Qualitative Research

Definitions   Quantitative

Research - investigation in which the researcher attempts to understand some larger reality by isolating and measuring components of that reality without regard to their contextual setting.   Qualitative Research - investigation in which the researcher attempts to understand some larger reality by examining it in a holistic way or by examining components of that reality within their contextual setting.

Different Ways of Looking at Things   Quantitative

Positivistic   Epistemological basis is Realism   Dates to the Age of Enlightenment  

  Qualitative

Naturalistic (Post-Positivistic [PRE?])   Epistemological basis is Idealism   Dates informally to prehistoric times Formally to ancient Greece  

Quantitative Research  Reality

is independent of human understanding  Reality can be defined as separate and observable variables  Goal of research is to define and measure those variables  Most accurate way to measure variables is individually and in isolation  We understand reality by defining all the pertinent variables

Qualitative Research   Human

understanding and interpretation define reality   Complex reality can be understood only as amalgam and not as simply a sum of its parts   Goal of research is to examine complex phenomena to define the reality within   To be meaningful, inquiry must be holistic and contextual

Researchers Argue  Quantitative

researchers fail because they can neither adequately define nor accurately measure enough of the variables to understand complex natural interactions.

 Qualitative

researchers cannot rigorously examine the detailed structures underlying complex natural interactions.

Researchers Argue   “Purists”

contend

Qualitative and quantitative methodologies are incompatible because they have different epistemological bases.   Using them together is “mixing paradigms.”  

  Others

believe

Qualitative and quantitative methodologies are simply different ways of looking at phenomena   Using them together is symbiotic  

Characteristics of Qualitative Research  Purpose

is understanding  Oriented toward discovery  Uses subjective data  Extracts meaning from data  Interprets results in context  Focus is holistic

Advantages of Qualitative Research   In-depth

Examination of Phenomena   Uses subjective information   Not limited to rigidly definable variables   Examine complex questions that can be impossible with quantitative methods   Deal with value-laden questions   Explore new areas of research   Build new theories

Disadvantages of Qualitative Research   Subjectivity

leads to procedural problems   Replicability is very difficult   Researcher bias is built in and unavoidable   In-depth, comprehensive approach to data gathering limits scope   Labor intensive, expensive   Not understood well by “classical” researchers

Organizational Structures  Historical

Analysis  Ethnography  Phenomenology  Life History, Chronology, Historiography  Case Study

Historical Analysis  Archival

Research

Primary Documents   Secondary Sources  

 Artifacts  Relics  Oral

Histories

Ethnography  External

Observation  Passive Observation  Balanced Participation Observation  Participant Observation

Life History, Chronology, Historiography  Archival/Historical  Personal

Journals

Written Journals   Electronic Journals  

 Electronic

Media  Long Term Observation  Interviews

Case Study  Detailed,

in-depth examination of a person, group, or setting  Multiple data sources, perspectives  Focus is on the individual or group, not the population  Meaning is extracted from observation  Findings are instructive, not generalizable

Holistic Approach  Researcher

seeks a complete picture of a total, complex situation  There may be no attempt to isolate specific variables or to answer specific questions  If specific questions are asked, the answers are sought within the context in which the phenomena naturally occur.

Internal Validity  Validity

is primarily a positivistic concept  In qualitative research, equates to credibility The right setting and informants   Accurate reflection of situation, informant perceptions   Multiple approaches lead to similar results   Multiple researchers yield similar interpretations   Peer review/Informant review  

External Validity  In

qualitative research, equates to transferability Transferability is responsibility of reader, not researcher   Provide dense description   Use nominated informant sample   Provide detailed demographic and situational description  

To Seek Validity

(Wolcott, 1990)

(Think Credibility, Transferability)   Listen

and observe carefully   Be candid   Record accurately   Begin writing report early   Use primary data in report   Use all data for final report   Seek feedback   Seek balance   Write accurately

Reliability   Reliability

is primarily a positivistic concept   Reliability in qualitative research equates to dependability Different researchers reach similar interpretations   Repeated examinations produce similar observations   Multiple researchers produce similar interpretations of the same data  

Triangulation   Multiple

perspectives, data sources, researchers, data collection techniques   Strongest evidence for credibility, dependability, transferability   Concept originated in navigation Navigation using known points   The more known points/angles, the more accurate the “fix” on the unknown location  

Corroboration   Multiple

informants hold similar perceptions   Same informant responds consistently to related questions   An attempt to confirm consistency of perception not accuracy of perception

Constant Comparison   Collect

and analyze initial data   Develop tentative conclusions, hypotheses, themes   Collect and analyze additional data   Test against initial conclusions, hypotheses, themes   Seek new perspectives, data sources   Write, re-write, re-assess, re-write, etc...

Discovery Approach to Qualitative Research

  Identify

setting to be studied   Conduct initial data collection   Analyze for emerging themes   Formulate tentative questions, hypotheses, theses   Focus subsequent data collection to test/expand initial themes   Questions, themes, hypotheses, theories EMERGE from the research

Analytic Induction Approach to Qualitative Research  Define

specific questions  Define setting  Identify informants  Collect initial data  Develop initial hypothesis

Analytic Induction Approach to Qualitative Research  Collect

additional data to test fit of hypothesis  Redefine questions or reformulate hypothesis based on further data collection and analysis  Search for negative case to disprove hypothesis

Qualitative Research: A Different Way of Looking at the World  Naturalistic  Holistic  Contextual  Rich  In-depth  Reality

derived not measured

Unstructured Interview   Define

basic goal   Select setting for comfort of informant   Try to establish rapport, trust   Gently guide discussion toward goal   Pursue profitable leads, tangents   Make careful notes or electronic recording during interview if practicable   as soon afterward as possible otherwise  

Structured Interview  Define

precise objectives  Develop, validate, field test interview schedule (protocol)  Select setting for comfort of informant  Try to establish rapport, trust  Initiate interview using protocol  Focus on specifics of protocol

Structured Interview   Do

not accept yes/no responses, probe for more   Pursue profitable tangents   Remain flexible to encourage informant to talk   Gently guide informant through protocol   Make careful notes or electronic recording during interview if practicable   as soon afterward as possible otherwise  

Focus Group   Define

goals   Select participants   Establish rapport   Initiate discussion   Encourage free discussion, but   Guide discussion toward the goals   Avoid contaminating discussion with own biases

Ethnographic Observation   Identify

Goals   Select site   Establish rapport   Determine critical informants   Make detailed field notes   Begin writing report from the start   Observations external, passive, balanced, or participant