Diss ETH No.
7563
COMBINED TRAVEL-TIME AND AMPLITUDE INTERPRETATION OP TWO SEISMIC REPRACTION STUDIES IN EUROPE
A dissertation submitted to the
SWISS PEDERAL INSTITUTE OP TECHNOLOGY
ZÜRICH
for the degree of Doctor of Natural Sciences
presented by Nicholas Deichmann
Dipl.Natw.ETH born October 11
.
Citizen of USA
accepted
on
1949
the recommendation of
Prof. Dr. Stephan Mueller, examiner Prof. Dr. William Lowrie, co-examiner Dr. Joerg Ansorge, co-examiner
1984
Partial
reprint
Geophysics, 51,153-164 Springer Verlag.
from J.of
and
52,109-118,
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fault. The resulting model exhibits considerable lateral heterogeneity: in the west, below 7.5 km of Sediments of the Lombardy Basin, the crust reaches a depth of only 31 km, while it thickens towards the more mountainous area in the east, reaching a depth of 46 km below the Adamello Massif. Although the signal character of the corresponding reflections is somewhat erratic, the data is satisfied best by modeis with a low-velocity zone in the upper crust. An additional small velocity discontinuity from 6.2 to 6.4 km/s was found in the middle crust at around 20 km. Earlier interpretations, based on travel-times alone, found a layer with high velocities of about 7 km/s at this depth. This was interpreted as lower-crustal material of the Adriatic-African plate, which had been overthrust onto the European one during Alpine orogeny, thus explaining the uplift of the Southern Alps. However, such a model of crustal doubling is questionable, since a high-velocity layer of that kind is not in agreement with the amplitude data. The unusually thin crystalline part of the crust under the Lombardy Basin is interpreted, in accordance with geological evidence, as a relic of a Late Hercynian rifting phase.
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and by Hill
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investigations interpreting
More recent
the absolute similar to that employed in this amplitude-distance Müller and Fuchs study include work by Berckhemer et al. Braile Müller and Mueller Banda and Ansorge (1980) and Braile et al. Publications by Olsen et al. McMechan and and Zucca are (1980) of the use of relative Mooney examples amplitude
behaviour in
(1977),
(1982).
a manner
(1975), (1979),
(1976),
(1979),
(1984)
ratios.
=
iou
ÜJ
o
n _c _t_
-
Ol. JE er
10
3
4
vp
3
5
6
7
10"
/v2
15
SQ
ckm/s:
100
10"
DISTRNCE CKMD
-
..
CO
PgS
CD
Pw
X
10
20
Fig.2.1 Example
of
30
40
50 X (KM)
70
60
80
30
synthetic reeord-section ealculated
100
with the reflectivity of 4 Hz for model PG11K frequency displayed in the left inset. The amplitude-distance curve line) is shown in the right inset. Pg denotes the first arrival, which corresponds to the wave refracted in the crystalline basement. Note the prominent secondary phases: Pw gallery" wave (see Cerveny et al. PgS direct Pg eonverted to S at the base of the Sediments, PgPg Pg reflected once at the free surface, PgPgS reflected Pg eonverted to S.
method with
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1977),
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Fig.2.2 Amplitude-distance curves for model PG11K (upper right inset) for frequencies of 2.5, 4, 5 and 8 Hz (Fourier spectra in the lower inset) computed with reflectivity method
(continuous lines). computation,
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Fig.2.3 Comparison of amplitude-distance curves of displacement (continuous line) and velocity (dotted line)
(upper
right inset).
The shift between frequency corresponding spectra displacement and velocity Signals. The bottom insets show the signal (at 35 km) for displacement and velocity; the time intervals used to calculate the spectra are marked by vertical bars.
seismograms for model PG11KK
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2.3 Model calculations of Pg-amplitudes
Variation of
gradients
It is well known that even a slight positive velocity gradient greatly e.g. Cerveny 1966, Hill influences the amplitude of refracted phases 1971). In order to determine systematically the effect of different gradients, amplitude-distance curves for modeis with gradients between -0.015 and 0.108 km/s/km were computed and are shown in Figure 2.4. From a comparison with a calculation for model PG11 at higher frequency and from
(see
the discussion in the previous section, it can be stated that, although these curves were ealculated for 2.5 Hz, they are representative also for higher frequencies as long as the gradient zones extend sufficiently deep. The results shown in Figure 2.4 illustrate that small positive velocity gradients in the upper crust will be resolvable by amplitude measurements on reasonably good experimental data. For example, the amplitude-distance characteristics of Models PG1 and PG6 are significantly different although the velocity strueture differs only by the presence of a small (0.038 km/s/km) gradient in Model PG6.
Thickness of the
gradient
zone
and
low-velocity layers
differences in the amplitude-distance curves for modeis having the same gradient but different thickness of the gradient zone are The modeis include structures with a continuous seen in Figure 2.5. 2 and 10 km (model PG11KK) and gradient between 2 and 15 km (model A decrease in the on top of a half space. between 2 and 7 km (model thickness of the gradient zone leads to a faster drop-off of the amplitudes
Significant
PG11K)
PG11),
with distance. The introduetion of a low-velocity layer below a gradient zone between 2 and 7 km and 2 and 10 km (model PG11L and PG11LL) shows another interesting effect. A significant shift of the maximum and a change in the slope of the amplitude decay is evident when a low-velocity layer is present PG11K and at the same depth at which the gradient is terminated PG11L in
(compare
Fig.2.5).
(1982),
this As discussed in more detail in the paper by Banda et al. of seismic Signals amplitude-distance behaviour is due to the wave nature and deviates from that predicted by asymptotic ray theory in two respects. From simple ray-theoretical considerations, one would expect amplitude levels to stay high as long as the diving waves turn above the bottom of the gradient zone and to abruptly go to zero as soon as the rays penetrate into the low-velocity zone. In reality, however, the waves behave as if they "sense" the low-velocity zone well before the turning point of the corresponding rays reaches that depth, thus causing the amplitudes to decay
11
GRADIENT (KM/S/KM) 12 -0.015 1 3 6 11 22
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70
80
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100
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DISTANCE CKMl
Fig.2.4 Amplitude-distance
gradient),
PG1
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(positive gradients)
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for modeis PG12 and PG3, PG6, PG11 and PG22 frequency of 2.5 Hz. curves
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DISTANCE Ci-MI]
Fig.2.5 Amplitude-distance
for modeis
curves
PG11, PG11K,
(continuous, PG11KK with variable gradient dashed and dotted line, respectively, in the lower inset) and PG11L and PG11LL with a low-velocity layer at different depths (dashed and continuous line, respectively, in the upper inset) computed for a frequency of 4 Hz. zone
13
thickness
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100
DISTRNCE CKM_
Fig.2.6 Ray amplitudes (top) ealculated with program RAY81 for model PG11, shown in the inset, with three different interface shapes (bottom).
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2.4 Model calculations of PMP-amplitudes
Davydova (1972)
classified possible modeis of the crust-mantle the Mohorovicic dicontinuity or just Moho, into three transition, different types: first-order diseontinuities, transition zones with smoothly or stepwise increasing velocities, and transition zones consisting of lamina-like velocity inversions (Fig.2.7). Her eonclusions indicate that a detailed analysis of the dynamic properties of the compressional waves reflected from the Moho, designated as PMP, can provide criteria for distinguishing between the different types (see also Davydova et al. 1970, known
as
1972).
(1970)
Fuchs
(1975)
as well as Braile and Smith presented several record sections for various the modeis of synthetic Moho, illustrating qualitatively the effect of strueture on amplitudes. Figure 2.8 shows the amplitude-distance curves for several modeis of the Moho, ealculated in the course of this study to enable a direet and quantitative comparison between them.
Lt--W---V-jLt--. i
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types
of crust-mantle transitions: I—first-order boundaries; II—step-like or smooth transition layers; III laminated transition zones; h thickness of transition zone; M Mohorovicic et al. (from 1972). discontinuity; Davydova —
=
=
16
The modeis consist of a 6.0 km/s crust with a transition zone starting at 20 km depth and reaching 8.0 km/s at 25 km, which corresponds to the Moho. Such a thin crust is not typical for a normal Continental crust, but corresponds more closely to a continental rift strueture. It was chosen for these calculations in view of modelling the crustal strueture below the Sulz-south profile. In addition, a thinner crust allows one to reduce the distance over which seismograms need to be ealculated and thus also to reduce computational costs. The results, however, are equally applicable to distance shift a thicker crust if one corrects for the appropriate time and of the arrivals.
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80
60
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120
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140
DISTfiNCE EKM3
amplitude-distance curves (vertical component, ground displacement, 8 Hz dominant frequency)
Fig.2.8
PMP
for various modeis of crust-mantle transitions. corresponding seismograms are shown in Fig.2.9-
17
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60
Total number of arrivals: 25 Mean arrival time: 0.520 s Standard deviation: 0.022 s
Fig.3.1 Histogram showing
the deviations from the mean arrival time for the test shot in the Snake River Piain.
26
3.3 Accuracy of travel-time measurements The accuracy of travel-time determinations is influenced
by
the
following factors: 1.
picking
of the onsets
2. variations in the System characteristics, i.e. the electronic specifications, of recording instruments and receivers
3. determination of time of 0-th digit and of sampling rate during digitizing 4. Station locations
5. shot time and shot location 6. elevation corrections. In the summer of 1980, at the end of an extended seismic refraction campaign in the Snake River Piain, U.S.A., all the employed instruments were grouped in one spot to record the same test shot 1.4 km away. The 95 kg of explosive were fired in a 15 m deep borehole in dry basalt. The Signals were processed in the Standard way, and both travel-times and amplitudes of the first arrivals were measured from records of the vertical components. A total of 4 instruments from the University of Stuttgart, 10 from the University of Karlsruhe and 15 from the ETH-Zuerich, all equipped with Mark-L4-3D seismometers, were involved in the test. mean arrival for the apparent be found to account time. No systematic deviation could bimodal distribution around the mean, so that it was attributed to the incompleteness of the data set and a Gaussian distribution was assumed. The Standard deviation computed from the 25 usable arrivals amounts to ±22 ms. Though the number of readings is too small for a meaningful Statistical analysis, this can be regarded as a usable uneertainty estimate for the combined factors 1, 2 and 3. It must , however, be borne in mind that the onsets in this example were very sharp, so that the uneertainty of the onset determinations was lower than for normal data, which are reeorded over larger distances and in the presence of higher background noise.
Figure 3.1 shows
a
histogram of the deviations from the
Errors in Station locations, caused by inaecurate maps or by carelessness in marking the positions on the maps are equivalent to an additional timing error: on a record section with a time scale reduced with an error of 60 m in direction of the profile will be a velocity of 6.0 hardly detectable as a shift in distance, but will cause a deviation of 0.01 Since the actual error is dependent on the quality s in the arrival time. of the maps used and on the care taken by the Operator in the field, it is difficult to give a generally valid estimate of its size.
km/s,
27
Inaccuracy of shot time and location, causes more of a systematic error than the previous ones. Its effect is to add a constant time error to all arrivals from a particular shot. This causes a velocity error only for the layer immediately below the surface, and changes the depth of the interfaces, but does not affect the deeper layers' velocities. Nevertheless, it can be a source of error which must be taken into consideration when dealing with profiles reeorded pieeewise from several shots, since then, depending on the distribution of stations with respeet to the explosions, it may be a cause of discrepancies between the different data sets. Usually, however, sufficient care is taken when locating the shotpoints on the map, and time breaks are measured by the same person with the same instrument, so that the actual errors are not significant. The last factor in the list actually is one which only comes into play during the interpretational stage, but which, nevertheless, must be kept in mind. Along profiles with large topographic variations, it may often be necessary to correct the arrival times for elevation differences among the
stations. Poor knowledge of the surface layer velocity can be a further source of significant timing errors when applying topographic corrections. The size of this error is, of course, proportional to the elevation difference itself, and thus impossible to estimate a priori. This problem is discussed in more detail in Appendix A.
uneertainty of ±22 ms is to be considered as a lowermost bound, valid for good quality Signals with a frequency content around 10 Hz, to which one must add the other factors, dependent on the actual circumstances valid for the data set under consideration. Thus, an arrival time accuracy better than 30 ms seems unrealistic with the present recording equipment and processing procedure. In summary, the
3.4 Accuracy of amplitude measurements data set used for the travel-time test was also used to estimate the experimentally caused uneertainty of the amplitude determinations. This was done by measuring the peak-to-peak amplitude of the first arrivals on a true amplitude plot. As mentioned in Section 3.1, the sensitivity of the instruments from Karlsruhe and Zuerich was obviously different, so that the measured amplitudes were examined separately. Since only two of the instruments of the University of Stuttgart had usable records, they were not included in this comparison. The results are The
same
summarised below: INSTRUMENTS
The
15
sensitivity
resulting
errors
AVERAGE AMPLITUDE
11.9 4.5
8
Karlsruhe Zuerich Ratio of
NUMBER USED
NORMALIZED STAND.DEV.
STANDARD DEVIATION 1 .0 0.7
mm mm
8% 16$
mm mm
Karlsruhe/Zuerich
=
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=
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include the influence from the following factors:
1. measurement of the
amplitudes
2. differences in seismometer
on
plot
the
sensitivity
3. differences in recording amplifier gains 4. effects of digitizing and
processing.
point can actually be neglected, since insignificant relative to that of the others.
The last
its influence is
The signal character of the different records was very similar except instruments from Karlsruhe and for the obvious polarity reversals Stuttgart which funetioned properly had a downward first arrival, while all but one of those from Zuerich had an upward onset, in agreement with the Standard Conventions for vertical component seismometers).
(the
The better relative accuracy of the instruments from Karlsruhe is probably not due to lower instrumental scatter, but rather to the smaller relative error ineurred when measuring larger amplitudes, which were a consequence of the higher instrument sensitivity. Thus one can say that amplitude scatter due to different instrument characteristics or to measurement errors amounts to no more than 20%. On the other hand, the additional scatter due to differences in geophone-ground coupling and in site geology from one Station to another is very difficult to estimate. Until systematic investigations of this problem are available, it is thus only possible to argue that, based on theoretical seismogram calculations, the amplitude-distance behaviour, due to the deeper and nearly
29
horizontally layered structures which one actually wants to model, is a smoothly varying function, and that consequently the large amplitude jumps from one Station to the next, visible in the data, are due to near-surface Station effects. The examination of amplitude data from clearly identifiable phases, such as Pg or PMP, indicates that, in general, amplitudes can jump by more than a factor of two from one Station to the next, but that, given sufficient recording points, the Overall shape of the amplitude-distance curve expected from the theoretical calculations is reproduced very well (see Figs.4.5, 4.9 and 5.13).
30
4. PROFILE SULZ-SOUTH
4.1 Introduction As mentioned in
Chapter
1
the first data set under consideration in
,
obtained in southwestern Germany, along a transition zone between the northern Alpine foreland and the Continental rift strueture of the Upper Rhinegraben. Figure 4.1, after Ahorner (1975), shows schematically the tectonic evolution of this area. Rifting began about 45 to 40 million years ago, in a region weakened by the updoming of mantle material and subjeeted to a SW-NE oriented compressive stress, associated with the northward push of Africa against the European continent (illies 1975). After a brief clockwise rotation of the stress field some 20 million years ago, the counterelockwise rotation of Africa has led to the presently dominant SE-NW direction of maximum compressive stress, which manifests itself in predominantly strike-slip mechanisms of the earthquakes beneath the Swabian Jura and Upper Rhinegraben (see e.g. the recent compilation by this
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Bonjer
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1984).
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4.2 Geological setting be seen from the locations of the recording sites in Figure 4.2, the first 90 km of this 113 km long, north-south trending line are situated along the edge of the crystalline Black Forest, where it dips beneath the Triassic sediments. Beyond 90 km, the line enters the Swiss Molasse Basin and crosses the eastern end of the Swiss Jura. From borehole data at Sulz and at other locations along the profile compiled in the geological literature 1956; Buechi et al. 1965; Lemcke et al. 1968; Boigk and rough it is possible to construct Schoeneich 1968; Schneider the strueture and of topography of the cross-section of the sedimentary As
can
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1980),
_
basement (Fig.4.3b). Thus the sediment-basement boundary is charaeterized by an up-dip over the first 40 km and a down-dip beyond about 60 km. In the north, the surficial upper Triassic sediments (Keuper and Muschelkalk) are underlain by a thick wedge of lower Triassic and Permian deposits (BuntSandstein and Rotliegendes). In the south, these Triassic sediments are covered by a layer of Jurassic limestones and by two Molasse basins, which are separated by the Jurassic outcrop of the Laegeren, the easternmost part of the folded Jura mountains.
crystalline
4.3 Acquisition and presentation of the data obtained between 1974 and 1980, from ten explosions in a Because of poor recordings, near the town of Sulz am Neckar. some sites were oecupied more than once, and two of the shots, which, unlike the others, were not instantaneous but fired with multiply delayed charges, All shots were reeorded on FM-magnetie tape were not evaluated at all. instruments of the MARS type (see Section 3-1 and Berckhemer 1970). Except for three stations with FS-60 seismometers (nos.4.5, 6, 7 in Figs.4.2 and 4.3), all instruments were equipped with three-component MARK L-4 seismometers. The data Single quarry
were
The records
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described in the previous the vertical component data, filtered only
digitized and processed
chapter. Figure 4.3a presents
as
with the 32-Hz anti-aliasing filter. The amplitudes are trace-normalized, but gain factors, which are ealculated for each seismogram by the plot program, allow the determination of absolute ground velocity.
The most striking features of these data are a clear Pg-phase as first arrival out to 90 km and, beyond 55 km, strong PMP-reflections from the crust-mantle boundary. Between these two arrivals, there seem to be additional phases in the seismogram, but they are difficult to correlate Clearly visible over more than two or three conseeutive records in the upper left corner of Figure 4.3 is also a strong Sg-wave, which is shown again together with the SMS in the transverse component record section in Figure 4.10.
(Fig.4.3).
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70
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80
DISTANCE
30
(KM)
Fig.4.6 a) Vertical component records, trace normalized, 4-16 Hz band-pass filtered, showing possible refleetions from the base of an upper-crustal low-velocity layer (PcP)
b) Synthetic
records for model 3- (Fig.4.5) with an assumed Q=100 for the sediments and 500 for the rest of the crust.
(Fig.4.5)
c) Synthetic
records for model 3with Q=50 and in the Vp=5.4 km/s low-velocity zone. PgPg: Pg phase reflected once at the surface. PcP: reflection from the base of the low-velocity layer. Pw: interference head-wave, or "whispering gallery phase" (see Cerveny et al. 1977). The amplitudes of the synthetic records are multiplied by distance and correspond to ground velocity.
42
multiply reflected and eonverted phases within the sedimentary layer produce amplitudes similar to those observed here. Accurate modelling would also require a better knowledge of upper crustal gradient zone, in which the
Q in the sediments: anelastic attenuation is likely to influence the
intensity
of the sedimentary reverberations
as
well.
Though the synthetic seismograms contain refleetions from the upper boundary of the low-velocity layer, which closely follow the Pg-arrivals between 35 and 55 km (see the example in Banda and Deichmann 1983) they also are masked by sedimentary effects. Similarly, the reverberations observed distinet arrival,
Interpretation.
so
(Fig.4.3a)
do not exhibit the character of that they cannot be relied upon for a unique
in the data at these distances
a
Thus, based on the evidence from this data alone, it is not possible to resolve conclusively the problem of the possible existence of a low-velocity layer in the middle crust below the Sulz profile. Resorting, therefore, to the criterion which favours the simpler of those models that are not in conflict with the data, further calculations were performed assuming a 9 in constant velocity of 6.0 km/s for the middle crust
(model
Fig.4.5b).
An alternative model, compatible with the Pg-amplitudes, could involve a somewhat higher velocity at the bottom of the upper-crustal gradient zone at around 10 km depth, followed by a layer with a negative velocity gradient reaching all the way down to the lower crust. However, as discussed at the end of the previous section, the evidence for this Interpretation is not
entirely
conclusive either.
43
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100
110
(KM)
Trace normalized, vertical component record sections with 10-24 Hz band-pass filter (a) and 5 Hz low-pass filter (b). Continuous travel-time curves correspond to the wide-angle refleetions from the crust-mantle transition of the model in Fig.4.13, ealculated with a ray-trace program (Gebrande 1976) taking into aecount the eurved sediment-basement boundary shown in Fig.4.4c. The dashed curve in (a) indicates the PMP-precursor (PrP),
44
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Fig.4.8 a and b) Synthetic seismograms (vertical component, ground velocity, dominant frequency 8 Hz)
for
the crust-mantle transitions shown in the insets. Upper crustal model used corresponds to model 9 in Fig.4.5b. Note the phases between Pg and PMP-precursors, caused by multiples and conversions of Pg within and beneath the
sediments.
c)
Vertical component records, 4-16 Hz band-pass Vertical lines indicate amplitude of
filtered.
plotted
precursors
as
synthetics
and data
in
are
Fig.4.9.
scaled
distance.
46
Amplitudes by multiplying
of with
PMP
-10
(O o CE
LU
O __D
a. _: CE
10 50
70
60
80
90
100
110
120
DISTANCE _KM_
0
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PrP/PMP
2
-
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10
5
30
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50
100
60
70
80
90
-
10
100
DISTANCE CKMD
DISTANCE CKMD
(top)
with thin curve the PMP main phase data and thicker ones to the stepin and lamella-model (11S) Fig.4.8. Amplitude ratio of Pg to PMP to PMP main phase (bottom left) and of PMP-preeursor with the corresponding model curves. Crosses correspond to data (from 4-16 Hz band-pass filtered records) with shot numbers above
Fig.4.9 Maximum amplitudes of corresponding to the smoothed
(bottom right),
(PrP)
and Station numbers below.
47
(10S)
two models
(Fig.4.9).
In the distance ränge
which the precursors are the data very well, while the Since errors due to faulty instrument gains or to differences in local site responses have no effect on the amplitude ratios this deviation can be regarded as significant. From this it follows that, of the models discussed here, a laminated lower crust is the most likely explanation for the observations. over
clearly identifiable, the lamella-model fits step-model deviates by about a factor of 3.
In order to aecount for
high-frequency
precursors before the
lower-frequency PMP-phase observed along several seismic refraction profiles, Fuchs and Schulz (1976) proposed a model of the crust-mantle transition consisting of a thin high-velocity lamella over a zone of strong velocity gradient. However, in this case, the large velocity discontinuity at the top of the transition zone formed by the lamella would produce precursor amplitudes larger than those observed under Sulz. Two of the models consisting of a series of step-like gradients for the southern Black Forest were also proposed by Edel et al. investigated: while the travel times can be made to fit the Sulz data quite accurately, the amplitudes of the PMP and its precursor do not match the observations sufficiently well. Indeed, it is likely that a quantitative amplitude Interpretation of Edel's data might reveal that the PMP-precursors visible in some of his record sections are more adequately explained by some kind of lamination similar to that proposed here.
(1975)
48
4.7 The travel-time delays between Rhine and Laegeren both Pg- and PMP-arrivals in the distance ränge between 91 and 101 km show a considerable delay with respeet to the general trend of the travel-time curves. This delay, which reaches 0.2 s at stations 37 and 38, can be seen particularly well by correlating individual record section peaks and troughs of the PMP-phase in the low-pass filteredsame delay can Despite the poor signal-to-noise ratio, this several of the also be found among the Pg-arrivals on appropriately filtered and amplified records in Figure 4.4a. Since both Pg and PMP are similarly affected, the cause of the anomaly must be located close to the surface between stations 35 and 40. This section of the profile eoineides exactly with the Molasse Basin between the Rhine at 90 km and the Laegeren Mountain at 102 km As mentioned
before,
(Fig.4.7b).
(Fig.4.3b).
The most obvious explanation would attribute the delay to the low velocity of the Molasse sediments embedded in faster Mesozoic limestones. Own velocity measurements at shallow depth just north of the Rhine, gave P-wave velocities of 2.4 km/s for the Molasse and 4.7 km/s for the Malm found average values between 2.6 and 3.0 limestones beneath. Rybach km/s for Molasse sediments and between 4.1 and 4.9 km/s for various Malm formations just northwest of the Laegeren Mountain. From several borehole
(1962)
measurements in northeastern Switzerland, Lohr (1967) reports values of 2.62 km/s at the surface, increasing to 3.3 km/s at 1 km depth for the Tertiary, and of 4.6 km/s for the Mesozoic sediments at depths between 1 and 2 km. contrast of 2.0 to 5.0 km/s between Tertiary and Mesozoic sediments, a strueture as sketched in the geological cross-section (Fig.4.3b) will not fully aecount for the observed delays. In fact, ray-trace calculations showed that at Station 37 only half of the 0.2 seconds delay can be explained by such a model. Moreover, a relatively small velocity contrast between Tertiary and Mesozoic sediments seems much more likely in view of the fact that no delay is observed in the Molasse Basin south of the Laegeren beyond 104 km. Even
assuming
an
unreasonably high
is forced to conclude that the sediment-basement boundary is not as smooth as shown in Figure 4.3b, but that there must be some kind of depression reaching all the way into the crystalline basement. This hypothesis has in the meantime been fully corroborated by the results of a set of short refraction lines reeorded in this area (Sierro et al. 1983) Thus
and
by
one
VIBROSEIS reflection
the way into the basement at
profiles a
as
well
as
by
a
borehole drilled all
site close to Station 37
(NAGRA 1983).
The
crystalline basement, consisting of biotite-gneiss, was reached only at a depth of 2020 m, instead of the expected 950 m, where it forms the bottom a more than 1000 m deep trough filled with Permo-Carboniferous sediments.
49
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LC\ LCN
The results of the Interpretation of the Sulz-south summarized as follows:
1)
The upper crustal
exeeptionally
(boreholes)
gradient under the Sulz-south profile
well constrained by travel-time
and
profile
by as
Information about the basement well as amplitude data.
can
be
is
topography
2) Unambiguous
evidence for or against a discontinuity or low-velocity in the middle crust could not be found from these data alone. For this reason, the middle crust in Figure 4.13 has been drawn with a dashed line. The possible alternatives are discussed in light of other data in Section zone
6.2.
3)
The evidence for the lamination in the lower crust is based on a quantitative comparison of the amplitudes of the PMP and its precursors with those of theoretical seismograms. It also correctly aecounts for the observed travel-times and for the frequency dependent nature of the refleetions from the crust-mantle transition. As discussed in more detail in Section 6.2, both the depth of the Moho and its characteristie strueture agree well with results obtained in adjacent areas.
56
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5.2 Geological setting As shown by the Station locations on the geological sketch map in Figure 5.3 and below on the elevation profiles in Figures 5.5 and 5.6, the seismic refraction lines discussed in this section cross regions of considerable tectonic complexity. Shotpoint A, at the western end, is situated in the Lombardy trough, consisting of basins with Mesozoic sediments several kilometers thick, separated by ridges, Permian intrusions
and faults.
In the central part of the main profile, the crystalline basement, composed mainly of metamorphic schists and gneisses, is covered by a relatively thin layer of Triassic and Permian sediments. In the east, the profile crosses the Adamello intrusion, the Giudicaria fault and the quartz porphyry of Bolzano, where shotpoint B is located. Profiles
A-05 and A-07 terminate in the south-Alpine schists and
gneisses, bounded by the Insubric Line in the north (see Angenheister et al. 1972, Vinterer and Bosellini 1981).
e.g. Staub
1949,
5.3 Acquisition and presentation of the data at the southern tip of Lago Maggiore, four borehole shots were fired with charges between 400 and 800 kg. Shotpoint B actually consists of two distinct quarries about 2 km apart, from which one blast each with Charge sizes of 4.3 and 4.6 tons was reeorded (see Ansorge et al. 1979 for details). Recording instruments were all of the MARS type, and the data were digitized and processed as described in Chapter 3. The resulting trace-normalized record sections are shown in Figures 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6, bandpass filtered between 2 and 16 Hz with a recursive, zero-phase digital filter, to remove some of the noise. Since several records of shots B1 and
At
shotpoint A,
B2 overlap, they
were
plotted separately (Fig.5.4).
the Charge sizes of shots B1 and B2 were up to ten times larger than those at shotpoint A, their efficiency was considerably smaller; thus, beyond about 170 km, the signal to noise ratio became so poor as to make the records unusable. Calibration recordings at the same site for each shot are not available to correct for different Charge sizes and shot efficiencies. However, since all shots from a particular shotpoint were reeorded over the same distance ränge, amplitudes could be adjusted, by correcting for systematic deviations between them. Only shot A1, reeorded along the main profile, deviated systematically by more than the internal scatter of the data, so that the corresponding amplitude values had to be
Although
reduced by
a
factor of 2.
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