Political Participation of Immigrants in the EU

Political Participation of Immigrants in the EU Challenges and Tools Caitlin Katsiaficas, Project Associate @Bridging Europe EU Migration Policy Work...
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Political Participation of Immigrants in the EU Challenges and Tools

Caitlin Katsiaficas, Project Associate @Bridging Europe EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 11

EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 11 Political Participation of Immigrants in the EU: Challenges and Tools Caitlin Katsiaficas The political participation of immigrants is often seen as an indicator of their integration into the host society. This is because it demonstrates an interest in the functioning of the host society.1 Political pa ti ipatio is see as li ked ith politi al ep ese tatio a d e uality, he eas i teg atio suggests at i i u e ual a ess to the i po ta t i stitutio s of so iety a d e ual pa ti ipation in the e o o i a d politi al sphe es .2 Alternately, to be when one is excluded from the political process they are without an important tool to change the policies that affect them and others.3 Community input in political life is central to the idea of democracy. Areas of immigrant political participation commonly discussed include voting rights, civil rights, industrial rights, citizenship, associations, and consultative bodies.4 This paper will look focus on the latter two as entities that have the potential to mobilize and facilitate participation. It will examine types of political participation, challenges that those with an immigration background face in participating, government approaches to the political incorporation of immigrants in the European Union, and tools of political mobilization. While immigrants do face obstacles and restrictions to participation as compared to native-born populations, they have the ability to play a role in informing policy, particularly that related to integration. 1

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2012, p. 133. De Rooij 2011, p. 5. 3 Bevelander & Spang 2014, p. 2. 4 Entzinger 1999, p. 13. 2

_____________________________________________________________________________________ Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs, with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is associated. Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net) © Bridging Europe 2014 Page |1

EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 11

POLITICAL PARTICIPATION Political participation can consist of many different types of activities related to influencing political results. Such acts include voting, protesting, signing petitions, boycotting, contacting an official or politician, participating in a debate, running for office, and working for a political party or other organization. These actions can take place at the local, regional, and national levels. Types of political activities can be characterized as either conventional (institutional activities such as voting, contacting an official, etc.) or unconventional activities (non-institutional acts like boycotting, demonstrating, etc.). Acts of political participation can also be categorized as low cost or high cost. 5 There are several elements that can affect political participation, including gender, education, socio-economic situation, language skills, employment status, identity, and membership in associations.

CHALLENGES TO IMMIGRANT POLITICAL PARTICIPATION Immigrants face several barriers to taking part in the politics of their new communities. Among the factors important to facilitating political participation is the availability of resources, which include time, money, knowledge, and networks. Resources decrease the cost of political participation and also make one more likely to take part in more costly actions.6 Many immigrants have lower levels of employment, income, and job and income security, which can make it more difficult to participate in more intensive political activities. Immigrants may not have the language skills necessary in order to effectively participate in and understand the political system in their new country. Language barriers can make it more difficult to access information on how to participate and express political views. Research has shown that language is one of the most important factors in explaining political participation and that 5 6

De Rooij 2011, p. 7 ; Bevelander & Spang 2014, p.35. De Rooij 2011, p. 3.

_____________________________________________________________________________________ Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs, with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is associated. Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net) © Bridging Europe 2014 Page |2

EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 11 those who are not native speakers have lower levels of and can experience exclusion from participation in politics.7 In addition to a lack of language proficiency, they may also lack basic knowledge of the political system, including political institutions, parties, and issues. Access to networks is also important to political participation, and can be a challenge for those who have recently arrived. Related to this is recruitment. Recruitment is seen as important to political participation because people often must be asked to take part.8 Recruitment and political activity can be facilitated through social institutions such as family, friends, places of worship, the workplace, community, and other organizations. Immigrants who have recently moved often do not have as many social connections and thus are less likely to be recruited through these institutions. However, while immigrants may be less likely to be members of these social institutions, recruitment through these networks has been shown to play an important role in influencing immigrant political participation. Networks based on ethnic and linguistic affiliations can assist in mobilization around issues that are pertinent to a certain group by contributing to a sense of group identity and civic community, which has been seen to increase political participation.9 However, while a strong ethnic identity can facilitate participation, it can also lead to closed communities that are not actively involved in host country politics.10 Another factor influencing participation is engagement, meaning that those who are more interested in politics, possess a feeling of civic responsibility, and have the capacity to participate in political activity are more likely to accept the costs associated with participating in politics.11 Those who participate in 7

Jacobs, Phalet & Swyngedouw 2004, p. 553; Quintelier 2009, p. 924. De Rooij 2011, p. 4. 9 De Rooij 2011, p. 6; Quintelier 2009, p. 933. 10 Quintelier 2009, p. 923-4. 11 De Rooij 2011, p. 4. 8

_____________________________________________________________________________________ Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs, with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is associated. Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net) © Bridging Europe 2014 Page |3

EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 11 politics are also assumed to have confidence in public institutions.12 Newcomers have less experience with the political system in the host country than those who were born there, and can therefore be less likely to be involved in politics. This could also be because, before becoming accustomed to the new society, there are fewer issues that arise to spur political engagement. Additionally, a lack of political representation of immigrants can discourage them from taking part in politics.13 An important challenge to full immigrant political participation is of course citizenship, since this is what enables equal participation in the political system. Furthermore, immigrants who become citizens are more likely to experience a sense of belonging in and take a greater interest in the politics of their new community. They likely also feel less vulnerable to authorities.14 Overall, the trend since the end of World War II in democratic countries receiving significant numbers of immigrants has been toward greater equality between citizens and non-citizens and toward easing access to citizenship.15 However, some countries have increased requirements for citizenship in recent years, including increasing the length of stay and introducing new language and other knowledge tests. Some countries provide a higher degree of political rights to immigrants. The main differences that persist between citizens and non-citizens in these countries are the right to vote, particularly in national elections, to run for office, and the unrestricted right to enter and remain in the country.16 While immigrants can vote in local and regional elections in some countries, they cannot as a general rule vote

12

OECD 2012, p. 133. Quintelier 2009, p. 919. 14 De Rooij 2011, p. 6. 15 Bevelander & Spang 2014, p. 1. 16 Bevelander & Spang 2014, p. 3.

13

_____________________________________________________________________________________ Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs, with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is associated. Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net) © Bridging Europe 2014 Page |4

EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 11 in national elections.17 However, the political rights provided to immigrants in the EU can vary greatly by Member State. Thus, in addition to the challenges mentioned, there are often fewer opportunities for immigrants to pa ti ipate i politi s. These o sta les ha e led so e to o lude that i ig a ts, as lo g as they remain foreigners, generally cannot inform and improve the national policies that affect their daily lives. Most autho ities ho desig poli ies fo the a e ot di e tly i fo ed y the , o a le to e a ou ta le to the . 18 Access and willingness to become involved in political activities can vary greatly depending on legal status. However, there are cases in which immigrants with an insecure status have conducted political activities, even those considered to have a higher cost. After a drive-by shooting injured two migrant workers in Italy in 2010, hundreds of migrants, working as orange pickers in the country, rioted. This led to other events, including a strike, and to the mobilization of political parties and civil society.19 While political rights, such as citizenship, can be necessary for full political participation, some forms of action are still possible.

PARTICIPATION RATES AND TRENDS Generally speaking, immigrants participate in political activities at significantly lower rates than the majority population; these rates can differ by 10% in Western Europe.20 The largest gaps between

17

Bevelander & Spang 2014, p. 4. Huddleston 2010, p. 6. 19 Bevelander & Spang 2014, p. 40-41. 20 De Rooij 2011, p. 3. 18

_____________________________________________________________________________________ Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs, with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is associated. Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net) © Bridging Europe 2014 Page |5

EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 11 foreign and native-born voting participation are in southern Europe and in Luxembourg.21 Additionally, non-citizens participate less than citizens; this includes both citizens by birth and by naturalization.22 In the beginning, newcomers participate less than immigrants who are more established. Overtime, as they have been in the country longer, they are more likely to participate. In some countries, including Finland, Greece, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, and the United Kingdom, long-term residents have voting participation rates that are over 10% higher than the overall immigrant population.23 However, migrants from different ethnic groups and countries of origin have different rates of political participation. 24 Overall, the number of immigrants who vote is proportionally higher than the number of immigrants who are elected to political positions.25 In its 2010 report, the Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX) asserted that there has not been much progress regarding political opportunities for immigrants.26 The ability of immigrants to influence policy varies across the EU. Also differing are laws on the ability of immigrants to run as candidates in local, regional, and national elections, the existence of consultative bodies, and state funding for immigrant political actions.27 The differences are especially stark between new and traditional countries of immigration; for example, immigrants have far fewer rights in Central Europe and the Baltics than in Nordic countries and northwestern Europe.28 However, they can vary

21

This could be due to a high level of residents with dual nationality, which could lead people to vote in their other country of nationality rather than in Luxembourg (OECD 2012, p. 138). 22 Bevelander & Spang 2014, p. 36. 23 These participation rates are self-declared (OECD 2012, p. 138). 24 Van Heelsum 2005, p. 19; Fennema & Tillie 2001, p. 27; De Rooij 2011, p. 6. 25 Bevelander & Spang 2014, p. 37. 26 MIPEX 2011, p. 18. 27 MIPEX 2011, p. 18. 28 MIPEX 2014.

_____________________________________________________________________________________ Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs, with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is associated. Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net) © Bridging Europe 2014 Page |6

EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 11 considerably even within a given country, as in the case of Germany.29 In the Netherlands, foreign-born residents can vote at the local level, and the four largest ethnic minority groups in the country (Surinamese, Moroccans, Turks, and Antilleans) are proportionally represented in the municipal councils of the four largest cities. However, the Netherlands is one of the few countries in which this is the case.30 In regards to citizenship, Belgium, France, Sweden and the United Kingdom have more liberal naturalization policies, while those in Austria, Denmark, Greece, and Spain are more limiting. 31 The length of stay, language ability and knowledge of society required, and other prerequisites for citizenship vary. In a few Member States citizen and non-citizen residents are granted equal voting rights at the local and regional levels, access to funding for civic activities, and the ability to participate in consultative bodies. In others, there are no political opportunities for non-citizens, and they can even lack the ability to create associations or join political parties.

GOVERNMENT APPROACHES TO POLITICAL INCORPORATION: CONSULTATIVE BODIES Host states create opportunities that can influence and enable immigrant political participation. The political environment can shape the amount and types of activities. This is because political organization and participation are affected by state institutions and policies, including legal status, citizenship laws, political rights, and accommodation policies, as well as access to institutions such as political parties, political bodies, trade unions, and non-governmental organizations.32 Government approaches to integration, such as assimilation and multiculturalism, impact opportunities for and types of political

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Fo a dis ussio of i t a atio al a iatio i Ge a y see ‘. Koop a s Mig a t Mo ilisatio a d Politi al Opportunities: Variation among German Cities and a Comparison with the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. 30 Fennema & Tillie 2001, p. 27. 31 Bevelander & Spang 2014, p. 12. 32 Triviño 2013, p. 7.

_____________________________________________________________________________________ Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs, with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is associated. Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net) © Bridging Europe 2014 Page |7

EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 11 participation.33 These incorporation policies often have their foundations in national identity and citizenship traditions that can be difficult to change.34 Consultative bodies are a mechanism that states have used to facilitate immigrant political participation. There are different types of consultative bodies: entities in which representatives of foreign residents advise local authorities; committees with membership that includes both foreign residents and local authorities; and bodies comprised solely of foreign residents.35 Consultative bodies are meant to provide a link between the government and immigrant community, a forum for dialogue, an opportunity for the community to express their opinions on issues affecting them, and a way to encourage integration into the community.36 Some consultative bodies are focused solely on integration policy, while others work o a ide a ge of issues i ludi g those elated to i o ities a d di e sity. The Cou il of Eu ope s 1992 Convention on the Participation of Foreigners in Public Life at the Local Level encourages the creation of consultative bodies in areas where there are a considerable number of foreign residents. Despite the Co e tio s intentions, only half of Member States have signed onto it. The majority of signatories had already met the necessary obligations before signing it.37 According to MIPEX, consultative bodies currently provide only partially meaningful opportunities for immigrants to influence policy.38

TOOLS OF POLITICAL INCORPORATION AND MOBILIZATION: MIGRANT ORGANIZATIONS AND ETHNIC ASSOCIATIONS

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Bevelander & Spang 2014, p. 2. Koopmans 2004, p. 466. 35 Huddleston 2010, p. 6. 36 Council of Europe 1992. 37 MIPEX 2014; Huddleston 2010, p. 4. 38 MIPEX 2014. 34

_____________________________________________________________________________________ Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs, with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is associated. Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net) © Bridging Europe 2014 Page |8

EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 11 Migrants have established organizations based on a common ethnicity, nationality, language, religion, or other common identity, known as ethnic or immigrant associations. Other organizations work to further the interests of all immigrants or of ethnic minorities in general. Ethnic and immigrant associations and migrant organizations are seen as playing an important role in immigrant integration because of their potential to help create and implement policies. They act as liaisons between immigrants and institutions. They can raise awareness of issues of concern and can advocate for political change. Immigrant organizations can undertake activities that distinguish them from other civil society groups. They can serve to connect the country of origin and the country of immigration, and can advise new and future migrants. They can provide integration assistance in addition to what the state is providing. These organizations can also act as a voice for the ethnic community when speaking to the host community. Finally, they can facilitate the maintenance of ties with the country of origin. These activities are important not only in helping migrants to adapt to and become involved in their new community, but also in influencing and assisting future migrants. Additionally, such organizations can empower groups that could otherwise be marginalized. 39 Some scholars have found that ethnic groups with more ethnic associations will have more political trust and will therefore participate more in politics. In a study of Amsterdam conducted by Meindert Fennema and Jean Tillie, for example, a correlation was identified between a higher density of ethnic association networks and increased levels of political participation.40 Others have found that participating in mixed or mainstream organizations, as opposed to ones based along ethnic lines, are more likely to be related to increased involvement.41 Either way, participation in a voluntary organization is seen as spurring increased involvement in community affairs.

39

Odmalm 2004, 474, 486. Jacobs & Tllie 2004, p. 420. 41 Jacobs, Phalet & Swyngedouw 2004, p. 555. 40

_____________________________________________________________________________________ Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs, with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is associated. Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net) © Bridging Europe 2014 Page |9

EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 11

CONCLUSION Immigrants face a variety of challenges to actively participating in politics and influencing policies that affect their daily lives. Political participation is not only seen as important to immigrant integration, civil society and the political expression of community members are important components of strong democracies. Furthermore, it is important to achieving political equality. Involvement in voluntary organizations, such as migrant or ethnic associations, is a key avenue available for immigrant political activities, and has been found to increase political participation. These groups can also provide a voice for those who lack voting rights. Additionally, in supplying networks and knowledge of the political environment, they can help alleviate obstacles to taking part in political activities. These organizations can therefore play an important role not only in increasing immigrant political participation but in encouraging integration into the host society. Consultative bodies are a valuable tool for encouraging both political participation and policy reform, but the quality and therefore the utility varies by country. More consultative bodies need to be created at local, regional, and national levels of government. New and existing bodies must provide a real opportunity for immigrants to contribute to policy development. Rather than having a scope limited to just integration, it would be more effective for these groups to be able to address a wider scope of related issues affecting the immigrant community such as education, housing, and public services. To adequately address concerns, consultative bodies must be representative of the entire immigrant community, and should reflect elements such as nationality, language, gender, and age. Finally, states should provide funds in order to enable consultative bodies to effectively engage with the immigrant community and to actively participate in consultation with the government.

_____________________________________________________________________________________ Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs, with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is associated. Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net) © Bridging Europe 2014 P a g e | 10

EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 11 Immigrants can more easily participate in politics at the local rather than the national level. Local government plays an important role in administering services and policies that affect the daily lives of the community, including immigrants. Thus, focusing on the local context is a good starting point for improving participation. However, as national policies set the general context for the opportunities available, 42 they cannot be ignored.

42

Koopmans 2004, p. 467.

_____________________________________________________________________________________ Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs, with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is associated. Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net) © Bridging Europe 2014 P a g e | 11

EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 11 Bibliography Adamson, G. (2007) Immigrants and Political Participation—Background, Theory, and Empirical Suggestions. European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. Available from: http://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2009/immigrants-and-political-participation-background-theoryand-empirical-suggestions. Bevelander, P. and M. Spang. (2014) From Aliens to Citizens: The Political Incorporation of Immigrants. Institute for the Study of Labor Discussion Paper No. 7920. Available from: http://ftp.iza.org/dp7920.pdf. Council of Europe. (1992) Convention on the Participation of Foreigners in Public Life at Local Level. Strasbourg. Available from: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/144.htm. ---. (1999) Political and Social Participation of Immigrants through Consultative Bodies. Available from: http://www.coe.int/t/dg3/migration/archives/Documentation/Series_Community_Relations/Participa tion_public_life_report_en.pdf. De Rooij, E.A. (2011) Patterns of Immigrant Political Participation: Explaining Differences in Types of Political Participation between Immigrants and the Majority Population in Western Europe. European Sociological Review. p. 1-27. Entzinger, H. (1999) Immigrants Politi al a d “o ial Pa ti ipatio i the I teg atio P o ess. I Politi al and Social Participation of Immigrants through Consultative Bodies. Council of Europe. Available from: http://www.coe.int/t/dg3/migration/archives/Documentation/Series_Community_Relations/Participa tion_public_life_report_en.pdf. Fennema, M. and J. Tillie. (2001) Civic Community, Political Participation and Political Trust of Ethnic Groups. Connections. 24 (1). p. 26-41. Huddleston, T. (2010) Consulting Immigrants to Improve National Policies. Migration Policy Group. Available from: http://www.migpolgroup.com/publications_detail.php?id=289. _____________________________________________________________________________________ Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs, with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is associated. Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net) © Bridging Europe 2014 P a g e | 12

EU Migration Policy Working Paper, No. 11 Huddleston, T., J. Niessen, E. N. Chaoimh, and E. White. (2011) Migrant Integration Policy Index III. Available from: http://www.mipex.eu/sites/default/files/downloads/migrant_integration_policy_index_mipexiii_2011 .pdf. Jacobs, D. and J. Tillie. (2004) Introduction: Social Capital and Political Integration of Migrants. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 30 (3). p. 419-427. Jacobs, D., K. Phalet, and M. Swyngedouw. (2004) Associational Membership and Political Involvement among Ethnic Minority Groups in Brussels. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 30 (3). p. 543-559. Koopmans, R. (2004) Migrant Mobilisation and Political Opportunities: Variation among German Cities and a Comparison with the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 30 (3). p. 449-470. Migrant Integration Policy Index. (2014) Political Participation. Available from: http://www.mipex.eu/political-participation. Odmalm, P. (2004) Civil Society, Migrant Organisations and Political Parties: Theoretical Linkages and Applications to the Swedish Context. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 30 (3). p. 471-489. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2012) Civic Engagement. In Settling In: OECD Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2012. OECD Publishing. Available from: http://www.oecdilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/settling-in-oecd-indicators-of-immigrant-integration2012/civic-engagement_9789264171534-12-en;jsessionid=ddhknjjilibi.x-oecd-live-01. Quintelier, E. (2009) The Political Participation of Youth in Belgium. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 35 (6). p. 919-937. Triviño Salazar, J.C. (2013) Political Parties and Immigrant Associations: The Resolution of Politicized Diversity Conflicts at the Local Level. An Interpretive Framework. Paper presented at ECPR General Conference, Bordeaux, 5-8 Sep. Van Heelsum, A. (2005) Political Participation and Civic Community of Ethnic Minorities in Four Cities in the Netherlands. Politics. 25 (1). p. 19-30. _____________________________________________________________________________________ Caitlin Katsiaficas is Project Associate at Bridging Europe Bridging Europe working papers offer policy-oriented analysis into topical issues of European Affairs, with the aim of enriching policy-making and contributing to the ongoing debate. The views expressed are attributable to the author (s) in a personal capacity and not to any institution with which he is associated. Available for free downloading from Bridging Europe website (www.bridgingeurope.net) © Bridging Europe 2014 P a g e | 13

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