Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal Volume 2 | Issue 1

Article 6

2014

A Comparison of Body Image Satisfaction, Sport Supplement Use, and Body Modification Behaviors Among Undergraduate Students in Family and Consumer Science Classes John Ramos California State University - Sacramento, [email protected]

Roxanne Y. Fountain California State University - Sacramento, [email protected]

Jodie England California State University, Sacramento, [email protected]

Prabhjot Dhaliwal California State University, Sacramento, [email protected]

April Tacotaco California State University, Sacramento, [email protected] See next page for and additional authors works at: http://skyline.bigskyconf.com/journal Follow this additional

Part of the Medicine and Health Sciences Commons, and the Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons Recommended Citation Ramos, John; Fountain, Roxanne Y.; England, Jodie; Dhaliwal, Prabhjot; Tacotaco, April; and Latham, Tara (2014) "A Comparison of Body Image Satisfaction, Sport Supplement Use, and Body Modification Behaviors Among Undergraduate Students in Family and Consumer Science Classes," Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal: Vol. 2: Iss. 1, Article 6. Available at: http://skyline.bigskyconf.com/journal/vol2/iss1/6

This Research Article is brought to you for free and open access by Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal. It has been accepted for inclusion in Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal by an authorized administrator of Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal.

A Comparison of Body Image Satisfaction, Sport Supplement Use, and Body Modification Behaviors Among Undergraduate Students in Family and Consumer Science Classes Keywords

Exercise Addiction, Eating disorder, somatoform disorder, muscle dysmorphia, muscle dysmorphic disorder, muscle, students, survey, student, body image, body image satisfaction, binge, purge, body dissatisfaction, body modification, athletic, athleticism, amateur athlete, amateur, amateur athleticism, family, family and consumer science, sport supplement, nutrition supplement, ergogenic aid, ergogenic, disease, obsession, exercise, adipose, adiposity, fat Acknowledgments

J. Ann Moylan, PhD, CCLS, CFLE Kathleen Deegan, PhD Authors

John Ramos, Roxanne Y. Fountain, Jodie England, Prabhjot Dhaliwal, April Tacotaco, and Tara Latham

This research article is available in Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal: http://skyline.bigskyconf.com/journal/vol2/iss1/6

Ramos et al.: A Comparison of Body Image Satisfaction

Literature Review

Somatoform disorder symptomology manifests as obligatory, compulsive, or harmful exercise routines resulting from an obsession or preoccupation with achieving a more athletic body type (Pope, Philips & Olivardia, 2000). Eating disorders symptomology includes restrictive dietary patterns, food avoidance, and food obsessive behaviors that arise from similar concerns with body type (Pope et al., 2000). The majority of college students ages 18-24 are considered at risk for developing somatoform and eating disorders due to body image dissatisfaction. College represents a time of transition for many students, and the sensitivity of this population to gender roles and media perspectives of body image results in a vulnerability toward extreme body modification behaviors (Grossbard, Clayton & Larimer, 2011; Pope et al., 2000). Media sources for college aged audiences are saturated with computer altered images of men and women, depicting unrealistic expectations of the human body including hyper sexualized bodies with athletic features like increased muscularity and decreased adiposity (D’Allesandro and Chitty, 2011; Trampe, Stapel, & Siero, 2007). Demonstrating the symptomology of a somatoform disorder called muscle dysmorphia, students in pursuit of more athletic body types adopt excessive exercise routines to achieve athletic body image features (Kelley, Neufeld, & Musher-Eizenman, 2010; Heidelberg and Correa, 2009; Hudson, Hiripi, Pope, & Kessler, 2007; Thompson, Cafri & editors, 2007; Nieri, Keith, & Hurdle, 2005; Story, French, Resnick, & Blum, 1995). Furthermore, exercise addiction behaviors are common among individuals who have been diagnosed with an eating disorder (Lichtenstein, Christiansen, Elklit, Bilenberg, & Støving, 2014; Zmijewsky and Howard, 2003). College students majoring in nutrition related fields are at a greater risk of developing eating disorders, and subsequent body modification behaviors associated with somatoform disorders, contrary to the misnomer that students and professionals in food or exercise related studies are immune to nutrition related psychopathology (Houston, Bassler, & Anderson, 2008). Researchers posit that students who choose nutrition or dietetics as majors exhibit characteristics of disordered eating or eating disorder pathology. In a cross-sectional study of nutrition majors and students not majoring in nutrition, researchers concluded thatstudents majoring in nutrition had a higher tendency to exercise dietary restraint as a means of weight loss or weight maintenance (Korinth, Schiess, & Westenhoefer, 2010). Research focused specifically on body image and body satisfaction among students majoring in nutrition found that an obsession with food and exercise as body modification techniques was the impetus for studying dietetics, and led to the development of eating disorder symptomology (Eisenberg, Nicklett, Roader, & Kirz, 2011). Researchers speculate that the increased likelihood of developing disordered eating or eating disorder symptomology among these students is attributed to the “explicit or implicit emphasis on body weight and shape for professional competence” (Yager and O’Dea, 2008 p. 479). Research suggests that students majoring in nutrition choose unhealthy body modification techniques because athletic body types with increased muscularity and decreased adiposity are competitive within the nutrition career field, where the expectations of clientele encompass the physical features of nutrition professionals. There is an expectation that dietitians, nutritionists, and athletic trainers develop a physical appearance that reflects a personal compliance with their advice and recommendations (Yager and O’Dea, 2008). Obsessive and restrictive dieting, a predictor of somatoform disorder symptomology, is prevalent among students majoring in nutrition, but little research has been done to examine the prevalence of somatoform disorder symptomology, such as an exercise addiction or the obsessive pursuit of an athletic body Published by Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal, 2014

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Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal, Vol. 2 [2014], Iss. 1, Art. 6

type, in this population (Pritchard, Parker & Nielsen, 2011; Korinth et al., 2010; Yager & O’Dea 2008). Hypothesis

Students majoring in nutrition related majors and concentrations will exhibit more subclinical somatoform disorder symptomology (body dissatisfaction, excessive exercise, or obsessive/restrictive dietary patterns) than students of other majors and concentrations in FACS classes. Methods

A survey was created using questions from seminal studies with high validity and reliability. Between April 7 and April 22, 2014, a paper survey was administered to 304 students enrolled in Family and Consumer Science courses at California State University, Sacramento. Participants were Family and Consumer Science majors with concentrations in nutrition and food (n= 116), family studies (n= 49), and fashion merchandising and design (n= 19), special majors in dietetics (n= 56), and students considered in the “Other” category (n= 64), students who did not identify themselves as FACS majors. Students were given 10 minutes to complete the survey. The responses of students who agreed to participate in the survey are included in the data analysis.

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Ramos et al.: A Comparison of Body Image Satisfaction

Figure 1. Survey Questions Please mark with an “X” one answer for questions 1-5. 1. What gender do you most closely identify with: __Male 2.

__Female

___Other or decline to state

What is your current concentration in the Family and Consumer Sciences department? __Dietetics __Nutrition __Family Studies __Fashion Merchandising and Design

3.

Which of the following supplements do you currently take? ____multivitamin ____Protein Powder ____Sports Drink

4.

____Other: (please specify) __________________ ___None In general, how would you describe your body size and composition? __Overweight __Average __Underweight

5.

In general, how would you describe your body size and composition?

__Less fat than muscle __More fat than muscle 6.

__Equal amounts of fat and muscle

Which of the following would you need to make your body more physically attractive (Place an X in at least one of the following boxes)? __Less fat __More fat __Less muscle __More muscle

For statements 7-13, please rate how strongly you agree or disagree by circling one answer for each. (1=Strongly agree, 2= Agree, 3=Neutral, 4=Disagree, 5=Strongly Disagree) 7.

I tend to eat more when I am feeling stressed.

8.

1 2 3 4 5 I feel comfortable talking about weight management with my friends.

9.

1 2 3 4 5 Eating foods which contain fat contributes to an undesirable body size.

1 2 3 4 5 10. Celebrities and models in magazines and television/movies have healthy body types. 1 2 3 4 5 11. I have positive feelings about myself when I eat something healthy. 1 2 3 4 5 12. I have avoided academic and/or work responsibilities to exercise or work out. 1

2

3

4

5

13. I have avoided social and/or family responsibilities to exercise or work out. 1

2

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4

5

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Results

Graph 1. Gender Related to Total Sample 20.4%

79.6%

Male

Female

Graph 2. Percentage of Participants by Major

21%

18.4%

6.3%

16.1%

Dietetics

Nutrition and Food

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38.2%

Family Studies

Fashion Merchandising and Design

Other

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Ramos et al.: A Comparison of Body Image Satisfaction

Graph 3. Gender Concentrations of Cohorts

70.7%

78.9%

77%

89.8%

92.9%

Female Male

29.3%

23%

10.2%

7.1% Dietetics

21.1%

Nutrition & Food

Family Studies

Fashion Merchandising and Design

Other

Graph 4. Response to the Question: "Which of the Following Supplements do You Currently Take?"

42.9%

26.3%

51.8% 48.3%

10.7% 10.7%

12.2% 22.4%

5.2%

10.5%

None Sports Drink 36.8%

40.8% 20.7%

Dietetics

Nutrition & Food

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14% 14%

21.6% 33.9%

34%

Family Studies

31.6%

Fashion Merchandising and Design

Protein Supplement Multivitamin

28%

Other

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Graph 5. Response to the Question: "How Would you Describe Your Body Size and Composition?" 4.3%

2.0%

5.3%

16.1%

72% 60.7%

81.0%

79.6% Underweight 94.7%

Average Overweight

23.2%

Dietetics

28% 13.8% Nutrition & Food

18.4%

Family Studies

Fashion Merchandising and Design

Other

Graph 6. Response to the Question: "How Would You Describe Your Body Size and Composition?"

48.2%

33.6%

34.7% 47.4%

29.3% 26.8% 23.2% Dietetics

31.9%

Nutrition & Food

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38%

46.9%

18.4% Family Studies

21.1%

17%

21.1%

25%

Fashion Merchandising and Design

Equal fat and muscle More fat than muscle Less fat than muscle

Other

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Ramos et al.: A Comparison of Body Image Satisfaction

Graph 7. Response to the Question: "Which of the Following Would You Need to Make Your Body More Physically Attractive?" 0.0%

0.0%

2.0%

67.2%

63.3%

68.4%

0.0% 0% 53.6%

10.5% 47%

Less muscle More muscle More fat

3.6%

4.1%

1.7%

5% 84.2%

55.4%

Dietetics

56.0%

Nutrition & Food

55.1%

Family Studies

Less fat

50%

Fashion Merchandising and Design

Other

Graph 8. Responses to the Statement: "I Tend to Eat More When I am Feeling Stressed."

39% 43.1%

28.6%

35.7%

36.8% Disagree Agree

33.9%

Dietetics

42.9%

38.8%

Nutrition & Food

Family Studies

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48% 36.8%

Fashion Merchandising and Design

Other

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Graph 9. Responses to the Statement: "I Feel Comfortable Talking About Weight Management with My Friends." 8.2%

8.9% 23.3%

10.5%

17% Disagree Agree

79.6%

75.0%

63.2%

61.2%

Dietetics

Nutrition & Food

Family Studies

Fashion Merchandising and Design

59%

Other

Graph 10. Responses to the Statement: "Eating Food Which Contain Fat Contributes to An Undesireable Body Size."

28% 33.6%

28.6%

26.3% Disagree Agree

39.3%

37.1%

42.9%

50% 42.1%

21.4%

Dietetics

Nutrition & Food

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Family Studies

Fashion Merchandising and Design

Other

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Ramos et al.: A Comparison of Body Image Satisfaction

Graph 11. Responses to the Statement: "Celebrities and Models in Magazines and Television/Movies Have Healthy Body Types."

56% Disagree Agree 60.7%

57.1%

35.3%

31.6%

48%

22.4% 12.2%

10.7% Dietetics

Nutrition & Food

Family Studies

5.3% Fashion Merchandising and Design

Other

Graph 12. Responses to the Statement: "I Have Positive Feelings About Myself When I Eat Something Healthy." 12.2%

10.7%

16%

16.4% 5.3%

Disagree Agree 85.7%

85.7% 75.9%

Dietetics

Nutrition & Food

73.7%

Family Studies

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Fashion Merchandising and Design

83%

Other

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Graph 13. Responses to the Statement: "I Have Avoided Academic and/or Work Responsibilities to Exercise or Work Out."

67.3% 51.8%

51.7%

26.8%

25.0%

Dietetics

Nutrition & Food

Disagree

52.6% 69%

28.6%

Agree

31.6% 17%

Family Studies

Fashion Merchandising and Design

Other

Graph 14. Responses to the Statement: "I Have Avoided Social and/or Family Responsibilities to Exercise or Work Out."

58.9% 54.3%

Disagree

65.3% 59% 52.6%

25.0%

Dietetics

22.4%

Nutrition & Food

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20.4%

Family Studies

15.8%

Fashion Merchandising and Design

Agree

19%

Other

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Ramos et al.: A Comparison of Body Image Satisfaction

Discussion

The results of this survey suggest that the hypothesis is disproven considering the similarities of responses from all of the participants regardless of major. A majority of students considered themselves to be of average weight, and yet a large percentage of students desired some form of body modification. When compared to the “Other” students, students in FACS majors were more concerned with decreasing adiposity and increasing muscularity. FACS majors emphasizing in family studies and nutrition and food demonstrated the greatest concern with increasing muscularity (63.3% and 67.2% respectively) to become more physically attractive, and the use of protein supplements (22.4% and 21.6% respectively), despite the high percentage of participants who reported that they had average body sizes (79.6% and 81%, respectively). When compared to the other cohorts, a lower percentage of participants in the nutrition and food and family studies cohorts reported having overweight body sizes (18.4% and 13.8%, respectively), further affirming that although the majority of students had average body sizes, they were not content with being “average.” In general, a large percentage of students from all cohorts reported average body sizes but also reported that increasing muscularity or decreasing adiposity were necessary to be physically attractive. The data suggest that students taking FACS classes share similar concerns about body image that are not exclusive to students choosing to major in fields related to nutrition. Besides perceptions of body size, the cohorts reported similar responses to other survey questions. In general, students in all cohorts were willing to sacrifice academic or professional responsibilities to exercise than social or family responsibilities. This suggests that strong social support groups exist for many students in these cohorts and may contribute to why a majority of students reported they feel comfortable discussing weight management with friends. However, a smaller percentage of students in all cohorts reported that they had neglected one or more responsibilities to exercise. More research is needed to evaluate how often students avoid responsibilities to engage in exercise, and whether these exercise patterns interfere with their ability to function and meet academic, professional, social, or familial expectations. Assessing the degree of severity would be necessary to establish symptomology based on diagnostic criteria for eating or somatoform disorders in the DSM-V (Lichtenstein et al., 2014). Many students also reported restrictive dieting behaviors, like positive feelings from eating “healthy” foods or the belief that foods with fat contribute to an undesirable body type, despite the value of calorically dense foods for physically active individuals. Further research should evaluate the prevalence of obsessive dieting in this population, since these behaviors have high comorbidity for somatoform disorders (Pritchard et al., 2011). Although the results suggest that many students are willing to adopt more body modification behaviors to achieve athletic body types, like sacrificing responsibilities for additional time at the gym or utilizing sports nutrition supplements, it is difficult to assess whether students engage in rigorous physical activity that is hazardous to their health. Further research should evaluate the seriousness of these concerns and the motivation of students to implement rigorous exercise routines or restrict calories in their diets. Students majoring in nutrition related majors (nutrition and food and dietetics) were as concerned with body image and weight, and reported similar body modification Published by Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal, 2014

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behaviors and exercise patterns, as their peers in other concentrations and majors. There is little evidence to suggest that students majoring in nutrition related fields have more concerns with body image or restrictive dieting than their peers. The majority of students who participated in this survey agreed that a physically attractive body type was one with more muscle and less fat, common features of the typical athletic body. Regardless of area of study, there is a valid concern for college students participating in extreme exercise routines and restrictive dieting patterns, considering the varying degrees of severity and the vulnerability of this population to adopting body modification behaviors. References Pope Jr., H.G., Phillips, K.A., & Olivardia, R. (2000). The Adonis Complex: The secret crisis of male body obsession. New York: Free Press. Grossbard, J.R., Clayton, N., & Larimer, M.E. (2011). Perceived norms for thinness and muscularity among college students: What do men and women really want? Eating Behaviors, 12(3), 192–199. D'Alessandro, S., & Chitty, B. (2011). Real or relevant beauty? Body shape and endorser effects on brand attitude and body image. Psychology and Marketing, 28(8), 843-878 Trampe, D., Stapel, D. A., & Siero, F. W. (2007). On models and vases: Body dissatisfaction and proneness to social comparison effects. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 92(1), 106-118. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.106 Kelley, C.C., Neufeld, J.M., & Musher-Eizenman, D.R.. (2010). Drive for thinness and drive for muscularity: Opposite ends of the continuum or separate constructs? Body Image, 7, 74-77. Doi: 10.106/j.bodyim.2009.09.008. Heidelberg, N. F., & Correia, C. J. (2009). Dieting Behavior and Alcohol Use Behaviors among National Eating Disorders Screening Program Participants. Journal Of Alcohol & Drug Education, 53(3), 53-64 Hudson, J.I., Hiripi, E., Pope, H.G., & Kessler, R.C. (2007). The Prevalence and Correlates of Eating Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biological Psychology, 61(3), 348-358. Thompson, J.K., Cafri, G., & editors. (2007). The muscular ideal: psychological, social and medical perspectives. Washington (DC): American Psychological Association Nieri, T., Kulis, S., Keith, V.M., & Hurdle, D. (2005). Body image, acculturation, and substance abuse among boys and girls in the southwest. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 31, 617-39. Doi: 10.1081/ADA-200068418. Story, M., French, S.A., Resnick, M.D., & Blum, R.W. (1995). Ethnic/racial and socioeconomic differences in dieting behaviors and body image perceptions in adolescents. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 18, 173-179. Lichtenstein, M.B., Christiansen, E., Elklit, A., Bilenberg, N., & Støving, R.K. (2014). Exercise addiction: A study of eating disorder symptoms, quality of life, personality traits and attachment styles. Psychiatry Research, 215(2) 410-416. Zmijewsky, C.F., & Howard, M.O. (2003). Exercise dependence and attitudes toward eating among young adults. Eating Behaviors, 4(2), 181-195 Houston, C.A., Bassler, E., & Anderson, J. (2008). Eating Disorders among Dietetics Students: An Educator’s Dilemma. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 108(4), 722-724 http://skyline.bigskyconf.com/journal/vol2/iss1/6

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Korinth, A., Schiess, S., & Westenhoefer, J. (2010). Eating behavior and eating disorders in students of nutrition sciences. Public Health Nutrition, 13(01), 32-37. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1368980009005709 Eisenberg, D., Nicklett, E. J., Roeder, K., & Kirz, N. E. (2011). Eating Disorder Symptoms Among College Students: Prevalence, Persistence, Correlates, and Treatment-Seeking. Journal Of American College Health, 59(8), 700-707. doi:10.1080/07448481.2010.546461 Yager, Z., & O'Dea, J. (2008). Body image, dieting and disordered eating and activity practices among teacher trainees: implications for school-based health education and obesity prevention programs. Health Education Research, 24(3), 472-482. doi: 10.1093/her/cyn044 Pritchard, M., Parker, C., & Nielsen, A. (2011). What predicts drive for muscularity in college students? Eating Behaviors, 12, 228-231.

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