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Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uhat20
Insights into the Academic Motivation of Tourism and Hospitality Students in a Research Methods Course a
a
John Rynne , Anna Kwek & Jenny Bui a
b
Department of Tourism, Leisure, Hotel and Sport Management , Griffith University
b
Griffith University Published online: 17 May 2013.
To cite this article: John Rynne , Anna Kwek & Jenny Bui (2012) Insights into the Academic Motivation of Tourism and Hospitality Students in a Research Methods Course, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 24:2-3, 28-39, DOI: 10.1080/10963758.2012.10696667 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10963758.2012.10696667
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Insights into the Academic Motivation of Tourism and Hospitality Students in a Research Methods Course By John Rynne, Ph.D., Anna Kwek, Ph.D. and Jenny Bui Introduction The global development of the tourism and hospitality industry continues and is expected to grow at a steady pace despite the recent global economic crisis. The United Nations World Tourism Organisation (2011) has forecasted a growth of 5 to 8% for the year 2011, with emerging markets being the main drivers of this growth. Asia and the Pacific destinations are expected to lead the growth with the region dominating a significant international market share of 22%. The growth of international tourism and hospitality in Asia in particular,
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has also seen an increase in the demand for tourism and hospitality higher education both in their home countries as well as overseas (Hobson, 2008). The demand created by Asian students has lead to intense competition between higher education institutions in Australia and other English speaking countries for international students seeking to study tourism and hospitality. In view of the rapid growth of international student enrolment (from Asian countries such Mainland China, Korea, and South-East Asia), the need to better understand academic motivations among students from different cultural back-
constantly changing markets for domestic and international students (Kim, Guo, Wang & Agrusa, 2007; Fidgeon, 2010; Busby & Huang, 2011). However, unlike the general higher education domain where there is substantial theoretical analysis identifying factors that non-domestic students’ bring with them and how these factors then interact and impact on theirs and their domestic counterparts academic performance, this is not the case for specific tourism and hospitality higher education management programs. There is very limited research grounded in proven theoretical frameworks that analyses student factors and academic performance in tourism and hospitality higher education programs that includes large international student cohorts. The purpose of this research is to begin addressing this deficit. Through analysing specific individual motivational and pedagogical factors the following research improves our understanding of student outcomes in a focused area of tourism and hospitality higher education. If Universities are to adequately educate the industries future managers, it is imperative they understand their student’s characteristics and how these qualities interact with program and teaching styles. The aim of the following research was to determine the influ-
grounds have significant implications for not only teaching styles and curriculum design, but also on universities to produce quality tourism
ence of motivational style, assessment type and student status (i.e.,
and hospitality managers of the future.
international or domestic) on academic performance. Through survey
The potentially lucrative Asian student market has focused the strategic intentions of Australian tertiary institutions to expand the internationalisation of tourism higher education (Griffith University: Strategic Plan 2009-2013; The University of Queensland: Strategic Plan 2007-2011). The consequence of this strategy will have a substantial impact on the quality of the next generation of tourism and hospitality managers. Unlike general pedagogical research on internationalisation of higher education flourishing, there has been limited specific research on concerning tourism students.
analysis, a large cohort of international (i.e., Asian) and domestic (i.e., Australian) students were compared on motivational approaches and academic performance over different assessment styles in a large first year core course. The research highlights specific factors that should be considered in program development, teaching style and assessment if domestic and international students are to gain maximum benefit from the experience. To address these aims, the following objectives were tested: •
ist and impact on academic performance in a large sample of
Regarding research in the internationalisation of higher education
international Asian and domestic Australian tourism and hospi-
in tourism and hospitality, most research has focused in three broad domains. These domains include establishing the pull and push factors influencing intention to purchase an international education (David-
tality students. •
distinguishing between domestic and international students in
(Zehrer & Lichtmannegger, 2008), and pedagogical models including 2007). Existing tourism and hospitality higher education research pro-
approach to higher education, •
28
And if AMS properties are appropriate, establish what, if any, academic motivation differences exist between international
vides a sound basis for ensuring programme content keeps pace with John Rynne, Ph.D. and Anna Kwek, Ph.D. are Lecturers in the Department of Tourism, Leisure, Hotel and Sport Management at Griffith University. Jenny Bui is a Ph.D. scholar at Griffith University.
Assess the psychometric properties of the Academic Motivation Scale to determine if it is an appropriate instrument for
son & King, 2008), institutional/country styles of internationalisation curriculum development and evaluation (Pereda, Airey, & Bennett,
Determine if cultural differences in academic motivation ex-
and domestic students •
Finally, based on the theoretical framework of the AMS, determine which factors that have greatest impact on academic performance.
Volume 24, Number 2/3
Literature Review Learning approaches As an emerging area of research, studies on Asian students studying tourism and hospitality in Australia are still relatively limited in scope, focussing mainly on topics such as learning approaches (Biggs, 1990; Smith, Miller, Crassini, 1998; Ramburuth, 2000; Ramburuth & McCormick, 2001), academic adjustment process (Ramsay, Barker & Jones,
lerand, Pelletier, Blais, Briere, Senecal & Vallieres, 1992, 1993; Lane & Devonport, 2004; Hall, Hill, Appleton and Kozub, 2009). One theoretical approach that has proven extremely useful in explaining motivation including students’ motivation is Self Determination Theory.
Self-Determination Theory Self- Determination Theory (SDT) developed by Deci and Ryan
1999) and the common misconceptions about these students (Samu-
(1985, 2000) assumed that motivation and its orientation vary sig-
elowicz, 1987; Chalmer & Volet, 1992, 1997).
nificantly. SDT proposes that behaviour can be categorised as being
General educational research in international students studying in western institutions has described Asian students as being rote learners who adopt a surface approach to learning, and as are generally passive, lacking initiative (Ballard & Clanchy, 1984; Bradley & Bradley, 1984; Ballard, 1987, 1989; Kim & Crowley, 1990). Other studies have also suggested that Asian students are extrinsically motivated
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outcomes focussing on university students has been on the rise (Val-
in their learning and higher education, with the main motives being able to get a good job and improving their lifestyle (Li & Bray, 2007). Unlike intrinsic motivation, people who are extrinsically motivated feel compelled to engage in an activity only as a means to an end, and not because of the pleasure and satisfaction derived from the participation (Deci, 1975). Poor English language proficiency and adjustment to
intrinsically motivated (IM), extrinsically motivated (EM), or amotivated (AM). Intrinsically motivated behaviour is defined as the drive to engage in activities for the pleasure, satisfaction and challenges presented. It allows an individual to exercise, explore and extend one’s capabilities (Ryan & Deci, 2000a, 2000b). When a highly motivated student achieves good grades because they are fully engaged in the work, the student exhibits intrinsic motivation. There are three types of intrinsic motivation; (1) IM to know, which involves experiencing pleasure and satisfaction in the process of learning, (2) IM to accomplish, which refers to the pleasure and satisfaction experienced while attempting to complete an activity, and (3) IM to experience stimulation, which is seen as a need to experience stimulation in an activity (Vallerand et al. 1992).
different learning and teaching styles (Samuelowica, 1987; Chalmers &
Extrinsically motivated behaviours are performed because of
Volet, 1997; Ramsay, Barker & Jones, 1999) have also been described as
external influences such as the possibility of a repercussion or obtain-
some of the challenges faced by Asian students studying in Australia
ing a reward/punishment. For example, when a student works hard to
that impact on academic performance.
achieve good grades to please and appease his/her parents. As with
Other research examining cross-cultural differences in motivation and learning strategies among international students and Australian students has proposed alternate performance explanations. Research applying the Study Process Questionnaire (Biggs, 1987) and the Approaches to Studying Inventory (Entwistle & Ramsden, 1983) indicated that Asian students engaged in deep learning and that surface learning strategies are used by both Asian and Australian students (Niles, 1995; Smith, Miller & Crassini, 1998; Ramburuth & McCornmick, 2001). Given
intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation is differentiated into external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, and integrated regulation to show the varying degrees of self-determination behaviours. Finally, individuals are amotivated when they experience neither intrinsic nor extrinsic motivation toward a particular activity. They experience feelings of incompetence and accept no responsibility for their behaviour. SDT proposes that these different levels of motivation fall along a
the apparent cultural differences between these two student groups,
motivational continuum that can be differentiated into more specific
studies as such help develop improved understanding of divergence
motives (Vallerand et al., 1992; Fairchild, Horst, Finney & Barron, 2005).
in student academic motivation patterns. To date, no Australian studies
The degree of self-determined behaviour is indicated on a continuum
have investigated university students’ levels of motivation from a Self-
from amotivation on one end, through extrinsic motivation leading
Determination Theory perspective via the Academic Motivation Scale.
to intrinsic motivation at the opposite end (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000).
Motivation Over the last two decades, numerous studies in educational settings have investigated the concept of academic motivation among students (Grolnick & Ryan, 1987, 1989; Grolnick, Ryan & Deci, 1991; Ryan & Connell, 1989; Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1992; Williams & Deci, 1996). Research is unequivocal in establishing the importance of motivation in determining and predicting academic performance and outcome (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier & Ryan, 1991). In particular, a growing body of research on academic motivation and
Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education
Ultimately, SDT proposes the more internalised and integrated the motivation, the more determined one becomes. According to Deci et al. (1991) and Fairchild et al. (2005), external regulation represents the lowest level of self-determined behaviour as it is strongly influenced by external influences. This behaviour is performed and initiated because of external contingencies. Introjected regulated behaviours are, in part, influenced by internal reward/ punishment contingencies. These behaviours are directed through external contingencies that entail coercion without demonstrating true choice. Moving along the continuum, identified regulation behaviour
29
is deemed extrinsically motivated as it reflects a greater personal value
lectivism (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Markus, Kitayama & Heinman,
on the instrumentality of the activity and not because it is interesting
1996) have been used to explain the differences between Asian and
or stimulating. Integrated regulation, the final subtype of extrinsic
Western student learning motivation. These authors have argued that
motivation, highly resembles intrinsic motivation as the behaviour is
human behaviour, culture and self-definition are interwoven concepts,
fully self-determined. The difference between them lies in the fact that
the individualistic self in Western culture is motivated by one’s need
“intrinsic motivation is characterised by interest in the activity itself,
to be independent, and free of societal pressure while the Asian self is
whereas integrated regulation is characterised by the activity’s being
perceived as being interdependent, forming part of the whole social
personally important for a valued outcome” (Deci et al., 1991, p. 330).
system. As such, the self in Asian society tend to place higher signifi-
Given the significance of the internalisation element in motiva-
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Differences in the cultural dimensions of individualism and col-
and involvement to the behaviour. The loci of behaviour is based more
cant on the expectation of significant others. According to Kwek & Lee
tion, Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is particularly helpful to studies
(2007, 2010), a Chinese in a Chinese society is burdened with a multi-
in educational setting (Cokley, Bernard, Cunningham & Motoike, 2001;
tude of moral obligations; the moral obligation to serve and protect
Grolnick & Ryan, 1987; Grolnic, Ryan & Deci, 1991; Hayamizu, 1997; Ryan
your country, obligations to your parents, to your family, to yourself. Of
& Connell, 1989; William & Deci, 1996; Vallerand & Bisonnette, 1992; Val-
these obligations, filial piety is thought to be the essence and a primary
lerand, Fortier & Guay, 1997; Yamauchi & Tanaka, 1998;). Initial research
virtue. Asian students are socialised from young the importance and
on SDT explored the various types of motivation that underlie learning
value of academic excellence as a symbol of family pride (Barron, 2002).
behaviour; whether the student was intrinsically motivated (i.e., the
From an educational perspective, Western students are inclined to
activity was undertaken purely for enjoyment and/or satisfaction) or ex-
adopt an individualistic and autonomous attitude towards their learn-
trinsically motivated (i.e., the activity was undertaken for its instrumental
ing, and as such, are more intrinsically motivated while Asian students
value). This research suggests that how individuals regulate their behav-
possess a social-oriented motivation to achieve, an obligation to parents
iour in the learning process depends on how well they can internalise
and family that could be perceived as external to the self. It is not sur-
their motivational tendencies. Research suggests that internalisation is
prising as such that the SDT has been subject to criticisms that claimed
a natural process and the more one internalises regulation, the greater
that it is an essentially Western/Individualistic concept and that au-
the autonomy they will experience in action (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan &
tonomy has less relevance and a lesser value in Eastern societies that are
Deci, 2000). It is important to note that the motivational continuum is
collectivistic in nature (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, 2003; Triandis, 1995).
not a developmental continuum per se, and that to achieve a particular
Chinese parents in particular, tend to encourage conformity and familial
behaviour, people must progress through each type of regulation. A
ties (Chao & Tseng, 2002) and autonomy and freedom of choice may be
newly internalised behaviour is possible at any stage along the continu-
seen as deviant behaviour. According to Wilson (1970), Confucian soci-
um, depending on both prior and current experiences.
eties in particular, support rigid hierarchical and authoritarian structures
Cultural Differences
favour the use of shaming techniques in childhood school education
Early studies have tended to portrayed Asian international students as being passive and non-participative in class (Kember & Gow, 1990); guilty of many forms of academic misconduct (Watson, 1999); poor in English language proficiency (Samuelowicz, 1987; Burns, 1991) and possess low achievement motivation (Niles, 1995). However, other evidence has suggested that the perception that Asian students are rote learners, committed to surface learning approaches and are more extrinsically motivated were not supported (Biggs, 1990; Kember & Gow, 1991; Niles, 1995). Alternatively, research by Vansteenkiste, Zhou, Lens and Soenens (2005) indicated autonomous motivation among Chinese students was positively associated with adaptive learning patterns as well a positive attitude toward studying. Students who were autonomously motivated demonstrated better concentration and higher scores, which also increased their general well-being. In contrast, the findings revealed that students in controlled environments experienced pressure, anxiety and stress. These results were also consistent with previous studies conducted by Hayamizu (1997), Tanaka and Yamauchi (2000), Yamauchi and Tanaka (1998) among Japanese students.
30
to inculcate the sense of responsibility and loyalty. Deviants are often shamed and ridiculed, and coerced to conform to group norms. Numerous studies have shown that members of collectivistic societies tend to behave in a conformist fashion, and are less likely to promote autonomy in general (Cialdini, Wosinka, Barret, Bunter, & Gornik-Durose, 1999; Cross & Gore, 2003; Iyengar & Lepper, 1999; Oishi, 2000). To test IM, EM and amotivation in an educational setting, Vallerand, Blais, Briere and Pelletier (1989) developed and validated in French, the Echelle de Motivation en Education. This scale was later translated and tested in English and was named the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) in 1992 (Vallarand et al, 1992). Using a Canadian student sample, the construct validity of the AMS was assessed and supported by Vallerand et al., (1993) that claimed adequate levels of concurrent and construct validity and reliability, which were congruent with the predictions from the self-determination theory. These claims are based on the hypotheses that (1) higher positive correlations exist between subscales that are next to each other and, (2) the strongest negative correlations occur between subscales that are located on the opposite ends of the continuum. The scale is further Volume 24, Number 2/3
supported by Fairchild et al.,(2005) that reported that the seven-factor
are permanent residents. Of the total students enrolled in the course
model posses not only a goodness of fit, but also good internal consis-
(n=809), 648 completed the surveys with 634 suitable for analysis.
tency from each of the subscales as well strong and divergent validity.
Excluding 24 cases missing demographic information, the domestic
The scale has also been used to examine the relationships between
sample comprises of 144 female and 96 male participants that is similar
academic motivation, personality and academic achievement (Kom-
to the gender profile of international students that is dominated by fe-
arraju, Karau & Schmeck, 2009). As a mediating variable, the role of
male group. Domestic students were younger than Asian international
personality and in particular, conscientiousness has emerged as an im-
students with 167 students aged between 17 - 21 and 77 students
portant influence on academic motivation to achieve. The influences
above 22 years (20 cases missing). International students were more
of parenting styles, self efficacy and achievement goals have also been
matured as more than 60% of the respondents were above 22 years old.
shown to play a vital role in academic motivation (Hall, Hill, Appleton & Kozub, 2009; Turner, Chandler & Heffer, 2009).
Research Method The following research explores academic motivation of students studying in a first year research methods course offered by the
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Department of Tourism, Leisure, Hotel and Sport Management at two campuses of a large Australian University. The course is a first year core taught in the two semesters of each academic year with an annual enrolment of approximately 1,200 students. The objective of the course is to provide students with an understanding of research as a means of accessing knowledge. This is an important course in an undergraduate degree, as information literacy is a valued skill not only in universities but also in the business world. The ability to identify, find, understand, evaluate and use information reflects the larger, coherent and iterative process of developing problem-solving and critical thinking skills. Providing a research method course to a large number of students from a predominantly non-science background has significant challenges. For many of these first year students, the relevance of such a course is not always apparent and attempts to engage and motivate students with the subject matter are often difficult (Hall, Hill, Appleton & Kozub, 2009). Because of the high proportion of international students, teaching the course has several challenges like varying degrees of English language
The course in which the students were enrolled is an introductory research methods course taught over 15 weeks. As a compulsory core subject for all students enrolled in the tourism, hospitality, sport and leisure management undergraduate degree, the majority of students participating in this course are in their first year of study. The course content includes a four week overview of basic theoretical approaches to research and how it is conducted. This is followed by another four weeks overview of qualitative research; a similar approach to quantitative analysis was conducted. Finally, students are provided with an introduction to critical ethical issues involved in conducting research. The course was evaluated with three assessment items. The first item is a qualitative assignment involving coding of exemplar data and writing a qualitative report interpreting that data. The second item adopts a similar approach but for quantitative data. The quantitative item includes basic descriptive and inferential data analysis and subsequent report on the analysis. The end of semester exam involves two equally weighted components including multiple choice and short answer questions on the course material. Both the qualitative and quantitative assignments were worth 30% each of the total mark, while the final exam is worth 40%.
Instrument- Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) The Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) was used to measure in-
proficiency, computing skills and analytical skills among students. Based
trinsic and extrinsic motivation and amotivation. The AMS is a 28 item
on these differences, a large sample as well as previous research, it is
scale, consisting of seven subscales. These subscales measure Intrinsic
hypothesised that there are differences in the type and level of motiva-
Motivation to Know (IMTK), Intrinsic Motivation to Accomplish (IMTA),
tion between domestic and Asian international students.
Intrinsic Motivation to Experience Stimulation (IMTES), Extrinsic Mo-
Sampling frame
tivation External Regulation (EMER), Extrinsic Motivation Introjected
Students enrolled in a large first year core course at a major Australian university’s undergraduate programme in tourism, hospitality, sport and leisure were invited to participate in the research by completing an on-line survey accessed through the university’s computer-based course site. Prior to participating, on-line informed consent was obtained from each student. A total of 634 usable surveys were completed comprising 370
Regulation (EMIN), Extrinsic Motivation Identified Regulation (EMID) and Amotivation (AMOT). Participants indicate on a Likert type scale the extent to which they disagree (i.e., one) or agree (i.e., seven) for each of the 28 AMS statements. The internal consistency of the subscales ranged from .62 to .86 (Vallerand et al., 1992).
Analysis Analysis involved a four step quantitative process using SPSS
international and 264 domestic students. The majority of international
version 17. The first level of analysis investigated tourism student
students were from China (40.1%), Korea (7.4%) and Southeast Asia
performance by grade and actual score. The second level of analysis
(3%). In total, Asian international students accounted for 58.4% of the
determined the suitability of the AMS psychometric for the sample of
sample. Domestic students are those holding Australian citizenship or
tourism and hospitality students. Third, based on the hypothesised suitability of the AMS, motivational differences between domestic and
Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education
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Table 1
ANOVA test on Academic performance Performance
Domestic (N=264)
International (N= 369)
df
Mean Square
F
p(