Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013

Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013 ISSN 2319-5991 www.ijerst.com Vol. 2, No. 3, August 2013 © 2013 IJERST. All Rights Reserved

Research Paper

PHYSICAL PREPARATION OF ACTIVATED CARBON FROM SUGARCANE BAGASSE AND CORN HUSK AND ITS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS Billy T H Guan1, Puziah Abdul Latif1* and Taufiq Y H Yap2

*Corresponding Author: Puziah Abdul Latif,  [email protected]

Sugarcane Bagasse (SB) and Corn Husk (CH) are examples of agricultural wastes being generated in large quantities annually that can be converted into activated carbon that has the potential to remove odorous gas pollutants. Activated carbons composed of a mixture of SB and CH were prepared using the physical activation method. Initially, the SB and CH raw materials were processed into pellets to maintain a uniform size and shape during activation. The activated carbons were prepared by carbonizing the raw fiber pellets at different temperatures under a nitrogen atmosphere for 2 h. This was followed by activation using air as a gasifying agent at different activation temperatures for 40 min. Physical and chemical characterization of the prepared activated carbons was performed. The activation temperature at 800°C gave the best quality with respect to the porosity of the carbon. The highest Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area of 255.909 m²g–¹ was achieved by SBCHAC4. Keywords: Agricultural waste, Activated carbon, Physical activation, Activation temperature, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area

INTRODUCTION

Lee, 2005), hydrogen sulphide (H2S) (Duan et al., 2006), and volatile organic compounds (Sidneswaran et al., 2011). Besides activated carbon, other types of adsorbents can be applied in pollution control. Zeolites, polymers, silica gel, and alumina are common examples of synthetic adsorbents. However, due to the high production cost of these synthetic adsorbents, there is a need

Traditionally, activated carbon was used to decolorize sugar syrup in order to produce white sugar. Nowadays, however, its application has been extended to the treatment of a wide variety of pollutants. Previous studies have shown that activated carbon has the ability to remove gas pollutants such as nitrogen oxide (NO) (Ao and 1

Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Environmental Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.

2

Centre of Excellence for Catalysis Science and Technology and Department of Chemistry, Faculty Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.

This article can be downloaded from http://www.ijerst.com/currentissue.php 1

Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013

Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013

for an alternative material that costs less and is renewable and environmentally friendly. The utilization of Agricultural Waste (AW) might be the key to a healthy transformation. Each country produces its own AW, which very much depends on what kind of agricultural activity the country engages in. In Malaysia, the annual production of AW is approximately 1.2 million tons. Burning is one of the common methods of disposing of AW, and this has created problems in terms of air pollution. Converting AW into activated carbon provides an alternative disposal method and thus indirectly reduces environmental problems. AW can also be known as lignocellulosic waste, because it has a high content of sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus, hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. Although AW are biodegradable, they are difficult to digest due to their lignocellulosic characteristics. Some AW, such as corn cobs (Bagheri and Abedi, 2011), mangosteen peel (Devi et al., 2012), rice straw (Gao et al., 2011), nuts (Kwaghger and Adejoh, 2012), rubberwood sawdust (Prakash et al., 2006), durian shell (Tham et al., 2011), and mango peanut shell (Wilson et al., 2006), have been successfully proven to be suitable precursors in making activated carbon.

Emmett Teller (BET) surface area. On the other hand, chemical activation is a one-step process that usually involves the impregnation of materials with dehydrating chemicals such as KOH, ZnCl2, H3PO4, and ZnO prior to carbonization at a desired temperature. Sugarcane is a type of plant from the genus Saccharum L. belonging to the grass family Poaceae, while corn is a type of plant from the genus Zea belonging to the same family as sugarcane. The stalk from sugarcane is the most valuable part of the whole plant. The juice extracted from the stalk can be processed into many products. Sugarcane Bagasse (SB) is the fibrous material that is left behind when the juice has been extracted. For corn, the most craved part of the whole plant is the corn kernel. The hairy green layers that envelope the kernel are known as Corn Husk (CH). In Malaysia, large-scale sugarcane plantations can be found in the northwest extremity of Peninsular Malaysia, in the states of Perlis and Kedah. Corn plantations in Malaysia are not as large as those in the United States of America at the moment. Nevertheless, Malaysia’s largest corn plantations can be found in Simpang Renggam and Pontian in Johor; these plantations are both situated in the southern parts of

Generally, there are two methods of preparing activated carbons: physical activation and chemical activation. Physical activation is a twostep process that starts with the carbonization of the materials followed by the activation of the resulting char in inert (Ar or N2) or oxidizing atmosphere (CO 2 or O 2 ) at the elevated temperature range of 600°C to 1000°C. A study by Yang et al. (2010) demonstrated that activated carbons prepared using agents such as steam, CO2 and a mixture of steam-CO2 with physical heating process produced a high Brunauer

Peninsular Malaysia. The lack of information regarding on the use of SB and CH as precursors in the production of activated carbons prompted the present study to prepare activated carbon from SB and CH using the physical activation method. This method was used because of the simplicity of the process and the ability to produce quality activated carbons in terms of the carbon porous structure. The physical and chemical characteristics of the prepared activated carbons were determined.

This article can be downloaded from http://www.ijerst.com/currentissue.php 2

Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013

Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013

MATERIALS AND METHODS

using a thermal analyzer (Mettler Toledo TGA/ STDA 851). Samples of known weights were placed in ceramic crucibles and heated from 25°C to 1000°C at a heating rate of 5°C min–¹ at N2 atmosphere.

Raw Material Preparation for Characterization Studies The raw SB and CH utilized in this study were obtained from homegrown sugarcane and corn. The raw materials were also collected at night market in various locations in Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. They were washed several times to remove the dirt and impurities present on the materials, then the washed materials were dried in an oven at a low temperature of 60°C for 24 h to remove the moisture content. The dried materials were then stored in a dry container in desiccators until needed. The dried raw SB and CH were finally sent for ultimate and proximate analysis, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and Fourier transform infra-red (FT-IR) analysis.

Surface chemistry The chemical compositions of raw SB and CH and activated SB and CH were determined using FT-IR spectroscopy (FTIR-200, Perkin-Elmer). FT-IR spectra were obtained from all the samples.

Preparation of Activated Carbon The dried raw SB and CH were subjected to grinding using a conventional tooth claw grinding machine. The ground raw SB and CH were mixed according to the selected ratios stated in Table 1. Table 1: The type of Mixing Ratios for the Making of Each Raw Fiber Pellets (RFP) and Sugarcane Bagasse and Corn Husk Activated Carbons (SBCHAC)

Physical and Chemical Characterization of Raw Material Ultimate and Proximate Analysis

RFP

The moisture content was determined using the direct wet-weight method, which is also known as the gravimetric method. Samples of known weights were dried in the oven at a temperature of 105°C for 2 h until constant weight was obtained. The standard dry-ashing method (ASTM D 2974-87 standard test method C) was applied to determine the ash content at which the raw materials were ignited in an opened muffle furnace at 440°C for 2 h. The ultimate analysis of the raw materials typically involves the determination of the percentage by weight (dry basis) of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and sulfur (S). This was carried out using the CHNS elemental analyzer model (LECO CHNS932).

SBCHAC

Mixing ratios (%) SB

CH

1

1

0

100

2

2

30

70

3

3

50

50

4

4

90

10

They were then inserted into a common animal feed pelletizing machine to turn the endproducts into pellet form. The pelletized endproducts are called Raw Fiber Pellets (RFP). Carbonization was performed in a horizontal laboratory tube furnace (LT-furnace). The RFP were carbonized at temperature of 500°C starting from room temperature (27°C) for 2 h in N2 atmosphere (flow rate = 200 ml min –¹). The heating rate was 5°C min – ¹. The furnace temperature was maintained at 500°C, and the carbonized RFP continued to activate in air

Thermal Analysis The TGA curve for raw SB and CH was obtained

This article can be downloaded from http://www.ijerst.com/currentissue.php 3

Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013

Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013

Analysis

atmosphere for 40 min at the same flow rate. The carbonization and activation of RFP were repeated at different activation temperatures of 600, 700, and 800°C. After that, the samples were cooled to room temperature by flowing N 2 through the samples (flow rate = 200 ml min–¹). Finally, the samples were kept in desiccators for further use. The activated end-products are called Sugarcane Bagasse Corn Husk Activated Carbon (SBCHAC). The determination of the porosity area was performed on the SBCHAC made from different mixtures of SB and CH. Subsequently, the SBCHAC that possessed the highest BET surface area was selected for further testing through Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX).

The physical and chemical analyses included in this study were ultimate and proximate, TGA, FTIR, porosity, SEM, and EDX. Not all AW can be used for the production of activated carbon. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out ultimate and proximate analysis to f ind out the compositions of the raw SB and CH to determine their suitability for carbon conversion. TGA is used solely to determine the decomposition of material as the heating temperature changes. FT-IR provides information on the principle of adsorption to remove pollutants by certain substances present within the activated carbon. The adsorption also depends on the porosity area. The adsorption power of the adsorbent gradually increases with a higher BET surface area of the adsorbent. SEM is commonly used for observing microscopic pores that exist on the carbon surface. An activated carbon should have a higher carbon composition than it had in its previous form. Hence, EDX is important to determine the carbon composition of the material to make sure the carbon conversion is a success.

Surface Porosity The SBCHAC was degassed at 290°C in a vacuum condition for at least 24 h. The pore structure characteristics, such as the specific surface area, pore volume, and pore radius of the samples, were determined from the nitrogen adsorption isotherm measured using a Micromeritics ASAP 2000 instrument at a temperature of about 77 K. The specific surface area was calculated using the BET method with the analysis software available in the instrument. The total pore volume was determined by estimating the amount of nitrogen adsorbed at a relative pressure (P/P0) of 0.95.

Table 2: Ultimate Analysis and Proximate Analysis (Mean ± SE, n = 3) Ultimate Analysisa

Carbon

Weight (%) SB

CH

65.20 ± 1.70

51.24 ± 4.13

Surface Morphology and Composition

Hydrogen

5.94 ± 0.08

6.14 ± 0.41

The surface morphology, such as the surface shape, pattern, and feature of the selected SBCHAC and its precursor RFP, was observed using JEOL JSM-6400 SEM attached with EDX.

Nitrogen

1.69 ± 0.08

2.48 ± 0.08

Sulfur

0.07 ± 0.09

0.21 ± 0.12

Moistureb

70.25 ± 1.17

85.22 ± 0.28

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Asha

27.93 ± 0.34

28.81 ± 0.20

The Importance of Physical and Chemical

Note: a – Dry basis; b – Wet basis

Proximate analysis

This article can be downloaded from http://www.ijerst.com/currentissue.php 4

Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013

Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013

Raw Material Characteristics

the material. The second derivative peak temperature was 343.78°C. The weight loss went as high as 79.30%, which is about 10 times higher than the weight loss that was recorded at the earlier peak. At temperatures ranging from 350°C to 500°C, the huge weight loss could be attributed to the decomposition of organic components in the raw material, such as cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin. There was almost zero weight loss when the temperature was heated above 500°C, as the thermal curve shown flattens.

As shown in Table 2, the ultimate analysis result indicated that the carbon content in both raw materials, i.e., SB and CH, was high. The carbon content analyzed in SB was as high as 65.20%, whereas in CH it was 51.24%. On the other hand, the ash contents obtained from the proximate analysis for SB and CH were about 27.93% and 28.81%, respectively. The high carbon content associated with low ash content demonstrated by SB and CH indicates that they have the potential to be the suitable raw materials for the production of activated carbon.

Figure 2: TG Curve of Raw CH

TGA The thermal stability of raw SB and CH was tested by measuring the mass loss during a heating ramp rate. The descending TGA thermal curve Figure 1: TG Curve of Raw SB

Figure 2 gives the TGA curve for CH, showing three stages of thermal decomposition behavior. The first derivative peak temperature was 63.04°C. At temperatures ranging from 63°C to 300°C, the weight loss was only 7.91%. This low percentage in weight loss may be due to the moisture being released from the material. When the temperature reached between 300°C and 550°C, a huge weight loss of 67.42% occurred. The second derivative peak temperature was 524.98°C. CH is a type of lignocellulosic material, just like SB, but it is slightly different in composition. CH contains 39% hemicellulose, 26.5% cellulose, and 11.6% lignin (Garlock et al., 2009). On the other hand, SB comprises 24%

of SB from Figure 1 indicates the occurrence of weight loss. Two stages of thermal decomposition behavior were found despite two derivative peaks in temperature in the TG curve of SB. The first derivative peak temperature was 53.18°C. About 7.98% of weight loss occurred in the temperature ranging from 53°C to 350°C. The weight loss might be due to the moisture being dried off in

This article can be downloaded from http://www.ijerst.com/currentissue.php 5

Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013

Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013

adsorbent is essential so that the adsorbent can be optimally utilized to remove hazardous gas pollutants through adsorption. For example, the acidic functional groups on the carbon surface, such as hydroxyl and carbonyl on the surface, are able to attract ammonia molecules (Takashi et al., 2006).

hemicellulose, 34.5% cellulose, and 22% to 25% lignin (Lee et al., 2009). At high temperature, the weight loss may due to the breakdown of hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. No weight loss was detected when the temperature rose above 550°C as the curve started to flatten into a straight line. Finally, the line slopes downward, and the third derivative peak temperature of 647.55°C can be observed. About 4.53% of the weight was lost at the temperature between 600°C and 740°C. This unusual weight loss was probably due to the strongly bonded lignin residue in the material. Lignin is complex and is resistant to degradation, and thus high heat may be required to break it apart. Above 740°C, there was almost no weight loss. As a result, the activation temperature of 800°C was suggested for both raw materials from the TG study, since both curves show a straight line, which means a stable state. Therefore, no remains could be found at the heating temperature of 800°C.

Effects of Activation Temperature on Pore Characteristics of SBCHAC Derived from Different Mixing Ratios of SB and CH Activation temperature is one of the crucial factors that can affect the physical porous structure of the prepared activated carbon. The details of the pore characteristics shown in Table 4 indicate that the development of pores in the carbon corresponded to the different activation temperatures used. For example, SBCHAC4 demonstrates that the BET surface area, micropore volume, and total pore volume increase with temperatures from 500°C to 600°C and from 700°C to 800°C. It is clear that among the activation temperatures, that of 800°C gave the best development of pores in the activated carbon. This indicates that heat treatment does favor the development of pores in the carbon. On the other hand, further increases of temperature showed a reduction of average pore diameter. This may due to the contraction of the new pores forming and thus to the narrowing of the pores. Note that the surface area of SBCHAC4 increased drastically from 1.422 m² g–¹ at 500°C to 146.093 m² g–¹ at 600°C. However, the surface area decreased to 0.609 m² g–¹ at 700°C. At higher temperatures, such as 700°C, more ash is produced since the burn-off rate is higher, and this might be the factor that contributes in the reduction of surface area (Tham et al., 2011). The surface area further increased to 255.909 m² g–¹ at 800°C. Table 4 shows the results of the porosity

Surface Chemistry FT-IR spectroscopy is an important method to determine the presence and absence of particular bands of functional groups. The instrument used was able to record spectra from wave numbers of 4000 to 280 cm–¹. Spectrum is produced as a result of the absorption of infrared radiation. The functioning group is determined based on the interpretation of the infrared spectrum obtained by comparing it with the standard spectrum group frequencies. Table 3 lists the functional groups that may generally be present in raw SB and CH and activated SB and CH at 800°C. Figures 3 and 4 show the infrared spectra for raw SB and CH, respectively, while Figures 5 and 6 show the infrared spectra of the activated SB and activated CH, respectively. The presence of the functional groups in the

This article can be downloaded from http://www.ijerst.com/currentissue.php 6

Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013

Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013

Table 3: Surface Functional Groups Sample

Spectrum Wave Number (cm–¹)

Functional group

Raw SB

3619, 3527.07, 3445.45, 3320.95, 3207.05 3320.95

Hydroxyl (O-H, diametric O-H, & N-H stretch)

Alkyne (C-H bend)

Reference Demiral et al., 2011 and Yang et al., 2010

Coates, 2000

3138.79, 3172.63

Inorganic

3039.74

Alkene (C-H stretch, C-H in-plane bend, & cis- or trans-C-H stretch)

2597.32, 2553.88, 2159.82, 663.71, 480.94

Thiols (S-H, S-CN, C-S, & S-S stretch)

1205.3 548.04

Hetero-oxy Organohalogen (C-I stretch)

2954.81, 2915.85, 2856.85

Aliphatic or alkyl (methyl & methylene)

1932.42, 1735.55

Carbonyl (C=O stretch)

774.61

Aromatic

Raw CH

3645, 3568.47, 3319.79 3645, 3568.47 3319.79 3130.64 754.82, 603.69, 553.08 2902.58 2558.72, 439.38 2178.21, 2004.24 3319.79, 1203.39, 1032.02 1546.55, 1032.02

Hydroxyl (O-H stretch) Coates, 2000 Carbonyl (COOH stretch) Alkyne (C-H stretch) Aromatic (C-H stretch) Organohalogen (C-Cl, C-Br, & C-I stretch) Aliphatic (asymmetric & symmetric C-H stretch) Yang et al., 2010 Thiols (S-H & S-S stretch) Inorganic Amino (N-H & C-N stretch) Hetero-oxy (nitrogen-oxy, silicon-oxy, Barkauskas and Dervinyte, & phosphorus-oxy) 2004

Activated SB

3639.22 3353.61 3198.81 3037.09 2556.67, 2166.98, 2037.22, 460.20 1109.59 567.26 870.60, 806.20, 751.26 3315.13

Hydroxyl Amino Inorganic Alkene Thiols (-SCN, -NCS & S-S stretch) Hetero-oxy (Si-O-C) Aliphatic (C-I stretch) Aromatic (C-H out-of-plane bend) Hydroxyl, carbonyl, amino, or alkyne Aliphatic Thiols Inorganic

Activated CH

2902.46 2566.63 2177.94

Yang et al., 2010 Coates, 2000 Olivares-Marín et al., 2012

Coates, 2000

Bouchelta et al., 2008 Coates, 2000

This article can be downloaded from http://www.ijerst.com/currentissue.php 7

Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013

Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013 Table 3 (Cont.)

Sample

Spectrum Wave Number (cm–¹)

Functional group

1033.23 554.39 1417.17 753.66, 1587.34, 871.49, 809.35

Hetero-oxy Organohalogen Alkene (vinyl C-H in-plane bend) Aromatic (C-H, C=C, N=N, & C-H out-of-plane stretch)

Figure 3: FT-IR Spectra for Raw SB

Reference

Swiatkowski et al., 2004

Figure 4: FT-IR Spectra for Raw CH

Table 4: Pore Characteristics of SBCHAC Derived from Different Mixing Ratios at Different Activation Temperatures (n=1) Activation temperature

Type of

BET Surface Area

M icropore Volume

Total Volume

Av erage Pore

(°C)

SBCHAC

(m²g –1 )

(cm³g –¹)

(cm³g–¹)

Diameter (Å)

500

1

0.000

0.014

-0.425

62.593

2

0.000

0.011

-3.055

48.261

3

12.452

0.053

-11.132

21.684

4

1.422

0.009

1.287

32.770

1

41.359

0.031

20.603

17.078

2

102.469

0.034

39.91

17.098

3

99.738

0.029

37.91

17.059

4

146.093

0.032

53.88

19.144

1

0.951

0.014

0.911

24.615

2

0.414

0.013

0.220

62.414

3

13.511

0.014

5.981

15.306

4

0.609

0.008

-0.529

39.256

1

167.218

0.049

63.440

17.105

2

137.176

0.043

53.338

17.105

3

135.713

0.017

46.256

17.098

4

255.909

0.027

91.641

17.125

600

700

800

This article can be downloaded from http://www.ijerst.com/currentissue.php 8

Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013

Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013

that can be converted into activated carbons with good physical and activity properties. Among the AW, SB and CH have the fourth highest yield of activated carbon produced. However, the activated carbon generated from SB and CH has the least BET surface area, which might be due to the different activation method, temperature, and time applied (Abdullah et al., 2001). The carbon yield is influenced by the different activation conditions used (Qureshi et al., 2008).

of the SBCHAC made from different mixtures of SB and CH. Among them, SBCHAC4 apparently possesses the best quality in terms of its porosity characteristics. SBCHAC4 prepared at 800°C is more preferable to the others for mass production because it possesses a higher BET surface area. In other words, it has higher adsorption sites for molecules to attach onto the surface of the carbon. Therefore, SBCHAC4 prepared at 800°C Figure 5: FT-IR Spectra of Activated SB Produced at 800°C

SEM and EDX Analysis The microstructures of SBCHAC4 prepared at 800°C and its precursor RFP4 were investigated under SEM because of the high BET surface area of SBCHAC4. Figure 7 shows microstructures of RFP4 and SBCHAC4.

the

For RFP4, under a magnification of 500, the surface exhibited a poorly developed and loosely packed structure with no visible exact shape. The pores within the RFP4 structure were little and scattered. The image of SBCHAC4 after heat

Figure 6: FT-IR Spectra of Activated CH Produced at 800°C

treatment at 800°C shows a well-developed and closely packed structure accompanied with many thin sheets or layers. Under a magnification of 500, pores can be seen between the layers within the SBCHAC4 structure. The difference in composition for RFP4 and SBCHAC4 was determined using EDX. Table 6 shows the results. The determined element content includes carbon (C), oxygen (O), and other elements. Among the elements, those that should be mainly focused on are the carbon and oxygen content. An activated carbon will

was chosen for the subsequent studies, which are SEM and EDX analysis of the carbon.

usually have a higher carbon content than the starting precursor. In this case, the carbon content is 61.67% for RFP4, whereas the carbon

Table 5 compares the characteristics of activated carbon produced in this work with other types of raw materials and the many potential AW

content increased to 87.49% after the activation

This article can be downloaded from http://www.ijerst.com/currentissue.php 9

Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013

Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013

Table 5: Comparison of Preparation and Characteristics of Activated Carbon from this Work With Other Studies

Act a Tool

Temp b

T im e

BET Surface Area (m2g–1)

Physical

Laboratory

800°C

40 min

256

29.73

(N2 and

tube furnace

750°C

60 min

724

49.95

700°C

60 min

322

23.37

750°C

30 min

523

n/ac

750°C

180 min

587

15.90

550°C

120 min

479

n/ac

800°C

45 min

n/ac

15.00

n/ac

880°C

60 min

948

30.50

Physical

High-

800°C

120 min

484

16.00

(N2 and

temperature

steam)

furnace 900°C

210 min

2288

37.50

Reference

Raw M aterial

Act a M ethod

Present

Corn husk and

wor k

sugarcane bagasse

air)

Jute stick char

Physical

Stainless steel

(N2 and

horizontal tube

steam)

reactor

Asadullah et al., 2007

Bouchelta

Date stone

et al., 2008

Physical

Tubular

(N2 and

furnace

Yield (%)

steam) Demiral et

Olive bagasse

al., 2011

Physical

Vertical tube

(N2 and

furnace

steam) Khezami et

Firewood

al., 2007

Physical

Stainless steel

(N2 and

vertical

CO2)

cylindrical reactor

Physical

Horizontal

Marína et

(N2 and

tubular furnace

al., 2012

air)

Olivares-

Cherry stones

Qureshi et

Sugarcane

Physical

Cylindrical

al., 2008

bagasse

(N2 and

shaped reactor

steam) Sun and

Rubber-seed

Physical

Jiang, 2010

shell

(N2 and steam)

Toles et al.,

Almond shell

2000

Yang et al., 2010

Coconut shell

Physical

Mic rowave

(N2 and

tubular furnace

CO2) Note: a – Activation; b – Temperature; c – Data not available.

This article can be downloaded from http://www.ijerst.com/currentissue.php 10

Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013

Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013

Table 6: Elements in the RFP4 and SBCHAC4 from EDX analysis (mean ± SE, n = 3) M aterial

Elements (%) C

O

Others

Total

RFP4

61.67 ± 0.88

37.29 ± 0.70

1.20 ± 0.47

100

SBCHAC4

87.49 ± 1.83

11.00 ± 1.52

1.58 ± 0.46

100

Figure 7: SEM Image: (a) RFP4 image (× 500 times); (b) SBCHAC4 image (× 500 times)

(a)

(b)

process for SBCHAC4. This phenomenon is due

CONCLUSION

to the organic substances inside the carbon

Undeniably, SB and CH are potential precursors for preparing activated carbons because of their high carbon and low ash content. The porosity test revealed that activation temperature plays an important role in determining the quality of the carbon. The carbon with the highest BET surface area was obtained by activating the precursor at 800°C, as suggested by the thermogram in TGA. In addition, the prepared activated carbon showed a satisfying micropore carbon characteristic despite the average pore diameter being within the diameter range of 10 to 100 Angstroms. The air-activated SBCHAC had an edge over other types of activated carbon prepared from different types of precursors with respect to the carbon yield. Here, an SBCHAC carbon yield of 29.73%

matrix becoming unstable and forming liquid and gaseous substances during the activation process at high temperature (Chowdhury et al., 2012). The oxygen content is also an important aspect, because it can form surface oxygen functional groups, such as carboxylic acid and carbonyls that have an impact towards the adsorption process (Hua and Pendleton, 2011). For SBCHAC4, since the average pore diameter was within the diameter range of 10 to 100 Angstroms (Å; Angstrom = 1.0 × 10 –10 ), micropores mostly existed in the carbon structure (Richards, 2000).

This article can be downloaded from http://www.ijerst.com/currentissue.php 11

Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013

Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013

of methane on corn corbs based activated Carbon”, Chem Eng Res Des., Vol. 89, No. 10, pp. 2038-2043.

was achieved. In terms of its chemical properties, the type of functional groups present on the surface of the carbon was identified based on the spectra obtained from FT-IR analysis. It was found that there are quite a number of functional groups, such as hydroxyl (C – OH), carbonyl (C = O), and hetero-oxy (X = O), that can form surface oxides. Surface oxides can influence the gas adsorption process in the carbon. Thus, SBCHAC possesses the required characteristics as an applicable adsorbent for treating a variety of gas pollutants in the future.

5.

Barkauskas J and Dervinyte M (2004), “An investigation of the functional groups on the surface of activated carbons”, J Serb Chem Soc., Vol. 69, No. 5, pp. 363-375.

6.

Bouchelta C, Salah Medjram M, Bertrand O and Bellat J P (2008), “Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from date stones by physical activation with steam”, J Anal Appl Pyrol., Vol. 82, No. 1, pp. 70-77.

7.

Chowdhury Z Z, Mohd. Zain S, Atta Khan R, Arami-Niya A and Khalid K (2012), “Process variables optimization f or preparation and characterization of novel adsorbent from lignocellulosic waste”, Bioresour Technol., Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 37323754.

8.

Coates J (2000), “Interpretation of infrared Spectra, a practical approach”, in Meyers R A (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., pp. 10815-10837.

9.

Demiral H, Demiral Ý, Karabacakoðlu B and Tümsek F (2011), “Production of activated carbon from olive bagasse by physical activation”, Chem Eng Res Des., Vol. 89, No. 2, pp. 206-213.

10.

Devi A S, Abdul Latif P, Tham Y J and Yap T Y H (2012), “Physical characterization of activated carbon derived from mangosteen peel”, Asian J Chem., Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 579-583.

11.

Duan H, Koe L C C, Yan R and Chen X (2006), “Biological treatment of HS using

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors express their sincere thanks to Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) and Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) for the financial support given to this research (03-0212-1739RU).

REFERENCES 1.

Abdullah A H, Anuar K, Zainal Z, Hussien M Z, Kuang D, Ahmad F and Ong S W (2001), “Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from gelam wood barks (Melaleuca cajuputi)”, Malaysian J Analyt Sci., Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 65-68.

2.

Ao C H and Lee S C (2005), “Indoor air purification by photocatalyst TiO immobolized on an activated carbon filter installed in an air cleaner”, Chem Eng Sci., Vol. 60, pp. 103-109.

3.

Asadullah M, Anisur Rahman M, Abdul Motin M and Borhanus Sultan M (2007), “Adsorption studies on activated carbon derived from steam activation of jute stick char”, J Surf Sci Technol., Vol. 23, No. 1-2, pp. 73-80.

4.

Bagheri N and Abedi J (2011), “Adsorption

This article can be downloaded from http://www.ijerst.com/currentissue.php 12

Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013

Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013

18.

pellet activated carbons as a carrier of microorganism in a biofilter”, Water Res., Vol. 40,, pp. 2629-2636. 12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

Gao P, Liu Z H, Xue G, Han B and Zhou M H (2011), “Preparation and characterization of activated carbon produced from rice straw by (NH)HPO activation”, Bioresour Technol., Vol. 102, No. 3, pp. 3645-3648.

Olivares-Marín M, Fernández-González C, Macías-García A and Gómez-Serrano V (2012), “Preparation of activated carbon from cherry stones by physical activation in air. Influence of the chemical carbonisation with HSO”, J Anal Appl Pyrol., Vol. 94, pp. 131-137.

19.

Prakash Kumar B G, Shivakamy K, Miranda L R and Velan M (2006), “Preparation of

Garlock R J, Chundawat S P S, Balan V and Dale B E (2009), “Date optimising harvest of corn stover fractions based on overall sugar yields following ammonia fiber expansion pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis”, Biotechnol Biofuels., Vol. 2, No. 29, pp. 1-14.

steam activated carbon from rubberwood sawdust (Hevea brasiliensis) and its adsorption kinetics”, J Hazard Mater., Vol. 136, No. 3, pp. 922-929. 20.

Hua S W and Pendleton P (2011 ), “Adsorption of anionic surfactant by activated carbon: eff ect of surface chemistry, ionic strength, and hydrophobicity”, J Colloid Interface Sci., Vol. 243, pp. 306-315.

Qureshi K, Bhatti I, Kazi R and Ansari A K (2008), “Physical and chemical analysis of activated carbon prepared from sugarcane bagasse and use for sugar decolorisation”, Int J Chem Biol Eng., Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 144148.

21.

Richards J R (2000), Control of gaseous emissions, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Air Pollution Training

Khezami L, Ould-Dris A and Capart R (2007), “Activated carbon from thermocompressed wood and other lignocellulosic precursors”, Bio Res., Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 193–209.

Institute (U.S. EPA APTI), APTI 415, Vol. 3, pp. 1-55. 22.

Sidneswaran M A, Destaillats H, Sullivan D P, Cohn S and Fisk W J (2011), “Energy

Kwaghger A and Adejoh E (2012), “Optimization of conditions f or the preparation of activated carbon from mango nuts using ZnCl”, Int J Eng Res Dev., Vol. 1, No. 8, pp. 1-7.

efficient indoor VOC air cleaning with activated carbon fiber (ACF) filters”, Build Environ., Vol. 47, pp. 357-367. 23.

Sun K and Jiang J C (2010), “Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from rubber-seed shell by physical

Lee Y J, Chung C H and Day D F (2009), “Sugarcane bagasse oxidation using a combination of hypochlorite and peroxide”, Bioresour Technol., Vol. 100, No. 2, pp. 935941.

activation with steam”, Biomass Bioenerg, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 539-544. 24.

Swiatkowski A, Pakula M, Biniak S and Walczyk M (2004), “Influence of the surface

This article can be downloaded from http://www.ijerst.com/currentissue.php 13

Int. J. Engg. Res. & Sci. & Tech. 2013

Puziah Abdul Latif et al., 2013

activated carbons from almond shells: physical, chemical and adsorptive properties and estimated cost of production”, Bioresour Technol. Vol. 71, No. 1, pp. 87-92.

chemistry of modified activated carbon on its electrochemical behaviour in the presence of lead (II) ions”, Carbon, Vol. 42, No. 15, pp. 3057-3069. 25.

27.

28.

Takashi A, Takashi O, Kuniaki K and Kikuo O (2006), “Ammonia adsorption on bamboo charcoal with acid treatment”, J Health Sci., Vol. 52, No. 5, pp. 585-589. Tham Y J, Abdul Latif P, Abdullah A M, Devi A S and Yap T Y H (2011), “Performances of toluene removal by activated carbon derived from durian shell”, Bioresour Technol. Vol. 102, No. 2, pp. 724–728. Toles C A, Marshall W E, Johns M M, Wartelle L H and McAloon A (2000), “Acid-

29.

Wilson K, Yang H, Seo C W and Marshall W E (2006), “Select metal adsorption by activated carbon made from peanut shells”, Bioresour Technol., Vol. 97, No. 18, pp. 2266-2270.

30.

Yang K, Peng J, Srinivasakannan C, Zhang L, Xia H and Duan X (2010), “Preparation of high surface area activated carbon from coconut shells using microwave heating”, Bioresour Technol., Vol. 101, No. 15, pp. 6163-6169.

This article can be downloaded from http://www.ijerst.com/currentissue.php 14