OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS. Hemp (Cannabis) Cultivation and Use in the Republic of Korea

OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS Hemp (Cannabis) Cultivation and Use in the Republic of Korea Robert C. Clarke ABSTRACT. This paper summarizes the history of hem...
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OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS

Hemp (Cannabis) Cultivation and Use in the Republic of Korea Robert C. Clarke

ABSTRACT. This paper summarizes the history of hemp (Cannabis) cultivation and traditional use in the Republic of Korea and investigates the cultivation and processing techniques currently being employed to produce hemp ribbon and seed and weave hemp textiles. Recent production levels and market conditions are reviewed. Hemp is cultivated for bast fiber and seed in several of the numerous fertile inland valleys of the Republic of Korea. Present distribution and level of production are much reduced in comparison with the 20th century. There is no local tradition of its use as either medicine or inebriant. Comparisons with European hemp cultivation and processing, (representative of commercial Western hemp production), Chinese hemp cultivation and production in Shandong Province, (representative of modern Chinese commercial production), and Vietnamese Hmong-Miao cultivation, processing, and weaving, (representative of traditional non-commercial Asian hemp production), are provided where appropriate. Comparisons to hemp growing in the Republic of Korea during the 1950s and early 1960s are made. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: Website: © 2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

KEYWORDS. Korea, hemp, traditional weaving, production levels Robert C. Clarke is Projects Manager, International Hemp Association, Postbus 75007, 1070 AA Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Journal of Industrial Hemp, Vol. 11(1) 2006 http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JIH © 2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1300/J237v11n01_07

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INTRODUCTION Hemp is called sambe (pronounced saam bay) or dae ma (pronounced day maa; from the Chinese da ma) and has a long history on the Korean peninsula. Hemp threads and bone needles were recovered from the Goongsan archeological site (circa 3000 BC) and traces of hemp cord and cloth have been discovered from the Gojoseon period (2333-108 BC) sites. At that time, Korean hemp was well known and an important item of trade with neighboring countries. During the Song Dynasty a Chinese envoy to Korea, in the book Goryeo-Dogyung, stated that “Goryeo [Korean] ramie and hemp products are as clean and white as jade” (Sim, 2002). Since ancient times, hemp cloth has been classified based on thread count, color, production area, and use. Fine high yarn count hemp fabrics approximately 50 cm in width were an essential item of trade with China during the Unified Silla Dynasty (676-900 CE). During this period, higher count fabric was reserved for use only by members of noble families and coarse lower count fabrics were used by commoners; fine hemp fabric was used for the emperor’s crown. Koreans particularly appreciated bleached hemp, as white was the color of choice for clothing (Min, 1985). Isabella Bird, an intrepid European explorer, recorded an unusual method of hemp processing. The “steaming” of hemp stalks is unique to the Korean Peninsula and one of the defining features of Korean hemp processing. At the bottom of a stone-paved pit large stones are placed, which are heated from a rough oven at the side. The hemp is pressed down in bundles upon these, and stakes are driven in among the stalks. Piles of coarse Korean grass are placed over the hemp, earth over all, well beaten down. The sticks are then pulled up and water is poured into the holes left by them. This, falling on the heated stones, produces a dense steam, and in twenty-four hours the hemp fiber is so completely disintegrated as to be easily separated. (Bird, 1898) In this article, the name “Korea” refers to the Republic of Korea (Figure 1), commonly called South Korea, which lies mostly between 34⬚ and 38⬚ north latitude. Although hemp distribution and production data are presented for North Korea, officially named The Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, no first-hand observations of hemp production in

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FIGURE 1. Map of hemp production areas in the Republic of Korea.

North Korea are presented here. However, in light of the depressed economic conditions prevailing in North Korea for several decades, the production of hemp for localized use may be much more widespread in North Korea than in South Korea. Hemp cultivation in South Korea was formerly much more widespread than it is today. Field research was carried out by the author from June 20 to July 22, July 28 to August 3 and October 17 to 24, 2004. HEMP GROWING REGIONS AND PRODUCTION LEVELS Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea (North Korea) Hemp is likely still grown throughout much of North Korea on a village subsistence level, much as it was at the end of the Korean War in 1953. Present-day commercial production regions apparently include the area around Sinuiju City located on the border with the Peoples

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Republic of China near the Yellow Sea in Pyeonganbuk Province and Hwangju County of Hwanghaebuk Province (Lee C-s pers. com., 2004). Republic of Korea (South Korea) There are three major and several minor production areas in the Republic of Korea. The Andong region is best known for its high quality commercial hemp cloth and specialty cloth. The Boseong region produces more hemp cloth than Andong, although it is of lower quality. The Jeongseon region is the largest producer of hemp seed. The regions described in this report are as follows: Andong region. Fiber and cloth production only Kumso and Panbien Villages, Imha Township, Andong City District along the Nakdong River valley and several villages throughout Gyogam and Pongyang Townships, Bonghwa County, Gyeongsangbuk Province. Boseong region. Fiber and cloth production only Many villages throughout the Sungjin River valley in Boknae, Mileok, Nodong, Uleh, and Geumbaek Townships, Boseong County, Jeollanam Province. Jeongseon region. Fiber, cloth and seed production Gohan, Sabuk, Shindong, Dongmyoung, Nammyoung, Bukmyoun, Bukpyoung, and Limgae Villages, Jeongseon County, Gang-won Province. Geochang region. Limited production of fiber, cloth and seed Jungchon, Changson, Galgye, and Yongsan Villages as well as several more villages in Puksang, Caju, and Kabuk Townships, Geochang County, Gyeongsangnam Province. Muju region. Limited production of fiber, cloth and seed Chibuk Village, Muju County, Jeollabuk Province. Gokseong region. A traditional weaving center where hemp is no longer grown, but cloth is still woven. In 1963, hemp fiber was grown in every province in South Korea and 82% was grown in the same five provinces where production continues today (Ree, 1966). Korean hemp fiber yields were below the averages

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reported for other hemp producing regions. Ree (1966) reported that in 1960-1961 the average yield of hemp fiber in South Korea was 710 kg/ ha and that during the same period, Japan averaged 835 kg, Italy 920 kg, and France 1160 kg. The higher efficiency of European water retting and breaking may account for this difference (Ree, 1966). Increased yield per hectare in the 1960s was likely a result of the introduction of water retting and breaking of the dried stalks. Consistently higher yields reported from the Andong region (Table 1) in comparison with other hemp growing regions (Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5) may result from extremely dense sowing of the fields, resulting in many small thin stalks. In 1963, the average size for a South Korean hemp fiber field was 75 m2 (Ree, 1966). In 2004, there were an additional 60 families with small hemp fields, farming a total of approximately 3 ha in the Bonghwa County area of the Andong region. In 2001, approximately 10 ha of fiber hemp was grown in the Geochang region and 44 families were involved in cultivation with an average of 2273 m2 per family. By 2004, there were less than 10 families growing hemp (Seo, pers. comm., 2004). In the Muju region less than two hectares were grown for fiber in 2004. Therefore, in 2004, approximately 500 families in South Korea grew fiber hemp on less than 70 ha. In addition, fewer than 100 families grew hemp seed on less than 70 ha. In total, hemp fiber and seed production in South Korea presently employs approximately 600 families and occupies less than 140 ha. Cloth production levels from 1920 through 1930 were well above those of recent years (Table 6). During 2000-2003, approximately 2000 to 3000 rolls (approximately 14,000 - 21,000 m2) of hemp cloth were produced annually in the Andong region, which accounts for more than half of the production in South Korea. In the Muju region, where production is relatively small, nearly 2 ha were grown for fiber and approximately 100 rolls of hemp cloth are produced each year. Traditionally the majority of hemp fiber was used in the farmer’s household to weave cloth for summer clothing. During the 1950s, the industrial uses of hemp included twine, sewing thread, packing materials, canvas, and sailcloth (Ree, 1966). As petrochemical based alternatives to industrial hemp and affordable imported cotton and synthetic clothing came to dominate the Korean marketplace, hemp fiber and cloth production levels plummeted from a high during the late 1920s through the early 1970s, to less than one tenth of one percent of levels 40 years earlier. Fiber production made a slight resurgence in the 1990s and early 21st century, but production levels fluctuate annually and future trends are impossible to predict.

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TABLE 1. Hemp fiber production figures–Andong City (Andong City Agriculture Department, pers. comm., 2004). Year

Hemp fiber field area (ha)

Number of families growing fiber hemp

Average hemp field size (m2)

Gross fiber yield (kg)

Average fiber yield (kg/ha)

1960 1965 1970 1975 1976

281.0

5,185

540

309,000

1100

156.4

4,169

375

181,000

1080

121.1

2,955

410

179,000

1420

12.3

355

346

15,000

1150

3.4

110

309

4,400

1300

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

3.3

107

308

4,000

1300

4.5

127

354

6,300

1400

5.2

158

329

7,300

1400

7.7

281

274

9,000

1170

6.0

181

331

7,600

1200

5.0

105

476

6,000

1200

6.8

97

701

9,500

1400

13.1

170

771

13,400

1020

8.8

102

863

9,000

1000

11.1

133

835

11,000

1000

12.7

149

852

13,000

1000

25.9

153

1693

26,200

1020

20.3

223

910

20,500

1010

19.6

147

1333

19,700

1010

26.0

249

1044

28,100

1080

25.2

160

1575

27,000

1070

15.3

107

1430

16,300

1070

12.3

72

1708

12,700

1030

20.7

96

2156

21,900

1060

17.5

87

2011

18,400

1050

15.9

91

1747

16,500

1040

19.1

102

1873

18,900

990

23.2

125

1856

23,200

1000

22.0

107

2056

22,000

1000

17.6

101

1743

18,300

1040

25.6

137

1869





30.7

160

1919





27.5

155

1774





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TABLE 2. Hemp fiber production figures–Present-day North and South Korea 1911-1935 (Lee, 1936). Hemp fiber field area (ha)

Gross yield (kg)

Yield (kg/ha)

1911-1915

19,000

10,382,000

547

1916-1920

25,000

16,374,000

655

1921-1925

27,500

20,797,000

770

1926-1930

28,000

20,880,000

770

1931-1935





775

Years

TABLE 3. Hemp fiber production figures–South Korea (Ree,1966; Uniconsult Incorporated, 1968; Chen, 1970). Years

Hemp fiber field area (ha)

Gross yield (kg)

Yield (kg/ha)

1926

17,900





1926-1930

17,728

12,513,000

700

1931-1935

16,348

11,557,000

702

1936-1940

15,380

10,300,000

660

1941-1945

20,172

12,610,000

638

1946-1950

9,509

6,253,000

660

1951-1955

10,632

6,606,000

630

1956-1960

9,032

6,628,000

723

1958

9,475

6,735,000

711

1958-1962





740

1960-1961





710

1961-1963

7,043

5,605,000

797

1967

6,000

6,100,000

1000

HEMP GROWING LICENSES All hemp growers in Korea are licensed by the government through the Agricultural Extension Department associated with each production region. The farmers must register their name and address and the sizes and locations of their fields. There is one license required for hemp fiber cultivation and a second for hemp seed cultivation. A farmer who harvests hemp fiber in June, and decides to leave the plants along the margins of the field for later seed harvest in October, is required to have both

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TABLE 4. Hemp fiber production figures–Boseong County (Boseong County Agriculture Department, pers. comm., 2004). Year

Hemp fiber field area (ha)

Number of families growing fiber hemp

Average hemp field size (m2)

2001

24.5

252

972

2002

31.2

295

1058

2003

35.4

300

1180

2004

29.8

243

1226

TABLE 5. Hemp fiber and seed production figures–Jeongseon County (Jeongseon County Agriculture Department, pers. comm., 2004). Year

2004

Hemp fiber Number of field area families (ha) growing fiber hemp 6.6

18

Average fiber field size (m2) 3667

Hemp seed Number field area of families (ha) growing seed hemp 63.1

65

Average seed field size (m2) 9706

licenses. There is no fee charged for hemp cultivation licenses and farmers are not required to have their crops monitored for cannabinoid content. PRESENT-DAY DIVISION OF LABOR The traditional division of labor in Korean agrarian society stipulated that men worked outside of the home and women worked within. This traditional system is echoed in the present-day division of hemp labor. Men are generally responsible for growing the crops, processing the stalks and transporting them back to the home, where women take over the duties of stripping the bark from the plants, spinning yarn and weaving cloth. To my knowledge, there are no male hemp weavers in Korea and men are only rarely called upon to assist in other aspects of hemp work within the home. Presently, women also assist in weeding the fields, harvesting the stalks, removing the leaves and anxiously monitoring their precious hemp crop during post-harvest processing. Therefore, hemp labor is predominately the work and responsibility of women and men play only a seasonal role with fieldwork.

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TABLE 6. Hemp cloth production figures–Present-day North and South Korea 1920-1930 (Anonymous, 1930). Year

Estimated hemp cloth Province name production (m2)

North and South Korea

Estimated hemp cloth production (m2)

Present-day South Korea

1920

11,000,000

Gang-won

1,800,000

1921

17,000,000

Gyeonggi

210,000

1922

10,000,000

Chungcheongbuk

60,000

1923

11,500,000

Chungcheongnam

430,000

1924

10,750,000

Jeollabuk

910,000

1925

10,500,000

Jeollanam

1,470,000

1926

11,000,000

Gyeongsangbuk

1,920,000

1927

10,000,000

Gyeongsangnam

2,530,000

1928

11,250,000

1929

11,500,000

1930

14,000,000

Present-day North Korea Hwanghaebuk and Hwanghaenam

40,000

Pyeong-anbuk

1,500,000

Pyeong-annam

580,000

Hamgyeongbuk

800,000

Hamgyeongnam

1,750,000

1930 Total (m2)

14,000,000

CULTIVATED PLANT DESCRIPTION The Korean hemp landraces are apparently entirely dioecious (Ree, 1966). Plants are generally moderately branched and 2.5-4.0 meters in height at maturity. The foliage is medium to dark green and the leaves have seven or nine medium to broad leaflets. The inflorescences are relatively sparse and seed yield is low compared to improved European varieties. Although some individuals elaborate resin glands, they apparently produce little, if any, of the primary psychoactive cannabinoid THC, and the local landrace cannot be considered a drug variety. Formerly, East Asian hemp varieties from China, Korea, and Japan were considered by the vast majority of taxonomists to be members of Cannabis sativa L. Hillig (2005) has reported compelling data indicating that East Asian broad leaf hemp (BLH) is more accurately circumscribed by C. indica and he proposes the designation chinensis as the biotype or subspecies name.

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HEMP SEED CULTIVATION Hemp seed crops are grown in much more limited regions of Korea than fiber crops. The Korean hemp landrace variety presently produced in Gang-won Province is called ‘Eul-shi’. However, in the 1950s and 1960s a landrace from Tochigi Prefecture in Japan was also grown and some breeding experiments were carried out at the Agricultural Experiment Station in Suwon city south of Seoul (Ree, 1966). Seed for the following year’s sowing is obtained from two sources. The largest portion of the seed comes from fields that were planted for hemp seed production. The secondary source of seed is from branched plants left along the margins of fields when the hemp fiber crop is harvested. Since hemp fiber crops are harvested before they flower, no seed is produced. Commercial seed production takes place mostly in the Jeongseon region, with a small amount grown in the Geochang region as well, where crops are grown specifically for seed production. In the Bonghwa area of the Andong region, and also in the Muju region, some hemp farmers leave the plants growing along the margins of their fiber fields for seed production. These plants are unsuitable for weaving, as they have branched by the time of the fiber harvest in late June. The vast majority of farmers in the remainder of the Andong region, as well as those in the Boseong region, buy seeds each year from suppliers in Jeongseon. Seeds grown in the Geochang region were used primarily to supply sowing seed for farmers in the surrounding area, although in 2003 and 2004 acreage was much reduced because the local Korean Hemp Company Ltd. spinning and weaving factory ceased operation (Lee, J-d, pers. comm., 2004). Seed not used for sowing is sold to birdseed processors and traditional medicine companies. Neither hemp seed, nor hemp seed oil, is commonly eaten in Korea. (This is in direct contrast to much of China where whole hemp seeds are eaten uncooked or roasted as snacks and oil is also sometimes pressed from the seed.) Seed hemp fields are usually planted in early to middle May. (In China seed crops are planted in late May or early June and in Europe in April or early May.) Northern temperate seed crops are usually harvested in the middle of October). Fifteen to 30 seeds are sown in tight groups about 1.0-1.5 meters apart and the seedlings grow in clumps. This allows farmers space to cultivate between the rows to control weeds as the crop grows. (In Shandong, China, cultivated seed fields are usually sown in late May or early June in clusters of 4-5 seeds at approximately 15-50 cm intervals in rows approximately one meter apart in order to allow sufficient branch development and increased seed yield. In

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Europe, seed crops are commonly sown in rows approximately 60 cm to one meter apart and thinned to 15-30 cm between plants within each row. Hmong-Miao seed crops are sown far from villages on steep mountain slopes and are often intercropped with maize.) Seed crops ripen in about 150 days and are harvested in middle to late October. The plants are stacked in the field until dry and then threshed to remove the seed. Seeds may be dried more thoroughly by spreading them in the sun before they are placed in sacks of 60 kg each. Seed yields averaged 370 kg/ha (Ree, 1966). (Average seed yields of European varieties range from 600-1000 kg/ha.) Seed sells for varying prices depending on availability, e.g., size of previous harvest and time of year marketed. In early 2004, hemp seed harvested in the Jeongseon region in autumn 2003, was purchased by the Imha Hemp Cooperative farmers in the neighboring Andong region for 7,800 Won (US$7.00) per kg. In Jungchon Village, Caju Township of the Geochang region seed usually sells for 10,000 Won (US$9.00) per kg, but sold in 2003 for 12,000 Won (US$11.00) per kg, and some farmers paid as much as 15,000 Won (US$14.00) at sowing time in 2004. Prices were higher than average, as much of the 2003 seed crop was destroyed by typhoon weather in late August. HEMP FIBER CULTIVATION Fiber hemp is a spring sown crop grown in rotation with other field crops such as paddy rice, peanuts, chili peppers, onions, watermelons, soy, wheat, sesame, maize, and tobacco. Apples and grapes are also common crops in the hemp growing regions and 45% of the green tea produced in Korea comes from the Boseong region. In the Andong City District, hemp fiber fields are large, as family farmlands are grouped together on the valley floor on land that can be flood-irrigated. In the Boseong region, hemp fields tend to be small and sited on slightly sloping ground just above the valley floor. Soil moisture must be adequate throughout the growing season. Well-drained, fertile, medium to heavy soils are best suited to hemp growing in Korea (Ree, 1966). Common fiber cultivation practices and regional variations are as follows: 1. Fields are plowed in late winter and early spring, until the soil is finely divided and weed free. 2. Fertilizer is applied and plowed into the soil or applied as a top-dressing before the seed is sown.

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• In the Andong region, chemical fertilizers are more commonly used, although animal manure may be used as well. A common fertilizer application rate is 300 kg/ha of a fertilizer containing N 21%: P 17%: K 17% (Imha Hemp Cooperative, pers. comm., 2004). • In the Boseong region, animal manure and green fodder are usually the sole sources of nutrition and they are plowed into the soil a few weeks before the seed is sown (Lee C-s, pers. comm., 2004). 3. Hemp fiber crops are usually sown in early March. In the 1950s and 1960s crops were sown in late March through middle April (Ree, 1966). Seed for fiber production is traditionally sown by hand at a seeding rate of approx. 75 kg/ha. (Chinese, European and Hmong-Miao farmers either broadcast sow or sow seeds in rows at approximately the same rate.) • In the Andong region, seeds are usually sown in rows approximately 25 cm apart, the seeding rate can be very high (up to 300 kg/ha), the resulting crop density is very high (200-400 plants/m2) and the average stalk height is only 1.5-2.0 meters and the stalk diameter is quite small (0.5-1.0 cm). These small plants are used to spin fine yarn and weave the highest quality cloth. • In the Boseong region and most other production areas, seeds are usually broadcast sown, the seeding rate is much lower (30 kg/ha), the resulting crop density is also much lower (50-75 plants/m2) and the average stalk diameter is much larger (1-2 cm). These plants are used to spin a more coarse yarn and to weave lower quality cloth. • Row planting results in much higher yields. In the early 1960s, seeds were sown at about 50 kg/ha (Ree, 1966). Present-day higher seeding rates result from an effort to produce smaller stalks with thinner bark for weaving fine textiles. 4. Hemp fields sown in rows are hand weeded if required, when the plants reach approximately 30-50 cm in height and may be weeded twice. Few weeds appear, but these are removed to assure a weed-free crop. If spring rains are insufficient, flat field crops will be flood-irrigated, to keep the soil moist and promote even crop growth. 5. Hemp fiber crops are harvested during the last week of June after 100-120 days of growth, before the monsoon rains begin and the weather is likely to be sunny. In the 1950s and 1960s crops were usually harvested in late July or early August (Ree, 1966). Hemp fiber crops are considered ripe and ready for harvest when the stalks turn from shiny,

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dark green to dull, yellow green, and the bottom two-thirds of the stalks have lost their leaves. 6. The hemp fiber crop is harvested in its entirety in the last week of June, before the plants begin to flower, allowing sufficient time to sow the field in paddy rice or vegetable crops (Photo 1). Plants range in height from 1.5 to 4.0 meters. The average height of healthy stands of hemp is 2.0 to 3.0 meters. The majority of plants have ceased rapid stalk elongation as they approach flowering. (Hemp fiber crops in Shandong Province, China and Hmong-Miao hemp are also harvested before plants begin to flower. European fiber hemp is harvested when it begins to flower and the male plants shed pollen, but very few viable seeds form before the crop is harvested in late August.) The hemp crop is harvested by cutting all of the stalks at the soil line with a short-bladed sickle, taking care not to pull up any roots. Dry soil is more convenient for harvesting, because the shallow roots stay in the ground rather than pulling out. Branched plants at the margins of the fields are usually discarded or occasionally saved for seed production. In the 1960s, a 0.1% Endrin solution was sprayed on fiber crops to control stem borers (Grapholyta sp.) (Ree, 1966). Presently, only one insect pest seems to cause economic damage to hemp fiber crops. A small shiny black, hemp flea beetle (Psylliodes attenuata) infested the majority of fields to varying degrees. In fields where insufficient fertilizer was used, and crop growth was not quite so vigorous, the beetle infestations were more severe. (Hemp flea beetles occur in every traditional hemp growing region of Eurasia.) Herbicides and insecticides are rarely used on hemp fiber crops, as they are expensive inputs and few pests threaten to cause serious economic damage, although Korean hemp seed crops are occasionally sprayed if flea beetle infestations are severe. (Few if any pesticides or herbicides are used on hemp fiber and seed crops in most regions.) Hemp fiber fields are planted so thickly that weeds are usually shaded by the dense canopy and crowded out. Weeding is usually necessary in widely spaced seed gardens and only rarely in properly sown and irrigated fiber fields. Present-day Korean hemp fiber yields are approximately 1.0-1.4 tons/ha of processed bark. (Shandong crops produce approximately 8-12 tons of dry stalks and 0.7-1.0 tons/ha of first and second quality (long and medium length) saleable bark ribbon. Western European hemp fields produce 5-10 tons/ha of dry stalks or approximately 1.0-2.5 tons/ ha of total fiber.)

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PHOTO 1. Hemp fields are harvested by hand and the stalks are sorted by length in the field.

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HEMP PROCESSING AND WEAVING The processing of hemp fiber, from harvest through weaving cloth, involves many stages that vary only slightly from region to region. In general, Korean hemp weaving is very similar to traditional Japanese weaving and to that of the Hmong-Miao and other indigenous minority groups of Southwest China and Southeast Asia. (Significant differences with other hemp producing regions will be noted in parentheses.) Korean hemp harvest, processing, spinning, and weaving procedures, including some regional variations, are as follows: 1. Stalks are cut a few centimeters above ground level with a hand scythe of the type used to harvest rice. 2. A handful of five to fifteen stalks is gripped just below the terminal leaves, held aloft vertically and the significantly shorter stalks are removed and discarded. 3. Each handful of selected stalks is gripped toward the base and the leaves are removed with a bamboo or wooden cutlass, by beating them from the stalks with an outward slicing motion, directed away from the bases of the stalks. Mechanized rice threshers may also be used to remove the leaves. Traditionally, the leaves were left on the field as a green manure, providing a rich supply of nutrients, particularly for paddy rice production (Ree, 1966). Presently, the leaves are raked into piles and burned to appease law enforcement agencies intent on preventing the diversion of leaves into the illicit drugs trade, although South Korean hemp landraces are very low in drug content. 4. The stalks are placed in groups (usually three) based on their length. Shorter stalks (1.5-2.5 m) with thinner bark are used to make very fine yarn, medium sized stalks (2.5-3.5 m) are used to spin medium diameter yarn, and larger stalks (3.5-4.5 m) with thicker bark are used to make coarser yarn. • The stalks from the Andong region range from 1.5-3.0 m in height and 0.5-1.0 cm in diameter. Up to 25% of the stalks are too small for processing and are discarded. • The stalks from the Boseong region range in height from 2.5-4.5 m and 1.0-2.0 cm in diameter. Nearly all of the stalks are suitable for processing and few are discarded. 5. Sorted piles of stalks are gathered into small bunches, with all of the root ends to one side and the growing tips to the other, and then the small bunches are bound into bundles 30-40 cm in diameter containing 500-2000 stalks, depending on the stalk diameters.

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6. The bundles of stalks are either placed in a steaming cabinet or covered with a plastic tarp. (In Shandong, the stalks are separated and laid out in the sun in a single layer across the empty harvested field for 2-4 days until they are partially dried. European farmers either dry the stalks completely and then water ret either in the autumn or the following spring and summer after the weather warms or lay the stalks on the field to dry before baling. Hmong-Miao farmers strip the bark from fresh green stalks immediately following harvest.) 7. Live steam is introduced through the stalks from below continuously for three hours and is trapped under the lid of the steaming cabinet or plastic tarp. Steaming is faster, more controllable and less polluting than water retting in open ponds. The small village steaming cabinets hold 12-14 large, 30-40 cm diameter bundles of stalks and a fee of 5,000 Won (US$4.50) is charged for each loading of the steaming cabinet. Small traditional steaming cabinets are heated from below by burning brush and the wood of peeled hemp stalks collected the year before. • In the Imha Township of the Andong region, a steam-processing factory was built in 1996, with one very large pressurized tank accommodating two metal racks each containing 48 bundles of stalks (Photo 2). The factory charges 50,000 Won (US$45.00) to steam 48 bundles of stalks every four hours. 8. After the stalks have cooled for an hour they are removed from the steamer, the fibrous bark is stripped from the wet stalks by hand and, the bark strips are hung in the sun to dry. In the 1950s, when hemp was produced for cordage and sacking it was water retted for about a week, dried in the sun for 5-7 days, and broken to free the fiber as in Europe. Farmers can hand strip about 6 kg (dry weight) of hemp bark in 12 hours, while farmers who used a hemp break could separate 30 kg of refined fiber in the same time (Ree, 1966). Wider hemp strips from larger stalks are suitable for weaving heavier cloth and narrow strips from smaller stalks are suitable for weaving the finest hemp cloth. The hemp stalk steaming process is unique to Korea. • In the Andong region, the stalks are sunned on the ground for several days to dry them and bleach some of the chlorophyll from the bark. Care is taken to choose clear weather, as rain causes the stalks to discolor and the quality of the fiber is reduced. Then the stalks are wetted again before the bark is removed and hung to dry. • In the Gokseong region, the bark strips were traditionally washed with lots of fresh water and pounded with rocks or treaded under foot to free the chlorophyll and begin to soften the fiber. Then the

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PHOTO 2. Bundles of fresh hemp stalks are lifted into the commercial steamer in Andong. The batch of stalks on the floor in the background has already been steamed.

bundle of parallel strips is folded in half and wrung out to remove excess water (Anonymous, 1982). (In Japan, the stalks are boiled for one or two minutes and then sunned before water retting and peeling of the bark. In all other hemp producing regions, with the exception of localized regions of China where hemp is produced for the Korean and Japanese markets, steaming and boiling are omitted. In Shandong, the partially dried stalks are bundled together approximately 200 at a time and immersed in a pond, stream, or brick tank for 1 to 3 days of retting. European retting takes a week or ten days in much cooler water, or only a few days in warm geothermal water.) Agriculture officials promoted water retting, drying and breaking of stalks and, scutching of the fibers during the post-war era as a way to make hemp fiber appropriate for flax spinning mills and thereby increase the market for hemp. However, farmers preferred to steam stalks as it was less work to peel the bark by hand (Ree, 1966). Water retting is no longer practiced to any great extent in South Korea. 9. The dried bark strips are rewetted by soaking them in water for a few hours.

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• In the Andong region, the wetted bark strips are scraped to remove the epidermis and coarse fibers, by drawing them under a blunt knife called a sam top held tightly against a wooden anvil (Photo 3). They are then dried and bleached once more in the sun (Photo 4). • In the Boseong region, the bark strips are not scraped before they are split. After scraping and drying the hemp bark strips can be coiled and stored. (Scraping hemp bark strips is omitted in all other hemp producing areas, with the exception of Japan and localized regions of eastern China, where hemp is produced for the Korean and Japanese markets.) 10. The bark strips are slightly remoistened if they have become too dry and are then split into narrower strips. The thumbnail is used to split PHOTO 3. In Andong, the remoistened hemp bark strips are scraped to remove the cortex and any fragments of hurd.

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PHOTO 4. Scraped hemp bark strips drying in the sun.

the bark near the root end and a finger is slid through the split from the basal end to the tip end to pull the narrow strips apart. The middle of each bark strip is stretched around a short wooden peg, so the whole of the strip remains within easy reach of the worker. Wider or narrower strips are formed depending on whether coarse or fine yarn will be made. (Chinese and European spinning mills remove the individual fiber elements or fiber bundles from the hemp bark strips by mechanical and/ or enzymatic processes and then spin the extracted fibers into yarn.) 11. The narrow split strips are twisted together and tied at the basal ends to form small bundles and hung to dry. 12. The root ends of the dry split strips are scraped to make them thinner and fray them slightly, which makes them easier to join together. If the split strips have become too dry, they are rewetted before the root ends are scraped and the individual strips joined together.

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PHOTO 5. The communal joining of hemp bark strips to make yarn in the Boseong region.

13. Two types of working patterns may be employed for linking the hemp strips. Jarigae is a system where the workers are paid according to the amount of strips joined together and duresam is a reciprocal system where, “I will help you link strands today and you will help me next time.” One bundle of split strips at a time is suspended horizontally between two short notched bamboo poles, separated by nearly the length of the strips, so they are within easy reach of the woman seated on the floor (Photo 5). 14. One narrow strip at a time is removed from the bundle. The base end is linked to the tip end of the previous strip and joined with a twist. The join may be made by inserting the tip end of the previously linked strip through a small split in the base of the strip being added or both ends may be split to form the join. The split in each end of the strip is usually made with the teeth. The join is twisted by rubbing it across the thigh or by rubbing it across the surface of a small oval-shaped cloth pad mounted on short legs. It is important that the strips are always worked from base to tip. Traditionally, women would bite into unripe persim-

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mons as they worked (despite their very bitter taste) as the persimmons contain compounds that reduce the slippery texture of the moist hemp strips as they are split between the teeth (Kim, J-h.(a), pers. comm, 2004). The joining process is repeated over and over and the length of joined strips is coiled into a wide basket covered in layers of smooth paper or a plastic basin. 15. Before the next process can begin, the coil of joined strips is inverted so once again the fiber can be worked with the strips oriented from base to tip. The base-to-tip orientation is a vital consideration when working any strips of bast fibers and their resultant yarns, as working in reverse (from tip to base) would cause individual fiber bundles along the bark strip to be loosened, resulting in tangles and increased breakage of the yarn. 16. Additional twist is added to the joined strips using a wooden, hand-operated, single-spindle spinning wheel to secure the joins and create a stronger and more easily woven yarn (Photo 6). As the yarn is twisted, it is wound onto a dried cornhusk wrapped around the revolving metal spindle of the spinning wheel. When the corn husk covered spindle is filled, the spool of yarn is removed from the spindle and the process is repeated. 17. The coils of yarn are unrolled onto a revolving straightening frame measuring one to two meters across, made of two wooden or bamboo sticks crossed at their middles and placed atop a vertical axis, so that the horizontal frame spins freely. As each coil of yarn ends, the beginning of another is joined to the end of the preceding coil to form a length of yarn long enough to lay a warp (the long, tensioned yarns carried on the loom) for weaving. This also allows the yarn to be restored to the vital base-to-tip orientation required during weaving (Photo 7). 18. At this stage, the yarn may receive its first alkaline bleaching and softening treatment with an aqueous solution of ash or caustic soda. Treated yarn is referred to as “cooked” hemp. Untreated yarn is called “raw” hemp. • In the Andong region, the yarn is usually soaked only once in ash water, so it retains its natural color unless it is later dyed. • In the Boseong region, the yarn is soaked in ash water and sunned several times until it is nearly white. • In the traditional Gokseong region method, the large 2-4 meter long yarn coil from the straightening frame was wetted and suspended between two women who dragged it back and forth across a pile of rice straw ash spread on the ground to evenly coat each yarn. The large coils were then rolled into tighter coils of 30-40 cm

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PHOTO 6. Women of the Boseong region using traditional spinning wheels to add twist to hemp yarns.

PHOTO 7. The twisted hemp yarn is wound from the spindle onto the revolving straightening frame.

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in diameter, which were placed on an approximately 35 degrees Celsius heated floor (ondol) and covered with piled rice hulls and a rice straw mat or plastic sheet to contain the heat for a few days. This allows the ash sufficient time, heat, and moisture to bleach the yarn (Anonymous, 1982; Kim, J-h.(a), pers. comm., 2004). The ash (or ash water) is then rinsed off with fresh water as the yarn is pounded with a wooden mallet and tread under foot. After rinsing and softening, the yarn is hung across a line to dry and allow sunlight to assist in the bleaching. This process is repeated several times until all of the ash is washed from the yarn and it has turned a light straw blonde or nearly white color. 19. Traditionally the yarn (or cloth) was dyed by wetting it in water percolated through rice straw ash and then soaking it in a solution of dye extracted from jasmine (Gardenia jasminoides) fruits for approximately four hours, resulting in a pale orange-yellow color. • In the Andong region, the finished cloth is dyed rather than the yarn, or dying may be omitted entirely, if the natural color is desired (Kim, J-h.(a), pers. comm., 2004). • In the Boseong region, the cloth is dyed as in Andong, or dying is omitted to make their characteristic bleached, nearly white, cloth (Lee, C-s, pers. comm., 2004). • In the Gokseong region, the yarn was traditionally dyed with jasmine before weaving (Anonymous, 1982). Ree (1966) reported that cloth can also be softened by soaking in an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide, which turns it light yellow due to the action of the alkaline solution on the cellulose in the fibers. 20. The yarn coil (dyed or natural color) is then stretched once again onto the straightening frame. The yarn is uncoiled from the frame into a basket to form loose coils and restore the base-to-tip orientation. 21. If the loose coils are to be used to form the weft, the untensioned yarns carried by the shuttle and woven back and forth from selvage to selvage through the warp threads, are wound back and forth (much as balls of twine are wound) onto a removable mandrel, forming a size convenient to fill the boat-shaped shuttle that will carry the weft threads during weaving. This allows the yarn to pull easily from the inside of the weft yarn coil during weaving, while preserving the base-to-tip orientation. 22. If the loose coils are to be used to form the warp, ten coils are selected, placed near each other on the floor, and covered with clean coarse river sand or uncooked rice grains. This covering holds the coils in place as the yarn unwinds, so the coils do not lift up and the yarn becomes tangled (Photo 8).

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23. To form the warp, a right-angled wooden warping frame with four or five vertical wooden pegs (about 15 cm in length and spaced about 15-20 cm apart) along one leg and a last wooden peg at the end of the other leg, is placed on the floor (Photo 8). A smaller wooden warping frame with a pair of vertical pegs of the same size is placed on the floor opposite the larger frame at a distance measuring half the length of the completed warp (pil). Each of the two warping frames is weighted down with rocks so they will remain stationary while the tensioned warp is laid out. 24. Each of the 10 yarns is individually threaded through one of ten wire loops fitted along a horizontally oriented warping guide and

PHOTO 8. Equipment set up for laying the warp–a large wooden warping frame in the foreground, with the warping guide and coils of warp yarn covered with gravel in the background.

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gathered together on the other side of the guide (Photo 8). The group of ten threads is walked around the warping frame in a circular path, once again preserving the base-to-tip orientation, so the yarns will slide smoothly through the metal loops and the worker’s fingers. After the yarns are passed around the double small pegs of the warping frame, they are stretched back to the larger warping frame and passed around the single peg, back and forth through the other pegs. This process is repeated until enough yarns are laid into the warp. 25. The process of walking the warp is repeated in a circuit such that each time the set of pegs on the warping frame is passed, the ten yarns are threaded through them in the opposite configuration from the previous round of ten yarns. This key step establishes the crossed yarns that will later form the shed and counter-shed of the warp yarns where the shuttle will carry the weft yarn during weaving. 26. Every eighth pass around the warping circuit a small stick is inserted to mark each sae (one sae being 80 warp threads). The number of sae in the warp is the determining factor of the finished cloth quality. The warp must first be laid in a circuit, and later cut to make a linear warp, in order to preserve the base-to-tip orientation of the warp yarns. 27. When enough passes have been made to form a warp of the desired quality, commonly ranging from No. 4 (four sae or 320 warp threads) through No. 9 (nine sae or 720 warp threads), the crossovers are preserved by threading a small rope through them (Photo 9), the warp is cut between the single peg and the first of the pegs forming the crossovers, and the warp is coiled and carefully stored until it is fitted onto the loom. 28. When the warp is to be fitted onto the loom, a shed stick approximately 50 cm long is threaded through each of the three crossovers, replacing the wooden pegs of the warping frame, and the rope tie is removed. 29. The floating comb is installed on the warp by threading the base ends of a pair of warp yarns through each of the gaps in the comb. A knot is tied in the warp yarn ends after each five pairs are threaded through the comb, to hold them in place, and a stick is inserted below the knots preventing the yarns from sliding back through the comb. 30. After the comb is threaded, the warp is stretched out and the other end is attached to a weighted skid. The stick at the comb end of the warp is attached to a warp beam around which the warp will be wrapped and mounted on the loom. Each crossover eye is passed through the comb and a pair of shed sticks are threaded through the warp yarns one on

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PHOTO 9. The finished warp is secured with ties to preserve the crossover point before the warp is removed from the warping frame. The fine golden yarn from Andong is used to weave the highest quality hemp cloth in Korea.

each side of the crossover and tied at their ends with a cord, so they cannot slide back through the crossover. 31. The warp is then ready for starching and is stretched out horizontally over an open piece of ground and suspended near the warp beam end over a brazier or bed of warm live coals of burned rice hulls. 32. As the warp yarns are warmed by the coals, a thick slurry of starch is made by boiling rice or millet grains for several hours. The starch is applied to the warp yarns by hand and worked into the yarn with a stiff brush wetted with water and the floating comb is moved up and down the warp to separate each of the coated yarns as they dry above the coals (Photo 10). As each section of the warp dries it is wound upon the warp beam, small bamboo sticks are wrapped in the warp to prevent it tangling and the next section is treated. The process is repeated until the entire warp has been coated with starch, dried, and wound onto the warp beam. 33. When the entire warp has been treated, another stick is inserted through the warp ends at the far end from the warp beam so the breast beam (the stick attached to the weaver by a back strap where the finish cloth will be wound) can be attached when weaving begins.

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PHOTO 10. Master weaver Kim Joem-ho starching hemp wrap yarns over a bed of coals.

34. The warp is placed on the loom, the breast beam is attached to the weaver by a strap around her waist and weaving commences. Traditional Korean wooden looms are of the foot-activated, single-heddle, body-tension type, with the bench seat attached to the loom frame. The heddle is lifted by a curved heddle shifter stick attached by the heddle shifter cord connected to a straw slipper pulled with the right foot. 35. The warp is held down by a warp restraining stick and the floating shed spreader is installed between the upper and lower warp yarns to create the shed (and counter-shed) where the shuttle will pass carrying the weft yarn. The wooden frame is attached to the top and bottom edges of the comb to house the comb beater (Photo 11). Looms in the more northern areas are set at a steeper angle (nearly 45 degrees) and those of the far south are set nearly flat. This type of

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PHOTO 11. Master weaver Kim Jeom-ho seated at her loom wearing a traditional Korean hemp hangbok summer garment.

loom was once used for all traditional weaving in Korea, e.g., hemp, ramie, cotton, and silk. Presently, few traditional looms are still in use, the vast majority having been replaced by double-heddle, foot treadle-operated, frame-tensioned looms. 36. The finished piece of cloth is stretched a meter or two at a time between two persons to even the selvages. 37. The cloth is folded into measured lengths, placed atop a smooth stone or wooden anvil, and pounded with wooden fulling bats to soften it, tighten the weave, and smooth the surface. The cloth is now ready for dying or may be marketed or used as is in the household for clothing, etc. Hemp cloth is usually starched and ironed after washing to make it stiff, smooth, and shiny. MEASURES OF CLOTH QUANTITY–LENGTH The basic Korean measure of length is the ja. However, the length of one ja varies from region to region. Throughout much of Korea one ja

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equals 60 cm, although in Andong it measures 55 cm. To further complicate matters, cloth is sold by the pil, which is the length of one warp (loading of the loom) and varies in length from 12 meters (20 ja of 60 cm) in the Boseong region through 22 meters (40 ja of 55 cm) in the Andong region. In the Boseong and Gokseong regions, one pil traditionally corresponded to the length of cloth required to sew one peasant outfit consisting of a short-sleeve waist-length shirt and knee-length pair of loose-fitting trousers (danae). In the Andong region, one pil was sufficient cloth to fashion a full-length coat with full sleeves and a long pair of trousers worn by the privileged classes. MEASURE OF QUALITY–WARP COUNT Cloth of commercial quality must be of even weave and consistent color, whether natural, bleached white or dyed or it is unsuitable for sale. All hand-woven hemp cloth in Korea is approximately 35 cm wide from selvage to selvage. In ancient times, hemp cloth was more commonly 50 cm wide (Koh, pers. comm., 2004, Sim, pers. comm., 2004). The quality of hemp cloth is designated by a number, corresponding to the number of sae (80 warp threads) in the warp, cloth of commerce usually ranging from No. 4 to No. 9. Therefore, cloth of No. 5 quality contains five sae (400 warp threads) and cloth of No. 8 quality contains eight sae (640 warp threads). Master weavers in the Andong region produce cloth of up to No. 15 quality containing 1200 warp threads. Geochang region hemp cloth was simply called goreyopo (Korean cloth), in Jeongseon County it is called gangpo and in the Andong region it is called andongpo (po means cloth in Korean). Traditionally, lower count cloth was used for everyday peasant clothing, while medium count cloth was reserved for the privileged classes and the highest count cloth could only be worn by royalty. In the Gokseong region, No. 4 and No. 5 cloth were called nongpo and were used to sew peasant clothing and as corpse shrouds, No. 6 and No. 7 cloth were called jungpo and were used for middle class clothing, while No. 8 and No. 9 cloth were reserved for the clothing of the wealthy and government workers. Hemp cloth in the Muju region is of No. 3 and No. 4 quality. Hemp cloth produced in the Geochang region is of No. 6 to No. 9 quality. Coarser grades of hemp cloth (Nos. 3-5) called musam were traditionally used for rice sacks or bedding and are presently used for furniture seat pads and other furnishings. In the Andong region, a weaver can produce five or six pil (110-132 meters) of coarse musam

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hemp cloth (Nos. 3-5) each year, while only a single pil (22 meters) of Nos. 13-15 cloth can be woven annually. Women who hand-sew wrapping cloths (pojagi) and other traditional textiles can distinguish between genuine Korean hemp and imported Chinese hemp by repeatedly creasing it sharply with a thumbnail and opening the crease. Chinese hemp cloth becomes weak and will crack and tear, while genuine high quality Korean hemp cloth can be creased and opened many times without damage (Kim, J-h.(b), pers. comm., 2004). YARN PRICES Andong City has a small street near the central market where several shops sell hemp bark, yarn, and cloth. There is also a hemp section at the community market in Boseong City held every fifth day, where yarn and cloth are traded. Bleached yarn, ready for weaving, is sold by the gun (600 g) (Table 7) and the quality number corresponds to the quality of cloth that can be woven from it. CLOTH PRICES In 1963, hemp cloth sold for the equivalent of US$2.15 per m2. The total value of raw hemp fiber production equaled US$4.9 million. Estimating a 20% loss in processing this made approximately 28.6 million m2 of cloth valued at US$61.5 million. The annual production of hemp cloth was sufficient to cloth an estimated one third of the population that wore hempen summer clothing (Ree, 1966). In the Boseong region, finished cloth is sold by the pil (one pil is 20 ja (60 cm) and is approximately 12 meters long and 35 cm wide). At the Imha Hemp Cooperative in the Andong region, finished cloth is also sold by the pil (but, one pil is approx. 22 meters long and 35 cm wide) (Table 8). Prices of bark, yarn, and cloth vary somewhat during certain times of the year depending on availability. In addition, the price of cloth can as much as double during lunar leap years (every fourth year, such as 2004) as cloth produced during leap years is considered to be lucky when used for funeral clothing and will protect the descendants of the deceased form hardship and disease, ensure their long lives and increase family wealth.

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TABLE 7. Boseong City yarn prices in 2003. Yarn quality

Yarn price per gun (Korean Won)

Yarn price per gun (US$ equivalent)

No. 4

40,000-45,000

35.00-40.00

No. 5

55,000-65,000

50.00-60.00

No. 6

70,000-80,000

65.00-75.00

TABLE 8. Boseong and Andong regions prices for various grades of hemp cloth in 2003. Cloth quality

Cloth price per m2 (US$ equivalent)

No. 4 Boseong

30.00

No. 5 Boseong

36.00

No. 6 Boseong

45.00

No. 6 Andong

90.00

No. 7 Andong

100.00

No. 8 Andong

115.00

No. 9 Andong

140.00

USES OF CLOTH Traditionally, medium weight cloth was used to make peasant farmer’s clothing, consisting of a hemp jacket and danae trousers worn during farm labor throughout the year. The danae trousers are loose fitting and baggy enough to allow women to wear them over their traditional skirts to protect them and tie them at the ankles to allow freedom of movement during field work. Danae trousers were also worn by men as they were the most comfortable and practical clothing for field work. Another use of fine and lightweight Andong hemp cloth woven from untreated “raw” yarn is used for fashioning summer clothing, as its stiff hand allows it to both breathe and wick away moisture. However, hemp clothes are even more expensive then hand-loomed ramie (moshi) summer garments. Cloth woven from treated “cooked” yarn is used to make spring and autumn clothing, bedding and monk’s robes as it is softer and warmer than “raw” cloth.

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The majority of Korean hemp cloth is used to sew su-ui, funeral clothing used to dress the corpse prior to burial. Su-ui usually consist of 20 garments covering the corpse from head to toe and require up to 100 linear meters (35 m2) of fabric. In addition, the dressed corpse is wrapped in a coarse hemp cloth shroud before it is placed in the coffin. A set of hemp su-ui purchased in the region where it was produced (and sewn from hemp cloth woven in a non-leap year) costs from 2,500,000 Won (US$2,250) when made from coarser No.4 grade cloth from Boseong up to 5,000,000 Won (US$4,500) when made from finer No. 7 grade cloth from Andong. Su-ui from even higher grades of cloth would cost proportionately more. In urban areas, su-ui cost even more and constitute the largest single expenditure at a funeral, even more than the coffin. Contemporary hemp products include, bedding items (e.g., covers for bamboo pillows, pillow cases, sleeping mats, and blankets); men’s underpants, shirts and trousers, and women’s blouses, traditional jackets (hanbok), skirts and trousers; apparel items (e.g., slippers, sport shoes, sachets, and handbags) and household items (e.g., wall coverings, cushion covers, chair pads, curtains, table cloths, place mats, tea mats, coasters, and food covers). All of these items are very expensive costing two to ten times when compared to similar products made from other fibers such as cotton, ramie, and silk. FACTORY HEMP PRODUCTION Several commercial factories weave hemp as a portion of their production. Much of the yarn they weave is purchased from the Peoples Republic of China. The only totally vertically integrated hemp company in Korea–which grew hemp under contract with local farmers, processed the hemp in their factory, extracted fiber and wet-spun yarns, wove hemp cloth and marketed products–was the Korea Hemp Company Limited of Caju Town, Geochang County, Gyeongsangnam Province. The factory was established in 1993 and ceased production in June of 2003 because they were unable to compete with imported Chinese hemp cloth. During this period, they annually contracted for 4-7 ha of fiber hemp with 12 families. Because this factory extracted the fibers from the stalks, and then spun them on wet-spinning frames, they were also able to use the fiber from seed plants to spin yarn (Lee, J-d. pers. comm., 2004).

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Hemp Korea is presently the only vertically integrated hemp textile company in Korea. Hemp Korea is located south of Seoul near Tang-jin city where they grew hemp on approximately 10 hectares of land in 2005. They are also developing a new hemp variety called ‘Chungsam’ or “Green Hemp.” Approximately 10 percent of their total production is based in this new variety, while the remainder of their seed is supplied by farmers in the Jeongson region. Hemp Korea operates a primary processing and spinning facility near Tang-jin and sub-contacts weaving through Korean textile mills. They offer a wide range of blended hemp fabrics as well as hemp seed oil body-care products (Lee, B-s pers. comm. 2005). WEAVING COOPERATIVES There are numerous weaving cooperatives scattered throughout Korea in regions of present or former hemp production. The cooperatives often assist farmers by providing advice, procuring seed, and in marketing yarn, cloth, and cloth products. In the Andong region, the Jeojeon Hemp Cooperative consists of about 30 weavers and the Imha Hemp Cooperative represents over 100 weavers. Several hemp cooperatives and companies may be contacted through the Internet, such as the Jeojeon Hemp Cooperative , the Imha Hemp Cooperative and the Boseong Hemp Cooperative . MASTER WEAVERS AND GOVERNMENT RECOGNITION Hemp weaving is considered to be Intangible Cultural Asset No. 1 of the Andong City District. Kumso Village of Imha Township in the Andong City District is the home of about 70 weavers and several master weavers have been designated as Intangible Cultural Assets of Gyeongsangbuk Province. The oldest is Bae Bull-young who (in 2004) turned 100 years old, although she is no longer an active weaver. The most well known is Kim Jeom-ho aged 79, who has been nominated for national status as a master weaver and a book has been written about her life and craft (Photo 11). Hemp weaving is also recognized as Intangible Cultural Asset No. 32 of Jeollanam Province. Kim Jeom-sun lives in Gokseong village and is another Provincial Intangible Cultural Asset. She was featured in a doc-

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umentary (Anonymous, 1982) about traditional Korean hemp weaving and is presently 90 years of age. Next to her family home stands a small studio with a room for weaving and a museum collection of traditional tools and photos taken at the time the documentary was made. Her daughter-in-law Yang Nam-suk and two other women in the village are also recognized as master weavers. THE FUTURE OF HEMP WEAVING IN KOREA Although hemp production in Korea has stabilized in the past three decades, present production levels are far below those of the early 1930s. The vast majority of hemp weavers are women of at least 60 years of age and presently few if any women are learning the many complicated and rigorous steps involved in hemp processing, spinning, and weaving. Modern young women are encouraged to go to college and to seek employment in urban areas, rather than learn traditional crafts in their rural hometowns. However, the aging weavers are stoically optimistic and feel that as long as there are people to farm the land, hemp will still be grown and woven. On the other hand, Korean hemp is exorbitantly expensive when compared to other production areas. Hemp of nearly comparable quality imported from China sells for less the 25% of the price of Korean hemp and has flooded the Korean market. Even the modern vertically integrated Korean Hemp Company Limited in the Geochang region was unable to compete with Chinese imports and has gone out of business. Only wealthy Koreans with a strong appreciation for traditional crafts afford to buy Korean hemp and the majority of Koreans cannot distinguish true Korean hemp cloth from imported cloth. Although ramie cloth is nearly as expensive to produce in Korea, it is much more popular for summer clothing, weaving is mechanized on a factory scale, the production volume is much higher, competition is keen, and the price is about half that of hemp cloth. Even so, traditional hand-woven Korean ramie cloth production is also threatened by Chinese imports. A system of government certification of retail outlets selling only genuine Korean hemp could be initiated and learning centers could be set up in rural areas to educate younger people about hemp weaving. However, without government subsidies for hemp farming and weaving families, accompanied by strong embargoes to limit the importation of Chinese hemp and thereby raise its market price within Korea, tradi-

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tional Korean hemp weaving is very likely to fade away along with other traditional crafts such as basketry and papermaking. CONCLUSIONS Hemp growing and weaving are ancient traditions of the Korean Peninsula. Processing and weaving techniques have remained relatively unchanged for centuries. Some processing techniques (e.g., steaming the stalks) are apparently indigenous to Korea, while other techniques are shared only with Japan (e.g., scraping the bark strips) or the Hmong ethnic group of Southwest China and northern Southeast Asia (e.g., loom construction and other weaving tools). The ramifications of these connections are yet to be investigated. This comparative study of the historical and current techniques of hemp cultivation in the Republic of Korea provides insights into the relatively unchanged traditional practices of peasant farmers. More importantly, fieldwork documents traditions quickly fading away in the modern world. An understanding of traditional hemp farming and processing strategies will also allow advisers to make more appropriate suggestions concerning the modernization of local hemp production. REFERENCES Anonymous, 1930. Choson Vice-regal Central Japan Government Research Center Report No. 11. [in Japanese], Government Research Center, Tokyo, Japan. Anonymous, 1982. Documentary depicting traditional hemp weaving in the Gokseong region of South Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea. Bird, I., 1898. Korea and her neighbours: a narrative of travel, with an account of the vicissitudes and position of the country. John Murray, London, United Kingdom. Chen, C-s., 1970. Agricultural Geography of Korea, Research Report No. 31. Geographical Research Centre, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong: 54. Clarke, R.C., 1995. Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) cultivation in the Tai’an District of Shandong Province, Peoples Republic of China. Journal of the International Hemp Association 2(2): 57, 60-65. Clarke, R.C. and Gu, W., 1998. Survey of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) use by the Hmong (Miao) of the China/Vietnam border region. Journal of the International Hemp Association 5(1): 1, 4-9. Hillig, K.W., 2005. Genetic evidence for speciation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae) Genetic Research and Crop Evolution 52:161-180. Imha Hemp Cooperative, pers. comm. 2004. The Imha Hemp Cooperative handles seed distribution and marketing of hemp cloth in the Andong region.

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Kim, J-h.(a), pers. comm. 2004. Kim Jeom-ho is a 79 year old master weaver residing in Kumso Village in the Andong City District where she is considered an Intangible Cultural Asset. Kim, J-h.(b), pers. comm. 2004. Kim Ju-hyeom is an artist and seamstress of traditional Korean wrapping cloths living in Busan, Republic of Korea, who exhibits her work both in Korea and internationally. Kim, M-s, pers. comm. 2004. Mr. Kim Myoung-seob is director of the Andong Sambe Company specializing in selling hemp funeral su-ui and sangbok. Kim, Y-j pers. comm. 2004. Dr. Kim Young-jae is a Curator of Textiles at the Korean National Folk Museum in Seoul, Republic of Korea. Koh, P-j, pers comm. 2004. Dr. Koh Pu-ja is a Professor at Tang-kuk University in Seoul, Republic of Korea. She is a leading expert in the study and conservation of ancient and traditional Korean costumes. Lee, B-s, pers. comm. 2005. Mr. Lee Byong-soo is President of the Hemp Korea company and one of Korea’s strongest advocates for industrial hemp. Lee, C-s, pers comm. 2004. Lee Chang-sik is head of the Samberang Hemp Company located in Boseong City, Jeollanam Province, Republic of Korea. Lee, H.K., 1936. Land Utilization and Rural Economy in Korea. Kelly and Walsh, Limited, Shanghai: 66. Lee, J-d, pers comm. 2004. Lee Jong-dae is the General Manager of the Korea Hemp Company Limited located in Caju Town, Geochang County, Gyeongsangnam Province, Republic of Korea. Min, G-j, 1985. Ancient Korean specialty fabrics. Kookmin University Educational Institute Report No. 5: 113-120, Seoul, Republic of Korea. Ree, J.H., 1966 Hemp growing in the Republic of Korea. Economic Botany 20(2): 176-186. Seo, Y-j, pers comm. 2004. Seo Young-jin is the Agricultural Extension Advisor responsible for hemp licenses in the Geochang region of Gyeongsangnam Province of the Republic of Korea. Sim, Y-o, 2002. 500 Years of Korean Textiles. Institute for Studies of Ancient Textiles, Seoul, Republic of Korea: 14. Sim, Y-o, pers comm. 2004. Dr. Sim Yeon-ok is a Professor at Kookmin University in Seoul, Director of the Institute for the Study of Ancient Textiles and a member of the Special Committee of the Korean Cultural Properties Administration. She is a leading expert in traditional Korean weaving. Uniconsult Incorporated, 1968. Agricultural Survey and Demonstration in Selected Watersheds - Republic of Korea, Vol. 3 Agronomy, forestry and pasture improvement. FAO United Nations, Rome, Italy: 13.