitive notions in the source language as a result of the fact that the two languages have different meaning subsystems and cultures” (p. 16). For instance, if we said in Arabic ‫ضع أيدك بماء‬

‫بارد‬we would not translate it literally as put your hand in cold water, yet we would say do not worry or stay calm. Translating idioms is a challenging task because sometimes it may reject the basic linguistic elements of the source language text. Also, it is more than translating words and grammatical structure (SajidJuma'a, 2014). Besides, Bassnett-McGuire (1980) stated that "idioms should be translated on the basis of the function of the phrase: the source language idiom should be replaced by a target language idiom that has the same meaning" (p. 24). Davies (2004) pointed out a number of issues translators may face in translating idi-

oms. First, realization, seconded, "No equivalent in the target language", third, "A similar counterpart in the target language with a different context of use", fourth, "An idiom used in the source text both in its literal and idiomatic sense at the same time", and finally, "Difference between the convention, context and frequency of use in the source and target languages" (p. 193). As Al-Shawi and Mahadi (2012) noted in their article that idioms can be translated into different languages depending on the context and other factors. They also summarized the strategies for translating idioms listed as:

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* Using a parallel idiom in the TL. * Using similar meaning but dissimilar form. * Paraphrasing the idiom. * Using notes. * Consulting informant. To conclude, idioms are “frozen patterns of language, which allow little or no variation in form and often carry meanings which cannot be deduced from their individual components” (Baker 1992, p. 63). Idioms express cultures and they usually come in specific forms; due to that, it is hard to translate them because cultures are different. There are a number of challenges that translators encounter while translating idioms. First, recognition. Second, no equivalent in the target language etc. Yet, there are some strategies to follow such as using parallel idiom in TL, paraphrasing the idiom, and other techniques. References Al-Shawi, M. A., & Mahadi, T. S. (2012). Strategies for translating idioms from Arabic into English and vice versa. American Arabic Academy for Sciences and Technology, 3(6), 139-147. Retrieved from http://www.amarabacmagazin.com/fileadmin/images/pdfs/ AMARABAC_3-6_139-147.pdf Baker, M. (2011). in Other words: A coursebook on translation (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books Bassnett-McGuire, S. (1980). Translation studies. Journal of Area Studies Series, 3(5), 43. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02613530.1982.9673570? tab=permissions Davies, M. G. (2004). Multiple voices in the translation classroom: Activities, tasks and projects. Benjamins Translation Library, 45. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ books Newmark, P. (n.d.). Approaches to translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ books SajidJuma'a, O. (1014). Translating idiomatic expressions from English into Arabic. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books Teilanyo, D. I. (2007). Culture in translation, International Journal of Translation. Retrieved from http://researchdirect.westernsydney.edu.au/islandora/object/uws:3667 85

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Difficulties of Islamic Translations By Asma S. Al-Saadi Translation has a great importance in the world nowadays. Translation has been forked in all fields of knowledge. As a result, there are specialized translations in every science, such medi-

cal translation, technical translation, etc. Religions affect and shape the language and the culture of a certain society. Islam has increased rapidly all over the world and many people of different nationalities, languages and ethnicities have entered into Islam recently. Indeed, “Translation of Islamic texts into other languages has become a must and a challenge at the same time for translators” (Alshehab, 2015, para. 1). According to Bassnett (1954) “Translation is generally considered as a means of bridging the gap between languages and cultures. Also a communicative process which transfers the message of a source language text to a target language. Generally, translation is defined as being

neither a creative art nor an imitative art, but stands somewhere between the two.” Bassnett believes that the process of translation has to take into consideration both the structure and the meaning (as cited in Agliz, 2015, p. 2). According to Al-Harahsheh, 2013, "Religious translation is one of the most problematic types of translation" (p. 11). Translating religion is considered as one of the most hardest translation kinds for having holiness. It is better to translate them into a Target Language because they are God's words, although that there might be a possibility of losing the meaning of the Source Text (ST). If the translator has a different religion, the translation of the ST can

be changed because of the influence of the ideology of the translators on their translation. In 2007, Salahi emphasized that Islam is a message in the Qur’an to everyone. Therefore, Muslims can not share the Islam if the Qur’an is not translated into other languages. He also points out that we can not force people to learn Arabic language to understand the Qur’an. Also if they had to do so, not all people ability and capacity to learn foreign languages and understand them are the same. What is said in their own language is not as same as what is said in a foreign language (para. 3). Neuwirth (2010) said: 86

Character of the Qurʾanic text, a feature that is rather more satisfactorily explained by situating the text in the very midst, rather than in the wake, of a polemically charged process of community building. For even on a superficial reading, the Qurʾan is not a systematic, gospel-type codification of the essential message of a religious movement that has already established itself on the historical scene, but rather a live transcript of this very act of entering the scene (p. 10). For Muslims, this challenge remains and, from their point of view, as no one has ever produced the like of the Qur'an, its divine origin cannot be doubted. However, some have attempted to take up the challenge. Marshall (2011) discussed why people could not meet the challenge the Qur'an poses; he stressed that “Most Muslims appear to believe that because the Qur'an is God's word and has the perfection that can come only from God, human beings and jinn simply can not compose such a perfect text” (p. 102).

References Rachid, A. (2015). Translation of religious texts: Difficulties and challenges. Arab World Eng-

lish Journal (AWEJ) Special Issue on Translation, 12. Retrieved from http:// www.awej.org Al-Harahsheh, A. M. (2013). Translation of Islamic texts and ideology. AWEJ Special issue on Translation, 11. Retrieved from http://www.awej.org Alshehab, M. (2015). Two English translations of Arabic metaphors in the holy Qura’n. Arab World English Journal (AWEJ) Special Issue on Translation, 12. Retrieved from http:// www.awej.org Marshall, D. (2011). Communicating the word. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

Neuwirth, A. (2010). The qur'an in context. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Salahi, A. (2007). Is translation of the Qur’an forbidden? Arab News. Retrieved from http:// www.arabnews.com/

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Challenges in Medical Translation By Azzah M. Al-Ghamdi According to Fischbach, 1962, "Good translating is the rewriting in the foreign language of the ideas contained in the original" (p. 1). He also points out that a good translator should be as good as the author who wrote the main text. Moreover, some report that all translators work hard

to translate the original material precisely; however, medical translators pay a more precise effort because a misinterpretation of the medical translation might affect the patient negatively. To avoid such consequences, medical translators should be aware of the reasons that made the medical translation more difficult than any other kind of translations ("Translating Medical Documents," 2015). First of all, medical translators may face difficulties due to linguistic issues. The grammatical differences between languages can impose changes in the information throughout the translation. For example, passive voice might constitute obstacles in the translation because

of the differences in languages and the accessibility of such structures in the TL. Also, scientific articles that use passive constructions will rather use the form without the agent. This is challenging in cases in which the target language does not have an agreeing transitive verb which could provide a similar structure (Maior & Mure, 2012). Moreover, terminology may render many challenges in medical translating because several medical terms are derived or taken directly from Greek and Latin ("Translating Medical Documents," 2015). According to Montalt and González-Davies, 2014, medical translators spend much of their time investigating and solving terminological problems. Therefore, they have to

become aware of the precise terminology in the languages involved and be able to solve all types of terminological problems. However, being familiar with medical terminology is not only a significant duty in medical translation but also an important feature in the life-long education of professional medical translators. Another factor that made medical translation more challenging is the audience. In fact, some medical professionals use specific terms when communicating with each other and different terms when talking to patients. For instance, German doctors refer to diabetes as

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diabetes when talking to their coworkers, but the illness is more frequently acknowledged to the German people as Zuckerkrankheit. Therefore, this makes the task more difficult for the medical translators ("Translating Medical Documents," 2015). Furthermore, the common use of abbreviations and acronyms in the area of medicine is considered one of the challenges that medical translators face. They are prevalent in written forms such as prescriptions and in oral communication. In fact, this common usage of abbreviations and acronyms is due to historical reasons. Also, it helps in saving time; however, what makes them an obstacle is that they have different definitions in dictionaries. Also, an abbreviation or an acronym may have more than one plausible meaning which make it more complex for the translator. For example, "GCS can mean Glasgow Coma Scale or General Clinical Status" ("Difficulties in Medical Translation," n.d., para. 6). In conclusion, medical translation is considered one of the most challenging types of translation due to many reasons such as terminology, linguistics issues, audience, and the common use of abbreviations and acronyms. However, medical translators can overcome such difficulties by having enough background knowledge, research skills and trustworthy medical sources when doing medical translation ("The Many Issues in Medical Translation," 2015).

References Difficulties in medical translation. (n.d.). One Hour Translation. Retrieved from https:// www.onehourtranslation.com/translation/blog/difficulties-medical-translation Fischbach, H. (1962). Problems of medical translation. Bull Med Libr Assoc. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles Maior, P., & Mure, T. (2012). Challenges faced by medical translators. Comunicare, Context,

Interdisciplinaritate, 2. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/8162679 Montalt, V., & González-Davies, M. (2014). Medical translation step by step: Learning by drafting. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books The many issues in medical translation. (2015, June 15). Retrieved from https:// www.daytranslations.com/blog Translating medical documents. (2015, March 16). Retrieved from https:// www.merrillcorp.com/blog

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The Impact of Technology on Translation By Fawzia K. Al-Wardi In recent years, the computer has undoubtedly been the single most important tool for a translator. In addition, "the computer has flanked, if not substituted, other technological supports

in providing access to traditional tools and resources" (p. 1). Also, content information today has become easier and quicker than ever before due to the storage capacity and processing power of computers (Zanettin, 2002). According to Risku, 2007, "The growing use of computer-based technologies in the translation industry has therefore impacted on its procedures and products as well as the attitudinal approaches of translators to the translation process" (p. 92). Indeed, technology has impacted everything so it is very natural if it affects translation and the translator. He also point out that "the growing number of translators are becoming cognizant of the indispensable nature of these

technologies in their practice and are acquiring the technical competence to use them" (p. 92). There are many advantages of machine translation and the primary one is speed; as it has been said "Machine translation can achieve seventeen words per second of translation (this equals 61,200 words per hour). Accomplished human translators can manage about 650 words an hour" (Bass, n.d., p. 3). He added that "The other advantage is drop-dead consistency that means you do not have to worry about someone taking too much creative license with your translation, a computer will always translate the same word in the same way" (Bass, n.d., p. 3). In an article titled "Human Translation versus Machine Translation", it was reported

that: As long as automatic machine translators lack self-awareness or insight equal to that of a normal human being, human translation will always be needed. At any rate, let's now take a good look at what a high-grade, topnotch professional translation really looks like. To reiterate, it is important to view a translator as an expert craftsman; a linguist, a specialist, and a wordsmith all-in-one multiplied by two or more different languages (para. 3). 90

Tian (2014) explains that translation plays an important role in many aspects of the world. The author emphasizes that machine translation and human translation complement each other and he called the cooperation between machine translation and human translation "Collaborative Translation" (p. 1). From his perspective, he sees the development of machine translation as comparative analysis of human translation and machine translation strengths and weaknesses, then we make relevant response measures and selection criteria this is one translation approach. He stresses that "The specific translation system is analyzed from the perspective translation features, functions and its impact on the meaning and sentence meaning" (p. 1). Finally, Haichen (2005) discusses that some people ask if the new technologies have created a new profession. However, there is clearly the development of new capabilities, which leads us to point out a number of essential aspects of the current situation. Indeed, "Translating with the help of the computer is definitely not the same as working exclusively on paper and with paper products such as conventional dictionaries, because computer tools provide us with a relationship to the text which is much more flexible than a purely lineal reading" (p. 7). Translators need to accept the new technologies and learn how to use them to their maximum potential as a means to increase productivity and quality improvement. References Bass, S. (n.d.). Machine vs. human translation. Advanced language translation. Retrieved from http://advancedlanguage.com/ Haichen, S. (2005). Translation technology and translation quality: The use of machine translation and computer-assisted translation and its implications for translation quality control. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing. Retrieved from http:// sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com/

Human Translation versus Machine Translation | One Hour Translation [Web log post]. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.onehourtranslation.com Risku, H. (2007). The role of technology in translation management. Retrieved from https:// benjamins.com/ Tian, K. (2014). Research on machine translation technology in English translation process. Retrieved from http://sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com Zanettin, F. (2002). Corpora in translation practice. Language Resources for Translation Work and Research. Retrieved from https://files.ifi.uzh.ch 91

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Gender Translating Changes after Feminism By Samaher A. Alfaifi For a better understanding of the link between translation and gender-sensitive languages, there is a need to effectively define gender notion, together with its importance within the translated text context. According to Eschle and Maiguashca (2014), there has been a significant evolution in the notion

of gender after the emergence of the feminist movement. This has extended upon the basic definition that traditionally limited gender notion to sexual differences. Therefore, the development of gender notion has expanded to form acculturation phenomena, which is made up of the process by which boys or girls are conditioned into becoming men or women through adoption of behaviors and attributes that are acceptable within the socio-cultural context. Zin Mar (2015) identifies two paradigms related to gender works within the current studies, which corresponds to the gender definition given. The first paradigm is a derivative of feminist practice and theory-concentrating on women as a marginal, special group with specific history in the within patriarchal society. This view supports more visible and resident women in the society, rebuking women translators’ invisibility in translation. Another paradigm aligns with lesbian and gay identities, questioning components of gender identity and characteristics in traditional contest. Therefore, this questions patriarchal translation elements by establishing new identities and associations in translation. Ideally, the gender notion may be determined based on convictions and preferences by individuals, together with the varying socio-cultural components. Given the wide ranges of positions, the translators and readers, according to Davids, Driel, and Parren (2014) could be faced with a sourcetexting made up of ideology aspects that raise the aversion feeling. The texts could be explained as ideologically pathetic, perceived to imply particular processes in making of decisions. It is understood that

in the face of ideologically antagonistic or antipathetic texts, there is a higher likelihood that a woman translator will find problems in finding the most suitable strategy of translating, while remaining morally acceptable from the gendered point of view. The observation made by Ferree (2010) indicates an increased awareness of the maledominated language influence in the society on texts since the rise of feminism. For instance, apart from the perceived women’s absence or negative portrayal in androcentric texts, much attention has been captured towards the language used in literature and the society as being both communicative and manipulative. This is supported by Joshi, Neely, Emrich, Griffiths, and George (2015) who argue

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that gender-marked differences within the sociolinguistics field appear in communicational situations and speech in patterns. It is noted that the North American feminism rise resulted in language consideration approaches including radical and reformist approaches. Evidence indicates that a political aspect has also been used in language translations, amongst which are the national stance taken from the feminist point of view, thus leading to consequential language developments. Eventually, this could prove to have significant importance in determination of translation possibility in response to feelings of gender-orientation. Among Quebeckers and Canadians, translation has had immense importance for the women writers, publishers and translators, prompting the questioning of the language’s patriarchal side. As a result, Liebowitz and Zwingel

(2014) believe that this can be handled with greater effectiveness using the transcultural systems in the society. The general understanding of translation and feminism movement emergence confirm that the use of different interventional strategies that have been used in feminist translation has greatly impacted on the general translation practice. Major focus has been put on footnoting and prefacing, together with supplementing. In addition, hijacking is another notable strategy that provokes a great sense of controversy compared to the former strategies. Despite the notion that these approaches are meant to counter the feelings evoked in translator’s voice to prevent masculine speech, these methods may be thought of being distortion of feminism. References Davids, T., Driel, F., & Parren, F. (2014). Feminist change revisited: Gender mainstreaming as slow revolution. Journal Of International Development, 26(3). Retrieved from http:// onlinelibrary.wiley.com Eschle, C., & Maiguashca, B. (2014). Reclaiming feminist futures: Co-opted and progressive politics in a neo-liberal age. Political Studies, 62(3). Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com Ferree, M. M. (2010). Gender politics in the Berlin Republic: Four issues of identity and institutional change. German Politics & Society, 28(1). Retreived from http://www.ssc.wisc.edu

Joshi, A., Neely, B., Emrich, C., Griffiths, D., & George, G. (2015). Gender research in AMJ: an overview of five decades of empirical research and calls to action. A cademy Of Management Journal, 58(5). Retrieved from http://ink.library.smu.edu.sg Liebowitz, D. J., & Zwingel, S. (2014). Gender equality oversimplified: Using CEDAW to counter the measurement obsession. International Studies Review, 16(3). Retrieved from http:// onlinelibrary.wiley.com Zin Mar A. (2015) From military patriarchy to gender equity: Including women in the democratic transition in Burma. Social Research. 82(2). Retrieved from https://muse.jhu.edu

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The History of Translation in The Islamic World By Ghaida Saleh Alsayari In 2011, Altamimi emphasized that one of the oldest translation movements was in Iraq when the Sumerian language was about to go extinct; the Sumerians collected their heritage in an attempt to save it for the next generations. The author also points out that several dictionaries were written

in clay slabs and they included the names of trees, plants, minerals, and precious stones in addition to birds, fish and other animals. Later on, the translation movement was developed over generations in the Prophetic, Umayyad, and Abbasid eras and each one of these periods has its own great and effective translators like ibn Ishaq in the Abbasid era. Prince (2002) stated that it was a critical point for the Arabic translation movement when Islam arose in the seventh century and because Prophet Mohammed wanted to spread Islam over the world, he searched for translators to translate his messages and supported Muslims who were learning other languages (as cited in Jaber, 2015). Also, the Arabic translation movement in this period

witnessed an exceptional era due to the translation of the Islamic messages to non-Arabic speakers; Baker and Hanna (2009) stressed that "the rise of Islam in the seventh century is the most important event in the history of Arab peoples; it changed the political, cultural, and linguistic map of the area forever" (as cited in Jaber, 2015, p. 129). The Umayyad era or caliphate was the next period after the prophetic era, this period was established by Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan in 660. In his 2013 article, the author points out that despite how busy the Umayyad were with the Islamic conquests, they did not abandon the role of translation and that was because they needed to strengthen and developed their country. Furthermore, they translated the Latin and Greek science books into Arabic as well as other medical, astronomy, chemistry, and architectonics books (Mustafa). The Abbasid caliphate took the place of the Umayyad caliphate in 749, the founder of this era was Abu al-Abbas and it was the longest and most important reign between the three periods. In this era, the Arabic culture obtained all the knowledge from Persia, India, Syria, Egypt, and other cultures. All these cultures were combined to represent the golden era that Islamic Arabic civilization was known for, and this was only possible because of the great efforts that translators made (Salama, 1990). Also, Yücesoy, 2009, mentioned that one of the most lasting

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achievements in this era was "the support of translation of most of the major works of ancient Greek, Persian, and Indian Philosophies and sciences into Arabic" (p. 523). According to Johna, 2002, "Hunayn ibn Ishaq was without a doubt the greatest and most productive of all translators" (p. 497). Because of him and other translators, the translation movement was prospered in the Abbasid era. He also points out that no translator should be equaled with ibn Ishaq because of his original translation and other great works. In addition, ibn Ishaq edited many inaccurate translations done by other translators before him. That is why the author called him in his article a forgotten legend. As previously mentioned, the three periods prospered only because of translation, so we cannot omit the important role of it. Translation transfers all the knowledge from different cultures to the modern age. In 2013, Mustafa stated that in order to settle his reign and keep pace with the development in Europe, Mohammed Ali Basha sent a group of exchange students to translate and transfer the knowledge of the Science and Arts that Europeans have discovered into the Arabic world. So these expeditions that Mohammed Ali sent is clear cut proof that there is no prosperity without translation. References Altamimi, H. (2011). Bayt alhikmah alabasi w dawruh fi zuhor marakiz alhikmah fi alealem al'is-

lami [the abbasid house of wisdom and its role in establishing wisdom centers in the islamic world]. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Jaber, F. (2015). The landscape of translation movement in the Arab world: From the 7th century until the beginning of the 21st century. A rab W orld English Journal, 6(4). Retrieved from http://awej.org/ Johna, S. (2002). Hunayn ibn-Ishaq: A forgotten legend. The A merican Journal, 68(5). Retrieved from https://sdl.edu.sa/SDLPortal/ar/Publishers.aspx Mustafa, H. (2013, October 1). Tarikh altarjamah alarabiah..Hussam Aldeen Mustafa [The history

of Arabic translation..Hussam Aldeen Mustafa]. Retrieved from http://www.atida.org/ Salama, M. (1990). La traduction à l'époque abbasside: L'école de hunayn ibn ishaq et son importance pour la traduction [Translation in the abbasid era: Hunayn ibn ishqq's school and its importance in translation] . Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Yücesoy, H. (2009). Translation as self-consciousness: Ancient sciences, Antediluvian wisdom, and the 'Abbasid translation movement*. Journal of W orld History, 20(4). Retrieved from https://sdl.edu.sa/SDLPortal/ar/Publishers.aspx

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Translating the Holy Quran By Noura S. Al-Tamimi The holy Quran means "the sacred writings of Islam revealed by God to the prophet Muhammad during his life at Mecca and Medina it is divided in 114 suras (chapters)" ("Quran - definition of Quran by The Free Dictionary," n.d., p. 4). Other such as Ali (2010) have explained the

word Quran as "an infinitive noun from the root qara'a meaning he read or recited; and the book is so called because it is or should be read" (p. I-35). The Qur'an consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, each known as a sura. The title of each sura is derived from a name or quality discussed in the text or from the first letters or words of the sura. Muslims believe that the Prophet himself, on God's command, gave the suras their names. In general, the longer chapters appear earlier in the Qur'an, while the shorter ones appear later. The task of translation is not an easy one; some native Arab-speakers will confirm that

some Qur'anic passages are difficult to understand even in the original Arabic. As in other languages, a single word can have a variety of meanings. Ali, Alsaleh, Fikri, and Ismail (2012) said that "Lexical, syntactic and semantic problems arise when translating the meaning of the Holy Quran into English" (p. 588). In addition to, also Raof (2001) points out that "Translation is an extremely difficult endeavor, because each translator must consult his/her opinion and aesthetic sense in trying to replicate shades of meaning in another" (as cited in Abdelwali, 2007, para. 3). The Holy Quran uses many stylistic, linguistic and rhetorical features that result in an effective and high style.

This use of linguistic and rhetorical features challenges the translators of the Holy Quran, especially when translating such literary devices such as: metaphor, assonance, epithet, irony, repetition, polysemy, metonymy, simile, synonymy and homonymy (Ali, Alsaleh, Zarirruddin, & Fazliyaton Shaik Ismail, 2012). The first translation of the Qur'an was performed by Salman the Persian, who translated Surah al-Fatihah into the Persian language during the early 7th century (Ezzati, 2002). According to Islamic tradition contained in the hadith, Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and

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Byzantine Emperor Heraclius received letters from Muhammad containing verses from the Qur'an. However, during Muhammad's lifetime, no passage from the Qur'an was ever translated into these languages nor any other (''The Letters of The Prophet Muhammad,'' n.d.). The Qur'an, for Muslims, serves as the last source of Prophetic revelation. Muhammad is deemed the final one, or the "Seal of the Prophets". Thus, the Qur'an is not only the last truth imparted to humans, but one that seeks to mend past misunderstandings. So, translating the Quran has helped non-arabic Muslims to understand their religion and do their duties the right way. References Abdelwali, M. (2007). The loss in the translation of the Qur’an. Translation Journal, 11(2). Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/journal/40quran.htm Ali, A., Alsaleh, M., Fikri, M. Z., & Ismail, S. F. (2012). Some linguistic difficulties in translating the holy Quran from Arabic into English. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 2(6). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com Ali, M. M. (2010). English translation of the holy Quran. Z. Aziz (Ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Ezzati, A. (2002). The spread of Islam: The contributing factors. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Quran. (n.d.) WordNet 3.0, Farlex clipart collection. (2003-2008). Retrieved March 22 2016 from http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Quran The letters of the prophet Muhammad. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.kalamullah.com/ Books

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Learning about Other Cultures through Idiom Translation

By Al-anoud I. Al-ali

It is said that “Idioms and fixed expressions are an inalienable pan of each language found in large numbers in mast of the languages. Since the meaning of these collocations can not be understood from the superficial meanings of the single words constituting them. So there are some

problems in both processes of understanding and translating them.” (Amir, 2012, para. 2). In order to translate idioms correctly, the translator needs to have a full understanding of the culture and the background story of the idiom in both source and target language. There is a story that Alahmadi mentions about how hard it is to translate idioms: One of the Arabic translators was with a famous Arabic leader, when the discussion was made with the American president about Palestine. The Arabic leader said: it is obvious that Gaza has become ”.‫“مسمار حجا‬Although the translator has a lot of experience, he stopped and did not know how to translate ”‫“مسمار جحا‬to a man who does not who know Joha is and his stories. But the translator

was smart when he said: Gaza has become like a clothes hanger (2016). It is said that the central piece that leads to the struggle in interpreting idioms is their culture specificity. An idiom, as the Oxford Dictionary (1983) defines it, is ”a form of expression peculiar to a language” ("Idiom," 1983). The word ‟peculiar”, in this definition, indicates that idioms have logic in one culture. Consequently, it is problematic, if not impossible, to come across such an idiom in a different language. Some idioms, nevertheless, as metaphors and proverbs, have straight equivalents and hence, they can be effortlessly interpreted into other languages. "An example of that is the English expression “shoot a line” which has a direct equivalent in Arabic)

"‫"يتفاخر بنفسه‬to be proud of oneself)” (Mezmaz, 2010, p. 20). The translator has the right to replace any word in the source language (SL) with another word in the target language (TL) that has the same effect and does not interfere with the TL culture. As Wasfi discussed the example of the word “warm” in “this news warms my heart” because the word “warm” fits perfectly in the English cold weather, but it will not fit in the Arabic language due to the hot and dry environment. Therefore, it should be translated to" ‫أثلج هذا الخبر‬ "‫(صدري‬p. 27). This method is called (equivalence) where the translator finds an equal expression in the TL (2016). 98

Moreover, Maalej (2005) states that “both idioms and metaphors, have a power of likening. i.e., they cannot be understood if they are taken literally” (p. 22). As in the example "‫"رجع بخفي حنين‬it is translated as “ he returned empty-handed” also, “to have a narrow shave” is translated as " " ‫(ينجو بأعجوبة‬Wasfi, 2016, p. 29). These are examples that any non-Arab can not understand and the meaning is not clear; therefore, it cannot be translated literally, so the best way to deal with such idioms is to explain them briefly. To conclude, idioms can add a beautiful sense to a text and prevent the writer for being wordy, but it is difficult to translate them and the problem as Abdou (2011) stated is that: “they often cause in domains such as foreign language learning and translation, and, very importantly, their typical divergence from the normal rules of grammar and semantic compositionality are among the main reasons for this scholarly interest” (Abdou, 2011, p. 1).

References Abdou, A. (2011). Arabic idioms: A corpus based study. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa Alahmadi, F. A. (2016, February 7). Kef ttrejam wareeni ard aktafk (How can you translate idioms). Alriyadh. Retrieved from http://www.alriyadh.com/1126490 Amir, S. (2012). Translation of idioms and fixed expressions: Strategies and difficulties. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(6). Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/ Idiom. (1983). In Oxford English online dictionary (2nd ed.). Retrieved from http:// dictionary.oed.com Maalej, Z. (2005). Metaphor, Cognition and Culture, Manouba, Tunis,.

Mezmaz, M. (2010). Problems of Idioms in Translation. People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and scientific Research. Retrieved from http:// bu.umc.edu.dz/theses/anglais/MEZ1146 Wasfi, N. (2016). 245TRANS- Introduction to Translation, Booklet. Riyadh: Saudi Arabia.

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Arabic Islamic Culture and Translation By May I. Alabdullatef Arabs are divided into many cultures, and most Arabs embrace Islam as their religion. Even though Muslims have different cultures in many countries, they all agree on the Islamic cul-

ture. This research paper will explain cultures’ movements and how Islam has spread, what role translation can play in transferring religions worldwide, and how translators can affect readers when they translate Arabic and Islamic cultures in a good way. According to Mike, 2006, “Translators have to be sensitive to the cultural and social differences which exist in their languages and be capable of addressing these issues when translating” (para. 1)

First, there are

22 Arab countries in the world. According to the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command, 2006, “It must be emphasized that there is no “one” Arab culture or society. The Arab world is full of rich and diverse communities, groups and cultures. Differences exist not only among

countries, but within countries as well” (p. ii). It also points out that Arab countries have different religions and ethnics but Islam is the dominant religion in most countries. Islamic cultures come from the Holy Quran and Hadith (traditions of Prophet Mohammad). Here some examples of Muslims cultures, in an article titled “Muslim Culture”, it was reported that “Muslims believe in the Oneness of God, the Holy Scriptures, and all Prophets from Adam to Muhammad without discrimination” (para. 1). It added other examples such as Muslims pray five times a day and shake hands to greet (n.d.). Muslims do these actions even if they are in non-Muslim countries so by doing this, people may ask them to explain their actions, therefore

using translation is the only way to do so. In 2015, Ahmić emphasized that by translation, we can transfer Islamic cultures around the world. It is difficult to translate culture or religion because it has limitations as what Abbasi, Zadeh, and Janfaza, 2012, said “Each society or group of people based on their historical background, local situations, and religion with their specific language, construct their own culture which is respected, performed and accepted along with its limitations” (p. 85). They also said that religion and culture are complex and religion has taken its root from human mind and

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soul, as people believe in it by their hearts. Even though, translation was able to spread Islam religion worldwide years ago. A translator is responsible to make target language readers feel and understand as sources language readers. According to Cain, 2001: translation is commonly (mis)understood to be the transformation of a text from one language into another... translation is not just a change of language, but a transformation of many, even all, elements of a text in order that it may make sense for a new audience (p. 2). Finally, Arabs are a big world; they are divided into different countries and cultures. The Arab world includes Muslims, Christians and Jews but the most prevalent religion is Islam. They use translation to transfer Islamic culture around the world because it is not easy to translate religious concepts. Translators, indeed play a big role in this transformation. Therefore, when translators translate Arabic and Islamic culture in a professional way this will give a good reflection about Arabs and Islamic religion. References Abbasi, G., Janfaza, E., & Zadeh, S. (2012). Language, translation, and culture. Retrieved from http://www.ipedr.com/ Ahmić, N. (2015). Prof. Jeremy Munday, leeds university: Translation is key to transfer knowledge across different cultures. Novo V rijeme. Retrieved from http:// novovrijeme.ba/ Cain, L. (2001). Reading culture: The translation and transfer of Australianness in contemporary fiction. Retrieved from http://eprints.qut.edu.au Muslim culture. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://sharonpluralism.org/ Mike, N. (2006). Role of a language translator. W orld of Translation Blog. Retrieved from http://blog.languagetranslation.com U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command. (2006). Arab cultural awareness: 58 factsheets. Retrieved from https://fas.org

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Translation and Education: The Strategies of Teaching Translation

By Amal S. Heryish

Translation is a process of rewriting the source text from the original language to the target language text; clearly this process involves two distinct languages (Munday, 2008). Translation

has a huge influence in many aspects in life. For example, it is considered as the best way to communicate with many various countries that help us to share our cultures and norms. In addition, Qassim (n.d.) states another advantage: "Translation helps people to exchange ideas and equipments that cannot be dispensed with in our daily life" (p. 12). Without a doubt, translation as a curriculum has its unique teaching strategies. The first essential strategy is preparing the students' mind for the translation by sorting out some misleading aspects in translation such as pointing out that translation is not just being bilingual as most people think. Also, Gerding-Salas (2000) emphasizes this point "For more than

twenty years, translation theorists have been pointing this out, and yet many people believe and claim that knowing two or more languages is identical to knowing how to translate properly" (para. 11). Dollerup and Loddegaard (1992) highlight two different strategies in teaching translation. First, developing the student is translation by storing their own translated and corrected texts for a certain period, which depends on how much their translation improved and how many lessons they took. Afterwards, they should re-translate their texts to the source language. As a result, they will acknowledge their mistakes and how their translations differ from the original one.

Another useful strategy is introduction passages, as Dollerup and Loddegaard (1992) clarify "A useful technique to introduce a new topic is to compare texts dealing with same subject in the source and the target languages" (p. 70). So, the student should observe and examine different texts with the same subject in both source and target languages. Therefore, they will obtain new terminologies in a specific topic, and they will be able to distinguish how they interact in different contexts which will help them to translate efficiently.

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Finally, culture is one of the main characteristics in translation since it affects the language especially in proverbs, idioms and ritual expressions, which leads usually to incorrect translations as Shi, 2014, explains "The translation which has cultural characteristic is one of the most difficult translation context models. The target translation words may express a totally different concept that source language would not have and it would be abstract or specific" (p. 21). As a result, the instructor should indicate this fact to the students and provide them with some practicing texts that assist them to build up their translation skills (Elyildirim, 2008). To conclude, teaching translation has many strategies and techniques that benefit the tutor in improving the student translation and prepare them to be professional translators. Backtranslation of students' own work, setting up the students' minds to have well-organized translation texts, concentrating on the culture differences in the translation and guiding them to analyze a variety of texts with the same topic are the strategies that have been mentioned in the paper. References Dollerup, C., & Loddegaard, A. (1992). Teaching translation and interpreting: Training talent and experience (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Elyildirim, S. (2008, May). The importance of cultural knowledge in translation: A partial replicatıon of Olk. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, (17), 131-144. Retrieved from http:// dergipark.ulakbim.gov.tr/sufesosbil/article/viewFile/5000057637/5000054722 Gerding-Salas, C. (2000). Teaching translation: Problems and solutions. Translation Journal. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/scholar Munday, J. (2001). Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Retrieved from books.google.com Qassim, A. (n.d.). Translation grammatically viewed. Retrieved from www.uobaghdad.edu.iq/ uploads/PDFs/book.pdf Shi, X. (2014). The English film title translation strategies. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 5(3). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1525828903? accountid=142908

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Difficulties in Translating Collocations from English into Arabic

By Rana S. Al-Homaidan

The word collocation was first introduced into English in the sixteenth century and it was borrowed from Latin through the stem collocate (Barnbrook, Mason, & Krishnamurthy, 2013(. According to Nesselhauf, 2005, “Collocations, i.e. arbitrarily restricted lexeme combinations such

as make a decision or fully aware, are one type of a group of expressions whose importance in language has been increasingly recognized in recent years.” (p. 1). He also mentioned that collocations are lexically fixed and they have a great role in processing language and using it. Most language learners including translators find collocations difficult to translate because their meaning can be unexpected in terms of semantics or syntax (Mahdi & Yasin, 2015). Therefore when Arabic translators translate English collocations, they will have to put great effort in finding the correct equivalent in Arabic. However, if they fail in finding it, it will result in inaccurate and unnatural expressions in the target language. Nofal, 2012, has mentioned the cause

of this failure when he said “this failure is a direct consequence of the language teachers’ or instructors’ tendency to teach words individually rather than collocationally.” (p. 75). According to Husni and Newman, 2015, the problem of translating collocations has three levels, “recognition, comprehension and reproducing” (p. 15). It means that the translator is going to face three difficulties before translating the collocations correctly. Comprehension is one of the easiest obstacles to overcome because the translator can use the dictionary and find the meanings of the words that are used in any collocations. On the other hand, recognition can be more problematic given the fact that the two words together can have obsoletely different mean-

ings. Bani-Younes, 2015, argued that recognizing the collocation in the source language is not difficult but finding the appropriate equivalent in the target language is where the challenge lies. In other words, the translator can find an acceptable equivalent. However, it might not function in the same way it functions in the source language. In addition, Nofal, 2012, pointed out that culture is one of the reasons that translating collocations is difficult and he said “the relation between language and culture is inseparable” (p. 89). So, the translator needs to be fully aware of both cultures in order to reproduce the collocations in the Arabic language correctly. 104

Another problem in translating collocations is that a lot of collocation are polysemous meaning that they have two different meanings; a literal one and a figurative one, “For instance, a child can ‘wet his/her pants’, but when it used in relation to an adult, it usually means ‘to be very afraid’.” (Husni & Newman, 2015, p. 18). Mostly, context helps the translator to determine whether the collocations are used literally or figuratively but in some cases, the meaning can be quite ambiguous so it becomes hard for the translator to figure out which meaning is intended. In conclusion, although collocations are a big part of the English language, translating them is not an easy process because their rules often defy logic, so they are typically unpredictable. For instance, “how come you make a mistake, but do an exercise? Why is the opposite of ‘salt water’ not sweet, but ‘fresh water’”? (Husni & Newman, 2015, p. 1). This does not mean that they are entirely random. Actually the collocation elements have some kind of semantic relations between them. Unfortunately, these relations are usually figurative and not obvious for the non-native translators.

References Bani-Younes, M. A. (2015). Cultural and sociolinguistic issues in English-Arabic translation of collocations. Studies in Literature and Language, 10(6), 53-58. Retrieved from http:// sdl.edu.sa Barnbrook, G., Mason, O., & Krishnamurthy, R. (2013). Collocation: A pplications and implications. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Husni, R., & Newman, D. L. (2015). Arabic-English-Arabic translation: issues and strategies. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

Mahdi, A. M., & Yasin, M. S. (2015). Translating collocations from English to Arabic among Iraqi EFL learners. English Language and Literature Studies, 5(3). Retrieved from http:// sdl.edu.sa Nesselhauf, N. (2005). Collocations in a learner corpus. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Nofal, K. H. (2012). Collocations in English and Arabic: A comparative study. English Language and Literature Studies, 2(3). Retrieved from http://sdl.edu.sa

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The Role of Arabs in Transmitting Science to the West By Israa W. Assaleh Arabs were and still are very enthusiastic to learn and discover new knowledge. They were interested almost in every field including chemistry, medicine, geography, mathematics, and philosophy. In addition, they were supported by their religion, in contrast to Christians, for instance, who

were preventing any scientist that proves any scientific fact against their distorted Holy Book. Since Arabs did not want to limit the huge knowledge they had possessed only for themselves, they learned foreign languages and started translating from and to them, and they were considered as "the foundation for the Western Renaissance" (El-Sanabary, 1992, p. 66). There were some clues that Arabs were the first who used translation. A discovery of an ancient dictionary in the Middle East written in the Cuneiform language called Ibla, about 1000-6000 years old is a great clue. Another clue is the messages between the Arabs and Akhnaton requesting help, in addition to the treaties with the second Ramses Pharaoh of Egypt and both sides had a copy of them in their language. After a while of these incidences and in the heir of Omar Iben Al-Khatab, translation had been announced as an independent governmental organization. The twelfth century was one of the greatest periods of translation, especially in "the heir of AlMa'mun, who established a school of translators in Baghdad with a library and regular staff. One of the most notable translators was Hunayn ibn Ishaq" (Bernard, 2002, p. 148). According to Wahjuae, 2009, Bayt Al-Hekmah in Baghdad had translated Greek, Hindi, Farsi, and Turkish ancient books into Arabic. This library was well-known for its appreciation of books of medicine, science, and literature. It bound and translated to some languages many compositions of Arabian scientists, especially in medicine and chemistry, such as Geber, Abu Bakr al-Razi, Ibn al-Haytham, and Ibn Sina (Atifsoliman, 2010). Besides Bayte Al-Hekmah library, Toledo School of Translators was another main factor of transmitting science and other knowledge to the West. It is "a justifiably famous as the principal center for the translation of Arabic scientific and philosophical texts." (Burnett, 2001, p. 249). In 2005, Zuccato emphasized that Toledo school was a great chance for Latin scholars to access the treasure of Arabic translations of science and philosophy. In addition, what made

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its position so special is that it was a union point of three significant cultures which are Islamic, Christian, and Jewish. Also, it gathered translators from different parts of Europe such as Gerard of Cremona, Adelard of Bath, Herman the German, and Ibn Tibbon from Spain. In the middle ages, the western thought was mainly effected by Iben Rushd's theories that reached Europe through Italy; Sicily and Spain by translating from Arabic into Hebrew and Latin (Nwiehedh, 2009). The advances in medical science, which was Adelard's responsibility to translate Al-Khwarizmi's work, of the seventeenth century were grounded upon Arabic observations and practice. For example, "Newton's work would have been inconceivable without the knowledge of mathematics transmitted through Spain" (Fletcher, 2006, p. 8).

On the other hand, many inventions were based on Arabs trials, but their role had been completely forgotten such as Abas In Fernas who was the first to try to fly and draw the guidelines of the plain. Now, most people know the inventors as the Wright brothers who studied his trial and improved it. Unfortunately, after the renaissance of Europe, Europe as a whole had completely did injustice to the role of Arabs and Muslims in saving and improving the heritage of humanity (Nwiehedh, 2009). References Atifsoliman. (2010, March 4). Madrasat Al-Zarqiah. Retrieved from http://

alzarki2010.ahlamontada.com/t42-topic Bernard, L. (2002). A rabs in history (6th ed.). Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com Burnett, C. (2001). The coherence of the Arabic-Latin translation program in Toledo in the twelfth century. Science in Context, 14(12), 249-288. Retrieved from http://journals.cambridge.org El-Sanabary, N. (1992). Education in the A rab gulf states and the A rab world: A n annotated bibliographic guide. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Fletcher, R. A. (2006). Moorish Spain (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Nwiehedh, W. (2009, January 30). Dawr altarlamah wa alnaqel fi itlaq alnahdhah alorobiah [Literary translation: The role of translation and transition in the launch of European renaissance] . A l-Wasat. Retrieved from http://www.alwasatnews.com/news/35276.html Wahjuae. (2009, July 26). Naqil alhadharah alislamiah ila oroba [Literary translation: The transition of Islamic culture to Europe] [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Jv2az-l3Jx0 Zuccato, M. (2005). Gerbert of Aurillac and a tenth-century Jewish channel for the transmission of Arabic science to the west. Speculum, 80(3), 742-763. Retrieved from http:// journals.cambridge.org

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The Development of Translation Technology By Nada AlDeaij Translation technology became extremely important these days. Actually, there is a relationship between the development of translation technology and the increasing demand for trans-

lation service which happened in the last few years. Furthermore, globalization and localization lead the world to a rapid growth of international demand for translation (Wu & Pan, 2013). In fact, translation technology has developed among the ages. According to O’Hagan and Ashworth (as cited in Alcina, 2007, p. 2): World market globalization and increased opportunities for international trade have exacerbated the need to produce a larger number of translated documents and in shorter timescales, while maintaining or even increasing the quality of the translations produced (Fulford & Granell-Zafra, 2005). In this context,

translators need to use a wide range of computer-based tools and resources to enhance the efficiency, speed or quality of some of the tasks involved in the translation process. Kay defined a computer as: "A computer is a device that can be used to magnify human productivity” (Abaitua, 2001, p. 9). Moreover, the spread of the computer reversed the method that translators depend on in the translation practicability. In the past, translators used paper and pen to translate. Unlike these days, translators have given up the old method of translation process and tend to take advantage of the high technology computers. Although the demand

of translation service is increasing more and more, the supply of qualified translators is decreasing (Cem & Saban, 2015). For instance, Canada’s universities produce each year 400 new translators only! This is less than a third of the requirement of the market. In addition, we live in an information explosion era which duplicates the time pressure and the translation quality on translators. These issues created so many challenges for the traditional translation method, so people have to switch to the translation technology developments (Wu & Pan, 2013).

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During the development of the translation technology, two types of translation systems appeared: the first one is Machine Translation system (MT) and the second type is the Translation Memory System (TMS). At that time, researchers found some disadvantages surrounding the MT system and tried to look for an alternative solution which is the TMS (Wu & Pan, 2013). As a result, the full understanding of the machines' strength has lead to new approaches to machine translation (Bowker, 2002). In conclusion, Pym, 2011, stressed that "Technology does not necessarily make things better or more efficient," (p. 4) but using some computer tools is needed for the translators to boost the speed and the quality of the translation (Alcina, 2008). For several decades, translation has been needed and demanded in almost every field. The non-stop of technological developments have been reflected in various translation areas. Therefore, translation technology is developing continuously. Despite all the technological developments; however, human translators hold a significant position in the translation field (Bowker, 2002). References Abaitua, J. (2001). Is it worth learning translation technology? International Journal of Translation, 13(2), 1-19. Retrieved from http://mt-archive.info/IJT-2001-Abaitua.pdf Alcina, A. (2007). Translation technology skills acquisition. Taylor & Francis, 15(4), 230244. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ abs/10.1080/13670050802280179 Bowker, L. (2002). Computer-aided translation technology: A practical introduction (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Cem, O. M., & Saban, K. (2015). The effects of technology on translation students in academic translation teaching. Elsevier Ltd, 197(14), 1085–1094. Retrieved from http:// www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042815043505 Pym, A. (2011). What technology does to translating. The International Journal for Translation & Interpreting, 3(1), 1-9. Retrieved from http://www.trans-int.org/index.php/ transint/article/view/121/81 Wu, Y., & Pan, Q. (2013). On the development of translation technology. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 3(12), 2240-2244. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/ docview/1476261095/abstract/CE3D87B16394482FPQ/1?accountid=44936

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The Relation between Translation and Globalization By Lama A. Alzeer Globalization has gotten to be a standout amongst the most wrangled about subjects of late times. It has been hailed as one of the best things to happen to the world. Regardless of its difficulties the constructive part it has played in changing the lives of a huge number of individuals

around the globe ("Positive Effects of Globalization," n.d.). One of the most powerful effects of globalization is the spread of translation through a lot of things in the world such as education, technology and economy. According to Hornby, McIntosh, Turnbull, Wehmeier, & Ashby, 2005, Globalization is "The different cultures and economic system around the world are becoming connected and similar to each other because of the influence of large multinational companies" p. 636. In relation to Shiyab, Rose, House, and Duval, 2010, globalization does not originate from a vacuum it needs to originate from powers that have added to the thought of reliance mix and consolidation.

Nations can't exist or make due in Isolation. According to Hornby et al., 2005, translation is "The process of changing something that is written or spoken into another language" p. 1588. The requirement for translation has existed since time immemorial and deciphering imperative scholarly works from one dialect into others has contributed fundamentally to the advancement of world society ("History of Translation | One Hour Translation," n.d.). Wiersema (2004) said: Globalisation has always been an important aspect of translation. Transla-

tion brings cultures closer. At present, the process of globalisation is moving faster than ever before and there is no indication that it will stall any time soon. Therefore, it has now become possible now, in this case, to keep (more) cultural elements in target texts. In each translation there will be a certain distortion between cultures. The translator will have to defend the choices he/she makes, but there is currently an option for including more foreign words in target texts (para. 6).

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Babbles with the West were acknowledged to a great extent by method for translation Western works applied momentous impact on China's pre-advanced society, conveying developments to early current Chinese and serving the political motivation of enlightening and educating the overall public. Likewise, recognized interpreters set forward their thoughts on interpretation issues in preludes, remarks, audits and autonomous says, which established a framework for modem Chinese interpretation hypothesis a brief study of it might well help us pick up a knowledge into the interpretation standards and practices of the period (Sun & Wang, 2008). Finally, according to Shiyab et al., 2010, as demonstrated above, and over the previous decade, globalization has been intensely talked about by researchers in the field of translation and those different fields such as industry, administration, financial matters. Globalization has been seen as an overpowering force for bringing financial, social and language wealth to individuals and countries all through the world. References Hornby, A. S., McIntosh, C., Turnbull, J., Wehmeier, S., & Ashby, M. (Eds.). (2005). Oxford advanced learner's dictionary of current English (8th ed., p. 1588). Positive effects of globalization. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/positive -effects-of-globalization.html Shiyab, S. M., Rose, M. G., & House, J. (2010). Globalization and aspects of translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Sun, Y., & Wang, N. (2008). Translation, globalisation and localisation: A chinese perspective. Multilingual Matters. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa The history of translation | One hour translation. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.onehourtranslation.com/translation/blog/history-translation Wiersema, N. (2004). A discussion of the effect of globalisation on today's translation. Globalisation and Translation , 8. Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net

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Translation Ethics: The Issue of Unethical Translators By Afnan M. Al-Fawaz Ethical issues and situations can appear in any profession, and the translation profession is no exception. According to Morini, 2012, "the professional ethics of translation have traditionally been defined very narrowly: it is unethical for the translator to distort the meaning of the source

text" (p. 66). He also points out that from the translator's perspective the ethics of translation are more complicated. How the translator deals with a text when s/he finds it "offensive"! Or, when the professional ethics clash with personal ethics. Undoubtedly, there are universally agreed on the ethics of translation, but sometimes translators face difficulties which makes them unintentionally violate the ethics. There are many factors that cause an unethical translation. First, translators should know that they are prototypical of the source text, or the writer; therefore, it is not an ethical translation if something occurs in the source text but it does not occur in the translated text. Sec-

ond, Chesterman asserts that, “if a translation misinterprets a source text, the result will be a prejudiced, biased, ideologically suspect version, and as a result, such a condition will have unethical consequences for the relations and perceptions of the source and target cultures” (as cited in İçöz, 2012, p. 133). Unethical behavior in the translation profession can appear in many ways. For instance, translators are usually on deadlines with clients and it is significant to be honest to your clients and finish the job by a certain deadline. Tustison (2009) emphasized that “it is unethical to decide not to do that job or not finish it on time without informing the client” (p. 1). In addi-

tion, it is certainly unethical for a translator to not keep their clients' information private. The author also said that “another way that translators can be unethical is by purposely overcharging a client when a price has already been quoted” (p. 1). According to Chesterman, “the four models of translation ethics: an ethics of representation, an ethics of service, an ethics of communication, and norm-based ethics” (as cited in Kruger & Crots, 2014, p. 151). First, the ethics of representation is concerned with the representation of the source text based on fidelity. Second, an ethics of service is a service that meets the client’s requirements. Third, an ethics of communication depends on the concept of enabling 112

communication and cooperation. Fourth, a norm-based ethics is defined as the ethical values and behaviors based on particular expectations of a specific society. In 2015, House clarifies that “translators need to reflect on how and why they arrive at deciding what is ethical for them in a given conflictual situation so as to be ethically accountable not only to themselves but also to their professional” (p. 134). He also points out that as soon as translators work in conflict situations, they are always confronted with their own personal, professional and political values, and they are requisite to think and understand entirely the conflict situation. In conclusion, Routledge (2003) stressed that “translators, like all professionals, want to take pride in what they do; if a serious clash between their personal ethics and an externally defined professional ethics makes it difficult or impossible to feel that pride” (p. 26). Therefore, they will find themselves be forced to make crucial decisions about where and under what conditions they want to work. Indeed, so gradually translators are beginning to investigate new ways by which to harmonize their ethics as human beings with their work as translators.

References House, J. (2015). Translation as communication across languages and cultures. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa İçöz, N. (2012). Considering ethics in translation. Electronic Journal of V ocational Colleges, 2 (2). Retrieved from http://dergipark.ulakbim.gov.tr/ejovoc/article/ download/5000085397/5000079484 Kruger, H., & Crots, E. (2014). Professional and personal ethics in translation: A survey of South African translators’ strategies and motivations. Stellenbosch Papers in Linguis-

tics, 43. doi:10.5842/43-0-613 Morini, M. (2012). The pragmatic translator: A n integral theory of translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Routledge, D. (2003). Becoming a translator: A n introduction to the theory and practice of translation (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Tustison, C. (2009, April). How to be an ethical translator. Retrieved from http:// www.becomeatranslator.com/2009/04/translation-ethics-how-to-be-ethical.html

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Problems and Strategies in Translating Collocation By Reem M. Alghunaimi Sinclair defines collocation as “the occurrence of two or more words within a short space of each other in a text” (as cited in Nesselhauf, 2005, p. 12). Furthermore, collocations have many types

such as when a noun occurs with an adjective, for example, strong coffee; or a verb with an adverb, for example, agree completely. Moreover, translating collocations is not always easy. There are many problems that face the translator when translating them. However, there are some solutions and strategies that are used by professional translators that could help them overcome the difficulties in collocations translation. Husni and Newman clarified that since collocations take over the biggest field in the language when it comes to numbers, the translator and the language-learner have to deal with them all the time. In 2009, Meyer explained that “Collocations remain an intangible entity. Every attempt to systematize, organize, arrange, or structure them fails miserably." (p. 12). The study of collocations in Arabic and English in the past 100 years has been achived by their meanings in lexicography and translation. They explained that “The problems relating to the translation of collocation are situated at three levels: recognition, comprehension and reproduction” (2015, p .15). Some of the English collocations are easier to translate than others because they are translated into identical Arabic collocations as in (peaceful death) into )‫(موت هادئ‬and (bad news) into .)‫(أخبار سيئة‬The main problem is to find a suitable equivalent from the target language when the collocation cannot be translated in the literal meaning for example, (on call/ duty (doctor)) into ‫(طبيب‬ .)‫مناوب‬Also, the Arabic grammatical structure is distinctive and unique, thus, translators may face difficulty when translating the collocation “hale and hearty" which is clearly an adjective + adjective collocation into Arabic it becomes )‫(بصحة جيدة‬and it is translated into (preposition + noun +noun) (Faris & Sahu, 2013, p. 53-56). There are many strategies that can help the translator overcome the difficulties of translating collocations. Newmark (1988) has identified some strategies to translate collocations some of which are "word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaptation, free translation, idiomatic translation and communicative translation"

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(as cited in Dwei & Abu Shakra, 2010, p. 8). According to Dweik and Abu Shakra (2010), “synonymy is used in translation if the items share certain semantic features and thus are close enough in their meaning to allow a choice to be made between them in some contexts.” (p. 15). Furthermore, in their study they asked the students to translate )‫(شيطان رجيم‬the results were "cursed devil", " satan the outcast", "evil spirit accursed", "stoned demon" "disgraced satan" which were close enough to the original meaning (p. 15). In 2010, Dweik and Abu Shakra also explained that the second most adopted strategy was Generalization. Dweik and Abu Shakra stated that “This strategy was used because students failed to find the specific term for the intended collocations. Therefore, they attempted to reconstruct the

optimal meaning by using general words” (p. 16). As an example, they asked the students to translate ( )‫الجنة والناس‬so the students chose to translate ( )‫الناس‬into “men” instead of "humankind" which did not give a precise meaning in the target language. In conclusion, collocations are available in all languages. The translator needs to be aware of the similarities that exist between the linguistic and cultural features of the two languages. This research discussed the problems that the translators encounter while translating collocations and how to avoid these problems to help them deliver the correct meaning between SL and TL. Elachachi (2015) concluded that “Every language is rooted in the culture of its speaking community

which makes learning a foreign language especially challenging if the culture of the native language and the target language are too distant” (p. 1). References Dweik, B. S., and M. M. Abu Shakra. Strategies in translating collocations in religious texts from Arabic into English. Atlas Global Journal for Studies and Research (2010): n. pag. http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED510365 Elachachi, H. H. Exploring cultural barriers in EFL Arab learners’ writing. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 199 (2015): 129-136.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article. Faris, A. A., and R. A. Sahu. The translation of English collocations into Arabic: problems and solutions. Journal of the College of Arts. University of Basra 64 (2013): n. pag.http:// www.iasj.net Husni, R., & Newman, D. L. (2015). Arabic-English-Arabic-English translation: Issues and strategies. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Meyer, P. G. (Ed.). (2009). English and American studies 2008. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Nesselhauf, N. (2005). Collocations in a learner corpus (14th ed.). Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa/books 115

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The History of Translation By Sara A. Al-Angari Our world has become what most people call a "Global-Village". Man has realized that communication with others is the only way to live. In addition, the first method to communicate was sign language, but humans recognized that sign language is not enough to understand each

other. According to AILIA, n.d., "Man has needed to communicate; so the origin of translation is closely intertwined with that of language itself . . . , man needed a language industry; so translation can be seen as an enterprise in building, the building of meaning" (para. 1). Moreover, although translation may seem as a modern science, it has a deep history. To begin with, what is translation? The common idea about translation is to transform words from one language Source Language to another Target Language, but translation is deeper than this. In 2013, Bassnett stated that "some scholars, such as Theodore Savory, define translation as an 'art'; others, such as Eric Jacobsen, define it as a 'craft'; whilst others, perhaps more sen-

sibly, borrow from the German and describe it as a 'science'" (p. 17). We can say that translation is dealing with several angles of two different languages. Although the translation process may seem easy, in reality it needs hard work. Indeed, translation requires different skills, experience, and non-stopped practicing. Translation between two languages is not only letters and words but also it's about different cultures and beliefs. In 1992, Lefevre stated that "It is difficult to preserve the elegance of felicitous expressions as you find it in a foreign language when you translate" (p. 79). Above all, the main purpose of translation is to make the reader of a target language feel the same as the reader of original text.

The history of translation is divided into four main periods. According to Sawant, n.d.,"Starting from the Roman translators Cicero and Horace to Alexander Fraser Tytler is the first period; the second period extends up to Valery and from Valery to 1960s becomes the third period and the fourth period 1960s onwards" (p. 1). She pointed out that the most remarkable turn in history of translation is translating the Bible from its original language into more than 2,000 different languages. Furthermore, in the history of Rome, every educated man had to know how to translate so it was like a sign of education and comprehension.

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Likewise, the importance of the history of translation; the study of it is considered as the base of translation in general. Imke, and Margrit, (2016) stressed that "Translation studies have undergone a profound transformation in the last generation" (para. 8). Additionally, they also emphasized that each successful translator must know the main studies and strategies of translation to present the text in the target language correctly. Even more, they pointed at the influence of translation studies, so as they mentioned "It also highlight the way every translation transforms both the target and source language" (para. 7). As a final point, translation is a crucial method in our daily life. In 2007, Michael said "The study of the history of the English language can help students become aware of major issues in several academic fields, including history, literature, political science, . . . , and of course, languages and linguistics" (para. 3). More importantly, a translator who has a background about the history of translation will know how to translate effectively. Meanwhile, they must ascertain the likely effect of the original text readers and re-establish an equivalent effect upon the target language reader.

References AILIA. (n.d.). An age-old industry? Retrieved from http://ailia.ca/History%2Bof% 2BTranslation Bassnett, S. (2013). Translation studies. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com Imke, R., & Margrit, P. (2016). Emotional translation: Conceptual history beyond language. History and Theory, 55(1), 65. doi:10.1111/hith.10787 Lefevre, A. (1992). Translation - History - Culture. Retrieved from http://sj9sr8sb5k.search.serialssolutions.com

Michael, R. (2007). The history of the English language course. SAGE Journals, 6(1). doi:10.1177/1474022207072232 Sawant, D. G. (n.d.). History of translation. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/

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Translation of Islamic Terms By Buthainah W. Alhamdan Religious translation is not quite the same as different sorts of translation. It is one of the most difficult kinds of translation as it needs a great deal more exactness, watchfulness, and wariness, carefulness, and cautiousness. The main difficulties lie in overcoming ideational obstacles in translation and in addition in managing wording. The necessity of translating Islamic texts from Arabic into English has been a must and at the same time, a challenge for Muslim translators in general and Muslim Arab translators in particular since countless various nationalities, dialects and ethnicities have gone into Islam as of late. In this way, there is an incredible need to spread the right teachings of Islam (Mahmoud, n.d.). Aboukhadijeh, 2012, emphasized that The Arabic expression "Islam" itself is typically deciphered as "accommodation"; accommodation of yearnings to the will of God. It originates from the expression "aslama", which signifies "to surrender" or "leave oneself". The Arabic word salaam "( )‫(سالم‬Peace") has the same root as the word Islam. One Islamic elucidation is that individual peace is accomplished by absolutely submitting to Allah (para. 1).

Al-Azzam, 2008, discussed that society and religion constitute significant obstructions in rendering a message from one language into another. He stressed that "the three constituents of culture, religion and language are inseparable and this makes the task of translation more complicated as this task requires some uprooting of the terms involved from their native environment." (p. 20). So, both language and the religious material which is composed or discussed in a specific dialect differ as needs be. The close interrelatedness of language and religion implies that the two can't be isolated in the demonstration of translation. According to Vemeer, 1986, "A translator of Islamic religious texts is required not only to be bilingual or multilingual but also to be bicultural, or multicultural, armed with good knowledge of as many cultures as possible." Also, Chebbo, 2006, emphasized that a translator of religious writings from Arabic

into English must consider a few elements while deciphering "touchy" writings from Arabic into English. Translating Arabic religious writings includes not just issues at an etymological level, including lexical and syntactic control and the reformulation of ideas, additionally ideational obstacles that should be intervened between the source content maker and reader (as cited in Mahmoud, n.d. p. 5). Inspite of the fact that each zone of legitimate dialect contains social terms following the law is produced in a specific social connection, there are sure ranges that have a higher extent than others. In Arabic legitimate (terminology) the main that rings a bell is obviously the vocabulary identified with Islamic law, for which no prepared reciprocals might be accessible in English. Particular Islamic legitimate wording cuts over various regions: lawful ideas, establishments, the legitimate calling, and so forth. 118

For example, " ‘ ‫طالق بائن‬irrevocable divorce', ‘ ‫ ُح هجة‬certificate', ‘ ‫م ْهر‬dowry’, ‘ ‫القاضي‬lslamic judge'" (Husni, 2015, p. 126). Another obstacle that faces translators is with the word "AlAdan". MuslimSpeak (2009)

said:

"The wording of the Adan is as follows in Arabic (with transcription and English translation): ‫هللا أكبر هللا أكبر‬Arabic – ‘Allāhu ‘Akbar (x4) English – God is greater (than all things) ‘ ‫أشهد أن ال إله إال هللا‬Ash–hadu al-lā ilāha ill-Allāh (x2) I testify that there is no god but Allāh ‘ ‫أشهد أن محمدا رسول هللا‬Ash–hadu ‘anna Muhammadã-rasūl-ullāh (x2) I testify that Muhammad is Allāh’s Messenger ‫حي على الصالة‬Hayya ʿalas–Solāh (x2) Hasten towards the Prayer ‫حي على الفالح‬Hayya ʿal al-falāh (x2) Hasten towards Success ‘ ‫هللا أكبر هللا أكبر‬Allāhu ‘Akbar-ullāhu ‘Akbar (x2) God is greater (than all things) ‫ال إله إال هللا‬Lā ilāha ill-Allāh There is no god but Allāh." (para. 1). Finally, many translators find the translation of Islamic terms very difficult and a lot of them make mistakes. This could have come about for a few reasons: 1- Inexperience of the Arabic word's exact meaning. 2- Knowing stand out shade of the meaning. 3- Disarray between various Arabic words 4- Restricted learning of Arabic squeezed out with fantasies of creative ability

5- Mixing up Arabic for Hebrew. 6- Some disarray with Hebrew customs. (Khalifa, n.d. para. 15) References Al-Azzam, B. H. (2008). Certain terms relating to Islamic observances: Their meanings with reference to three translations of the Quran and a translation of hadith [1]. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa/ Aboukhadijeh, F. (2012). What does Islam (as an Arabic word) literally mean? Retrieved from https:// www.quora.com/

Husni, R. (2015). Arabic-English-Arabic-English translation: Issues and strategies. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books Khalifa, M. (n.d.). Translation: tried & true? Retrieved from http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/ translate.htm Mahmoud, M. A. (n.d.). Challenges of translating Islamic religious items from Arabic into English. Retrieved from http://repository.nauss.edu.sa MuslimSpeak. (2009). A glossary of Islamic terms. Retrieved from https://muslimspeak.wordpress.com/ glossary

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Marketing Translation: Challenges and Solutions to Marketing Translation

By Mai A. AlMohaimeed

Progressively, trade seems to be worldwide. That mainly is caused, according to Tolardo (n.d.), by one important factor that is technology evolution. Also, he mentioned the transport and

communication services are a significant aid to the international market. However, the main issue that translators might face is what he termed as Cultural Transposition in which most translators fail to express the message. In his point of view, the appropriate way to convey the message is to think globally and act locally which must be any translator’s ultimate goal. In fact, failed and poor translations are always adapted with the translation of advertising which, unfortunately, leads to leave a negative brand impression on the audience. One important thing to start with is that translators must have a deep comprehensive understanding of the audience, especially of their local slang. Bradly (2014) said:

Many translators have learned the hard way that mistakes with a product’s name can also be costly and could lead to a product’s failure in the market, particularly in the case of foreign markets. [an] Example of name snafus . . . Mitsubishi had to change the name of its Pajero in Latin America as “Pajero” translates into something else that is undesirable in the local slang (p. 152). Moreover, there are pitfalls that translators should be aware of according to Duffy (2015); first is the adaption of the message not the translation, meaning translators have to start writing in their mother language and then carry the message to the target language not the “words”. Then, the understanding of cultural and behavioral aspects that they have to be both tolerable and related to the audience. Also, translators should be alert to the linguistics used in the foreign markets. These strategies should benefit translators carrying the message easily and effectively. Kolb (2011) believes that sometimes translators may need to change the message mainly to catch up with the target language and culture. Some of the approaches that he points out are the traditional approach; to consider at what level the audience are, and what style or register they expect from advertisements. Holland, Shaw, Westwood, and Harris (2004) agreed that sometimes the message should be able to change according the target culture. That is why Deschamps-Potter

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(2004) stated that all translators have difficulties transferring a key marketing concept or catch phrase. Cinican (2014) considers culture translation as the most difficult type of marketing translation. In addition, mistranslation is an actual problem where sometimes translators are forced to change the meaning in order to achieve accurateness. Guidere (n.d.) gave one example showing the difference locally between the French and the Arabic language translating the term “blue plant” due to the cultural influence. In general, they both agreed that translators should do whatever it takes to leave the same impact on the audience as the original message. In sum, as the global marketing grows, the need of marketing translation become more urgent. Almost all scholars agree matters concerning of the cultural translation difficulties for which sometimes the only solution is to make a slight difference and stay away from translating the exact same words. As previously stated, translators should adapt the message not translate it. Hence, the term mistranslation has been always associated with marketing translation, therefore, translators must take serious steps towards this matter. References Brady, D. L. (2014). Essentials of international marketing. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa

Cincan, A. (2014). Challenges in translating for the advertising industry. Inbox Translation. Retrieved from http://inboxtranslation.com/ Deschamps-Potter, S. B. (2004). Creating translation-ready marketing documents. Retrieved from https://sdl.edu.sa/ Duffy, S. (2015). The 8 pitfalls of international marketing and how to avoid them. Talent Zoo, 4. Retrieved from http://www.talentzoo.com/ Holland, C. P., Shaw, D. R., Westwood, J. B., & Harris, I. (2004). Marketing translation services internationally: Exploiting IT to achieve a smart network. Journal of Information Technol-

ogy, 19. doi:10.1057/ Guidere, M. (n.d.). The translation of advertisements: From adaptation to localization. Translation Directory, 17. Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com/ Kolb, B. (2011). Marketing research for non-profit, community and creative organizations. Retrieved from https://sdl.edu.sa/ Tolardo, M. (n.d.). Language functions and intercultural translation in the world of advertising: The case of wine marketing (Master's thesis). Retrieved from http://www.tesionline.com/

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Difficulties in Simultaneous Interpreting By Ghada S. Alghadeer Simultaneous interpreting (SI) is considered with both linguistic and cognitive matter "cognitive, because of the information processing involved in the task . . . and linguistic, because

of the type information processing he does, the recoding of the message heard in one language into speech in another language" (Anderson, 1979, p. 1). In 1430, Judith and Annette emphasized that SI is the most complicated language tasks ever because there is one person who listens, understands, analyzes and decodes the speech in another language at the same time. Weber differentiated between an interpretation and translation. When the information is transferred from one language to another by the oral form, it is called interpretation. On the other hand, when the information is transferred from one language to another, it is called translation (as cited in Press, 2005). Indeed, interpretation, especially simultaneous interpretation, has so many

difficulties more than any other type of translation. Lambert stated that most common difficulties that happen to almost every interpreter: Attention and storage; errors and failure are largely attributed to the attentional imbalance caused by problems in listening, memory or production, and resulting bottlenecks. Some writers (not usually interpreters) see SI as a dichotic or multiple tasks made up of components like listening-while speaking, analyzing, memorizing and translating, and recommend separate training in these sub-tasks before combining the components (as cited in Setton, 1999, p. 49).

Nowadays, interpreters are more concerned in terms of developing the skills mentionedabove to gain the best resolution in contemporary time. In 2013, Cincan emphasized that each field has its own method to speak to its listeners for instance, when doctors are in a hospital and talk to their patients, they often use a different method from that they use when they talk to their patients outside a hospital. This means the interpreters must be aware of the situation and the type of listeners when they interpret. The author stressed that "men and women working for the above-mentioned institutions and organizations

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need to be proficient in more than their native language; otherwise they require ongoing help from local interpreters" (para. 3). Some interpretation continues for days, so this could be the most difficult matter that faces any interpreter. In an article titled "Many Difficulties of Simultaneous Interpreting", it was reported that "They [Interpreters] have to be ‘on’ constantly and their throats can get sore and they can get tired quite easily" (para. 2). It was added that to solve this problem, conference organizers -for example- should have more than one interpreter to work in shifts, then each one of them could have a break to rest the vocal chords and have a meal (2014). Although the interpreters face a lot of difficulties and awkwardness as long as they interpret in any situation, place or time, they do a great job that also requires great patience. An interpreter should not convey the exact structure or form from the source language to the target language. It is preferable to convey only the exact meaning in order to make the message easier to understand by a listener. So, the interpreters will not truly make strides in their profession until they practice. References Anderson, L. (1979). Simultaneous interpretation: Contextual and translation aspects. Retrieved from http://spectrum.library.concordia.ca/5/1/MK43196.pdf Cincan, A. (2013). Interpreters and justice. Inbox Translation. Retrieved from http:// inboxtranslation.com/blog/interpreters-save-lives/ Judith, F., & Annette, M. (1430). Handbook of bilingualism. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa/books Press, G. (2005). A ssessing culturally and linguistically diverse students. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books Setton, R. (1999). Simultaneous interpretation: A cognitive-pragmatic analysis. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books The many difficulties of simultaneous interpreting. (2014). Light House. Retrieved from http:// lighthouseonline.com/blog/the-many-difficulties-of-simultaneous-interpreting/

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Translation and its Contribute to World Cultures and Communication

By Noura A. Al-Anizi

According to the American Heritage Dictionary, "globalization means to make global or worldwide in scope or application" (as cited in Shiyab, Rose, House, & Duval, 1431, p. 1).

Transforming local or regional things worldwide leads people to become a community that share mutual features, which helps the translator translate the culture correctly of a specific country and the translation becomes globalized, so that also contributes to making communication easier. There are certain factors in translation that contribute to the spread of culture worldwide. At the translation level, globalization has affected the lives of everybody, including the calling of translation and the lives of translators. With the new innovation and the rise of new words and ideas, translators need to consolidate globalization into their every day customs. At the social level, translation can cross over any barrier in the middle of people groups and countries,

and globalization has contributed in a more compelling manner towards understanding the source dialect and society(Shiyab, Rose, House, & Duval, 1431). The occasion, alongside the effect of social studies, translation studies is moving toward a more social and hypothetical introduction. The demonstration of translation is initially seen as a demonstration of social correspondence and after that as social elucidation. It cannot manage without partnering itself with culture(Robertson & White, 2003). Therefore, as Kalan said (2014) a translator must be conversant in culturally diverse correspondence, in general. Technology is one of the factors that helps to spread culture which makes the transla-

tion process easier. Therefore, the translator that knows the culture of the western world by using technology is more at ease to translate it to his original language (e.g., into Arabic). For instance, the sentence "she is the sun of my life" (Wasfi, 2016, p. 26) would be translated according to the Arabic culture as , ‫هي ربيع حياتي‬and we would not know this until knowing the cultures. Another factor is mass media. Throughout the years, the mass media has effectively expanded the cultures by translating one language to another and showed us the customs of a particular culture. In addition, it make countries aware of each other on a daily basis, also the

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citizens will feel that the foreign country will be more familiar to them; for example, movies, series, commercials and the most important one is the news. Therefore, mass media is an unlimited source and has led us to know new cultures and even new regions (Martinez-Sierra, 2008). In conclusion, language is a key element in the way of life, globalization and translation which influenced them as we have noted. Globalization positively affects societies and social orders as it has aided in rapprochement of societies and encouraged the procedure of communication between nations. In addition, globalization prompts more connection between people and their cultures around the globe; this thus prompts the requirement for more translators (Moore, 2013). Translation, thus, has an imperative part in the globalization process.

References Kalan, D. (2014). Translating cultures: A n introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Martinez-Sierra, J. J. (2008). The contact between cultures: And the role of translation and the

mass media. Translation Journal, 12. Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net Moore, M. (2013, March). Globalization and translation. Retrieved from http:// blog.onehourtranslation.com/global-translation/globalization-and-translation/ Robertson, R., & White, K. E. (Eds.). (2003). Globalization. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Shiyab, S. M., Rose, M. G., House, J., & Duval, J. (Eds.).(1431). Globalization and aspects of translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Wasfi, N. (2016). 245TRA NS – Introduction to Translation, Booklet. Riyadh: Saudi. Arabia.

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Types of Interpreters By Ghada A. Alfulaij Many people would like to travel for many purposes; however, an unfamiliar language makes such an obstacle for them. Therefore, they take an interpreter with them. According to Felger, 2011, “The need for professional interpreters is growing exponentially in today’s global

marketplace.” (para. 1). He also stated that if you were a business man and need to speak with foreign investors, or a client in an emergency room or urgent care setting, or a lawyer who need to communicate with witnesses who are non-native speakers of a language, professional interpreters are a very important part of a successful business. There are many kinds of interpreters such as medical, sign language, legal and guide interpreters. On-site medical interpreters and telephone interpreters can be considered professional medical interpreters. In some communities and states in the United States, there are specific programs to recruit, train, and certify medical interpreters (Woloshin et al., 1995 ) Many major

hospitals in the United States provide on-site hospital interpreters for specific languages (Cross Cultural Health Care Program, 1999) to three semesters of college courses (Avery, 1995), it is expected that the specialized training in medical interpreting helps them to learn the abilities, ethics, and responsibilities that are expected from medical interpreters (Hsieh, 2006, para. 1) According to Cruz, 2008, "A tour guide is one who conducts a tour whose main duty is to inform" (p. 12). He also points out that the guide tour rules are not restricted; sometimes a tour guide can be with a group of people for a few hours, and other times a tour guide can spend days with a specific group. Therefore, a tour guide role can be seen as a guide and as a tour manag-

er. There are many kinds of tour guides such as, escort interpreters, tour managers and business guides. In 2001, Roben and Robert emphasized that sign language interpretation is a highly required occupation. The translation work of sign language interpreters involves much more than language. The properties in the physical environment, the harmony and the interactions between the people who are present, and even the inner noise of the interpreter is connected to

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translation accuracy. They stressed that the efficient interpreter must understand and reply in an appropriate way to the language and non-language aspects of an assignment. A legal interpreter is the one who works in trails and in law offices. Legal interpreters need to memorize every legal term in order to understand and convey the message accurately. W.Iikkelson, (2004) has stated that "those who speak through ep Those who speak through an interpreter have a..1111 ,to express their message in whatever way they like and for it to remain unaltered in the process. Indeed, the Code of Ethics of the Austrian Association of Court Interpreters states in its pm-amble that the interpreter's crucial role is to uphold basic human rights and equality before the law" (as cited in Beniamins, 2004, p. 196) Interpretation is the general understanding of two cultures. It conveys every semantic element, intention and feeling that native speakers are directing it to the target language listeners. Hence, interpreters in any specific field, whether tour guide escort interpreter or interpreter in an embassy, they all need to have an insightful understanding of what is being communicated to them, and be able to make accurate verbal expressions. They also should have a good and strong memory; research skills are also highly required. Interpreters should always familiarize themselves with new cultures. References Benjamins, J. (2009). International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting, 11(2). doi:10.1075/intp.11.2 Cruz, Z. L. (2008). Principles and ethics of tour guiding (p. 12). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Felger, M. (2011) Types of Professional Interpreters and W hat They Do. Retrieved from http:// www.affordablelanguageservices.com Hsieh, E. (2006). understanding medical Interpreters: Reconceptualizing bilingual health communication, 20. Retrieved from DOI: 10.1207/s15327027hc2002_9To James, N. (2005). Interpretation techniques and exercises. Retrieved from http:// tienganhdhm.com/Images/file/Intepretation-Techniques%20and%20Exercises.pdf Roben, K., & Robert, Q. (2001). Application of demand-control theory to sign language interpreting: Implications fore stress and interpreter training. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 6. doi:10.1093/deafed/6.1.1 127

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Idioms Translation Difficulties By Abeer A. Al-Suwailem Translation is not an easy task as many people expect. Usually, translators struggle while translating some sentences, such as idiomatic expressions. According to Larson an idiom is “a string of words whose meaning is different from the meaning conveyed by the individual

words” (1984, p. 20). In fact, translators often face a lot of difficulties while translating from any two different languages which is translating idioms. According to Komissarov (1985), in all languages there is a sequence of words that have meaning especially when forming part of a sentence which is grammatically correct, however sometimes it cannot be understood literally, and this is known as idiomatic sentences or phrases. This is a normal feature with any specific language used by any speaker. Moreover, they are the race of a nation and it is important to know that these idioms are not only vernacular expressions, as many people believe. They also appear in slang, formal style which is in a poetry,

business and the Bible, as in "To kill two birds with one stone" (as cited in Sedaghpour, 2012, p. 266). Panou (2014) discussed that idioms are divided into two categories which are idiomatically combining expressions and idiomatic phrases. In fact, it's considered problematic for the translator. In order to translate idioms, the translator must try to transfer all the elements and items of the source language culture. The translator must have an expanded knowledge of both cultures and aspects of the language (Margarita, 2009). Translators usually cannot find the exact equivalent for the idiom expression in the

target language. In order to translate an idiomatic expression, you should know that idioms cannot be translated literally. A common mistake is that some beginner translators use literal translation to translate idioms which is a huge problem. Also, the translator needs to have an active knowledge about the culture of the target language in. By knowing the culture of the target language, translating the idiomatic expression would be much easier (Baker, 2011).

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In 2011, Baker said that the translator should look for an equivalent for the idiomatic expression in the target language. Finding an equivalent requires the knowledge of both the source and target language. It is also considered the most common way to translate the idiomatic expressions in a proper way. For example, It's raining cats and dogs" (Samarraie, 2014). "‫إنها تمطر كأفواه القرب‬ In conclusion, translating an idiomatic expression could be very difficult and there is no best way to translate them. The translators must be familiar with the source language idioms and become able to recognize the ones they do not know. However, translators can overcome this obstacle by having an active cultural knowledge in both target and source language and finding the right equivalent to the idiomatic expression.

References Baker, M. (2011). In other words: A coursebook on translation. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa/ Larson, M.L. (1984). Meaning based translation: A guide to cross language equivalence. Re-

trieved from https//books.google.com.sa/ Sadeghpour, R. (2012). To translate idioms: Posing difficulties and challenges for translators. The Iranian EFL Journal. Retrieved from http://www.dacoromania.instpuscariu.ro/articole/17_XVII_%282012_nr.2%29%20[Pages%20265%20-%20273].pdf Samarraie, O. S. (2014). Translating idiomatic expressions from English into A rabic (Master's thesis, Middle East University , Amman, Jordan). Retrieved from http:// www.meu.edu.jo/ra/ Straksiene, M. (2009). Analysis of idiom translation strategies from English into

Lithuanian. kalbos.lt/zurnalai. Retrieved from http://www.kalbos.lt/ zurnalai/14_numeris/03.pdf Panou, D. (2014). Idiom translation in the financial press: A corpus-based study. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

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The Joy of Translating Idioms By Aaliah M. Alqahtani Idioms are a group of words that the meaning they are carrying does not appear to the reader from the given words. In a definition given by Larson, idioms are “expressions of at least two words which cannot be understood literally and which function as a unit semantically” (p. 20).

They are considered as the biggest difficulty the translator faces because they involve cultural backgrounds, professionalism, and a bit of creativity, sometimes (Larson, 1984). Culture has a great impact in translating idiomatic expressions. The translator should have a great background of the culture of the target language so he can give an accurate translation. Sadiq mentioned that "a translator should pay much attention to idioms and not be satisfied with translating them literally since literal translation of idioms could lead to complete misunderstanding" (Sadiq, 2010, p. 41). Therefore, the translator needs to continuously read about the culture of the target lan-

guage and be open–minded and sensitive to the cultural differences because they play a major role in the translation process. Because of different cultural roots, idioms most of the time have no equivalents in different languages, i.e, the Arabic culture is affected by Islam so does the language (Eftekhari, 2008). Most of the time, translators cannot find conceptual correspondence in translating idioms from the source language to the target language. Every language has its own concepts and ideas that are different from other languages. Sometimes an idiom in a language has a similar meaning in another language. The key to translate them correctly is to look for an equivalent for

the whole idiom in the target language (Adelnia & Dastjerdi, 2011). Translating idioms is a hard task; Gottlieb said that “an idiom is difficult to decode correctly for someone who only knows the normal meanings of its constituent elements" (Gottlieb,1997, p. 260). Therefore the translator should look for strategies in which he can give a better translation of the idioms. He should bear in mind that he cannot eliminate any part of the idiom that holds meaning and should stay away from word-for-word translation (Larson, 1984) .

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Every concept in one culture has its own equivalent in another culture, so eliminating a word from an idiom is not a right decision. If the translator wants to give a smooth translation of the idiom, the translator must choose an appropriate strategy to translate it. The literal translation strategy will lead to misunderstanding so he must avoid it and look for the best equivalent that gives the same meaning or at least a similar one. Kalantar says "Idioms are something that Google Translate will never be able to cope with; they still belong exclusively to human communication." (Kalantar, 2014, para. 3)

References Adelnia, A., & Dastjerdi, H. V. (2011). Translation of idioms: A hard task for the translator. TPLS, 1(7). doi:10.4304/tpls.1.7.879-883 Eftekhari, N. (2008). A Brief Overview On Idiomatic Translation. Retrieved from http:// www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article1739.php Gottlieb, H 1997, '"You got the picture?". On the Polysemiotics of subtitling wordplay'. in Traductio. Essays on punning and translation. St. Jerome Publishing, Manchester & Namur, pp. 207-232. Kalantar, N. (2014, June 22). Common challenges of translation. Retrieved from http:// www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=37106 Larson, M. L. (1984). Meaning-based translation: A guide to cross-language equivalence. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books Sadiq, S. (2010). A comparative study of four English translations of Sûrat Ad-Dukhân on the semantic level. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books

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Globalized Companies’ Need for Translation By Basma S. Al-Sufeeran As defined in Oxford Dictionaries (n.d.), “Translation is a written or spoken rendering of the meaning of a word or text in another language” (n. 1.1). It is an important and practical process that started a long time ago. Moreover, translation is affected by globalization, that is “The worldwide

Movement Toward economic, financial, trade, and communications integration” (Business Dictionary, n.d., para. 1). Globalization is not recent because a lot of information and merchandise were transmitted in a commerce path between China and The Mediterranean Sea (National Geographic, n.d.). Globalization has elevated the necessity of translation. In fact, many globalized companies are in need for translation. Translation is required for different purposes. For instance, many people send their important documents to internet-based companies such as Argos Multilingual, Language Line Solutions, and Better Languages in order to translate them. Furthermore, according to Sprung and Jaroniec (2000), because the EU consists of many countries, some of which English is not their official language, many documents have to be translated into 11 official languages. Also, White Smoke Inc. adds that a lot of entrepreneurs have begun establishing translation businesses to help organizations who have translation requirements such as completing government papers, or connecting well with their international customers (n.d.). Moreover, Cronin (2003) says that many people around the world are acquainted with recent editions of devices as soon as they are revealed, for example, in the United States. Thus, according to the author, "as Suzanne Topping points out, in the case of digital cameras the crucial sales period is the first few weeks following product introduction. In the case of foreign sales, the equation is simple: ‘no translation, no product’" (p. 15). Therefore, it is essential for companies to provide translations in all languages in order to raise their profits. The availability of translations in all languages is needed due to foreigners’ fast access to new products in the original language. One of the countries in which translation has flourished is Saudi Arabia. In 2009, Fatani said: The recent entry of Saudi Arabia into the World Trade Organization, the establishment of economic centers in many parts of the kingdom … has made translating and interpreting services a rapidly growing area in Saudi Arabia … International, 132

organizations, corporations … and the many other institutions that constitute global societies are beginning to rely on the services of translators and interpreters (para. 2). Another country that witnessed the need for translation in the media environment because of globalization is UAE. Izwaini points to the fact that UAE is a globalized country that draws the tourists’ attention, which made it the center for many media corporations such as “Al Arabiya” and “MBC”, and other international TV channels like “CNBC” and “CNN” established branches there. In addition, the translation process has become more active in many areas in the Emirates such as “Internet city” and “Media city” in Dubai (2014, p. 161).

Finally, translation is a challenging profession that requires patience, determination, and constant looking at knowledge. Another important point is that many companies have become more dynamic and in need for extra production since the beginning of globalization. With the application of translation, many businesses and corporations can achieve their goal. According to Fallon, it could be to advertise to international customers, or to build global connections (2014). References Business dictionary. (n.d.). Globalization. Retrieved from http://www.businessdictionary.com/ definition/globalization.html

Cronin, M. (2003). Translation and globalization. Psychology Press. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Fallon, N. (2014, March 13). Language translation: What global companies should know. Business News Daily. Retrieved from http://www.businessnewsdaily.com/ Fatani, A. H. (2009). The state of the translation industry in Saudi Arabia. Translation Journal,13 (4). Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/journal/50saudi.htm Izwaini, S. (2014). Conducting research on translation in and about the UAE. Arab World English Journal, 3, 161. Retrieved from http://awej.org National Geographic. (n.d.). Globalization. Retrieved from http://education.nationalgeographic.org/ encyclopedia/globalization/ Oxford Dictionaries. (n.d.). Translation. Retrieved from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/ definition/english/translation Sprung, R. C., & Jaroniec, S. (Eds.). (2000). Translating into success: Cutting-edge strategies for going multilingual in a global age. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa White Smoke Inc. (n.d.). Global businesses are in need of translators and translating tools. Retrieved from http://www.whitesmoke.com/brafton25_translators

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Solving the Problem of Translating Idioms By Maram M. AlGhannam All languages must have an impact of its culture; Boers et al. (2008) stated that cultures have a main role in the linguistic system spicily for decorative purposes in language. (as cited in Yagiz and Izadpanah , 2013). According to Al-Shawi and Mahadi (2012) "An idiom is an artistic

expression of the language…the individual meanings of its components are different from its literal meaning." (p.140). Translating idioms can be an obstacle for translators, yet there are some strategies that could help in solving the problem of translating idioms. Idioms are considered to be a problem for translators for many reasons. One reason is that some idioms have a historical story in the source language and the target language does not have an equivalent one for it. Words as well differ from language to another regarding the affecting strength on people (i.e., don’t have the same emotive associations). Al-Shawi and Mahadi (2012) stated that "It requires enhancing cross-cultural awareness and needs open–minded under-

standing of the culture of the second language from different aspects" (p. 141). Using the strategy of translating an idiom by the same equivalent idiom in the other language can be useful in many cases. Raluca (2012) says that an idiom must give "the same meaning as that of the SL idiom and consists of equivalent lexical items" (para. 14). Akbari (2013) gave an example of using this strategy with the English expression "break somebody's heart" and the Persian expression

" ‫"قلب کسی را شکستن‬which present the similarity of meaning

and form. Another way to translate idioms is by translating them literally. It cannot be used as a

rule, but it is preferable in some cases such as translating metaphors or in religious contexts. According to Panou (2014) "the important role of literal translation is . . . that it forms a dominant strategy in the translation of English idioms" (p. 46). Balfaqeeh (2009) indicated that literal translations must be "accompanied by a note of explanation between parentheses" (p. 34). Yet, it is hard to find the right equivalent idiom in some cases, and sometimes it is not appropriate to use literal translation. Therefore, paraphrasing can be very productive in

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translating idioms. Al-Shawi and Mahadi (2012) clarify that "the translator can opt for neutral term in order to convey the implied meaning of the idiom expression" (p. 146). Strakšiene (2009) presented a good example: "the English idiom to step into his shoes is translated . . . into Lithuanian language by a group of words which are not idiom tikejaisi užimti jo vietą" (p. 16). Translators play a big role in almost every field in our life since they hold a great responsibility of transferring information from language to another. Therefore, they have to be careful and accurate as much as possible in the translation process. In translating idioms and expressions, a translator must be very precise because Akbari (2013) considers idioms to be "the most challenging issues in the realm of translation" (p. 32).

References Akbari, M. (2013). Strategies for translating idioms. Journal of Academic and Applied Studies,3(8). Retrieved from www.academians.org Al-Shawi, M. A., & Mahadi, T. (2012). Strategies for translating idioms from Arabic into English and vice versa. Journal of A merican A rabic A cademy for Sciences and Technolo-

gy, 3(6). Retrieved from www.amarabac.com Balfaqeeh, H. (2009). Strategies for translating idioms and culturally-bound expressions within the human development genre. The University of Birmingham. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa/books Panou, D. (2014). Idiom translation in the financial press. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa/books Raluca, V. (2012). Translating maritime idioms. Universitatii Maritime Constanta. Analele,13 (18). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com

Strakšiene, M. (2009). Analysis of idiom translation strategies from English into Lithuanian.studies about languages, 14. Retrieved from http://www.kalbos.ktu.lt Yagiz, O., & Izadpanah, S. (2013). Language, culture, idioms, and their relationship with the foreign language. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 4(5). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com

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Strategies of Translating Idioms By Aljohara S. Almeneef Every culture in every language has their own idiomatic expressions. They express certain things that usually in order to understand the meaning of it, you should understand or have some knowledge about their culture. According to Alshawi and Mahadi (2012) “Idiomatic expressions

are colorful, dramatic, lively, closer to the way people really feel and near to the local culture.” (p. 140). In addition, translating idioms is not an easy task as there are some steps that need to be followed. Newmark (1988) asserts that a key to being a good translator is to avoid unnatural translations when translating to the target language, and a means to avoid that is to mostly speak and talk with people from the foreign language. Hassan and Tabassum (2014) explained that translating idiomatic expressions could be complicated. However, there is one way to translate idioms in a text which is to find an alternative idiom of the same meaning, same structure and same words in the target language. They also

added that "there is difference between literal and free translation" (p. 20). For example, the literal form of the idiom "‫“فتح الباب‬is “he opened the door” when the correct idiomatic English meaning would be “he established a precedent” (Awwad, 1990, p. 58). On the other hand, Benjamins (1997) asserts that the concept of translating idioms to a likely similar idiom in the TL can be a bit challenging for translators. He stresses that finding an exact equivalent idiom does not apply to all idioms. Therefore, another way of translating idioms is by finding a similar meaning to the idiom but different lexical items. For example, "Jack of all trades but master of non" will be translated to ("‫“سبع صنايع والبخت ضايع‬Alshawi & Mahadi, 2012,

p. 146). Eftekhari (2008) mentioned that another way of translating idioms if the two previous strategies fail is to paraphrase them. That means you try to explain, and give the meaning of the translated idiom from the SL to make sense in the TL. For example, paraphrasing this expression “The cat is out of the bag” can be translated into "‫"أنكشف السر‬and the idiom “a leap in the dark” would be translated to .”‫“المجازفة‬Because there isn’t a strict rule of translating these kind of idiomatic expressions, your translated idiom may possibly vary from one translator to another.

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In conclusion, translators and interpreters have several ways of translating any idiomatic expressions. However, it is possible that they may face some difficulties in the process of transferring the idiom from the SL to the TL, and at the same time trying to have the same effect of the SL readers to the TL readers. For that reason, it is crucial to have knowledge of both the source and the target language culture before translating the idiom, which usually makes you add more information or explanation in the TT. The bigger the gap between the two languages, the harder it would be for the translator or the interpreter to translate.

References Alshawi, M., & Mahadi, T. (2012). Strategies for translating idioms from Arabic into English and vice versa. Journal of A merican A rabic A cademy for Sciences and Technology, 3 (6), 2. Retrieved from http://www.amarabac-magazin.com Awwad, M. (1990). Equivalence and translatability of English and Arabic idioms. Papers and Studies in Contrastive Linguistics, 26(57-67). Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com Benjamins, J. (1997). Text typology and translation. Retrieved from https://

books.google.com.sa/ Eftekhari, N. (2008, October). A brief overview on idiomatic translation. Retrieved from http:// www.translationdirectory.com Hassan, S., & Tabassum, M. F. (2014). Strategies of translation idioms. British Journal of English Linguistics. Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com Newmark, P. (1988). A textbook of translation. Retrieved from http:// montazeranmouood.avablog.ir/upload/mazhari/other/ a_textbook_of_translation_by_peter_newmark.pdf

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The Difficulties of Poetry Translation By Khadeejah A. Al-Zahrani Many people have been arguing about the translation of poetry and its accuracy in transferring linguistic and non-linguistic features of poetry because it is difficult for translators to transfer the magic that the original has. According to López-Luaces, (n.d.) "poetry translation is a dialogue

among two different systems of symbols and metaphors and there lays its importance" (para. 1). As he mentioned that through the process of translation one could deal with some loss of meaning and/or symbolic resonances; or some loss of linguistic density (para. 2). Without a doubt, translating poetry and maintaining both of its form and content is becoming more difficult than before (Niknasab & Pishbin, 2011). Venuti (2011) claims that it is not a surprising fact that the field of poetry translation attracts a narrow audience because of its uniqueness as a form of language use. As a matter of fact, translating a poem regardless of the language, culture, or historical moment, is often creating a poem in the receiving situation and cultivating poetic effects that may seek an equivalence to the source text, yet all of that falls short of and exceeds it because it is written in a different language for a different culture. While the poem is the object of translation, it vanishes during the process of translation and is replaced by a signification network that is rooted in the receiving situation. As mentioned earlier, the main problem in case of translating poetry is that a translator should take into account both the linguistic and non-linguistic aspects and recreating the poem. The linguistic aspects include sound pattern of the words, rhyming and rhythming, while images, ideas and symbols are non-linguistic patterns. A translator in some cases may prefer 'verse for verse' translation. Furthermore, poetry is full of figures of speech, syntactic and semantic patterns such as rhyming alliteration, versification, morphological parallelism, syntactic parallelism and above all syntagmatic and paradigmatic relation between words (Das, 2014). Poems could be written in different languages all over the world, but they carry different meanings and purposes which are tended to be universally understood (Temirov, 2012). Hariyanto (n.d.) in his article discussed how to grasp the translation from an aesthetic values point of view. These aesthetic values do not have independent meaning; however, they are correlative with the various types of meaning in the text. Thus, if the translator destroys the word choice, the word order and the sounds, he/she damages and distorts the beauty of the original poem. He also added that the 138

problem in this field of translation is how to retain the aesthetic values in the TL text. Sound is another problem that faces the translator; Hariyanto (n.d.) defined sound as anything that is connected with sound cultivation such as rhyme, rhythm, assonance, onomatopoeia. Rhyme and rhythm give the joy of reciting to readers; when you say you like some poets then it is not hard for you to recite some of their works. The existence of rhyme and rhythm helped you (Takeda, 1993). Hariyanto (n.d.) points out that the translator cannot ignore the sound, but if he/she is faced with a situation where one of the three factors (structure, metaphor and sound) should be sacrificed, the sound should be the one. Though he/she should balance where the beauty of the poem lies; if it lies more on the sound rather than the meaning the translator cannot ignore the sound.

By this time it must be acknowledged that there are very special problems that arise in field of poetry translation. The form of expression is essential to communicate the spirit of the message to the audience, but all of the translation must be concerned also with the response of the receiver. Hence, the greatest purpose of the translation process is a central factor in any evaluation of translation (Venuti, 2000). According to Das, 2014, "At the end we can say that in spite of all these problems, the translator tries to translate with the sense of original text. It is such problem that make the art of translation challenging and really amazing" (p. 336). References Das, M. (2014). Problems of translation in case of translating poetry. International Journal of Innovative Research and Development, 3(7). Retrieved from http://www.ijird.com/ Hariyanto, S. (n.d.). Problems in translating poetry. Retrieved from http:// www.translationdirectory.com/article640.htm López-Luaces, M. (n.d.). The translation of poetry: An universe made anew. New Spanish Books. Retrieved from http://www.newspanishbooks.us/ On the translation of poetry: A look at Sohrab Sepehri's traveler. (2011). Journal of Translation and Interpretation, 5(1), 3. Retrieved from http://www.skase.sk/Volumes/JTI05/pdf_doc/01.pdf Takeda, M. (1993). The problems of translating Dickinson's "poetry" into contemporary Japanese "verse". Project MUSE, 2(2). Retrieved from http://muse.jhu.edu/ Temirov, M. M. (2012, October 9). Difficulties in poetry translation. Retrieved from http://jltpolinema.org/?p=213 Venuti, L. (2000). The translation studies reader. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Venuti, L. (2011). Introduction poetry and translation. Translation Studies, 4(2). Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/

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Obstacles in Islamic Translation By Ghaida A Bin-Saloom Translation can be considered from two different opinions, that of a process and that of a product. As a process, translation includes turning a text from one language into another. The transmitted text can be in the form of an expression, an utterance or even a piece of music. Trans-

lation between languages of various cultures is more complex than translation between languages that are of similar culture. In fact, it embodies some difficult mistakes from the translators as well. However, This difficulty usually becomes not easy to avoid as the culturally emotive terms of the message reduce part or all of their connotative meaning when translators process the text . It has been noted by Bahameed (2008) that the translation complexity is focused on the difference of what is considered to be acceptable to one tribe of people can be regarded as totally odd and causing trouble for another tribe. For example in the society of Muslims, men can marry women-up to four wives if he can deal with them in an equal and fair way, but in the Chris-

tian West, polygamy is forbidden. That's why Polygamy is odd and western people cannot take it for granted as it does not happen in their society and it is not a part of their culture. Another field that causes problems to arise is that "translators have that is called word for word translation to put bluntly" (para. 8). This is viewed as a matter that can be applied to many translators. The reason can be one of these: the translator does not have enough ideas or information about the text he or she translates, so word for word translation takes place. The most effective solution to solve this problematic matter is to have a comprehensive idea of the topic he or she is dealing with, and that is regarded as part of a far more acceptable translation

(Almaghary, n.d.). It is a basic matter to clearly understand the idea and identify the meaning and the definitions of both semantics and syntax in translation. The best term is "religiolect" (p. 12), the term religiolect avoids the chaos of ethnicity and has a direct background of the people who use this language aspect, but the translator's duty is not only translating meaning and nothing else but also meaning which lies in the relationships which may develop within the hidden components and this meaning is the product which may develop out of the combinations of various language elements (Hary, 2009). 140

Almost all kinds of translation depend on equivalence between the source and the target text. But, there is no agreement on the nature of translation equivalence. Also, the word "misunderstanding" is not easy in most fields of life. Misunderstandings comes from incompatibilities in processing of media which is responsible for carrying the languages. Yet misunderstandings are not only the products of linguistic incompatibilities, but of cultural ones as well. It takes place in special social structures, particular histories, and norms of language production and reception (Faiq, 2004). According to Siddick, 2012, "Literal (verbal) translation of Quran is religiously impossible" (p. 21). It is important to note in this context that translators cannot translate every religious word, especially translating words or clauses from the holy Quran because the translation between languages of various cultures is more complex than translation between languages that are of similar culture. Also, Mahmoud (n.d.) said: "The main challenges lie in overcoming ideational hurdles in translation as well as in dealing with terminology" (p. 4). References

Almaghary, I. A. (n.d.). Translation problems amongst Arab translators. Translation Directory. Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com Bahameed, A. S. (2008). Hindrances in Arabic-English intercultural translation. Translation Journal, 12(42). Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net Faiq, S. (2004). Cultural encounters in translation from Arabic. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com. Gumaa Siddiek, A. (2012). Viewpoints in the translation of the Holy Quran. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 1(2). Retrieved from http://

www.journals.aiac.org.au/ Hary, B. H. (2009). Translating religion: linguistic analysis of judeo-Arabic sacred texts from Egypt. Retrieved from https://books.google.com. Mahmoud, M. (n.d.). Challenges of translating Islamic religious items from Arabic into English. Retrieved from http://www.google.com.sa/

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Students Overcoming Translation Problems By Mona Almuhizea Translation plays an important role in our life. It helps us communicate with the whole world and exchange experiences and information. In fact, translation is one of the best majors, but it is not as easy as some people think, it needs us to be patient and keep practicing. Many students who are

majoring in translation are faced with many problems which make them stop translating to think and rethink and use the dictionary. These problems, of course, need solutions which can be acceptable and possible. In fact, translation is viewed as a number of problems of different kinds that demand suitable and possible solutions. There are various kinds of translation problems that students might face, but not all of which have received sufficient attention. In 1972, Zaidi emphasized that, "Translation of questions or other verbal stimuli has received more attention than problems of achieving equivalence in translations of orienting and task instructions and respondents" (p. 41). Actually, what Zaidi is trying to say is that there are some translators who think that achieving equivalence in translation is the most important thing, but this is a wrong idea. Clearly, there are such important problems that some translators do not care about such as translation of questions. In addition to the problem of translating questions, there are also problems that translators may face, for example, when they want to translate from English to Arabic. In 2007, Nakhallah stressed that, "It is a difficult task to each Arab students to produce adequate English because of . . . the over use of the connector (WA)" (p. 8). So, the differences in using some words from one language to another play a major role in translating. Also, Mubaideen (2015) stressed that, "Even translators find it difficult when translating from the source language into the target language on the basis of grammar" (p. 16). So, even the differences in grammar between the two languages can be a problem. Moreover, translation students in the Jordanian EFL University faced difficulties in translating idiom expressions. The reason is that the translation students are not aware of this problem, as it has been stated that, "This could be due to the lack of translation strategies that help them to render the source expression in the target language" (Alrishan & Smadi, 2015, p. 125). This means that knowing the strategies of translation is very important because as what Alrishan andproblem, as it has been stated that, "This could be due to the lack of translation strategies that help them to render the source expression in the target language" (Alrishan & Smadi, 2015, p. 125). This means that knowing the 142

strategies of translation is very important because as what Alrishan and Smadi say, the lack of translation strategies could cause problems or difficulties in translating some expressions to the target language such as idioms. According to Zainudin, 2012, "The ability to choose the correct translation technique is an indispensable skill to translators; therefore it is essential for a translation student to be aware of why a particular technique is used" (p. 328). So, to overcome the problems of translation, translators should know the techniques of translation which is very important in the translation process because it tells us which kind of technique we should use in a particular type of translation. He also points out that knowing the types of translation is also one of the most important things in translation. So,

both knowing the techniques and the types of translation are essential and helpful for translators who want their translation to be professional. In conclusion, although the problems of translation arise day after day, it is not impossible to find suitable solutions to solve them. For example, the problems in translating questions and idiom expressions can be solved when we know the reason of the problem. According to Ghazala, 1995, "English and Arabic belong to two different and distinct language families: West Germanic, and Semitic. Consequently, their grammars are sharply different" (p. 28). So, after we know that English and Arabic do not have the same language family, we know why we can't use the same translation

strategy in every context. References Alrishan, A., & Smadi, O. (2015). Difficulties EFL Jordanian university students encounter in translating English idioms into Arabic. Journal of Education and Practice. Retrieved from http:// eric.ed.gov Ghazala, H. (1995). Translation as problems and solutions. Retrieved from http://atida.org/e-library/ Mubaideen, T. (2015). The influence of neutral gender words on translating job titles from English language into Arabic language. Journal of Education and Practice. Retrieved from http:// eric.ed.gov/ Nakhallah, A. (2007). Difficulties and problems facing English students at QOU in the translation process from English to Arabic and their solutions (Doctoral dissertation, Al-Quds Open University, Al-Quds, Palestine). Retrieved from http://www.qou.edu/english/conferences/ Zaidi, H. (1972). Problems of translation in cross-cultural research. Cross-Cultural Psychology. Retrieved from http://jcc.sagepub.com/ Zainudin, I. S. (2012). Translation techniques: Problems and solutions. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/

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Translating English Metaphors By Emtenan M. Alahmad Metaphor is defined according to Dickins, Hervey, and Higgins (2013) as "Metaphor is typically used to describe something (whether concrete or abstract)" (p. 146). Metaphor is more concise and it carries bigger emotions and often it is more specific than literal language.

On the other hand, it is more imprecise, and open to interpretation. In fact, English metaphors differ from Arabic metaphors, in that there are certain ways to deal with them but the difficulties are numerous. There are many ways of translating metaphors. Some war conceptual metaphors are translated by using equivalent linguistic expressions, as thirty-six lexical items are translated word for word like 'under the gun'. Moreover, Arabic war metaphors tend to use the same metaphors as in English, and that means both languages are rich in this type of metaphor (Almanna, 2015). A metaphor may be converted into a simile (adding like or as) and the meaning of the metaphor may

be translated without keeping the metaphorical imagery such as, he is about to feel sleepy is it translated to ‫(كاد أن يستبد به النعاس‬Hassan, 2014, p. 42). It has been displayed that Arab public opinion is rarely referred to as such in the United States media. Instead, it is usually referred to as the Arab street - a metaphor that companies Arab public opinion as irrational and volatile (Regier, & Khalidi, 2009). The authors said that "We trace the origins of this metaphor to similar expressions in both English and Arabic, and note similarities and important differences between the English and Arabic usages" (para. 1). It is fact, that translating metaphors is not easy because it has an inside meaning. Moreo-

ver, Al‐Zoubi, Al‐Ali, and Al‐Hasnawi (2007) mentioned that: Metaphor translation has been treated as part of the more general problem of ‘untranslatability’. This trend stems from the fact that metaphors in general are associated with ‘indirectness’, which in turn contributes to the difficulty of translation. Different theories and approaches have been proposed with regard to metaphor translation, each of which has tackled this problem from a different point of view (para. 1).

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There are other problems of translating metaphors and the main one is that if the metaphor in the source language has semantic novelty, it for sure will not have the equivalent meaning in the target language. Arresting metaphors in the source language can only be translated equivalently using striking metaphors in the target language. Moreover, the translator should have a talent in writing creatively to create new ways of using language (Brevik, 2008). In my opinion, I believe that translating metaphor is interesting even with the difficulties because it lets you have different levels of meaning. Metaphors were called in the earlier period "translation" or "translation" which is a term with a broad range of meanings (Anderson, 1998, p. 231). Translating metaphors from one language to another may be hindered by linguistic and cultural differences (Schäffner, 2004). In addition, the fields in using metaphors are widely spread. Some metaphors can have several meanings, so that is what makes translating them difficult and interesting. References Almanna, A. (2015). Sayyb translation journal (stj) volume 5, 2013: An internationally peerreviewed journal of Arabic-English translation studies. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Anderson, J. H.. (1998). Translating investments: The metaphoricity of language, 2 Henry IV, and Hamlet. Texas Studies in Literature and Language, 40(3), 231–267. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org Brevik, N. E. (2008). Translation theory with regards to translating metaphors. Translation Theory. Retrieved from proz.com/doc/1831 Dickins, J., Hervey, S., & Higgins, L. (2013). Thinking Arabic translation: A course in translation method: Arabic to English. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Hassan, B. A. (2014). Between English and Arabic: A practical course in translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Regier, T., & Khalidi, M. A. (2009). The Arab street: Tracking a political metaphor. The Middle East Journal, 63(1), 11_29. Retrieved from http://muse.jhu.edu Schäffner, C. (2004). Metaphor and translation: Some implications of a cognitive approach, 36 (7), 1253–1269. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2003.10.012

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English Punctuation Mark Differences That Face Arab Translators

By Faten A. Alaql

Nunberg defined punctuation marks as "set of non-alphanumeric characters that are used to provide information about structural relations among elements of a text" (as cited in Benjamin, 1997, p. 151). Differentiating in the usage and meaning of the same punctuation from English

and Arabic, an Arabic translator should be aware of its history, importance, differences and results of dropping and misusing it in written translation. Brown (n.d.) discussed that the word punctuation "is derived from the Latin punctus, point" (para. 1). Also, Culpeper (2008) added that punctuation mark "was designed to assist reading aloud" (p. 28). In1474, the first three punctuation marks: the stroke (/), the colon (:), and the period (.) were invited by William Caxton, while Arabs were using their own punctuation system such as, fatha, kasra, and damma. However, Arabs knew punctuation - brought by an Egyptian linguist named Ali Ahmed Pasha - and started using it beside their old system in 1912 (Alotaiby,

Alkharashi, &Foda, n.d.). Punctuation is vital to disambiguate the meaning of context and it is a means to carry a correct written translation between English and Arabic language. In addition, Mogahed (2012) explains that it guides the reader to appropriate meaning as shown in the following example, ‫"ما‬ ".‫أحسن الرجل‬is a statement would be translated as "the man did not do well" "!‫ما أحسن" الرجل‬is an exclamation statement in the target language, it would be "how handsome the man is''. A question ''‫"ما أحسن الرجل؟‬gives the reader a meaning of "what did the man do well?'' (p. 4). Arabic text had been written without punctuations until recently (Husni& Newman,

2013), while punctuation marks have a deep root in English. Thus, the differences are limited and slight. For instance, if a translator would translate this sentence (the girl cried, "I want a new dress") into Arabic the comma should be replaced by a colon. Additionally, a hyphen in English is usually used between compound words or numbers while the Arabic language uses it after each number in a list, after adding and explaining. Sometimes punctuation marks are not just differences in usage but also in shape as (,) is an English comma but an Arabic comma is (‘). Dropping and misusing punctuation marks can change the meaning completely, especially in English. Therefore, an Arabic translator should focus on the slight differences. 146

Also, sometimes same sentence but various punctuation marks represent meaning away from what you intended. For example, (let's eat my mother) when translated as ( )‫هيا لنأكل أمي‬sounds strange, but using a comma can change it to a proper meaning (let's eat, my mother) that is translated into (.)‫هيا لنأكل يا أمي‬ In conclusion, punctuation marks are essential when you are writing and translating from English into Arabic or vice versa. Additionally, in English punctuation marks play a big role in carrying meaning while Arabic punctuations are less important until recently. On the other hand, any simple error in punctuations in both languages can convey a completely different meaning, so they are not just writing decorations but also challenging tasks (Cho, Niehues&Waibel, 2012).

References Alotaiby, F. A., Alkharashi, I. A., &Foda, S. G. (n.d.). Processing large Arabic text corpora: Preliminary analysis and result. Elra. Retrieved from http://www.elda.org

Benjamins, J. (1997). Nonverbal communication and translation: New perspectives and challenges in literature, interpretation and the media. Retrieved fromhttps:// books.google.com.sa Brown, T. J. (n.d.). Punctuation. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved fromhttp:// global.britannica.com Culpeper, J. (2008). History of English. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Cho, E., Niehues, J., &Waibel, A. (2012). Segmentation and punctuation prediction in speech language translation using a monolingual translation system. International Center for

Advanced Communication Technologie. Retrieved from http://hltc.cs.ust.hk Husni, R., & Newman, D. L. (2013). A to Z of A rabic - English - Arabic translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com Mogahed, M. (2012). Punctuation marks make a difference in translation: Practical examples. Research Gate. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net

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Sign Language Interpreting By Soad A. Baselm Sign languages is used by deaf groups in the entire world. Sign languages appeared when deaf people interacted with each other and they were not created by anyone. Also sign languages

did not rely on spoken languages and they had their own words and grammar (Sandler & Lillo, 2001). In an article titled " patent," it was been reported that "Sign language may utilize any combination of hand gestures, facial expressions, body movements, touch, and other forms of communication. There are hundreds of types of sign languages, and each language may contain considerable variations" (para 3- 4). Sign languages serve deaf people to interact with each other and by using sign languages, deaf and hearing people can communicate. Marschark (2005) points out that sign language interpreteing is a new profession in interpretation field . For the past 10 years in Philadelphia, every deaf person has to have an inter-

preter with him wherever he goes. Hospitals, medical emergency facilities, work-related sites, training programs and conferences must have sign language interpreters to serve deaf people. Also you can find sign language interpreters in deaf school classes or any other activities for deaf people. He also mention that "You can find them working with deaf-blind people, at international conferences, and at sporting events such as the World Games of the Deaf using ASL or International Sign Language" (Marschark, 2005, p. 5). There are many differences between sign languages and spoken languages. Sign languages are visual-gestural languages and they consist of sequences of movements and configura-

tions of the hand, arms, face and upper part of the body. While spoken languages are auditoryvocal languages and they consist of sounds produced by sequences of movements and configurations of the mouth and vocal tract. Although sign and spoken languages are different they both used to supply and share information ("Sign language," n.d.). According to El Alfi, El Basuony & El Atawy, 2014, "Arabic Sign Language (ArSL) is used in Arab countries. The unified Arab sign dictionary has been launched for the deaf in two parts in February 2007. It includes 1600 sign. Arabic sign language is used approximately by

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3,000,000 deaf in Egypt" (para. 4-5). They also explain that an interpreter have to obtain the linguistic studies and culture traditions to improve their work skills. ArSL interpreters face many problems when they translate from sign languages to spoken or via versa such as lack of linguistic studies on ArSL especially in Arabic grammar and structure. As it has been said, there are hundreds of sign languages so, American Sign Language is not a universal language. American Sign Language shares many vocabulary with Old French Sign Language because of Laurent Clerc, who was a French deaf person , was the first teacher of the Deaf in the U.S. in the nineteenth century. ASL has a very complex grammar and it is totally different from English spoken language in its morphology, phonetics and grammar rules (Nakamura, 2008). Finally, sign language likes spoken language has many different varieties. Also sign languages change over time and they are the tool to communicate with deaf and hearing people. They are one of deaf people rights, so that Sign language interpreters should always upgrade their skills and knowledge to understand deaf people and express their signs precisely.

References El Alfi, A. E., El Basuony, M. R., & El Atawy, S. M. (2014). Intelligent Arabic text to Arabic sign language translation for easy deaf communication. International Journal of Computer Applications, 92(8). Retrieved fromhttp://research.ijcaonline.org Sandler, W., & Lillo-Martin, D. (2001). Natural sign languages. Handbook of Linguistics. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net Sign language. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://wfdeaf.org/human-rights/crpd/ sign-language Marschark, M. (2005). Sign language interpreting and interpreter education. Retrieved from http://sj9sr8sb5k.search.serialssolutions.com Nakamura, K. (2008, March 28). About american sign language. Retrieved from http:// www.deaflibrary.org/asl.html Patents; "Sign language translation" in patent application approval process (uspto 20150254235). (2016). Journal of Engineering. Retrieved from https:// www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-429994882.html

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The Impact of Globalization on Today's Translation and its Industry

By Areej N. Al-Qahtani

In this period, people are able to communicate easily and massively with each other and this is one prominent result of a phenomenon known as "Globalization". According to Kiely, Shuey and Welles, 2001, globalization is "a widely and somewhat loosely used term, intended to

describe the recent and rapid process intercontinental economic, social, and political integration" (p. 37). In the view of this definition, we can observe the relationship between globalization and translation. Translation as any other science (or art) has been influenced by globalization on many levels, such as the world's increasing dependence on translation, translator's accesses to the cultures of source languages, and the effects of globalization on the translation industry. Shiyab, Rose, and House (2010) believe that globalization has a positive effect on translation. For instance, the increasing need for translation and the reason for this is "because parts of the world are becoming interested in one another due to many reasons, i.e. world conflicts

and clashes, world economic crisis, shared concerns, common interests" (p. 7). The extensive dependence on translation services can be especially seen in some fields, such as education and commerce. Therefore, translation, nowadays, is fully and undoubtedly globalized. Another positive effect is the greater accesses to the cultures of target languages. Globalization has assisted translators with more opportunities to reach cultures by using better and more inclusive approaches. In addition, globalization has raised people's awareness of the cultural diversity of the Earth. Consequently, breaking barriers between cultures, so that people can get to know each other in better ways has become a goal to achieve. Furthermore, it is clear that

translation is the way to do the job (House, Rose, & Shiyab, 2010). In addition, “Translation can bridge the gap between peoples and nations, and globalization has contributed in a more effective way towards understanding the source language and culture" (p. 10). On the other hand, Adewuni (n.d.) asserts that globalization is not promising for translators' future as many of them may think and he even calls it "a death trap" for translation. The danger is mostly in the fact that globalization has taken the side of English language and made it the language of the world. In his remarkable book The Translator's Invisibility, Venuti highlights

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The fact that the tendency inside the thriving industry of translation is to translate from and into English. He also explains how foreign publishers benefit unfairly from the American and British economic and political dominance in the world by forcing the foreign readers to accept the hegemonic cultural values of the two countries in the translations they read (1995). However, some governments payed attention to the general global tendency among publishers and decided to counter it as much as possible. For example, Cronin (2003) discussed how some governmental European organizations from countries such as, Belgium, Finland and Germany worked strongly during the 90's to support the translations of their literatures. As Venuti argued, the main reason for this step is the fear that their literature works would not get enough chances to be published in the market without the help of them due to the dominance of English-speaking countries and their culture on the industry of translation (as cited in Cronin, 2003). To sum up, the difference between globalization and translation is that the first aims to unify people into one global village that is represented by one culture and few languages, while the second tends to celebrate the various cultures of our world by filling the gap between them and help their people to know each other (Adewuni, n.d.). Moreover, Peter Newmark stresses that "translating has become increasingly and intensively globalized and is an integral part of the expansion of travel, tourism, and the service industries, and translators often have to be found in situ" (as cited in Rogers & Anderman, 2003, p. 60). References Adewuni, S. (n.d.). Globalizing translation: What hope for the translator?. Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com Cronin, M. (2003). Translation and globalization. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Kiely, R., Shuey, R., & Welles, G. J. (2001). Globalization. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Rogers, M., & Anderman, G. (Eds.). (2003). Translation today: trends and perspectives. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Shiyab, S. M., Rose, M. G., & House, J. (2010). Globalization and aspects of translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Venuti, L. (1995). The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa 151

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The Effect of Globalization on Today's Translation By Razan A. Al-Sulaiman Globalization has always been an important aspect of translation. Translation brings cultures closer. At present, the process of globalization is moving faster than ever before and there is no indication that it will stall any time soon. The challenges of globalization are unique, enor-

mous, and varied and the world has come to recognize interdependence and interconnectedness as the most significant features of the age of globalization. Therefore, globalization has had an enormous impact on translators' lives and work and different aspects of globalization in relation to translation (Salman, 2016). What is globalization? Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of different nations; a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology. Globalization is not new - for thousands of years’ corporations have been buying from and selling to each other in lands at great dis-

tances. Likewise, for centuries, people and corporations have invested in enterprises in other countries. In fact, many of the features of the current wave of globalization are similar to those prevailing before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 (Zeiler, 2002). According to William (2004), the effects of the translators can be in their businesses which is dependent on translation if they wish to expand across the globe. He said: there are some reasons why you can not ignore translation in globalization, if you aim to take your business across borders. First, ecommerce internet has erased borders with online trading opportunities, and you can practically reach anyone in the world . . . Finally, technology

translation software and other technological industries seamlessly interact with each other across the world (p. 80). One of the facts that we can not ignore is that technological innovations are constantly invading our private lives and not only have our lives been impacted by the emergence to technology, but also how corporate companies do their daily business. At the social level, technology has helped people cooperate with one another, share common interests and work on joint ventures. It is not only translators who have been impacted by globalized technology, but also

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the daily lives of many people, their cultures and various translation businesses in how translators do their work and their style (Amonrat, 2007). In 2010, House emphasized that while the picture of globalization often looks glamorous, this does not mean there are no serious concerns. He stressed that “one of these concerns is the fact that globalization created more gaps among individuals and people. Loss of employment, disappearance of small businesses, monopoly power of local industries, consumer exploitation, and low quality products are all examples of negative globalization” (p. 6). Therefore, unbalanced outcomes among people were created, and wealth is not evenly distributed. In conclusion as indicated above, at the translation level, globalization has impacted the lives of everyone, including the profession of translation and the lives of translators. With the new technology and the emergence of new words and concepts, translators have to incorporate globalization into their daily practices. According to Adesina, 2009, “globalization has been perceived as an overpowering force for bringing economic affluence to people and nations throughout the world. At the other, it has been perceived as a pandemic for all modern problems” (p. 34). He points out that translation can bridge the gap between peoples and nations. References Adesina, H. C. (2009). Globalization and transnational migrations: Africa and Africans in the contemporary global system. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Amonrat, T. (2007). Globalization effects and firm performance. Journal of International Business Research, 6(2), 43. doi:10.1111/iere.12080 House, J. (2010). Globalization and aspects of translation. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Salman, B. (2016). Globalization and its effect on the novels translated into Persian: A postcolonial approach. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 3, 1058. doi:10.4304/ tpls.3.6.1050-1058 William, B. (2004). Transitions: Making sense of life's changes. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Zeiler, T. W. (2002). Globalization. Retrieved from http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/ Globalization.aspx

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Translation Process and Theory By Ghadah A. Al-rasheed The process of translation has always been a controversial topic over the years. New theories, new strategies and thousands of researches are written every day regarding this topic. Some people do believe that the process of translation is just a myth and something worthless; Nida, 1991, asserts

that "some professional translators take considerable pride in denying that they have any theory of translation they just translate" (p. 19). So how can a convoluted and a challenging process not have any theories or strategies and just end up as just translating? Nida also points out that we as translators, possess some type of underlying or covert theory. In this research, I will talk about the process of translation and multiple theories. In the past, translation was limited to “religious” , “literary” , “scientific” and “philosophical” (p. 17) texts only. Through the years, the number and the variety of translators and translations has increased, and today cities have gone from having 0% translators to more than 40% (Newmark, 1991). And the science of translation used to have no curriculum and no theories, but today millions of books and essays are being written regarding this topic. And it has been statically shown that there is no sign of decreasing of translation activities in the future worldwide; actually it has been reported that “translation has become a force and an instrument of democracy” (Newmark, 1991, p. 17). So what is translation? And what do we exactly translate? Professor Ghazala (2014) explained that translation is a combination of all the processes and methods we use to achieve the highest assimilation of the encoding operation. In the processes of translation, one thing only should be translated in the verity of texts, may they be legal, political, humanities etc. which is meaning; even the smallest unit of a word carries its own individual meaning (Baker, 2011, p. 30). Jerome (1997) stated that “I render not word-for-word, but sense-for-sense” (as cited in Munday, 2009, p. 20). Word for word “literal” vs. sense for sense “free” (para. 5) are the most debated theories when it comes to translation. St Jerome, cicero, and more translators have chosen free translation theory over the literal translation. St Jerome renounced it, and described it as an illogical theory for translation, but later on he bound up both literal and free translation chosenfree translation theory over the literal translation. St Jerome renounced it, and described it as an illogical theory for translation, but later on he bound up both literal and free translation theories to translate the bible, 154

and the translation was known by the vulgate which is the Latin translation of the bible. And for the second theory which is the theory of cognitive translation as stated in The Transfer Factor (2003): Takes place during the act of translation. This process consists of several activities taking place or more less at the same time, involving visual sensory perception, comprehension, analysis, processing, monitoring and production. All of these activities are constrained by many factors (p. 143). And for the third theory which is the natural equivalence theory, the value in the target text must be compatible with the values of the source text, and that value will vary from the level of structure or source or commission (Pym, 2009). This theory is used when there is no equality between the linguistic structure. Over the years, this theory became more and more broader, and you might think what is the naturalness in the equivalent? According to Nida and Taber “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the sourcelanguage message” (as cited in Pym, 2004) and what makes it complex is the fact that not everything is natural in translation. But if there was no naturalness the theory will fall. At the end, I have listed the most common and controversial theories in translation. Theories are limitless as there is no such thing as a limited number of theories. In the last generation, translation science has grown beyond all expectations; as long as the science of language grows, the translation science will grow even bigger. This felid of knowledge needs practice, passion and creativity. References Baker, M. (2011). In other words: A course book on translation (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa/books Ghazala, H. (2014). Translation as problems and solutions (10th ed.). Jeddah: Konooz Al-Marifa. Munday, J. (2009). Introducing translation studies: theories and applications (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books Nida, E. (1991). Theories of translation. Erudit, 4(1), 32. Retrieved from https:// scholar.google.com Newmark, P. (1991). About translation. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books Pym, A. (2009). Exploring translation theories. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books Writescope Publishers. (2003). The transfer factor. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ books

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The Role of Culture in Translation By Shahad N. Al-Kabbaa God created many distinct tribes and nations that differ in their languages, cultures, lifestyles and many other aspects in life for a specific reason, which is to know each other, as it was mentioned in the holy Qur'an: ( ‫ع ش ْ ُم اك َ ْنلَعَ َج (و‬ ُ ُ ‫ت ل َ ِل ائ َ َبقَ ا و ً وب‬ ِ ‫ُف ار َ َع‬ َ ‫(وا‬Quran 49:13 King Fahad

Printing Complex Publishing). Therefore, in order to make interacting with all these different people possible, we should learn their languages as a first step. Since all languages reflect their cultures, translators should consider understanding the culture besides learning the language. Many people think that to be a good translator that only requires mastering two different languages without thinking about the importance of understanding their cultures. However, if a translator has a misunderstanding regarding the source language, he definitely will not be able to convey the accurate meaning to the target language. So, a good translator should consider the cultural gaps between the SL and the TL communities. Therefore, translating a political text from English into

Arabic, for example, is challenging due to the cultural differences between Arab and Eastern countries. According to Qassem, 2014, "These make the task of the translator complex as he needs to be bicultural as he already bilingual" (p. 241). Another difficult task related to culture, that may face translators is translating the exact meaning of special sayings of a specific culture. Mohit (2008) said: Language is largely culture oriented and therefore, translators face the problem of translating certain culture based words into another language with a different culture. Colloquial expressions, culture-words, slangs, proverbs are difficult to translate for there is no one to one correspondence between one culture and another or one language and another. Equivalence of words in two or more languages is hard to come by (p. 48). According to an experiment that was conducted by Jaeyoung, Kushner, Mill and Lai (2012), they asked some translators to translate a Korean text. Some of those translators were aware of the Korean culture and the others were not. The translators were required to translate a sentence that was said by a woman: "My dad passed away in 1949" which actually meant, my “HUSBAND passed away in 1949" because in Korean culture, women called their husbands “fathers or dad”.

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Certainly, the translators who were not aware of this Korean metaphor had misunderstood the meaning while the ones who knew the actual meaning clarified what the women meant by writing "husband" between brackets behind the word "dad". Translating idioms is also a well-known example that emphasizes the importance of cultural awareness since idioms are culturally specific. Adelnia and Dastjerdi (2011) stated that "Not all idioms have direct equivalents in another language, because they are linguistic expressions which are typical for a language and specific to a single culture" (p. 22). Moreover, Abdul Wahhab’s (2002) thesis indicated that the main reasons translators face difficulties when dealing with idioms are their non-literal meanings and fixed word-orders. He added that lack of cultural knowledge was also a factor that contributed to such difficulties. Simon and Suciu (2015) concluded that "the interpreter's role is obvious: s/he needs to take into account the cultural background of the communication partners in order to relay the message as accurately as possible and to facilitate the oral exchange effectively" (p. 1244). That emphasizes the interpreter's task of being both bilingual and bicultural in order to be able to bridge the linguistic and cultural gap. So, in order to prepare the interpreting students for their future professional success, they should raise the cultural awareness at the beginning of their translation journey.

References Abdul Wahhab, S. (August, 2002). Understanding and usage of English idioms: A problem encountered by Jordanian EFL learners (Master’s thesis, Yarmouk University, Jordan). Adelnia, A., & Dastjerdi, H. (2011). Translation of idioms: A hard task for the translator. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. doi:10.4304/tpls.1.7.879-88 Jaeyoung, C., Kushner, K. E., Judy, M., & Lai, D. L. (2012). Understanding the language, the culture, and the experience: Translation in cross-cultural research. International Journal Of Qualitative Methods, 11(5), 652-665. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com/

Mohit, M. D. (Ed.). (2008). Studies in translation (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Qassem, M. A. (2014). The Arab translation students' hindrances in translating political culture from English into Arabic. A rab W orld English Journal. Retrieved rom http:// web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/ Simon, S., & Suciu, L. (2015). Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students. Procedia Social And Behavioral Sciences, 197 (7th World Conference on Educational Sciences), 1242-1245. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.390 157

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Difficulties in Translating Political Texts By Wejdan H. Aldurayhem Translation is a crucial tool to understand global relation in terms of commerce, science, literature, politics, etc. Since learning more languages is possible, the act of translation made a huge development in many fields, one of which is in politics. According to Al-Zu'bi (2012), politics is part and parcel of our daily life. She believed that "it helps man keep pace with what is going around him/her in this changing world" (p. 2). She also added that translation of political works and books became very important due to the effective role of politics. Indeed, it is not a simple task for the translator to deal with special terminology, so the difficulties that may face him/her when translating political texts could be a huge obstacle to deliver the meaning. In the field of political science, there are two distinctive languages to be used, political and diplomatic languages. According to Mardirosz, 2015, political and diplomatic languages differ in purpose and range. The political language is adequately used to convey the statements of historical genres such as describing historical affairs, famous people, and socially remarkable circumstances. On the other hand, the

diplomatic language is primarily used as the protocol language of formal events and ceremonies. So, we can understand that "political language is suitable for recording data and facts (e.g. highlighting important legal and territorial changes and political events in the world, war, treaties, etc.)" (p. 163). In 2009, Schaffner explained that translation played a very big and important political role in international communication. Also, she added that political translation is used for various matters such as signing bilateral contracts, delivering speeches during state visits, translating multilateral treaties, interviewing foreign politicians and so on. Therefore, different texts are translated in the area of politics and as Schaffner pointed out that "variety of texts are translated to fulfill functions for political communication across languages, cultures, and ideologies" (2008, p. 3). Political texts should be translated accurately so that they do not lose their core meaning. However, sometimes it is difficult for the translator when he/she faces a situation in which the source text is overcomplicated and unclear. According to Mardirosz, 2015, this difficulty could be "a result of incompetence or lack of knowledge of those who wrote the texts" (p. 169). Also, she mentioned that this overcomplicatedness is due to the specific terminology that politicians use. Nagy, 2014, similarly has the same viewpoint when she confirmed that specialized terminology is to be taken carefully when translated to another language because it can be an obstacle for the translator when he/she wants to deliver the accurate meaning. 158

Some scholars said that the difficulty in translating political text is when the translator finds a cultural bound text. Many translators try to find a way out to solve this issue by translating the text literally, which is a totally wrong way. In 2006, Soliman confirmed that "the literal word-for-word translation . . . ignores the cultural differences" (p. 24). When the cultural differences are ignored, the translation will be incomplete and meaningless. When it comes to culture, some political terms in Arabic indicate a strong bond with local cultural aspect like proverbs, religious references, and folklores. Those terms are "highly emotive element which is usually ignored by translators" (Soliman, 2006, p. 25) and when they are ignored it results in a weak translated political text. In conclusion, although translating political texts is a really hard task, it can be an easy one if

the translator gets familiar with both source language and target language as well as their culture. As Mehawesh, 2014, pointed out that translators should use the most accepted term in translating political text to avoid ambiguity. Difficulties in translating political tests are always encountered, so "if the translators face new concepts during the translation process, they must take into consideration several political, linguistic and cultural aspects in order to reach the perfect or at least the most acceptable equivalent" (Mardirosz, 2015, p. 170). References Al -Zu'bi, I. (2012). Difficulties that M.A students encounter in translating political expressions from his majesty king Abdullah's our last best chance (Master's thesis, Middle East University , Am-

man, Jordan). Retrieved from http://www.meu.edu.jo/ar/index.php?option=com Mehawesh, M. (2014). Strategies of translating political texts with particular reference to English and Italian. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 4(2). Retrieved from http://iiste.org/ Journals/index.php/RHSS/article/view/15805 Márdirosz, K. (n.d.). Problems related to the translation of political text. The Journal of "Sapientia" Hungarian University of Transylvania, 6(2). Retrieved from http://www.degruyter.com/view/ Nagy, I. (2014). English for special purposes: Specialized languages and problems of terminology. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Philologica, 6(2). Retrieved from http:// www.acta.sapientia.ro/acta-philo/C6-2/philo62-8.pdf Schaeffner, C. (2009). Political discourse, media and translation. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa/ Schäffner, C. (2008). 'the prime minister said...': voices in translated political texts. Retrieved from http://eprints.aston.ac.uk/1912/ Soliman, H. (2006). Translating quoted sacred texts in political speeches (Master's thesis, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE). Retrieved from https://dspace.aus.edu/xmlui/ handle/11073/37

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Translating English Children's Literature By Atheer B. Alhomaied Children’s literature including all materials that related to children's knowledge, such as books, magazines and poems in order to interest or teach young people. Children’s literature appears in the second of 18th century (Fadiman, 2015). In fact, translation children's literature must

be specialist, since it is not mere mastery of some mechanical skills, but a through knowledge of children's language. Translators should apply some strategies when they want to translate children's literature, such as knowing a purpose, analyzing a text and remembering that the source text and the target text might have various meanings or are used for different purpose (Long AG, 2012). Others such as Zhang (2011) suggested other strategies, for example, using interesting and effective language that means ''It is an important aim to make the children readers happy by producing and translating interesting versions.'' (para. 3).

In addition, using some easy words because children do not understand great vocabulary. Also, using straightway sentence forms and “interjections, a very special lexical category which have no sense of independent entity, are usually put at the end of the sentences, or the pause of the sentence, to show the speaker's tone and mood, and therefore endow the text with some additional feelings and emotions.” (Zhang, 2011, para. 3). According to Anoo (1969), the translation of children’s literature expose children to unique literary viewpoints, improve the status of children’s literature and inspire new ambitions, so they still have positive purposes. He also points out that literary cultures between nations are

intermixing, so that may be one of the most important contributions of translated tasks of children's literature. Children’s literature is one of the important materials that are beneficial for children’s comprehension as Jiang (2013) said: Children's literature deserves a special attention because it plays a fairly important role in children's growing-up process. From the angle of linguistics, children's literature is basically child-centered, dialogue-based and eventoriented. The language of children's literature is featured by accuracy, simplici160

Translation of children's literature should be based on the special awareness and understanding characteristics of the children, and children approval should be taken into consideration and they should know the difference between children’s literature and adults’ literature (Zhang, 2011). In addition, others as Jan Van Coillie (2014) explain that ''translation was and remains a means of sharing creativity, new ideas and literary models.'' (p. 23). References Anoo, M. A. (1969). Translation of children's literature. Retrieved from http:// www.encyclopedia.com/article Fadiman, C. F. (2015, September 25). Children’s literature. Retrieved from http:// global.britannica.com/art/childrens-literature Jan Van Coillie, W. J. (2014). Children's literature in translation: Challenges and strategies. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Jiang, Y. J. (2013). C-e translation of children's literature from the perspective of relevance theory. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 3(6), 2. Retrieved from http:// sj9sr8sb5k.search.serialssolutions.com/ Lang AG, P. L. (2012). Translating expressive language in children's literature: Problems and solutions. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/sdl/ Zhang, Y. Z. (2011). On the translation of children's literature. Journal of Language Teaching and Research Publisher, 2(1). Retrieved from http://sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com/

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Problems in Advertising Translation By Haifa A. Alqahtani According to Boveè and Arens (1989), advertising is very popular in our modern society. We see, hear, and read advertisements every day around us. They are special kind of communication that transfer a message from the producer to the consumer. The most important point in ad-

vertising is to be attractive and easy to be remembered and to build a connection with the consumer (as cited in Mehawesh, 2013). Mehawesh (2013) also stressed that “One major problem regarding advertising is the proper translation of advertisements. The translation of some advertisements should not be a literal translation but rather than an adapted text” (p. 254). Indeed, one of the most difficult challenges that face translators is advertisement translating. In 2002, Venuti reported that “In translating advertisements, a translator may find it useful to frustrate domestic expectations of a foreign culture” (p. 24). The need of translators has increased in our modern society, and advertising has become a very profitable business due to the

need of international exchange. Also, advertising in this globalized world means access to global markets, so there are certain skills needed by a translator and certain elements involved when translating an advertisement in order to match the impact an advertisement has on the local market in the foreign market (Hamade, 2008). Fadaee (2015) discussed that “Translation of advertisements may be more challenging than other types of translations due to the importance of both form and content in cross-cultural translation and audience response” (p. 265). He also refers to another problem of advertising translation due to the certain constraints of money. Translating as an art stresses high creativity and re-

quires exercise; however, there are bounds such as length and existing material. However, if translators have all the above problems, they have to learn about the source and target cultures and languages. According to Ting, 2014, “There exist problems in advertisement translation in terms of language, expressions and culture” (p. 710). He also points out that in language analysis, the translation of advertisements is based on its original text, but it must not be literally translated so, the translator should first understand the source text, have a right study of the property of the product, and understand the objective market, before making an ideal translation. 162

Guidere (2003) mentioned several components that translator must gives great attention: •The socio-cultural component: which includes the local particularities stemming from religion, mores, social and commercial habits, rules of conduct and ethical norms … •The politico-legal component: which includes the local particularities stemming from the nature of the political system, the stage of opening onto the world … (para. 12). In conclusion, it is difficult to make a good translation and keep the original meaning without changing at the same time. The translator should take into account all-dimensions such as language, culture, communication and aesthetics, to make a good translation (Ting, 2014). International advertising will be a challenge for the translator at different levels related to the various parts of the advertising message like the image and the text (Guidere, 2003).

References Fadaee, S. (2015). On the translation of advertisements: A comparative study of English-

Persian verbal metaphors. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 6. Retrieved from http://www.academypublication.com Guidere, M. (2003). The translation of advertisements: From adaptation to localization. Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com Hamade, L. (2008). Strategies and limitations in advertising translation from English into Arabic. Retrieved from https://dspace.aus.edu Mehawesh, M. (2013). Grammatical parallelism in the translation of advertising texts with particular reference to English and Arabic. Asian Social Science, 9. Retrieved from http://

www.ccsenet.org Ting, B. (2014). A study on advertisement translation based on the theory of ecotranslatology. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 5. Retrieved from http:// ojs.academypublisher.com Venuti, L. (2002) The scandals of translation: Towards an ethics of difference. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa.

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Challenges and Mistakes in Video Game Translation By Fatema A. Alabdullatif Playing video games are becoming a more popular activity among people. According to BernalMerino, 2008, they have grown to be one of the world’s biggest entertainment industries which are still growing constantly. The demand for entertainment software has evoked game publishers to translate more of their products into more languages. Bernal-Merino (2007) stated that the translation of video games does not seem to be different from other types of translation. However, some games require a particular kind of translation especially to translators going into localization, so translators might face some challenges which require them to be creative. Video game translation provides more players to enjoy a game in their language. In 2016, Esser, Smith and Bernal-Merino emphasized that the two terms that categorize the way in which video games are translated into the target language are "foreignization" and "domestication" (para. 2). Foreignization is to retain the foreign source text when translated. Some series of the Assassins' Creed game are based on several Italian regions which apply this strategy and the authors stressed that, "and this is an essential element of

the titles' narrative, with an important amount of names, references, historical plots, and cultural components that are kept untranslated in the localized Spanish version . . . in order to preserve the game's atmosphere." (para. 2). On the other hand, Esser, Smith and Bernal-Merino clarified that domestication aims to make the text seem originally written in the target language. This strategy applies to Mario Bros games as they stated that "This . . . applies to Mario Bros video games, where names worlds and locations, equipment, cultural references, etc., are normally translated or recreated to suit the taste and expectation of users in the target market" (para. 2). Translators should know which strategy is the best that will have a great effect on player enjoyment.

In translating video games, there should be a consideration for cultural differences. Therefore, O'Hagan and Mangiron (2013) observe that cultural filtering is applied in such video games such as Final Fantasy X when the game was translated from the Japanese to the North American (NA) version. It occurs in a scene where Yuna says farewell to her lover Tidus as she will never see him again. The authors explain that "In this highly dramatic moment, American (NA) version. It occurs in a scene where Yuna says farewell to her lover Tidus as she will never see him again. The authors explain that "In this highly dramatic moment, Yuna slightly bows to Tidus While saying [thank you] tohim." (p. 173). In the Japanese culture, this word is suitable and can send more meaning than being thankful. However, in the NA culture it would seem inappropriate that her last words were merely thank you, so US translators replaced it with I love you. 164

Gait (2015) believed that some games have misleading translations due to the fact that translators do not play the game themselves to get the actual meaning from the context. In a game called Magic Encyclopedia, the misleading translation to the Lithuanian language went horribly. According to Šiaučiūnė and Liubinienė, 2011, a hint given in the game is to extract nails (the metal spikes) from a barrel but instead it was translated as the horny covering of the tip of the finger. They commented that "The clue in Lithuanian sounds grimly and misleading because nails of the fingers and nails in the wall have nothing in common. Furthermore it can scare the young player as it indicates that the tool is used for extracting horny protecting sheaths." (p. 50). In conclusion, considering a clear plan to which method to follow in the translation is a crucial step. Generally, translating video games are complicated, so Gait stresses that translators should study and fully-understand the game to provide players with a comprehensible and contextually correct translation. He added that missing or literal translation could diminish customers. Moreover, in 2010, Chiaro claims that target players should have the same experience as the original players and they should not feel the existence of the translators. Finally, according to Chandler and Deming, 2011, every translator should keep in mind that there are multicultural audiences and they should enjoy the game without any cultural disruption. References

Bernal-Merino, M. Á. (2007, November). Revista tradumàtica: Dossier. Retrieved from http:// www.fti.uab.es/ Bernal-Merino, M. Á. (2008). Creativity in the translation of video games. La Ciencia Ficción En Los Discursos Culturales Y Medios De Expresión Contemporáneos, (13), 57-70. Retrieved from https://dialnet.unirioja.es/ Chandler, H. M., & Deming, S. O. (2011). The game localization handbook (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Chiaro, D. (2010). Translation, humour and the media: Translation and humour, volume 2. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

Esser, A., Smith, I. R., & Bernal-Merino, M. Á. (2016). Media across borders. Localising TV, film and video games. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Gait, R. (2015, December 21). The challenges of video game localization. Retrieved from http:// blog.gengo.com/ O'Hagan, M., & Mangiron, C. (2013). Game localization: Translating for the global digital entertainment industry. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Šiaučiūnė, V., & Liubinienė, V. (2011). Video game localization: The analysis of in-game texts. Studies About Languages, 19(19), 46-55. doi:10.5755/j01.sal.0.19.945

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Nida Theories in Translation By Ghada M. Alkhudairi Translating is not an act of transferring the meaning of a text from one language into another. Translating relies on some theory of differentiation and similarities between two different languages. So as to analyze and to guide such an activity, some translators have elaborated on vari-

ous theories: linguistic, sociolinguistic, communicative, free, literal, semiotic, relevant, transformational, and even gender (Nida, 2002). In fact, Nida has been a pioneer in the fields of translation theory and linguistics and his most notable contribution to translation theory is Dynamic Equivalence, also known as Functional Equivalence. Banafsheh, Abbass Eslami, and Abdolreza (2011) clarify that formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence are the different types of equivalence. Formal equivalence translation transact with the form and content of the message, where dynamic translation is concerned with the equivalent effect. And the translator is concerned with the dynamic relationship not with the

source language message. They also point out that “The relationship between receptors and the message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original and the message. While formal equivalence focuses on source language text, dynamic equivalence centers on the communicative effect on target language receivers" (p. 2). In 2013, Despoina emphasized that in 60's and 70's the idea of equivalence became a main characteristic for translation theories and it linked with all aspects of translating. The source text was called (ST) while the target text was called (TT). Baker (1998) believed "the concept of equivalence extends to cover similarity in source text and target information and in the cohesive

roles, source text and target text devices and calls these two factors combined textual equivalence" (as cited in Parisa, 2011, para. 8). According to Adrian, 2010, every person who works in the complex task of translating has some kind of secret theory of translating that should help in the realization of elements which have not been realized before. He stressed that, "Nida maintains that a fully adequate theory of translation consists of a group of general and coherent principles in matching the semantic contents of verbal utterances, and points out that stylistic models have a very important role in communication" (para. 9). 166

Weissbort and Eysteinsson (2006) said: In such a translation one is not so concerned with matching the receptorlanguage message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message. A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression, and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context culture; it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the soukcelanguage context in order to comprehend the message (p. 350). In conclusion, dynamic equivalence translation concentrates on translating thought-forthought as opposed to word-for-word (Feddes, 2011). Also, according to Rieu and Phillips (1945) this type of translation that tries to give a dynamic result rather than a formal equivalence is based upon the basis of equivalent effect (as cited in Weissbort & Eysteinsson, 2006). And what Nida discussed in a 2002 interview was how this transformation in Nida's translation was very important in contributing to help people to say what the text means and not what the words are (Feddes, 2011). References Adrian, C. (2010). Nida's theory of dynamic equivalence.Linguistic and Philosophical Investigations, 9. Retrieved from http://sdl.edu.sa/ Banafsheh, G., Abbass Eslami, R., & Abdolreza, P. (2011). Idiomatic expressions of the sewing frame in English and their persian counterparts: Nida's dynamic equivalence theory in focus. International Education Studies, 4(2), 2. Retrieved from https://sdl.edu.sa Despoina, P. (2013). Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 3(1). Retrieved from https://sdl.edu.sa Feddes, M. (2011, August 26). Eugene Nida, who revolutionized Bible translations, dead at 96. Christianity Today. Retrieved from http://www.christianitytoday.com/ Nida, E. A. (2002). Contexts in translating. Retrieved from https://sdl.edu.sa Parisa, F. (2011). The equivalence and shift in the Persian translation of English complex sentences with wh-subordinate clauses. English Language and Literature Studies, 1(2). Retrieved from http://sdl.edu.sa/ Weissbort, D., & Eysteinsson, A. (2006). Translation: Theory and practice: A historical reader. Retrieved from https://sdl.edu.sa 167

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The Need and Effect of Translation in Journalism By Razan A. Al-Harthi Translating news, articles, stories, and headlines are not as easy as it might seem. Qualified translators play a huge rule in bringing the idea to the reader clearly and almost as if it was written by the original author. Translating media materials has the power of letting almost any-

one participate and take an action towards a matter. In fact, through media translation and interpretation, societies from all over the globe can become in-touch with one another and also this shows ''that information, communication and translation are three areas of research that have much to say to each other'' according to Gambier, Doorslaer, and L (2012). Being fluent in another language is not enough to have correctly translated material. So, the role of a qualified translator is extremely important. Keller (2007) emphasizes that ''The quality of a translation goes not just to accuracy of detail or intent, not just to felicity of language, but to clarity, nuance and credibility'' (para. 1). Therefore, translating the voice or

the original effect of the message is the most important thing. In addition, this shows that a journalist cannot accurately translate a message without the help of excellent translators or interpreters, as they play a huge role in preventing the translated message from losing its sense of identity. It is impossible to find two languages that are exactly the same. Hence, lost context is one of the most common problems that occur in translating international news. For instance, if a translator translates a certain article into another language without having any background knowledge of the people of that language, then the intended meaning and effect of the whole message might be lost. Therefore, there are many modifications that go into translating source texts

in news translation which makes the translation as Bielsa (2007) points out ''more like an original, new text, specifically suited to the needs of the publication in which it appears and the readers to which it is targeted" as stated in (Salzberg, 2008, para. 2). With digital information being accessible easily, physical distance is not a problem in hearing or reading news. There are many ways in which journalists can make use of this rather globalized and connected world, but they should also be wary because not everything online is accurate. For example, Sefanov says ''the Arabic word "‫"الصحافة‬is translated to English . . .

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while Google Translate suggests "printing press," which could refer to the literal meaning inktransferring device'' (as cited in Kalter, 2012, para. 3). However, Sefanove also says "engaging on multiple fronts and vetting crowd sourced translators can also add to an arsenal of social tools that can help get a journalist closer to the truth" As stated in (Kalter, 2012, para. 5). Translating news is powerful and has many impacts, one of which is its political impact. Political interests can be promoted through news translation and its power is undeniable since through it, ideas and beliefs are promoted and sometimes even favorably conveyed. In addition, this means that translators and journalists have the ability to convey the ideology of others. However, journalists can include their own opinion, but both journalists and translators can still choose to stick to the words of those who hired them to either deceive or be truthful to the audience (Bánhegyi, 2012). The importance and effect of translation in journalism can be seen as a way of bringing the world together. It also shows the need of well-educated translators in the journalism field and how they cannot be replaced by translation sites. In addition, taking a text and changing it into another language is not just an act of reproduction but rather a creation. Tymoczko and Genuler say ''In these ways translators, as much as creative writers and politicians participate in the powerful acts that create knowledge and shape culture'' (as stated in Bielsa & Bassnett, 2009, p. 7). References Bánhegyi, M. (2012). Screening political bias and reality in media translations. Translation Journal, 16(3). Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/journal/61bias.htm Bielsa, E., & Bassnett, S. (2009). Translation in global news. London: Routledge. Gambier, Y., Doorslaer, & L. (2012). Handbook of translation studies: Volume 3. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Kalter, L. (2012, August 9). Four online translation tips for journalists. Retrieved from http:// ijnet.org/blog/four-online-translation-tips-journalists Keller, B. (2007, October 31). Translation and journalism. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://readingroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/10/31/translation-and-journalism/ Salzberg, C. (2008). Translation and participatory media: Experiences from global voices. Translation Journal, 12(3). Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/ journal/45global.htm 169

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The Challenges of Children's Literature Translation By Lama Al-outibi Translation is very important in our life nowadays. It is defined in many ways and may be understood differently by people. By the people who are not translators, translation is seen as a

text, but by the translators, it is seen as an activity. So according to O’Connell (2003) “The act of translation is at all times a linguistic activity which is constrained by a number of factors but screen translation may be considered constrained translation par excellence” (para. 3). That means it is an activity with a number of factors that may be challenges for every translator. First of all, translating names can be challenging for translators in translating children's literature. According to Epstein (2012), gender is a major issue in translating names for example "all Dutch names that end in a are for women, so if a name in a text to be translated to Dutch ends in an a and is for male, it would be changed to typical male Dutch name, so as not to confuse

readers" (p. 74). That means all Dutch names that end in an “a” are for women and to avoid confusing the readers when it comes to translating a name that ends with an “a” and it is for a male, it has to be changed to a typical male Dutch name. In addition, there are some factors that translators should take into account in an article Chunhua (2014) stated that “The three factors are what a translator must take into account if he wants his translation to achieve functional equivalence. The target language and receiving culture are considered as an entirety an a translator has to take them into consideration” (p. 154). So if a translator wants a good translated version, he must consider this three factors.

Also, another challenging factor is to have a work be received and understood correctly by the audience. So to achieve this, you must apply some elements into your work. In an article, Aguilera (2008) stated that “The theme, style, syntax, sentence length, lexical complexity, typography, illustration, speakability, etc. are some of factors with a specific weight in the reception of their work and this, no doubt, the children’s literature author keeps in mid throughout his/her project” (p. 5).

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Finally, translating children literature is very challenging and according to Lathey (2006) “literature, however, is another matter, because to both the reader and the author the form is important as the content. I must strive to remain true not only to the essence but also to style and tone” (p 228). That means for both the reader and the author the form is important and it is one of the factors we mentioned before that should be taken into consideration. To sum up, translation of children literature has recently begun and according to Arizpe (2007) “the study of children’s literature is now well established as an academic discipline, the study of its translation has only recently begun” (para .1). So it is a challenging activity to do; also it has a lot factors that should be considered. As such, if all these factors are taken into account, the reader will receive the translation and understand it easily. References Aguilera, E. C. (2008, June 2). The translation of proper names in children’s literature. Retrieved from http://ler.letras.up.pt/uploads/ficheiros/4666.pdf Arizpe, E. (2007). Translation & Literature, 16(1), 134-139. Retrieved from http:// sj9sr8sb5k.search.serialssolutions.com/ Chunhua, M. A. (2014, December 26). Studies in literature and language. Retrieved from http:// www.cscanada.net/ Epstein, B. J. (2012). Translating expressive language in children's literature: Problems and solutions. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/sdl O’Connell, E. (2003). What dubbers of children’s television programmes can learn from translators of children’s books? Meta; journal des traducteurs / Meta: Translators' Journal,, 48, 222-232. Retrieved from http://www.erudit.org/ Lathey, G. (2006).The translation of children's literature: A reader. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa

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Problems in Translating Poetry By Alhanouf S. Alanazi First of all, we should know what a poem means according to Webster (1993), a "poem in its traditionally sense that is, writing that formulates a concentrated imaginative awareness of ex-

perience in language chosen and arranged to create a specific emotional response through meaning, sound, and rhythm" (as cited in Fadaee, 2011, p. 895). He also points out that the word poetry derives from a Greek verb which means: to do. He also says translating a literary text is much more difficult than translating other kinds of texts. In fact, problems in translating poetry are related to several reasons, so translators should be aware of them beside the ways which help them to solve these problems. Also, we should know that there are two styles of poetry translation; "one which directly renders the thought of the author, and the second ,which is based on the original, but trans-

fuses some new spirit" (p. 108). Certainly, when a translator does well in reading an accurate format of the version beside the content, the translation will be considered as a very successful one. A translator needs to be creative while translating poetry texts and all good translators can be involved in this process (Naghiyeva, 2015). What makes the poetry translation process harder than other kinds of translation is that translators must not translate the meaning of the original, but also sense it as they have experienced it; transferring the same feelings to the goal language by using their literary and stylistic strategies to sound like a poem as it is in their mother language. Poetries are rich with expressive

words such as metaphors and idioms which makes a translation to the target language more difficult (Dryden, 1920). According to Niknasab and Pishbin, 1993, "The translator of poetry must be fluent in and sensitive to the source language; he must know the source language's cultural matrices, its etymologies, syntax, and grammar, as well as its poetic tradition." (p. 136). He also socially and politically classify himself wholeheartedly with the unique poet. The most effective translators of poetry are commonly those who are bilingual and bicultural.

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According to Courier, 2013: As a poet, Ramanujan has reflected on translation most often in the context of poetry and conceived of it as a multidimensional process. To him, this process involves a translator's material, means, resources and objectives at several levels simultaneously. He expects a translator to render textual meanings and qualities 'literally', to successfully transpose the syntax, design, structure or form of the original from one language to another (para. 9). In 2011, Osimo emphasized that translating poems is like writing a poem by yourself; you need to know what exactly you want to say. Also, you must sense what you want to translate. There are a thousand other occupations that are easier, well paid, and eyesight-saving, but translating has its own splendors. Putting poems into other languages are one of the most fruitful methods to share culture, honor poets, and remind us that we can exceed geography. References Courier, D. (2013). Translating poetry post colonially. Dhaka Courier. Retrieved from http:// sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com Dryden, J. (1920). The Poetry of John Dryden. Retrieved from https://www.questia.com Fadaee, E. (2011). Poetry in translation: A comparative study of silver stein's monolingual and bilingual (English to Persian) poems. English and Literature, 8. Retrieved from http:// www.academicjournals.org Niknasab, L., & Pishbin, E. (1993). On the translation of poetry: A look at Sohrab Sepehri's traveler. Retrieved from http://www.skase.sk Naghiyeva, S. (2015). Does poetry lose or gain in translation. English Language and Literature Studies, 5(3), 107. Retrieved from http://sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com Osimo, B. (2001). Translation of poetry. Retrieved from http://www.logos.it

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Difficulties in Translating Cultural Proverbs By Sarah Alfaisal Every culture has cultural proverbs that are transmitted from one generation to the another. It is important for translators to study and understand cultural proverbs in their mother language

and also in the other languages they translate to, so they can translate beneficially and correctly. First, let us define culture. Newmark (1988) defined culture as "the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression" (as cited in James, 2002, para. 5). Catford (1988) defined translation as "the replacement of textual material of target language by equivalent textual material of source language". Moreover, he described cultural factors as "those elements that exist among the background of mind of speakers and writers and can not be seen at linguistic levels" (as cited in Heidary, 2009, para. 9). And Nida (1964) stated that

"differences between cultures may cause more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure" (as cited in James, 2002, para. 6). Are all proverbs culture-specific? Of course not. There are many proverbs that are found in almost every culture. So, some proverbs are universal and some are culture-bound or culture-specific. While the former type has some translation problematic areas, it is easy to translate. The latter type is more difficult to translate. However, the universal type encompasses some cultural specificity too. Hence, we can say that proverbs are generally difficult to translate (University of Arkansas, 2008).

Since proverbs are difficult to translate, we need to understand why they are difficult and how to overcome this. Proverbs are deeply immersed in people's cultures which might cause cultural difficulty for some translators while translating. To overcome this difficulty, the translator has to deliver a TL translation that is the same in meaning and use to the SL, he has to be aware of both cultures, and he has to be aware of the compensation tools for translation (Bahameed, 2008).

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Translating proverbs might also be difficult when a translator cannot find equivalent meaning in the target language. As Obisakin (n.d.) explained: Now, it is very difficult to translate proverbs by getting equivalent meanings of words or sentences of language 'A' (source language) into language 'B' (target language) in another language especially for a target language that is based in a completely different environment. Many of the proverbs, upon translation, may lose substantial parts of their meanings and certainly their poetry and pungency (p. 34). In conclusion, translating proverbs is not easy and in order to translate them beneficially, a translator must be aware of both cultures. Some translators "use literal translation and depend on the guessing technique but this is not helpful in translating proverbs that contain culturally bound words like " "‫عاد بخفي حنين‬and "( "‫جنت على نفسها براقش‬Dweik & Thalji, 2015, p. 57). That is why James (2002) advises that "The translator also has to decide on the importance given to certain cultural aspects and to what extent it is necessary or desirable to translate them into the TL" (para. 2). References Bahameed, A. S. (2008). Hindrances in Arabic-English intercultural translation. Translation Journal, 12. Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/journal/43culture.htm Dweik, B. S., & Thalji, M. B. (2015). Obstacles faced by the Jordanian novice translators in translating Arabic proverbs. IJ-ELTS. Retrieved from https://doaj.org/article/ Heidary, J. (2009). Cultural and linguistic equivalence in translation. Translation Directory. Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com James, K. (2002). Cultural implications for translation. Translation Journal, 6. Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/ Obisakin, L. (n.d.). Proverbs in communication: A conflict resolution perspective. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ University of Arkansas. (2008). Strategies for translating A rabic cultural markers into English: A foreignizing approach . Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/

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Requirements for Translators By Banan M. AlFuhaid Individuals the whole way across the globe by and large trust that interpretation is only the automatic substitution of dialects, and in this manner anyone can be an interpreter on the off chance that she or he knows a remote dialect. This recognition is totally wrong; simply having

decent information of outside dialects does not give any 100% affirmation that an interpretation will be rendered sensibly well (Smith, 2008). Interpretation is additionally inventive and not only a programmed process. I imply that you should exercise your deciphering and altering aptitudes since, as a rule, "the person who has written the source text may not have been entirely clear in what he has written" (p. 1). It is then your employment as an interpreter to attempt to comprehend what the essayist wishes to say and afterward express that unmistakably in the objective dialect (Brown, 2010). Ways to improve translator's skills are a lot. Social capability can be enhanced/

procured in various ways yet most importantly by going to/living in the second dialect country. Other potential outcomes to enhance social fitness include: effectively viewing remote dialect TV and movies, listening to radio stations in your second dialect, contemplating online outside dialect content, and perusing the writing of the applicable nation. Ceaseless interpretation hone in various diverse branches of knowledge will likewise enhance your deciphering abilities after some time, particularly in the event that you can have them taken a gander at and amended by a local speaker ("Qualities Commonly Needed By All Translators," n.d.). In 2014, Tess emphasized that there are eight skills you must have to succeed as a free-

lance translator. One of them is a talent for client administration for undertakings such as reaching customers, conversing with them, and gathering installments. On the off chance that you can give great client benefit, your customers will welcome you and return for additional services. Advertising aptitudes are additionally significant; you can't be a fruitful independent interpreter without promoting your administrations. In an article titled "How to Become a Professional Translator and Interpreter", it was reported that we must pick a range of specialization. Numerous interpreters just decipher and numerous translators just translate. Every field furthermore has particular sub-fields: 176

specialized interpretation, confirmed interpretation, film interpretation, artistic interpretation, synchronous translating, court deciphering, restorative translating, and so forth. Run with what you're great at. In the event that you have a degree in material science and German for example, you might need to spend significant time in deciphering German logical writings, and so forth (n.d.). Finally, you should recognize what a "decent" interpretation is. This is not just a question of your deciphered content being reasonable in the objective dialect. Additionally excellent interpretation must be numerous things: Easily understood, elegantly composed, consistent with the nuances and soul of the first and also the importance, consistent with the connection of the first regarding history and society, and a decent interpretation will make unequivocal that which is verifiable in the first without obliterating the significance. Subsequently, you should be acquainted with all parts of the source and target dialects keeping in mind the end goal to render one (Stacey, 2012). References Brown, G. S. (2010). A practical guide for translators: Fifth edition (5th ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa How to become a professional translator and interpreter. (n.d.). Wiki How To Do Anything. Retrieved from http://www.wikihow.com/ Qualities commonly needed by all translators. (n.d.). Iolante. Retrieved from https:// www.iolante.com Smith, J. T. (2008). What skills are required to be a good translator? Ezine Articles. Retrieved from http://ezinearticles.com/ Stacey. (2012). The skills that every translator must possess. One Hour Translation. Retrieved from https://www.onehourtranslation.com Tess. (2014). 8 skills you must have to succeed as a freelance translator - And how to get them. Marketing Tips for Translators. Retrieved from http://marketingtipsfortranslators.com/

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Global and Local Translation Strategies By Hajar Alajmi The term "strategy" in translation strategies is often used with such terms as procedure, technique, and method. As a translator you should know and learn some translation strategies. According to Ordudari, , 2007, "a translator differentiates between global (those dealing with

whole texts) and local (those dealing with text segments) strategies and confirms that this distinction results from various kinds of translation" (p. 2). According to specialists, there are two strategies which are global and local translation strategies. Each one of the strategies are crucial in the translation process. The global translation method make an entreaty by reaching the total process of translation. Most people agreed that "Understanding translation strategies in the process of translating is helpful to translation researchers, translation service providers, MA students or PhD candidates majoring in translation studies, and lecturers in translation" (Nodoushan, 2015, p. 140).

In an article titled Translation Strategies I: Methods and Procedures (2010) it was reported that: translators distinguish between global translation strategies and local translation strategies: • global translation strategy (aka. translation method): the overall strategy you apply to a text as a whole – the primary choice you have to make here is how close to the source text you want your target text to be. • local translation strategy (aka. translation procedure): strategies you apply in the trans-

lation of individual expressions in the source text, such as words, grammatical constructions, idioms etc.) (p. 3). Sun, (2012) stated that problems, according to their scale, can be separated into global and local problems (general or specific) makes a matching dissimilarity between global strategies: (i.e., ‘the translator's general principles and preferred modes of action’) and local strategies (i.e., ‘specific activities in relation to the translator's problem-solving and decision-making’). He

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stressed that "Global strategies might be dictated by/with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator." (p. 116). Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by non-professionals (as cited in Jääskeläinen, 1993). In a 2010 article, Aalborg University points out that a translator have to making up his choice between imitative translation and functional translation. The first thing is to keep as much of the purely formal feature of the source text, and the target at getting the picture of the source text across, even if it extremely changes the formal feature of the text. It stressed that "Having looked at Phase 1 – the analysis phase – of the process of translating, we will now turn to Phase 2 – the transfer phrase – as we look at different strategies and methods of translation. The purpose of translation methods and procedures – and of translating itself – is to achieve maximal equivalence, or equivalent effect." (p. 1). In conclusion, as a translator it is important to learn different strategies to translate from one language to another. Gil-Bardají (2009) stated that translation strategies are possibly alive to plan for solving translation problems (as cied in Krings, 1986). Newmark (1988b) mentions the difference between translation methods and translation procedures. He points that, "While translation methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures are used for sentences and the smaller units of language" (p. 81). References Aalborg University. (2010). Translation strategies I: methods and procedure. Basics of Translation, 2. Retrieved from www.hum.aau.dk/~kim/BoT10/bot5.pdf Nodoushan, M. A. (2015). International journal of language studies (5th ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Ordudari, M. (2007). Translation procedures, strategies and methods. Translation Journal, 11(3), 2. Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com/ Sun, S. (2012). Strategies of translation. Strategies of Translation, 6. Retrieved from www.sanjun.org/TranslationStrategies.html Newmark, P. (1988). A textbook of translation (12th ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/books Gil-Bardají, A. (2009). Procedures, Thechniques and strategies: Translation Process Operators. Studies in Translatologie, 17(3), 167. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net 179

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Translation and Comics By Hamdiah E. Almohawes Sometimes when we read a translation of a comic story, we notice that there is something wrong with the translation because maybe the translator did not discover the phrases, idioms, or expressions that were used in the source language of the comic. Also, the translator might not know the

culture and traditions of the source language. Therefore, when the translator translates that piece of comic, he/she might not be able to carry the meaning to the reader or not be able to make the target text as beautiful as the source text. Without a doubt, sometimes comic translators face some problems and challenges and do some errors while translating comics, so they have some methods which help them to translate comics. According to Gambier and Doorslaer (2010), Eisner stated that: Given the large number of genres, which range from funny comics, horror comics, adventure comics and science fiction comics to educational comics, given the target publication (newspapers, comic magazines, comic books, internet), it is difficult to come up with a comprehensive definition. There is more or less a consensus that comics can be referred to as "sequential art" (p. 36). Translators sometimes face some problems and challenges while translating comics. According to Scharffenberger (2002) "The most obvious challenge is the topicality of jokes and comic scenarios" (para. 4). Sometimes when the translators try to translate jokes from the source language, they might not be able to make it as funny as it is in the source text. Therefore, translators need to find linguist alternatives of the source language's jokes that suite the culture of the target language or translating jokes by their meaning. Another problem that might face translators is translating onomatopoeia. Catricalà and Guidi (2015) clarifies that "onomatopoeias are a rhetorical figure that imitates, through the sounds of spoken languages, calls of animals, natural phenomena" (para. 1). Sometimes when translators try to translate onomatopoeias in the source text, they might get confused about how to translate them. According to Inose (2007), "from the novel Sputnik no koibio by Haruki Murakami, which was used as the data source, almost 300 cases are extracted and nine methods (using adverbs, verbs, idioms, onomatopoeia in the target language, explicative phrases, combination of words and omission) are identified" (p. 97).

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There are some strategies used to translating comics. In 2001, Howell argued that Schreiber has outlined different methods of translation. One of the contrasts that he has drawn is between foreignizing and naturalizing translation. Also, he explains the difference between them in which the foreignized translation makes the translator believe that the reader will read it as a translation, whereas the reader expects to read the naturalized translation as the original text. We find that Feng (2009) states that "It is understandable for some translators to turn a blind eye to existing translations in order to avoid being misled by bad translations or being accused of plagiarizing from good translations, and it is not uncommon for some translators to disclaim their having read existing versions so as to distinguish their own originality" (p. 247). So, good translators need to read others translations to learn what they should avoid while translating and what they should follow. Also, some translators definitely will have fun learning the culture of the source language to be able to translate comics to the target language the right way. References Catricalà, M., & Guidi, A. (2015). Onomatopoeias: A new perspective around space, image schemas and phoneme clusters. Cognitive Processing, 16(1612-4782), 175 - 178. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com Feng, Z. (2009). Translation and reconstruction of a wonderland: Alice’s adventures in China. Neohelicon, 36(1200626932442478051491142908), 237-251. Retrieved from http:// search.proquest.com/ Gambier, Y., & Doorslaer, L. D. (Eds.). (2010). Handbook of translation studies. Retrieved from https://books.google.com Howell, P. (2001). Strategy and style in English and French translations of Japanese comic books. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov Inose, H. (2007). Translating Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words. Translation Research Projectsm 1, 97-116. Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com/ Scharffenberger, E. (2002). Aristophanes' thesmophoriazousai and the challenges of comic translation: The case of William Arrowsmith's Euripides Agonistes. A merican Journal of Philology. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/

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No Global Communication without Translation By Maha A. Alnaghmoosh Before many years, body language was used as the first type of translation between people who speak different languages to communicate with each other and it is still used up to now. Therefore, translation is important to communicate with people in different countries and

talk different languages. Montiel emphasized that "globalization plays a huge role in translation and making cultures closer" (as cited in Almowannas, 2015, p. 6). Indeed, poyator stated "It should be always kept in mind that translation is not simply a matter of language, but also of cross-cultural transfer. Today, many works in language are translated into other languages." (1997, p. 83). Translation means a deeply cultural and social act of understanding a context and conveying it to another language and culture. It is not a simple process of translating word by word and using a dictionary; it requires a lot of cultural awareness and understanding to be able to say it just like a ‘native’ would. I know that every translator out there

knows this, but many clients don’t (Wäldchen, n.d.). With the internet becoming the most important means of communication in every possible field and that it is the only medium that has actually revolutionized the meaning of the word global village where the boundaries of language and geography no longer exists, the need for translators and the importance of translation has become very important ("One Hour Translation," n.d.). Despite the fact that English has far and wide reach today, the impact of local culture and language remains as strong as ever. With the development of Internet and communications

technology, it is relatively easier to reach viewers that are thousands of miles away from your business. But still, organizations need to adapt to the culture and quirks of the particular region where they want to do business ("Translation Services," n.d.). This emphasizes the need for businesses to adopt different strategies when selling in a global marketplace. The prime strategy, of course, is tailoring your business messages as per the targeted region. This messaging can include anything from marketing communication, reports, advertising and website content, but may still be unsuccessful to make an impact if it is not translated to the local language ("Translation Services," n.d.). 182

In conclusion, language is the visible form of culture, which means we need to understand the culture before we translate ("TEDx Talks," 2015). Nowadays, by translation it is easy to communicate with people who speak different languages, and if you have a business, you must translate it to different languages because it will help your business to reach a large number of people (TranslationNYCO, 2014).

References

Almowannas, N. M. (2015). Translation and cultural globalization. Research A rticles in Interpretation and Translation KSU, (3), 6. Retrieved from http://fac.ksu.edu.sa/sites One hour translation. (n.d.). Importance of translation for small businesses. Retrieved from https://www.onehourtranslation.com/translation/ Poyator, F. (Ed.). (1997). Nonverbal communication and translation (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ TEDx Talks. (2015, February 25). Cultural A wareness in Globalized W orld - Ralph Strozza | TEDxNorthernIllinoisUniversity [Video file]. Retrieved from http://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=gd0aAFFjCUo TranslationNYCO. (2014, November 19). Q6: The importance of understanding the culture you're translating [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=EPy01_9M87E Translation Services. (n.d.). Translation and its importance. Retrieved from https:// www.outsource2india.com/translation/ Wäldchen, S. (n.d.). The importance of translation. Retrieved from https://

stephaniewaldchen.wordpress.com/

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The Difficulties of Medical Interpreter By Muneera E. Al-Subaie Medical interpreters use their skills in English and a foreign language to provide invaluable services to patients and medical practitioners alike. The ability for patients and healthcare professionals to communicate is important to the safety and comfort of the patient during care according

to (Alobaidy, 2015). The author also added "over 24 million Americans do not speak enough English to communicate effectively with their healthcare provider. Professional interpreters bridge this gap to ensure that patients receive accurate diagnoses and appropriate treatment" (para. 1). Indeed, there are so many difficulties that medical interpreters faced in hospitals. Hudelson (2005) explains how the medical interpreters felt that physicians needed to be more aware of how difficult it can be to translating medical concepts and terms. The author added "some physicians demanded word-by-word translation, which was often impossible and itself a

potential source of miscommunication" (p. 5). It is unsuitable also to use medical concepts that were unknown to patients. Interpreters said that communication would be facilitated by the use of simpler, less technical language. At present, the engagement of the most interpreters by the governments is based primarily on the ability to speak two languages. But the ability to speak two languages does not necessarily mean that it is possible to transmit meaning exactly from one language to the other. Many interpreters have little formal education or training in the medical field, therefore, they can often find themselves ill-equipped to function efficiently within the work setting. Although train-

ing for medical interpreters is available as (Carr, Roberts, Dufour, & Steyn, 1997) confirmed. In an article by Pöchhacker and Shlesinger (2007) it was reported that "relaying from doctor to patient. All other pronoun shifts occurred in connection with interactional problems caused almost exclusively by the interpreters lack of knowledge about medical terminology even though the terms used were in fact non-specialized ones" (p. 53). It was added that the interpreter's difficulties with medical terminology can dominate the directness of communication between primary members and That is because of repeating one-language talk (2007).

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According to Davidson, 2001, physician-patient discourse, even same-language discourse, may be viewed as a kind of cross-cultural interaction. Inside the US, there is a large and increasing number of adult Third World immigrant patients who do not speak English. For these patients the "cross-cultural" aspect of First World medical practice is highlighted by the presence of the medical interpreter. Davidson added "Analysis shows that, through variable patterns of how and when utterances are interpreted, the interpreter functions" (para. 1). In conclusion, there are so many difficulties that face medical interpreters, but it does not mean that we can dispense from medical interpreters in the hospitals. Moreno, Sabogal, and Newman (2007) said that they found a small number of medical interpreters who find a job compared to the large number of healthcare organizations. They also confirmed that healthcare organizations should consider assessing their staff's English and second language skills.

References Alobaidy, M.(2015,December16).Careers.Retrieved from http://www.innerbody.com Carr, S. E., Roberts, R. P., Dufour, A., & Steyn, D. (Eds.). (1997). The critical link: Interpreters

in the community: Papers from the 1st international conference on interpreting in legal, health and social service settings. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Davidson, B. (2001). Questions in cross- Linguistic medical encounters: The role of the hospital interpreter. anthropological quarterly. A nthropological Quarterly, 74. Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com Hudelson, P. (2005). Improving patient– Provider communication: Insights from interpreters. Family Practice, 22(3). doi:10.1093/fampra/cmi01 Moreno, M. R., Sabogal, R. O., & Newman, J. (2007). Assessing dual- Role staff-Interpreter

linguistic competency in an integrated healthcare system. General Internal Medicine, 22. doi:10.1007/s11606-007-0344-8 Pöchhacker, F., & Shlesinger, M. (Eds.). (2007). Healthcare interpreting: Discourse and interaction. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

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Cross-Cultural Translation By Nahlla S. Al-Luhaidan According to Davaninezhad, 2009, “Communication has always been an important need of all societies . . . people have been communicating in different ways.” (p. 1). Kho, 2015, adds that “All languages are culturally bound” (p. 194). Thus, one cannot use any language efficiently

without understanding its cultural references nor can he understand the language clearly without using it based on its cultural usage. Without a doubt, communication is the main act of transferring thoughts and cultural behaviors; therefore, people needed to translate their thoughts from one language to another in order to communicate. Al-Sarrani (n.d.) discusses the fact that she “categorize[d] the challenges of cross-cultural literary translation from English into Arabic into the following: cultural, religious, geopolitical, and gender-based ones.” (p. 1). She also points out that accurate cross-cultural literary translation is impossible, which proves the manifestation of the differences in the literature of every culture.

Hence, we cannot presume that all cultural backgrounds and heritages are identical. However, some cultures might share some beliefs. In 2010, Qasem emphasized that Arabs take more responsibility while using the English language and they are under more pressure than the native speakers who use the language based on its formality and structure. In addition, the religious beliefs play the most important role in creating the definition of one's concepts and help us decide what is valuable. Therefore, not only the grammatical matters constitute the differences in how to use a language but also the cultural and the religious matters as well.

One of the most important steps before starting translating a text is to be aware of the language’s classifications of its dialects, as Nurs (2013) said: The Arabic language is essentially three different languages: Classical Arabic; Modern Standard Arabic (fuS-Ha or MSA); and colloquial Arabic (Lahja A’ mmeya), which is itself divided into five different regional Arabic dialects. The Arabic fuS-Ha language is the dialect most widely used in the translation of instruments into Arabic. The literature reveals that only a few studies focused on the linguistic issues in the translation into Arabic (p. 2). 186

The previous paragraphs explain the depth of languages and show that it is such a great process that requires a lot of effort and studying hours. Indeed, it includes heavy responsibility, since one has to transfer the information and the meaning it carries correctly rather than finding a literal alternative in the target language i.e., focusing on the word’s dimensions and shades along with the literal form in the target language. Furthermore, the cultural impression has to be found and felt within the lines the listeners hear. That is the main challenge because as a translator, you must be able to see the full image, and represent it in a way that suits the people culturally. Finally, the translator’s job “is to understand the nature of such distance and to know how to perceive and adjust distance accordingly for the optimal effect.” (Dingwaney & Maier, 1996, p. 32). Otherwise, we would not understand the world around us. And Kho (2015) concludes that our points of view “are shaped by cultural perspectives” (p. 135), which reassures us that our culture has a huge impact upon the way we respond, react and look at the things which we come across. References Al-Sarrani, A. A. (n.d.). HKUL: Electronic resources. Retrieved from http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/ ER/detail/hkul/5119822 Davaninezhad, F. K. (2009). Cross-Cultural communication and translation. Translation Journal, 13(4). Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net Dingwaney, A., & Maier, C. (1996). Between languages and cultures: Translation and crosscultural texts. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Kho, L. (2015). Translation and cross-cultural communication studies in the Asia pacific. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Nurs, J. T. (2013). Translation of questionnaires into Arabic in cross-cultural research: techniqes and equivalence issues. SAGE Publications, 363 – 370. Retrieved from http:// tcn.sagepub.com Qasem, A., & Al-Zumor, G. (2010). Apologies in Arabic and English: An inter-language and cross-cultural study. Journal of King Saud University – Language and Translation, 23 (1), 19-28. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com

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Self-employed Female Translators By Nouf N. Alnuwaiser Self-employment is the state of working for your own rather working for someone else. In fact, many female translators tend to favor self-employment over earning wages from an employer, although, being self-employed might not be as easy as it sounds. Kuznik and Verd (2010)

stressed that translators must replicate all the elements of translation agencies, which they have found to be extremely complicated through their practice in a society of labor. Harrisson, Bourque and Széll (2009) found out that self-employed translators have more control on their career than translators who work for other people except that self-employed translators have more work hours. Moreover, some firms require availability time from translators and if it is not provided, they would consider them unavailable and not work with them. Let us not forget the stress translators are put under while having to meet the deadlines and managing their time. They stressed that “controlling one’s time - which is often cited as an advantage of be-

ing a self-employed worker - is becoming increasingly theoretical for self-employed translators" (p. 303). One of the reasons why females favor self-employment over working for companies is as explained by Williams and Smith, as females face certain situations. As an illustration, having to make an income while raising children is a fact of life so they are much more expected to become independent freelancers. This means that translators in similar situations are most likely to be restricted in the amount of rehearsal they have gotten (2010). It has been stated that “the most suitable professional status for social interpreters and

translators seem to be that of employee or self-employed” (p. 199). It was added that in the future, self-employed positions can barely be secured for the committed and fruitful professionals. For that reason, the editors did suggest the learning and recruiting of a new and more adaptable act for self-employed social interpreters (Jettmarová, 2006). In a comparison study conducted by Mohammadi (2014) on two translations of the same text - one done by a male and one by a female, the results showed that the female translator’s version was much more elaborate since she wants her work to represent her rather than let people make blind assumptions about her based on her gender. On the other hand the male 188

does not think that his work needs to represent him. For the reason above, many critics believe that females are more skilled in writing than males, and translating in consequence. Having the chance to become an independent businesswoman can be a significant profession for many females. At its best, taking the risk of starting a new business allows women to conquer job interferences, such as intended and unintended bias in societies (Arenius & Kovalainen, 2006). The profession of translation is one of the professions that allows the idea of self-employment, especially if the translator is qualified and interested in building a good reputation of his/her business. Reference Arenius, P., & Kovalainen, A. (2006). Similarities and differences across the factors associated with women’s self-employment preference in the Nordic countries. International Small Business Journal, 24(1), 31. doi:10.1177/0266242606059778 Harrisson, D., Bourque, R., & Széll, G. (2009). Social innovation, the social economy and world economic development: Democracy and labour rights in an era of globalization. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Jettmarová, Z. (2006). Sociocultural aspects of translating and interpreting. A. Pym & M. Shlesinger (Eds.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa/ Kuznik, A., & Verd, J. M. (2010). Investigating real work situations in translation agencies. Work content and its components. Hermes. Retrieved from http://download2.hermes.asb.dk/ archive/ (Kuznik & Verd, 2010) Mohammadi, F. (2014). Gender ideology of translators implicated in feminist novels. IJCLTS, 2(3), 40. doi:10.7575/aiac.ijclts.v.2n.3p.36 Williams, S., & Smith, D. A. (2010). Contemporary employment relations: A critical introduction. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa

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Strategies For Translating Children’s Literature By Reem A. Al-Ghamdi Every night before going to bed a child asks his mother to read to him his favorite bedtime story. Children’s books are very interesting that it can reach to the child and teach him new things or entertain him and the words are easy enough for a child to understand. That makes us

think what is the meaning of children's literature? It can be considered a social or cultural issue. In my opinion, children’s literature is a pleasurable tale, which is read to children out loud. Through translation, children’s literature has become very common. Mdallel, 2004, stated that "Translating for children is controlled by the same rules that control writing for them; there are strategies that need to be followed" (para. 1). When it comes to translating children’s books, there are some basic difficulties that can be avoided by following these strategies. First is the level of complexity of the text. According to Shavit, 2006, the demand for the level of complexity of the text to be adequate to the level

of children’s comprehension is one of the essential norms imposed on translating children’s literature. Children’s literature is still dominated by the norm of simple and simplified models (as cited in Frimmelová, 2010). She also points out “One of the main methods used for reducing text’s complexity is simplification . . . by using generally simple lexis and register” (p. 38). Second, the strategy of cultural context adaptation is used to deal with the limited knowledge and understanding of other cultures, languages, and geographies that young readers have. Klingberg (1986) discussed “a developmental issue that concern the translator of children’s texts is the inevitable limitation of the young reader’s world knowledge” (p. 7). The first who

adapted the term cultural context was Klingberg. As the author mentioned, “Göte Klingberg recommends that adaption should be restricted to details and the source text manipulated as little as possible” (as cited in Lathey, 2006, p. 17). Venuti broader the concept of “domestication” and “foreignization” that are also applied to children’s literature. The great number of children’s literature and the rewritings of classical works show that the task is not simple as one might assume. According to the cultural theorist Frank, 2014, “literature is a dynamic system within which text struggles for domination” (p. 13). Children’s literature and translated literature take up a secondary place in the literary polysystem attached to 190

existing models. He also pointed out that the translated texts are more likely to stick to models in the target system due to the fact that the system accepts mainly what is usual and familiar. A third strategy is handling taboos. According to Stolt, 2006: Taboos in children’s literature can be defined as topics considered not suitable for children . . . They originate mainly from two aspects the norm of moral acceptance based on what the society assumes to be good for children and culture and ideological differences between the contexts that children’s literatures come from (as cited in Frimmelová, 2010, p. 72). And the translator should know what are taboo topics for children "For young readers there are clear divisions between right and wrong” (Knowles & Malmkjaer, 2002, p. 25). Let me state possible strategies to deal with taboos. The simplest used method for avoiding taboo topics is deleting them. In 2006, Shavit pointed out “It is almost a rule that translators delete unwanted scenes whenever it does not damage the basic plot or characterization” (p. 35). To illustrate, well-known tales that contained unwanted scenes could be found in Cinderella. In the original version of the Cinderella story, Cinderella’s evil stepsisters would cut off parts of their own feet so they can fit inside of the glass slipper. In addition, Slayter, 2002, stated that “The Little Prince . . . was purified of many strange expressions, old-fashioned words and interferences” (as cited in Stolze, 2003, p. 190). References Frank, H. (2014). Cultural encounters in translated children's literature. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Frimmelová, K. (2010). Translating children’s literature (Master's thesis, masaryk university, Brno,, Czech Republic). Retrieved from http:/http://is.muni.cz/ Knowles, M., & Malmkjaer, K. (2002). Language and control in children's literature. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Lathey, G. (2006). The translation of children's literature: A reader. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa/books Mdallel, S. (2004). Translating children’s literature in the Arab world: The state of the art. Meta: Translators' Journal, 48(1-2), 298-306. doi:10.7202/006976ar Stolze, R. (2003). Translation for children - World view or pedagogics? Mata: Translators' Journal, 48(1-2), 221. Retrieved from http://id.erudit.org/iderudit/006968ar

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Translation and Medicine By Sara Alsuwaidan One of the most important and helpful sciences around the world is translation. No one ever can doubt its importance and how translation plays a very important role in changing and developing the world. Also, translation has many types and different majors each of which

focuses on a specific field. In fact, one of the most important majors in translation is medicine translation due to the fact that without it medicine will not be as it is today. Also, Fischbach (1998) emphasizes the history of medical translation by saying "unlike most technical fields of translation, medicine has had a very long history of writing; it almost rivals the written tradition of law" (p. 13). Nowadays, there are many different types of translation and day after day, new specialized terms are added into dictionaries. Therefore, translation is becoming more difficult and that is why translators should choose one type and focus on it because it is impossible to know all

the terms in all majors. Also, in 2011, Martin emphasized in his article that there are many things to know about any specific subject given to a translator to translate. He stressed that "no translator can be expected to have the knowledge required to translate all types of documents well and within a reasonable amount of time" (para. 2). In addition, one of the important things that we need to understand first is that not every bilingual can translate successfully between the two languages he speaks, especially when it comes to medicine. Kolawole (2012) emphasizes that by saying "It is an undeniable fact that bilingualism is necessary, but not sufficient for translation proficiency and efficiency" (para. 39).

Also, according to him, bilinguals translate words or context in a different way that we usually know from dictionaries due to psychological reasons. However, Lambert stated that translators are special people because they are more serious in translating every word by listening carefully (as cited in Gerver & Slinaiko, 1987). One of the most popular problems in medical translation is that translators do not use those medical terms in daily life, so they might forgot some of them because some are not usually used even in hospitals and between doctors, and they ultimately become unfamiliar with

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them. Also in 1996, Wakabayashi discussed that translators' lack of medical knowledge and their strangeness with the terms, words and phrases tend to be the main drawback that medical translators might face. The second popular problem, and in my opinion the biggest drawback, is the problem of abbreviations. Mathieu (2015) stressed that: A particular problem arises when the translator has to deal with abbreviations, which is often the case in medical translations. In many cases, there are several possible abbreviations for the same term, and even sometimes the same abbreviation for multiple terms. A study analyzed medical errors in the United States; between 1,500 and 30,000 of them were due to confusing abbreviations (para. 2). Finally, due to the fact that medical translation is one of the hardest translations and because it is one of the most important majors, I suggest that hospitals give courses to translators who are interested in the medical field. Also, those courses should cover everything. For example, give the students more information about the field, show them how everyday life is in hospitals, see what translators do and prepare them well to be professional medical translators.

References Fischbach, H. (1998). Translation and medicine. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/ Gerver, D., & Sinaiko, H. (Eds.). (1978). Language interpretation and communication (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://books.google.com/ Kolawole, S. O. (2012). Is every bilingual a translator? Translation Journal, 16. Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/journal/60bilingual.htm Martin, C. (2011). Specialization in translation - Myths and realities. Translation Journal, 16. Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/journal/56specialist.htm Mathieu. (2015, January 20). Cultures connection. Retrieved from http:// culturesconnection.com/ Wakabayashi, J. (1996). Teaching medical translation. Translators' Journal, 41. Retrieved from http://www.erudit.org/revue/meta/1996/v/n3/004584ar.html

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Translation and Web Localization By Sarah S. Aloraini According to Lockwood and Scott, 2000, "web localization needs to be conceptualized in relation to the internet, the most important development in communication since Gutenberg in-

vented the printing press in the fifteenth century" (as cited in Jimenez-crespo, 2013, para. 2) the internet has played an essential role in communication all around the world, as the number of internet users is increasing. According to Internet World Stats, the number of users world-wide was around two billion in 2012, reaching to 30.2% of the world population. In North America or Europe the number of people using the internet is 78.2% and 58.2% respectively (Jimenez-crespo, 2013). It has also been stated that, "website localization, this refers to the translation of a website originally prepared in a foreign language into another in order to present the contents more

effectively to the local population" (p. 279). The process of making a website in a specific language version is known as web localization and it is the fastest growing area in translation. In addition, web translation is known as the translation of information and words on a webpage from one language to another foreign language (Chan, 2004). In the purely epistemic dimension the dependence of localization on distribution is remarkably on-way. Although localization depends on distribution but distribution does not depend on localization, or at least not in the same pattern. According to Pym, 2004, "whatever the material circumstances, no matter whether the actual moment of localization is situated before or after

actual moment of a text, the concept of distribution precedes the concept of localization" (p. 15). According to Lako (2012), "localization is a process that cannot be done without going through the globalization and internationalization" (para. 7). The online multilingual magazine, defines internationalization in its terminology section as the process of adapting a product or software to a specific international language or a specific culture so that it looks more natural to that particular region.

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It has been stated that "this means that where traditionally large sets of pages and images needed to be localized" (p. 13). As a result, web sites localization is more corresponding to software localization than online help localization, i.e. extensive linguistic and functional testing will be required. All updates on multilingual web sites are published in all target languages (Esselink, 2000). The advent of the Internet has led to a transformation of both expectations of translation and translation practice. According to Bassnett (2013), "with the growth of such media as electronic dictionaries, corpora and translation memory tools. This has been crucial, since not only in translation in far greater demand in an increasingly globalized world, hence the need to train more professional translators" (p. 9). References Bassnett, S. (2013). Translation studies. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Chan, S. W. (2004). A dictionary of translation technology. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa/ Esselink, B. (2000). A practical guide to localization. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.sa Jimenez-crespo, M. A. (2013). Translation and web localization. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa/ Lako, C. (2012). Localization and translation studies. Studia Universitatis Petru Maior. Philologia, (12), 202. Retrieved from http://sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com Lockwood, R., & Scott, K. (2000). A writer's guide to the internet. Retrieved from https:// books.google.com.sa Pym, A. (2004). Moving text: Localization, translation, and distribution. Retrieved from http:// site.ebrary.com/lib/sdl/

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Translating Subtitles in Movies By Sarah Al-Samhan Yang (2006) stated that subtitling is like a broker that carries the information from SL into TL. However, there is not just one way process of literary transfer, but one needs to look at many

factors such as, the limitation of time, space on the screen, the culture of the of the two languages and according to Pedrersen, 2005, “ there have been a few studies of how cultural elements are translated, from general translation studies” (p. 2). Finally the synchronization if the spoken word and actors in other word “lip movement” (as cited in LU, 2010) and also Yang stressed that “ lip synching between subtitles and pictures is important, especially when there are too” (p. 32). Nearly since the invention of films all the efforts were been to transport the dialogue between the actors to the audience. At the beginning it was called what we all now call intertitles, and the first seen was in 1903 as epic, descriptive titles. They are texts drawn or printed. Or

filmed and they put it between the ranges of the film. Currently, they are called subtitles. In addition Ivarsson stressed that “the subtitiles became demanded with the very beginning of film production” (p. 10) (as cited in Kratochvilova, 2014). And it is called that because they are used in the same way as subtitles in newspaper, and “From the beginning it also happened (but nearly) that the subtitles were placed in the image, e.g. in College Chums (1907) or the French films Jodex or Mireille (1922)” (Fun Fog, 2009, p. 3). Solving the problem of translation in the age of the intertitels was so easy. They just removed the original titles, translated, and finally filmed and integrated again. Another way is the

speaker can give a simultaneous translation on the intertiteles such as, French bonimenteun or the Japanese benshi silent films. But in 1927 after the invention of sound film, the audience become able to hear the actors. And from that time, the titles between screens died and the problem supposed new dimensions. Taylor (2000) stated that Henrik Gottieb puts several translation strategies for subtitling of film, and it is as followed (as cited in Ghaemi & Amain, 2010): * More explanations are used when the original language have small cultural difference no retrievable in the target language. 196

* Using paraphrase in cases where the phraseology cannot be clear as the syntactic way of the target language. * Trying to limit the minutes to the same forms with names of people and places. * Using transcription when the terms in the source text are uncommon. * Dislocation is used when the original relies on some sort special effects, e.g. a silly song in a cartoon or a film. * Condensation is a very important strategy can be used to shorten the text in the least curious way possible. * Decimation is an extreme form of condensation and it is used for reasons of the discourse speed, even when important elements are omitted. * The total elimination of the parts of text point to deletion. * Using resignation to describe the strategy adopted when there is no solution that can be found to the translation problem and the meaning is lost in anyway. Finally, Publishing, (1994) discussed that special courses for subtitling is still rare, and part of this is true because of the widespread belief that the special skills that every good subtitler needs can only be developed just through experience . Actually, the main reason behind this attitude that is adaption is very important and necessary for subtitles, and he stressed that “ Subtitles are made intuitively and there is no global principle underlying them” (p. 1). References Ghaemi, F., & Amain, J. B. (2010). Strategies used in translation of interlingual subtitling. (p. 3, 4). Retrieved from http://www.arastirmax.com/ Fun Fong, G. C. (2009). Dubbing and subtitling in a world context. (p. 3). Retrieved from http://books.google.sa Kratochvilova, E. (2014). Translation in the TV series. (p. 10). Retrieved from https:// is.muni.cz/th/399891/ff_b/Bachelor_s_Diploma_Thesis__obnoveny_.pdf Lu, C. T. (2010). Analysis of English subtitles produced for the Taiwanese .Cape No.7. (p. 32) Retrieved from http://aut.researchgateway.ac.nz/ Pedersen, J. (2005). How is culture rendered in subtitles. (p. 1). Retrieved from http:// www.euroconferences.info/proceedings/2005_Proceedings/2005_Pedersen_Jan.pdf Publishing, J. B. (1994). Teaching translation and interpreting 2. (p. 1). Retrieved from http:// books.google.sa 197