Peer Clinical Supervision: Theory vs. Reality

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EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

eaw educational models have rc-

ccisecd more acclaim in recent

but rather to encourage, cxplorc. and

collaborate. Clinical supen-ision preyears than the clinical supervision sumes the professionalism of teachers. model developed at tlarvard (Goldham- This democratic human resources ethos mer, 1969; Cogan. 1973). According to is still generally accepted in most circles Weller (1971), clinical supervision is as the best supenrision approach. "operationally defined. well-exempliSecond, its form incorporates a speciffied in practice, and considered by ic, staged-cvcle methodology that offers a many educators to fit the criterion of concrete strategy for collecting data on 'best existing practice.''" Cogan (1973) real and personal classroom patterns. claims that it offers the psychosocial The model is termed "clinical" because support necessary for optimal teacher it deals with the realiht of dail' school growth. life, not 'with simulated settings; it illuOne a'ould imagine that a model so minates practices in the real 'world. highly acclaimed might ha've a sound Further, techniques for data collection. research base. Not so. 'Ihe lack ofquali- obsenration, and confcrcncing haxc ty and quantity in clinical supervision been wsell developed (Achesoml and Gall. research has beenl called "'minlisculc" 1980). TIhe "tool skills" of clinical su(Newman, 1980), "thin" (Alfonso, pcnision (Goldhammner. 1969) enable 1977), and "absent" (I)cnlham, 1977). teachers and supcn-isors to deal w'ith Sullivan (1980) notes that "tilhe research descriptive information in an anal-tical related to clinical supervision is sparse format. IFor example, Sirois (1978) and that \shich does cxist reflects a lack found that "the conditions imposed on of rigor often associated u-ith a new field both teachers and supernisors b! the of inquir." model of clinical supen'ision encourage Given tlhe lack of a sound rcsearch greater verbal participation on the part base, why has this model been theoreti- of the teacher" (p. 232). call'. so well recei-ed? 'vo major asThus, the spirit of clinical supen-isioln pects of clinical super ision that en- affirnms the teacher's individualih- and hance its acccptabilit relate to its spirit necessanr collaboration in analj zing and form. teaching. a'hilc its form suggests a method for such collaborativc beha-iors Democratic Spirit and Structured and becomes a vehicle for uncovering Methodology teaching patterns. Active teacher inFirst, the spirit of the clinical supenrvision volvement in pedagogical analysisis immodel reflects the democratic human portant becausc researchers have docuresources perspective of supervision (Scr- mented that teachers are often una'warc giovanni, 1978). I)cveloped in the late of manll of their own teaching behaviors 1950s, the model incorporates the con- (see Good and Broph!', 1978; Nled'vid. cepts of collegiality, collaboration, skilled service, and ethical conduct (Garman, 1982). It respects the integrity Shirley A. NlcFaul is Assistant Princiand individualith of teachers, and its pal. Friends School. Baltimore. Mar'psychological tone echoes McGregor's land; and lames M4. Cooper is Professor (1960) T1'heorv Y. 'I'he supcrvisor's role of Education, University' of Htouston, is not to coerce, demand, or evaluate. University Park, Texas.

The ideals of clinical supervision are out of tune with the way things really are in some schools.

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"The clinical supervision model, with its emphasis on collegial analysis of observational data, seems to have face validity in teachers' eyes and offers the potential of raising teachers' awareness levels." Peer Clinical Supervision The common reality of teacher-super isor discord (Blumberg. 1980), however, coupled with substantial budget cuts of supervisory staff (ASCD Update, March 1981) limit use of the model. So, too. does the ratio of available supervisors to teachers and the burden of the many duties, aside from supervision, that are expected of school principals. One alternative approach examined by a few educators is peer clinical supervision (Simon, 1979; Thompson, 1978; Withall and Wood, 1979; and Goldsberrv, 1981). Teachers trained in the rationale and methodology of clinical supervision act as peer supervisors with each other, collecting data and analyzing their meaning in post-observation conferences. Such an approach ought to capitalize on an existing support system Blumberg (1980) and Alfonso (1977) note that teachers informally depend on their peers for support and instructional help; and DeAngelis (1979) documents that beginning teachers found their principals and supervisors somewhat helpful, but not as much as their colleagues. Additionally, peer interaction using clinical supervision may benefit the observer as well as the teacher being observed. Goldsberry (1981) notes that "the experiences of systematically ob1980). This finding is not surprising serving one's colleagues, analyzing given the rapid pace of classroom teach- collected data, and structuring and coning and the fact that teachers are rarely ducting conferences may well contribtrained to analyze their own classroom ute as much or more to the professional pedagogy. The clinical supervision development of the observer as to the model, with its emphasis on collegial refined practice of the teacher being analysis of observational data, seems to observed" (p. 11). These seem to be have face validity in teachers' eves and logical arguments for exploring the offers the potential of raising teachers' worth of such an approach. awareness levels. As Good and Brophy Other researchers, however, question observe (1978): "Teachers are often un- whether peer clinical supervision is aware of much of what they do, and this workable. Blumberg (1980) notes teachlack of perception sometimes results in ers' approach-avoidance response to suunwise, self-defeating behavior." pervision and their lack of training for

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working in a problem-solving mode with peers. Cogan (1973) wonders whether local staffs can develop their own data collection instruments, and Simon (1979) questions the logistics of implementatiol. Alfonso (1977) states that the typical cellular structure of schools may inhibit peer clinical supervision attempts, and Harris (1976) notes that the model makes high demands in terms of teacher motivation, intelligence, and emotional stability. Additionallyv, Harris doubts whether teachers have the analytical abilities or awareness of alternatives to plan new actions, especially without new skill training. Glickman (1981) calls for a developmental view of supervision that is based on two teacher-controlled factors: level of abstraction and level of commitment. According to his paradigm, clinical supervision mav be most workable with teachers who have high levels of both The difficulty, of course, is that those teachers are not the only ones who need intensive supervisory help. A Case Study of Peer Clinical Supervision In 1982, 12 teachers in an urban elementary school participated in a onesemester graduate-level course that included an eight-cycle process for implementing peer clinical supervision (McFaul, 1982). In four cycles each. the teachers played both the role of peer supervisor and supervised teacher. Research questions focused on (1) how implementation of the model varied among teachers; (2) the congruence of the model with the school setting; and (3) a critical analysis of the utility of clinical supervision for urban clementary teachers. Study participants received training in developing instrumen, for data collection, videotaping teaching episodes, analyzing data for pertinent patterns and EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

"Teachers appeared to honor an unwritten agreement that no one would be made uncomfortable in the process."

issues,

and

conducting

conferences.

Numerous projects wcre completed to satisfy the objectives of the course. Data collection for the studs included both ethnographic infornmation and teacher

intervicws as well as fuill documenltation of the eight c!cles (for example, preobsenration agreement forms, data collection instruments, tape recordings of post-obscrvation conferences). The case study approach swas necessary because of the importance of contextual factors in

the environment (Schiffer. 1980). A kev question was: "Is the form and spirit of the model congruent with teachers' attitudes and abilities as "cell as with the environmelti"

Analysis of the peer clinical superxision cscles produced seeral findings. To varying degrees, all hut one of the teachers wcre able to execute the form of peer clinical supervision; that is, the! were able to participate in the staged cycles. Close examination of those cy-

cles. howcxer, revcaled that most often clinical superv'ision was not done thoroughly. For example, prc-observation conferences wscrc conducted cursorily, if at all. Teachers claimed there wsas little time in their bussv schedules to allow for thoughtful planning. Although teachers were trained to use a variet, of instru-

ments, maniv of those developed contained insufficient data from which to draw meaningful generalizations. Indepth analyscs occurred only in approximatclh 20 percent of the confercnccs. When an issue was raised participants often jumped from the data to one proposed solution, which w-as usuall! reinforced bv the colleague. In many instances this led to simplistic solutions to complex problems. In the post-observation conferences, teachers seldom pursued the kind of thorough weighing of altcrnati-es that was practiced in their course work. In fact, teachers appeared to honor an APRIL 1984

unwritten agreement that no one would be made uncomfortable in the process. Not once during any of the completed peer cycles did an! teacher dispute the collected data; there were merely minor

differences in interpretation. Tle colnferencc tapes called into question, therefore, teachers' willingness or ability to substantivelv analyze their peers classroom behaviors. W'ithout a strong analytical focus, clinical supervision loses much of its potency. Model and School Context Incongruity While variations in teachers' use of the model were instructive, a thorough analysis of the ethnographic data produced the most important finding of the stud!: the underlying assumptions of the peer clinical supen-ision model scere incongrucnt w ith the school context. This issue-the degree of congruencc betweecn model and cnsironmenit-sas included in design of the studs because

it was considered important, though not critical. In retrospect, howecer. the power of the ens ironment appeared overwhelmingl Four overriding contcxtual patterns were uncovered that appeared to have a substantial effect on implementation of peer clinical super-ision in this urban setting: isolation and

ers. black teachers vs. white teachers. teachers in the main building vs. teachfragmentaton, stratification, standard- ers in portables, teachers the principal ization, and reactionism. These themes liked -s. teachers she did not like. Field were evident in classrooms, in teachers' notes corroborated the impression that encounters, and in the building and teachers at this school did not act as a district administrators' shies. cohesive, coordinated staff Stratification %was experienced priIsolation and fragmentation %sereapparent in the school's architecture and marily through the pnncipal's actions in the lack of interaction between teach- toward her staff. though, in fact. district ers. There was little opportunity for administrators also acted similarly toteachers to work as teams; interactions ward their pnncipals. For example. the were infrequent, and when they did principal unintentionally established a occur they were primarily concerned "pecking order" among teachers by sinwith organizational management prob- gling out certain teachers to demonlems. Teachers spoke in temps of staff strate lessons, complimenting them in figmentation: old-timers vs. new-tim- staff meetings and rewarding them with

"preferred" classes: and b! dcscribing teachers as "those who care and do xwell. those who don't, and those who don't care." Teachers acre asware of this hierarchs, and it appeared to reinforce their fragmentation. Standardization was reflected primarily in the curriculum and pedagogy. Teachers sere expected to conform to many standardized practices: lesson plans, approaches to teaching spelling, use of blackboards and bulletin boards, use of the newls adopted reading series. and so forth. In fact, teachers vsere required to attend demonstration lessons on hoA to use the nevs reading series "corrTctls." Therefore, man\ of the 'patterns" teachers exhihited in their classrooms were not the personal. sthlistic patterns that Goldhamrricr suggested reflect a teacher's philosoph-. but, rather, ones imposed by the administration. The reactionism theme relatecd to teachers' decision-making stances. 'aculty members demonstrated little sense of initiative or long-range planning. Several district factors, such as the fluctuating school population aind ahrupt policy changes, contributecl to this posture. as did the principal's spontancous sthle. She interrupted ongoing instrilction by "popping" into classroonis, and often changed schedules or school routines uithout advance noticc. IThes unanticipated changes and interruptions left teachers feeling like puppets on a string, in a rcactixc rather than an initiating posture. All four factors-fragmcitatioon/isolation, stratification, standardization, alid reactionism-canime into direct conflict with the model, which assumed an atmosphere of collegialits and equalits, individualized teaching shies, and a sense of teacher professionalism. In realitv the teachers wuere unanalstical, and the milieu muted rather than clcvated the potential of the peer clinical supers ision model. Clinical Supervision: Preached But Not Practiced Wilses and Killion i 1982) claim that the principles of clinical superv ision arc imiportant components of an effective staff development program. They rfote that the choice of supersisory approach depends on a teacher's stage of personal and professional development Hoscver, Causelti and Reavis' !1980) research on teachers' perceptions of the madequacy of instructional supervision and insersice education demonstrates that 25 percent of urban teachers rated those 8

sernices as "high" and that onls aox)ut 15 percent had had any experience w ith clinical super-ision. 'This, while clinical supervision is highllv acclaimed, it seems not to be implemented oftenl. An issue that has not been adequately addressed is whether the form and spirit of the model "fit" the realitv of teaching in manlv urban contexts. Inner-city schools often cv-idence uork-lifc stresses all their own. Bell i1979) identifies factors that cpitonmizc urban schools in need of rencssal and claims that "the conditions in uhich urban school pcopic u-ork arc extreme" ip. 65i. He cites hopelessness, three obstacles to rcwcual: helplessness, and depersonalization. Fuchs' i 1969) stnds of ieophyte teachers in urban schools also indicated a lack of a supportic., professional growsth en-ironmcnt: "I eachers start their careers expecting further professional de-

velopmcilt and colleague relationships v ith their supervisors. it comes as a rude shock to themrl to find that tliec are treated as loss-lecel bureaucratic fuictionarics" (p. 79). Attempting to chargc approaches in a individual instructional sstern that is unreceptice to collegial problem solirng and teacher initiatixe mas be futile. What is needed is an en-ironiment congruenIt with sustained The lack of professional developmert. such an ensironimnet inl our studs appeared to be a strong inhlibitor of peer clinical super\ision efforts One canillot

generalize froro one case studs, homesver, and it is difficult to knouw hosw widespread are the contextual patterns experienced in this case. But to the extent that the patterns in this school exist in others, clinical supervision, whether w ith peers or not, may be ineffectivc. Mutations of the Model Snyder i 1981 i argues that clinical supervision holds more promise as a coaching svsteni thanl as an inspection system, and expresses concernl that it could evolve into little more than "a refined teacher inspection technolog. " As such it might retain the form ushile sacrificing the spirit of the model. Gi-ern a inmoement tosuard increased standardization, one should not be surprised to see clinical supersision undergo such a niutation. As such, however, it becomes hollow--like a song that has wuords but no music. in our study, such a mutation was evident. The elementary principal had been trained in clinical supernision skills by the school district (apart from

the teachers); she was expected to employ those skills and at the same time evaluate teachers Using the district's standardized evaluation form. Il an era of teacher accountability, anid in this urban setting of fragmentation, stratification, standardization, and reactionisim, administrative use of clinical smipersision incorporated a variation of the form and eliminated the spirit of the model. This inconigreiucce is particultarl inmportant considering the crucial role of the urban principal regarding morale. chalge, anld perforimalice (Hall, llord, arid Griffin, 1980; Shoemaker anrd FraCorbett. 19821 Orn steill ser, 1981; (1982) additionally notes the special finarlcial hardships experienced )y urbarl schools, hardships that in nialii respects conflict w ith ano form of timTne-cosurnl-

ing snlperisiorl or collegial efforts. Implications Mansywould argue that the usC of clinical supervision, either witlh supervisors

or peers, can be a key element in effective staff developmetnt Our studv suggests that such ain approach, nluder certain circunrrstances rnias be untenable We clearly need to examiine the congruence betweenrthe assuniptions of cliical supcrvision and the reality of some school settings. Accountabilitx, standardization, stratification, isolation, aiid unanalstical stances conflict with thle thrust of the clinical supervisionl rmodel By definition the motdel includes a form anid spirit that embodies a sense of professionalism, teacher initiative and collegialits, and a respect for individual teaching patteris. In some instances the tone. interactions, and expectations of the school environnient may need to change before attention to individual teaching patterns will reap benefits. The modcl demanlds extensive time

commitments (Turnrer, 1976), sustained collegial interaction, and long-termi efforts in air atmosphere of professional respect. T'he realith ill many clementary schools includes little, if any, extra time in a tightly scheduled school day, isolation of faculhts members fronm each oth-

er, changing demands from the district and society, and an eroded sense of professionalism. Improvilng instruction, the primary goal of clinical supervision, is not done quickly Raising awareness of teaching patterns, analziing their implications. and planning new approaches requires a sustained effort. That means that clinical supervision, whether performed by administrators or peers, EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Blumberg. Arthur. Supenrvisors and needs to be thoroughly integrated into the life of the school, a rather unlikely Teachers: A Private Cold 'ar. 2nid ed Berkeley. Calif.: McCutchan, 1980. possibility unless many typical school Cawelti, Gordon. and Reavis. Charles. structures and procedures are modified. "How Well Arc We Prov-iding lnstructional The Meaning of Mutations Improncment Senices"' Educational LeadDeveloped in the late 1950s during a ership 38 (1980)): 236-240. period of expansion and experimental Cogan. Morris. Clinical Supervision. Bosprograms and couched in a humanistic ton: Houghton Mifflin. 1973. framework, clinical supervision emCorbett. H. Dickson. "Principals' Contribraced the belief that rational analysis of butions to Mainltainliig Chanigc." Phi Delta pedagog, would facilitate the sclf-actu- Kappan 64 (1982). 190-192. alization of teachers. The model emDeAngelis, Mary. "An Investigation into phasized respect for teachers' initiatives the Reported Needs of Neophtec Teachers and expected them to be the primanr and the Perceived Helpfulness of Supernidecision makers regarding their teaching sors." Unpublished doctoral dissertation. styles. The idea of using clinical super- The Ohio State Unie-rsih-. 1979. Denham. Alice. "Clinical Superision: vision for evaluation purposes was unWhat We Need to Kuno About Its Potential tenable. Its purpose was to help teach- for Improf-ing Ilstruction." Contemporary ers, not to judge them, and those two Education 49 19.77): 33-37 actions were deemed incompatible. Eaker, Robert "An Anal-sis of the CliniPresently. there is little evidence to cal Supenision Process asPereci-ed bASesuggest that clinical superv-ision as de- lected Teachers and Administrators.' Unfined bv Goldhammer and Cogan is published doctoral dissertation. Uniscrsih of being used widely by either district su- Tennessee, 1972. Fuchs. Estelle. Teachers Talk: \iewus from pervisors or teaching peers. Times and expectations have changed, and two hlv- Inside City Schools. NeCY York: Anchor brids of the model are emerging. One Books, 1969. Garman, Noreen B. "The Clinical Apinvolves using the "tool skills" of clini- proach to Supenrvision." In Supenision of cal supernision to monitor and evaluate Teaching Edited b% T. 1. Scrgiovanni. Alteachers. The other involvses the use of exandria, Va.: Association for Supen-ision "colleague consultation" (see Alfonso and Curriculum Ds>eelopmcilt, 1982. and Goldsbern-, 1982). which incorpoGlickman, Carl. Developmental Supernirates the spirit and form of the model sion: Alternative Practices for Helping Teachbut does not stress the well-honed ana- ers Improve Instruction. Alexandria, \a.: Association for Supernision and Curriculum lytical methodology. Studying the nutations of clinical De velopmenit, 1981. Goldhammer, Robert. Clinical Supervisupervision may tell us more about the sion: Special Methods for the Supervision of present state of the school workplace Teachers. New York: Holt, Rinehart. and than about the model. Goldhammer's Winston, 1969. hope was that clinical supervision would Goldsbern-, Lee. College Consultation: transform the schools. Consonant with Teacher Collaboration Toward Performance Sarason's (1982) understanding of the Improvement. Paper presented at AREA, power of contextual forces in school life, Los Angeles, April 1981. Good. Thomas, and Broph!. Jere Lookit appears more likely that clinical supervision, where used, will be molded ing in Classrooms. 2nd ed. Nes York: Harper and Row, 1978. and shaped to "fit" the rcality of school Hall, Gene; Hord. Shirlc-; Grffin. Thelife. It will be instructive to obsenre the transformation where it occurs and to resa. "Implementation at the School Building Level: The Development and Aialysis of reflect on its meaning.O Nine Mini-Case Studies." Paper presented References at AERA. Boston. April. 1980.

Enterprise. Nec York: MicGras Hill. 1960 Mecdwid. lo Ann. "A Partcipant ben-ahon Studs: A Model for Instructional Supervision. " Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Boston Ulnivsrsih. 19i0. Newman. Kathenne "lmproing Teaching in Higher Education: A Rencs of Sclected Literature.- A paper for the Colklegiaul Assistance Program Task Force of the lius Corps Network. The Collcge of Educaton. The Ilniversits of Texas at Austin. larch 1980. Ornstein. Allan. "Redefining the Urban Problem." Phi Delta Kappan 64 lq9h's: 516-519 Sarason. Scvmeour The Culture of the School and the Problem of Change 2nd ed Boston: Alh-n and Bacon. Inc. 19q2. Schiffer, Judith. School Renewul Thmnugh Teachers Staff Deevelopment. New \ork: College Press. 1980.

Acheson. Keith, and Gall, Meredith. Techniques in the Clinical Supervision of Teachers: Preservice and Inservice Applications New York: Longman, 1980)

published doctoral dissertation. UniRersih of California, Los Angeles. 19-6. Weller, Richard. Verbal Communication in Instructional Supervision: An Obirw-

Alfonso. Robert J and Goldsbern, Lee. "Colleagueship in Supen ision" In Supervision of Teaching. Edited by T. . Sergiovanni. Alexandria. Va: Association for Su-

pervision and Curricilum Dcvelopment. 1982 ASCD Update, Vol

23., No. 2, March

1981 Bell, Warren. "Obstacles to Urban School Renewal." Theory into Practice 18 (1979): 65-72. APRIL 1984

Hall, Gene, and Loucks, Susan. "Innova-

tion Configurations: Analyzing the Adaptations of Innovations." Austin: Research alid

Development Center for Teacher Education, The Universiht of Texas. 1978. Harris, Ben. "Limits and Supplements to Formal Clinical Procedures." lournal of Research and Development in Education 9 (1976) 85-89. McFaul. Shirle-. "A Case Stud% of the

Implementation of Peer Clinical Supenrision in an Urban Elementary School." [Inpublished doctoral dissertation., The Universith of Houston, 1982. McGregor, Douglas. The Human Side of

Sergiovalni. Thonus. "'he Rational IBus ill Supen-isor Thought: Issues and Altrnati-sc." Instructional Supenrsion: Resarch and Theorv. National Conference Papers. Kent. Ohio: Kent State Utniersitc. 19-h Shoemaker. Joanl. and Fraser. Hugh. "What Principals Can Do: Some Implicatihons from Studies of Electivr Schooling. Phi Delta Kappan 64 1991: 1-- 1 82. 1Simon. Alan. "Peer Superision: .n termatie." Association for Supersison and Curriculum Development. 19'9 Annual Conference audiotape.

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Universih- of Connecticut. 1978. Snider,. aromln "Clinical Supenision in the 1980s'. Educational lademrship 1981): 521-524.

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Sullivan. Chen-l "Clinical Supeniwon A State of the Art Rcxic' ." 4'kandria. Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. 1980.

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Copyright © 1984 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. All rights reserved.