Abstract As economies move increasingly toward servicesbased production, there is a related phenomenon of those service-providers being increasingly unpaid workers. Management theory has evolved to embrace service employees, but the management of volunteer workforces has yet to be recognised as a major focus for theoretical investigation. In part, this deficiency is related to a lack of detailed data on the management of volunteers at the enterprise level. This study contributes to addressing that problem, by profiling the volunteers at a major heritage tourism attraction in terms of the correlates of positive experience, and the implications for management are discussed.

Profiling Satisfied Volunteers at a Tourist Attraction Margaret A. Deery Leo K. Jago and Robin N. Shaw

Introduction The effective management of staff is recognised widely as an integral component of organisations gaining a competitive edge. Further, when the staff of an enterprise are divided into a paid and unpaid workforce, the challenge for management is greater than usual. While there is an array of new trends in managing paid employees devised by practitioners, consultants, and academics, the research and interest in managing volunteers are less extensive. However, with the growth in services-based industries, such as tourism, and the increasing use of volunteers, the value and quality of volunteers has become an area of focus for both the practitioner and the academic.

Ms Margaret Derry is a Lecturer in Human Resource Management at Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. Dr Leo Jago is a Senior Lecturer in Tourism and Marketing, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. Professor Robin Shaw is Director of the Centre for Hospitality and Tourism Research, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia.

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In Australia, 2,639,500 persons, representing 19% of the civilian population aged 15 years and over, provided some form of voluntary work through an organisation or group during the 12 months ended June 1995. (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1995, p.1.) Research into managing volunteers, per se, has received some attention in the past. Pearce (1993) is a good example of the depth and coverage of research into volunteer behaviour, addressing issues such as job design, the style of leadership required for volunteers, and the organisational structure relevant to a workforce of paid and unpaid employees. Much of the practitioner literature revolves

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around recruiting, motivating, and retaining volunteers (Ellis, 1995; Goodale, 1995; Taylor, 1995; Sirkin and McDermott, 1996). More recently, research into the use of volunteers in tourism organisations has investigated volunteer motivation (Williams, Dossa & Tompkins, 1995), learning and job satisfaction (Elstad, 1996), and recruitment and training issues (Wells, 1996). It is the aim of this p aper to profile satisfied volunteers in a successful heritage visitor attraction. By using an Activities, Interests, and Opinions (AIO) Inventory, the paper will examine these psychographic measures and other attributes of the volunteers against various measures of volunteer satisfaction and commitment. The paper will discuss the results of the empirical data and the implications for management.

graduates (Pold,1990). Further findings suggest that blue-collar volunteers are more likely to join churches, unions, and sports clubs, with the middle and upper classes volunteering for organisations of general interest, and business and professional, service, cultural, educational, and political pressure groups (Cousens, 1964). Volunteers for tourism activities would seem to fit this latter group and it could be expected that tourism volunteers would derive from the middle to upper classes. Interpersonal networks

Pearce (1993) argues that, while the majority of the research into volunteers has concentrated on gaining a clearer understanding of the individual who volunteers, the findings are not conclusive and vary according to the type of voluntary organisation. In general, however, four major categories of volunteer profiles emerge from the research: socioeconomic status, interpersonal networks, demographic characteristics, and personality traits.

There is a substantial amount of research to suggest that those who come into contact with volunteers are more likely to volunteer. These findings argue that recruitment of volunteers occurs through friends, relatives, or associates (Pearce, 1993). Ostrander (1984) found that upper class volunteers did so because of family tradition. Pearce's (1993) research also found that newcomers to an area are less likely to volunteer than long-time residents. Contrary to these find ings are those of Williams, Dossa and Tompkins (1995) investigating the volunteer profile of special event volunteers at Whistler, Canada. Except for the older participants, volunteers tended not to be residents of Whistler. Interestingly, this study found that nearly threequarters of the volunteers had participated in similar activities in the past.

Socioeconomic status

Demographic characteristics

The main finding in this category relates to the link between education and voluntarism. Early Australian research on the participation of people in rural voluntary organisations argues that there is a positive relationship between income, education, and volunteering (Hardee, 1961). Research into volunteers in Canada found that 35% of volunteers in the arts and cultural area were university

The research into the link between demographic characteristics and volunteering is, by far, the most voluminous. Tedrick (1990) found that there is a typical pattern of volunteering which is relatively stable through to the age of 50, followed by a drop until retirement. After 65 years of age there is a slight increase in volunteering, with few volunteering after 75. Pearce (1993) argues that the

A profile of volunteers

relationship between age and volunteering is complex: that volunteering among teenagers increases until about 18 years, then decreases, but reaches a peak during the 40-55 years age group. In discussing gender and volunteering trends, Pearce concludes that women are more likely to join religious or service groups, while men join professional associations and lodges that are useful for their careers. For example, research into volunteer behaviour in hospitals by Miller, Powell and Selzer (1990) found that only 9% of their sample were males, with over half the respondents over 60 years of age. These demographic details are argued to be typical of hospital volunteers. Mitchelson and Slack ( 1982) maintain that the traditional image of the volunteer as a middle/upper class female is false. Their findings suggest that male volunteers dominate sporting events and are more likely to hold leadership roles in these organisations. Research from Canada found that while women hold the majority of volunteer jobs, it is a small maj ority (Pold, 1990). This research confirmed that women are more likely to volunteer for organisations in the health, religious, and international fields, while men were in the majority in sporting and economic organisations. The research findings on volunteers in tourism organisations differentiate between sporting and cultural events. Pold's (1990) research found that almost three-fifths of the jobs in leisure, recreation, and sports were handled by 25-44 year-olds. Williams et al. (1995) found that most of the volunteers for the Whistler Men's World C up of Skiing were males (75%) aged 15-44. In contrast to this, Wells' (1996) findings from the 1995 ABS data on voluntary participation in arts and culture suggest a higher

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proportion of adult Australian female volunteers to male (21 % compared to 17%), with the majority of these being aged 3544. The findings from the research of Wells into volunteers at visitor attractions suggest that museums, particularly, attract an older volunteer (between the ages of 50 and 65) and that these are predominantly women. Personality The findings on the relationship between personality and volunteering suggest that those people who are more confident and sociable are more likely to be volunteers (Pearce, 1993). The research also argues that volunteers have some political competence. Wells' (1996) collation of ABS data on

Social factors and training opportunities are important elements contributing to volunteer satisfaction.

voluntary participation in the arts and culture found that commitment to a religious organisation was the major area of pers onal commitment by volunteers, in general.

conditions, supervision, coworkers, and organisational policy. In determining which of these facets is important to volunteers, it is possible then, to develop management strategies to sustain this satisfaction and retain effective volunteers. In summarising the previous research into retaining and satisfying volunteers, the literature revolves around the issue, in one form or another, of member satisfaction. This dimension can be divided into two streams: firstly, the tangible rewards gained through organisational factors such as training and job content; and secondly, the less tangible concepts such as organisational commitment and the development of a volunteer's self esteem. Mitchelson and Slack (1982,) for example, found several satisfaction factors of the volunteer sports administrator. These included a convergence between volunteer expectation and reality, preserve orientation and training, continuous support, assessment and feedback, and promotional opportunities. Similarly, Wells ( 1996) found that training for volunteers in the Canberra Tourism Volunteer Program was one of the key satisfaction issues for volunteers.

Satisfaction and volunteers Sustaining volunteer satisfaction While it is important to understand the psychological make-up of a volunteer, it is equally important to come to an understanding of the various organisational elements which are associated with a satisfying volunteer experience. The research into job satisfaction is plentiful and has been traditionally divided into facet and global satisfaction (Smith, Kendall & Hulin, 1969). Some of the facets of job satisfaction are: the work itself, promotions, recognition, benefits, working

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Elstad (1996) argued that the external causes of satisfaction were very important in her study of volunteers at the XI Olympic Winter Games in Lillehammer. These included social factors such as the personal networking, the celebrator y atmosphere, and having fun. Williams et al. (1995) also found that the overriding satisfying influence for all volunteer groups was socially driven. Other factors included the job characteristics as well as the rewards, such as free uniforms, tick ets to certain events, a diploma and free transportation, and food and accommodation (Elstad, 1996). Ryan and Bates (1995) also found

that social interaction and community participation were important forces in their study of motivations of volunteers in a garden festival. Finally, in researching the determinants of turnover among volunteers, Millar, Powell and Selzer (1990) found that not only are volunteers influenced by similar determinants to paid employees, but that the age and convenience of the volunteer's roster were particularly important and found to have direct effects on turnover. In examining the less tangible forces in satisfying volunteers, Mitchelson and Slack (1982) argued that volunteers increase their commitment if they feel they are making a significant contribution to a very worthwhile undertaking. Wells (1996) also

Suggestions for managing volunteers include ackndowledgement, freedom, maintaining a sense of purpose, decision making involvement and job clarity.

found that a major component of volunteer satisfaction was a desire to contribute to a cultural heritage resource. Other influences suc h as appreciation and respect, acquiring new knowledge and skills, increasing their personal confidence and feelings of competence, act to increase volunteer commitment and satisfaction (Mitchelson & Slack, 1982). These findings agree with those of Ryan and Bates (1995). Similarly, Elstad's (1996) study of volunteers at Lillehammer, and the Williams et al. ( 1 9 9 5 ) study, argued that job related competence, general learning, and personal development were key components in retaining the volunteers. The practitioner literature on ways of satisfying and retaining volunteers revolves around the issue of encouragement and

acknowledgment (Cleveland, 1996). For example, Sirkin and McDermott (1996) suggest that constant recognition and communication become substitutes for rewards and argue that taking volunteer input seriously, giving freedom to implement projects, recognising leng th of service, prom oti ng from within the group, and providing support will enable organisations to retain their volunteers. Goodale (1995) suggests that volunteers need to stay excited about the organisation's mission. She also suggests that volunteers require clear instructions, perhaps job descriptions, good follow-up and regular contact with management, goals to evaluate their progress, and, most importantly, participation in decision making. Finally, Ellis (1995) argues that to retain volunteers, organisations should make the most of volunteer trends. For example, organisations need to recognise that the changing family structure, unemployment levels, the ageing of the population, and transitional volunteering will impact on the way an organisation manages its volunteers. In summary, then, an understanding of volunteer satisfaction can be achieved through an examination of the forces pertinent to both the particular volunteer group and the type of organisation. The next section reports on the profile of a volunteer workforce of a heritage visitor attraction and examines the organisational factors which relate to the satisfaction of that workforce. Research design Survey sample In the first phase (which forms the basis of this paper) of a large research program, it was decided to use a single survey site rather than to try to survey a larger number of sites, in order to control inter-organisational

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differences and to provide a concentrated focus for the exploratory research. Sovereign Hill, in Ballarat, was chosen as the study site as it is, arguably, the largest and most successful heritage visitor attraction in Australia, and its management was prepared to support the study. Sovereign Hill has 280 volunteers of whom 80 are c hildren. Questionnaires, with a covering letter of support from Sovereign Hill management, were posted to each of the adult volunteers. No incentives were offered for completion of the questionnaires other than the encouragement of management. Instrument development It was decided that a multisectioned, self completion questionnaire would be the best tool to obtain the information about volunteers and their experience for this project. The sections of the questionnaire of relevance to this paper included: 1. Activities, Interests and Opinions, comprising a list of 51 statements that had been used successfully by the present authors in other studies, to develop psychographic profiles of respondents (Table 1). Each statement asked respondents to indicate their strength of agreement using a seven-point Likert scale. 2. Organisation Interaction, containing 32 statements relating to aspects of the volunteers' interaction with the organisation, the purpose of which was to assess the relationship of the respondents to the organisation and the level of satisfaction they had with their role in the organisation (Table 2). These statements were taken from the literature reviewed earlier. Again, respondents were asked to use seven-point Likert scales to indicate their

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Table 1: Activities, Interests and Opinions - Item Statements. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 3 5. 36. 3 7. 3 8. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51.

I frequently visit friends and relatives. I like to participate in exciting activities. I frequently go shopping. I feel that I get a 'raw deal' out of life in general. I frequently dine in restaurants. I like to talk about an experience afterwards. I enjoy mastering things. I frequently go driving to sightsee or just for pleasure. I like to be creative. I frequently visit an art gallery or craft centre. I like to use my physical abilities. I frequently attend festivals and other types of special events. I like to interact with others. I frequently attend the theatre or a concert. I like to be involved in activities that require imagination. I frequently visit a museum or historic site. I am traditional in my views on social issues and social trends in Australia. I frequently go to the cinema/movies. I frequently gamble, go to a casino, or play gaming machines. I like doing things the whole family can enjoy. I like to be in a calm atmosphere. I believe that unions have too much power. I like to improve my skill and ability. I like to learn about myself. I believe that volunteer work helps me develop contacts. I am proud of the region in which I live. I seek to satisfy my curiosity. I like to make things more meaningful to me. I like to rest and relax. I frequently visit a park or garden. I enjoy food and wine. I believe that the smoking of marijuana should be made legal. I like to compete against others. I am a good community citizen. I like to be entertained. I believe that religion should be taught in Government schools. I seek to expand my knowledge. I think that it is important to save money rather than spend it all now. I enjoy being with my friends. I like to be with people who are enjoying themselves. I like a change of pace from everyday life. I believe that all education should be paid for by the government. I believe that volunteer work helps build my skills. I frequently play sport (e.g., golf, tennis). I believe that people should rely on themselves and not just the government. I like to be socially competent and skillful. I believe that a woman's role is taking care of the home. I like to participate in an activity that is mentally challenging. I frequently participate in organised tours or group activities. I enjoy helping other people I believe that a person's life goals should be work oriented.

strength of agreement with each of the statements. 3. Volunteer History and Demographics, including a series of questions relating to the amount of time that respondents spent each month in their current position as a volunteer and what their main

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tasks in this position were, how they heard about the position, and what level of training they have and should receive. It also asked about other positions that the respondents had worked in as volunteers and whether they would be prepared to volunteer for another organisation in the

future. This final section included the usual range of demographic questions that would be used to further develop the volunteer profile. Results In all, 97 questionnaires were returned, representing a response rate of 49%. Although not all questionnaires were completed entirely, even when cases were deleted listwise from analyses due to missing data on single variables, more than 70 cases were available for analysis. Volunteers at Sovereign Hill Respondents exhibited a similar sex distribution to that of volunteers nationally, that is, female:male, 59%:41%. However, they were substantially older, being mostly aged 55 and over (61%), and quite well educated, with more than one-third {37%) being tertiary educated. Most respondents lived with a partner but no children (46%) or a partner with children (26%). An impressive 55% of respondents had been volunteers at Sovereign Hill for at least five years, with 58% of respondents working at least three times per month, and for a minimum of 15 hours per month. Two-thirds of volunteers found out about their Sovereign Hill position from friends or family members (26%) or another volunteer (41%). Almost 43% of respondents are volunteers concurrently with another organisation. Measuring the volunteerorganisation interaction Recognising that the intention of this paper is to try to characterise favourable volunteer experience, it is necessary to construct a measure of that experience which may be examined for its correlates. The set of 32 Organisation Interaction variables was regard ed as a potential composite indicator of

favourable experience. It was examined for internal consistency via the computation of Cronbach's alpha. Four items had item-to-total correlations of less than 0.2, and were omitted (these items were: the relationship between volunteers and paid staff is clearly defined; new volunteers initially perform relatively menial tasks; my experience as a volunteer will assist me to obtain a paid position; and I like being a volunteer for this organisation because of the fringe benefits). These items had substantial face validity in terms of being peripheral to the underlying theme of the set, in that they did not necessarily relate directly to an individual's p ersonal interaction with the management of the organisation.

The remaining 28 items were taken as a global indicator of the favourableness of the volunteer experience, with a new variable {"EXPERIEN") being computed as the grand sum of each individual's scores on each of the 28 constituent items . The maximum possible score was 196 (28 x 7); the actual range was 46192, with the median being 150. This indicates that most respondents regarded their experience as at least "82% favourable" ( 160/ 196), which may be seen as a very positive endorsement of the volunteerorganisation interaction A dichotomous recoded variable, split at the median, was also computed for use in subsequent analyses, together with the original continuous variable. It

Table 2: Organisation Interaction - Item Statements. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32.

My role as a volunteer has variety. The relationship between volunteers and paid staff is clearly defined. My manager can be relied upon when things get difficult at work. My role as a volunteer with this organisation has met my expectations. The information that I received before becoming a volunteer was accurate. I am extremely pleased that I chose to volunteer for this organisation. I received an ad equate orientation prog ram upon j oining this organisation. New volunteers are made to feel very welcome in this organisation. New volunteers initially perform relatively menial tasks. My manager is willing to listen to work-related problems. I feel proud to tell others that I am a part of this organisation. Management provides volunteers with sufficient information about the organisation. Paid staff and volunteers are treated equally by management. I believe that I should receive ongoing training. Change is essential if an organisation is to remain successful. I am satisfied with my involvement as a volunteer with this organisation. This organisation is concerned about my personal development. I have a clear understanding of what is expected of me. I have received sufficient training to enable me to deal with the demands of my position. This organisation inspires me to perform well in my position. My manager is concerned about the welfare of those under him/her. I am willing to put in more effort than that normally required to make this organisation successful. The rosters in this organisation are made to be convenient for volunteers. Volunteering gives me the opportunity to socialise with other people. This position as a volunteer makes me feel worthwhile. Being a volunteer for this organisation is a good way to fill in my time. My experience as a volunteer will assist me to obtain a paid position. Liking the people I work with prompts me to remain as a volunteer. I like being a volunteer for this organisation because of the fringe benefits. I would be reluctant to leave this organisation. Volunteers in this organisation are consulted about the need for change. This organisation encourages me to improve my skills and knowledge.

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should be noted that, because of the high overall level of "favourableness" exhibited, gradations of favourableness should not necessarily be seen as reflecting the presence of absolute unfavourableness, but merely relative unfavourableness. Predictors of favourable interactions The relationsh ips between EXPERIEN and the variables discussed in the Introduction to this paper, and immediately above, were examined using chisquare analysis or analysis of variance, depending on the scale properties of the data. No statistically significant relationships (at the 0.05 level) were found for any of the variables examined, these being, respondent sex; age; family status; education; duration of volunteer position; frequency or hours of working; and other volunteer work in the past, concurrently, or likely in the future. To assess the ability of psychographics to distinguish between the more and less positive respondents, a discriminant analysis was performed on the dichotomous experience variable and the set of 51 AIO statements. It was found that it was possible to predict successfully the group membership of 80% of the respondents, using a function comprising seven variables. That is, for 80% of all respondents, their classification as either a "highly favourable" or a "less favourable" volunteer could be predicted by using a single equation based on seven of the 51 AIO variables. The "highly favourable" volunteers were found to be higher on: I like to interact with others; I am a good community citizen; I like to use my physical abilities; and I am traditional in my views on social issues and social trends in Australia; and lower on: I like to

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be creative; I frequently play sport (e.g., golf, tennis); and I frequently go shopping. Generally, it would seem, these are the "solid citizens" who want to be active, both socially and physically. It is feasible to reconcile the desire to be physical, with the lower sport involvement, by regarding them as substitutes - not contradictory, as volunteering is a physical activity, but not a sport. The "highly favourable" volunteers are not particularly creative (although they may like to "dress up"), and they are not major shoppers, possibly because of reduced incomes or family demands.

From a managerial perspective, it appears that the management of Sovereign Hill is providing an organisational environment which meets the requirements of its volunteers, although it would be useful to be able to diagnose the bases for the relative dissatisfaction of some volunteers. This would require additional data and analyses beyond those available to this exploratory study. Similarly, it would be instructive to have a frame of reference within which specific organisations can compare and evaluate their operations against other operations. Larger studies of more organisations are needed.

Discussion

Conclusion

V olunteers at Sovereign Hill appear to display many of the characteristics which the literature would have predicted. For example, they are generally well-educated, older, and substantially female, as would be expected for a cultural activity o r an historically-themed recreational attraction. However, they are not overwhelmingly female nor exclusively retirees. Rather, there is a range of characteristics.

The management of volunteers is likely to be of increasing concern, especially in service industries such as tourism. Hence, it is important that there be more study of the theory and practice of volunteer management, particularly as it relates to Australian tourism. It is likely that a productive focus will be the construction of contingency models of volunteer management, which recognise the likely alignment of types of volunteers with types of organisations, and hence the desirability of management to have systems which can identify those volunteers which are more suited to particular environments, and in turn, allow management to structure compatible and reinforcing working environments.

Regarding the adequacy of the volunteer experience, the responses to this enquiry suggest a high level of satisfying experience. In fact, it is difficult to identify any distinguishing demographic or personal-historic attributes for those volunteers who are more, or less, pleased with their volunteer experience. It is necessary to explore dimensions which may be seen as more "lifestyle" related, in order to characterise or profile the likelihood of superior volunteer experience. It seems that volunteers who are more traditional or conservative in their orientations are better suited to this historic tourist attraction, although those for whom the environment is less congruent are not necessarily frustrated or discontented.

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