A c ta P o lo n ia e H ls to ric a 8 5, 2 0 0 2 P L IS S N 0001 - 6829

II.

M ID D L E A G E S

M ich ael A bdalla

ON BEHAVIOUR AT THE TABLE — INSTRUCTIONS BY BAR EBRAYA

Present Assyrians come from two parts: the Eastern (the territory of former Persia) and Western (the territory of the Byzantine Empire). After they adopted Christianity they were called Syrians. Beginning with the 5th c. A.D. the Assyrians have congregated into three Churches: “Nestorian”, “Jacobite” and “Melchite”. In the 7th c. a new, Maronite Church was formed, which during the crusades acknowledged the primacy of the Bishop of Rome. The “Nestorian” and “Jacobite” missionaries were the first to have brought the Gospels to India, China and Mongolia. There are about 4 million Christians in Southern India now. The “proselytism" conducted by the Church of Rome, in the 16th and the 18th c. gave rise to new denominations: “Chaldaeans”, “Syrian Catho­ lics”, and “Greek Catholics”. The history of Assyrian Churches abounds with names of scholars. Their work, dating back to the 2nd c. A.D., is almost unknown in Poland. Bar Ebraya was a clergyman of the “Jacobi­ te”, i.e. West-Syrian Church, officially known as the Syrian Orthodox Church. In his lifetime this Church operated in large areas of the Middle East and beyond, commanding 160 dioceses. Without including India, its believers amounted to about 5 million. In the 10th c. there were over 2 mil. Assyrians in Syria alone1. Bar Ebraya was one of the last great thinkers, since the 1 P h ilip D e T a r a z z i , cA s r a s -S y r ia n a d -d a h a b i (T h e G old en A g e o f A s s y ria n C h ris tia n s ), A le p p o : ed. J o s e p h S h a b o , 1979, p. 16.

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Assyrian community to this day has not made up for the enor­ mous losses caused by the invasions of the Tartars and the permanent persecution by Kurds and Turks2. Gregorios Bar Ebraya, called Bar Hebraeus, was born in Malatia (Melitene) in 12263. He was christened Yuhanon (John). He was the fourth of five children. His father, Ahrun, was a famous physician and one of the city’s notables. When Gregorios was 17, his family left Malatia, harassed by the Tartars, and moved to a more peaceful Antiochia4, governed at that time (from 1098 onwards) by the Crusaders. Here, at the age of 19, Gregorios was appointed to the post of bishop. First he ministered to Gobas city, later moved to Laqabin, and finally settled at Aleppo. On Jan. 19, 1264, in the city of Sis5, he was nominated as mafriono (catholicos)6. From this time onwards he had governed the East­ ern Church embracing ten dioceses7. He chose for his residence 2 F or m o re In fo rm a tio n o n th e E a s te rn C h u rc h e s see A. S. A t i y a , H is to ria K o ś c io łó w W s ch o d n ic h (T h e H is to ry o f th e E a s te rn C h u rch e s ), W a rs z a w a 1978. 3 A c ity in s o u th e rn T u rk ey . In i ts v ic in ity th e re w e re n u m e ro u s A s s y ria n c lo is te rs , w h ic h fro m 5 1 8 A .D . till th e e n d o f th e 13th c. s e rv e d a s th e s e a t o f th e W e s t S y ria n C h u rc h p a tria rc h a te . 4 A fa m o u s c ity in s o u th -e a s te rn T u rk ey , o n th e M e d ite rra n e a n ; a c a p ita l o f C h ris tia n d o m , s ec o n d o n ly to J e ru s a le m (h ere th e d is c ip le s w e re c a lle d C h r i­ s tia n s , a n d th e firs t o rg a n iz e r o f th e c o m m u n ity w a s St. P eter, th e firs t P a tria rc h o f th e C h u rc h ), till 5 1 8 th e s ea t o f th e p a tria rc h a te o f th e W e s t S y ria n C h u rc h . In th e 13th c. th e c ity n u m b e re d a b o u t 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 in h a b ita n ts : F ra n k s , R o m a n s, A s s y ria n s , A r m e n ia n s , J e w s ; it h a d m a n y c h u rc h e s , fo u r o f w h ic h b e lo n g e d to th e A s s y ria n s . 5 G o b a s, L a q a b in an d S is m u st h ave b e e n la rg e lo c a litie s n e a r M a la tia , s in c e th e y w e re the s ea ts o f the b ish o p s . B a r E b ra y a m in is te re d to the first for a y e a r, an d to th e s e c o n d fo r five y e a rs . T h e y w e re p ro b a b ly d e s tro y e d b y th e T a rta rs . T h e y d o n o t e x is t on th e m a p o f m o d ern T u rk ey . I lo c a te d L a q a b in a n d S is w ith th e h elp o f a m a p p u b lis h e d in th e b o o k J o u rn a lis m u m b e i d e n A s s y re rn b y G a b rie le Y o n a n, B e rlin 1985, p. 6. 6 In th e h ie r a rc h y o f th e W es t S y ria n C h u rc h a p ers o n sec o n d to th e p a tria rc h . T h e c ity o f T a k rit (at p re s e n t in c e n tra l Ira q ) w a s c h o s en a s th e s e a t o f m a fria n a t, a n d M o r A h u d a m a (5 5 9 ) w a s th e firs t m ą frio n o . T h is offic e h a d e x is te d u p till 1859. A ll in all it w a s h eld b y 81 a rc h b is h o p s ; B a r E b ra y a w a s th e fo rtie th . H e h im s e lf, h o w e v e r, s a id th a t th e first m a frio n o o f th e E a st w a s St. T h o m a s th e A p o s tle , w h o e n d e d h is d a y s in In d ia, w h ile th e c a p ita l s e c o n d to th e In d ia n w a s th e c ity o f S e le u c ia -C te s ip h o n (A rab . a l-M a d a in ), th e th en c a p ita l o f P e rs ia (n e a r th e p re s e n t B a gh d a d ). F o llo w in g a b rea k o f a h u n d re d y e a rs , in 1964 the o ffic e o f m a fria n a t w a s re a c tiv a te d a n d a g a in tra n s fe rre d to In d ia. It e m b r a c e s th e lo ca l d io c e s e s s u b o rd in a te d to th e W e s t S y ria n C h u rch . 7 In th e 6 th c. th e m a fria n a t o f T a k rit e n c o m p a s s e d 15 d io c e s e s . A m o n g th e ten d io c e s e s ru led in th e 13th c. b y B a r E b ra y a w e re : A z e r b a ija n , th e A r a b ia n P e n in s u la , th e c itie s o f N is ib is a n d T a b riz, a n d th e m o u n ta in m a s s if S in d ja r. F o r m o re d e ta ile d h is to ry o f th o se d io c e s e s a n d th e ir te rrito ria l ra n g e see: F a u lo s B e h n a m (M e tro p o lita n ), Ib n a l - cIb ri a š- šaîc ir (B a r E b ra y a th e B a rd ), K a m is h li (S y ria ) 1965, p. 2 6 -2 7 .

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the ancient monastery Mor Matay, near Mosul; hence he paid ministerial visits e.g. to Baghdad (1265, 1277), Takrit (1278) and Tabriz (1279). He died in Maragha (east of Lake Urmia in Iran) on July 30, 1286. He was buried in the Mor Matay monastery. Bar Ebraya engaged in many domains of scholarship. The experts on his work called him “the Encyclopedia of 13th c. Orient”. The literature devoted to him calls him: “a world of wisdom”, “the light of East and West”, “the king of scholars”, “the greatest sage”, “the Holy Father”, “the laurel of the Catholicos”, “the diabena of men of genius”8. His work numbers 36 sizeable books; among them there are original medical, mathematical, astronomic, musical and philological treatises. He was an emi­ nent poet. Especially valuable are his works on history, on the borderline of philosophy and ethics as well as canon law, which continue to be translated into many languages. He wrote in Assyrian, Arabic, Armenian and Persian9. He translated P t o l e ­ 8 A fre m B a r s o m (P a tria rc h ), A l - l u ’lu ’ a l-m a n tu r f i tä rih a l- cu lu m w a l-a d a b a s -s y r ia n iy y a (T h e P e a rls S c a tte re d O v e r th e H is to ry o f the L e a rn in g a n d C u ltu re o f A s s y r ia n C h ris tia n s , 3 rd ed. B a g d a d 1983, p. 5 10 ; F a u lo s B e h n a m , Ib n a l cI b n - a š - š acir (B a r E b ra y a th e P o e t), K a m ls h li (S y ria ) 1965, p. 18; “D irä sä t II a l- a d ab w a l- cu lum a l- in s a n iy y a ” (P h ilo lo g ic a l a n d H u m a n e S tu d ie s), v o l. 15, n o 2 3, B e y ro u th ; T h e L e b a n e s e U n iv e r s ity , 1988, p p. 1 3 -2 5 ; T a r r a z z i , op. cit., p. 10 . 9 T h e a u th o r is in p o s s e s s io n o f th e fo llo w in g titles (s h o rte n e d s u p p le m e n ta ry in fo r m a tio n o n th e e a rlie r e d itio n s c o m e s fro m “D irä s ä t” , p p. 1 3 -2 5 ); — H ud oy e m e tul q a n u ne cito no y e w n o m u s e colm o n o y e [In tro d u c tio n to E c c le s ia ­ s tic a l C a n o n s a n d S e c u la r h a w ], ed . St. E p h ra im ’s M o n a s te ry in H o lla n d 1986, 3 3 5 p p . (th e A s s y ria n o rig in a l w r itte n c a llig ra p h ic a lly b y b is h o p Y. Ç i ç e k); — Kto b o d -S e m h e [T h e B o o k o f L u m in e s c e n c e ], p u b . S y ria n s k a R ik s fo rb u n d e ts k u ltu r K o m m itte e i S ve rig e , S ö d e rtä lje (S w e d e n ), 1983, 2 66 p p. (in A s s y ria n ; this is a p h ilo lo g ic o -g ra m m a tic a l w o rk ; it w a s p u b lish e d in F re n c h b y J. P. P. M a r t i n , O e u v re s g ra m m a tic a le s d e B a r H e b ra e u s , P a ris -L o u v a in 1872); — K to b o d - t u noy e m a g eh h o n e (A B o o k o f H ila rio u s S to rie s ), pub. S t. E p h ra im ’s M o n a s te r y in H o llan d , 1 9 8 3 , 151 p p . (th e A s s y ria n o rig in a l w ritte n c a llig ra p h ic a lly b y b is h o p Y . Ç i ç e k ) ; — T ä rih m u h ta s a r a d -d u w a l [A S h o rte n e d H is to ry o f S ta te s ], n o d ate o f pu b . o r n a m e o f p u b lish e r, 3 4 6 pp. (th is is a n A r a b ic s u m m a ry o f a ge n e ra l h is to ry w ritte n in A s s y r ia n , a c c o m p lis h e d d u r in g o n e m o n th at th e re q u e s t o f B a r E b ra y a ’s A r a b ia n frien d s; it w a s p u b lis h e d in L a tin b y E. P o l o e h e , as H is to ria co m p e n d io s a d y n a s ta riu m , O x fo rd 1636, a n d in G e rm a n b y M . G. N o re n z B a u e r , D e s G re g o riu s A b u lfa ra d c h K u rz e G e s c h ic h te d e r D y n a s ty e n , 2 vols ., L e ip z ig 1 7 8 3 1785); — a t - T a r ih a z -z a m a n (G e n e ra l H is to r y ), B e yro u th ; D a r a l-M a ś riq , 1986, 4 2 0 p p., (tr a n s la te d from A s s y ria n in to A r a b ic b y Is h ä q A r m a l a; th e p a rt c o n c e r n in g th e h is to r y o f th e P a tria rc h s a n d C h r is tia n ity w a s p u b lis h e d in L a tin b y J. B. A b b e l o o s , Th. L a n y , C h ro n ic o n E c cle s ia s tico n , 3 v ols ., P a ris -L o u v a in 1 8 7 2 1877).

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m y ’s astronomic-mathematical works, called Almagest, and so­ me of E u c l i d’s nondescript works from Assyrian to Arabic. His work is marked by a very critical approach; it abounds in controversial quotations of the statements and opinions of other authors, with whom he enters into bold polemics, looking for the confirmation of his exposition in Christian learning and the teachings of the Fathers of the Church. This fascinating achieve­ ment had arisen over the relatively short sixty years of his life in a very restless era, when the whole of the East was harassed by the Tartar hordes, the same that attacked Central Europe. He was admired and respected for his pioneering ecumenical activity which he conducted till the end of his days, as well as for his great learning. His funeral was attended by important personages, representing various religious denominations and nations. In one of his works, entitled Ethiqon10, we find interesting instructions concerning the right diet and behaviour at the table. M ore im p o rta n t w o rk s on B a r E b ra ya: — B a r cE b ro y o , p u b . St. E p h ra im ’s M o n a s te ry in H o lla n d , 1985, 111 pp. (w ritte n c a llig ra p h ic a lly in th e A s s y ria n o rig in a l b y b is h o p Y. Ç i ç e k ) . A lo n g p o e m in h o n o u r o f th e s ch o la r, p re p a re d in th e y e a r o f h is d ea th b y th e p a ris h p rie s t o f th e c ity o f G o za rt (to d a y Ç izre in T u rk e y , in th e S y r ia n - Ir a q u i-T u r k is h b o rd e rla n d ): — Ib n a l - cIb ri a ś - ś acir (B a r E b ra y a the P o e t), K a m is h li (S y ria ) 1965, 113 p p. T h e a u th o r is F a u lo s B e h n a m , th e M e tro p o lita n o f B a g h d a d a n d B a s ra (in A r a b ic a n d A s s y ria n ); — “D ira sa t if a l- a dab w a l- cu lu m al in s a n iy y a ” (P h ilo lo g ic a l a n d H u m a n e S tu d ie s ), pu b . T h e L e b a n e s e U n iv ersity , P e d a g o g ic a l D e p a rtm e n t, vol. 15, n o. 23, 1988, 185 pp. (in A ra b ic a n d F ren ch ). 10 A l - I thiqo n -F a ls a fa t a l- a d a b a l-h u lu q iy y a [E th ics — P h ilo s o p h y o f P e rs o n a l C u ltu re ], K a m is h li (S y ria ) 1967. T h e w o rk w a s tr a n s la te d from A s s y ria n in to A r a b ic b y F a u lo s B e h n a m . T h is is on e m o re o f th e m a n y A ra b ic tr a n s la tio n s ; th e e a rlie r o n es, fro m th e 14th, 15th a n d 17th c. h a v e b e e n p re s e rv e d in M S fo rm (“D ir ä s ä t” , pp. 18, 3 8). T h e w o rk e d s a w its F re n ch e d itio n (1 8 9 8 ). O n th e 7 h u n d re d th a n n iv e rs a r y o f th e s c h o la r’s d ea th th e P e d a g o g ic a l D e p a rtm e n t o f th e L e b a n e s e U n iv e r s ity o rg a n iz e d a le a rn e d s es sio n . T h e p a p e rs d eliv ered th ere (8 in A r a b ic a n d 2 in F re n c h ) w e re p u b lis h e d o n th is o c c a s io n in fa s cic le form w ith th e fin a n c ia l a s s is ta n c e o f th e C o u n c il o f M id d le E a s te rn C h u rc h e s . T h e b o o k le t d o e s n o t in c lu d e a le ctu re o n w h a t B a r E b ra y a w ro te a b o u t c o o k in g (“D ir ä s ä t” : th e F re n c h p a rt 51 pp., A ra b ic — 134 p p .). B a r E b ra y a is a ls o th e a u th o r o f th e b o o k K to bo d -y a w n o [T h e B o o k o f th e D o v e ], w h ic h p ro b a b ly in c lu d e s m u c h in fo rm a tio n o n foo d (“D ir ä s ä t” , p. 18). T h is w o rk w a s a ls o tr a n s la te d a n d p u b lis h e d in R o m e a n d P a ris in 1898; it a p p e a re d in A ra b ic in L e b a n o n (1 9 5 6 , 1983) a n d Ira q (1 9 7 4 ). T h e re is a ls o its E n g lish v e rs io n : A. J. W e n s i n c k , B a r H e b ra e u s B o o k o f th e D o v e , L e y d e 1 9 1 9 . I h a v e n o t s u c c e e d e d in o b ta in in g it. A t p r e s e n t E th iq o n is b e in g s tu d ie d b y H . G. B. T e u l e (B e lg iu m ). Its firs t c h a p te r in the A s s y ria n v e rs io n w a s p u b lis h e d in 1993 in L e u v en : C o rp u s S c r ip to r u m C h ris tia n o ru m O rie n ta liu m , vol. 534 , S c rip to re s S yri — T o m u s 218 . T h is m o s t re ce n t p rin te d e d itio n (in tr o ­ d u c tio n : X X V III pp., text: 130 p p .) c a m e in to b e in g fo llo w in g a d e ta ile d c o m p a r a ­ tive a n a ly s is o f th e c o n te n t o f 26 M S m a in ly fro m th e lib a rie s o f W e s te rn E u ro p e

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This work is a kind of dialogue between two people: a scholar and a theologian. It consists of four lectures (which number probably refers to the four seasons), each of which is divided into chapters (52 — the number of weeks in a year) and subchapters (365 — the number of days in a year). The lectures are entitled: 1 — The hardening of the human body, 2 — Character formation, 3 — Getting rid of bad habits, and 4 — The improvement of the soul. One of the chapters of the first lecture is completely devoted to fasting: its assets, kinds, degrees, the rules of canonical and individual fasts, as well as periods of fasting. The second lecture opens with a chapter on food. Information on food can also be found in other chapters and subchapters of the book. The norms suggested by the Catholicos have been more or less precisely observed by the communities of Middle-Eastern Christians re­ gardless of their nationality to this day. In some respects, espe­ cially concerning hospitality, this behaviour is also typical of the Muslims. Until recently only a narrow circle of those familiar with Assyrian writing could be regarded as the readers of this work. Its publication in Arabic has considerably enlarged this circle. How to behave during a meal (pp. 176-178) Bar Ebraya thinks that every kind of food contains spiritual elements. This makes every man use reason in choosing his food and exercise his will so that his food can be subordinated to some humanistic rules. He insists that food be the product of the work of a man’s own hands. He maintains that the feast table is supported by the hands of angels, therefore one should know how to behave at it. He instructs the members of the family who start a meal how to behave and what to avoid, and recommends observing the following principles: — wash your hands before starting a meal; — eat only when you feel hungry, but never to the full11; a n d th e U S A . H .G .B . T e u le m e n tio n s th e fu rth e r 16 M S o f E th iq o n th a t a re in th e p o s s e s s io n o f A s s y ria n C h u rc h e s o f th e M id d le E ast, to w h ic h , u n fo rtu n a te ly , he h a d n o a c c e s s . T h e w o rk is e n title d E th iq o n — M e m ra (le ctu re I). Its E n g lish tr a n s la tio n , p ro v id e d w ith a rich c ritic a l c o m m e n ta ry b a s e d o n a b u n d a n t sou rc e m a te ria l, w a s p u b lis h e d in 1993. 11 T o c o n firm th is p rin c ip le B a r E b ra y a cite s the o p in io n o f p h y s ic ia n s (w ith o u t m e n tio n in g th e ir n a m e s ), w h o a d v ise to d ivid e the s to m a c h in to th re e p a rts, an d to fill o n e p a rt w ith d ry foo d , th e sec o n d w ith d rin k , a n d to leave th e th ird for go o d d ig e s tio n . T h is q u o ta tio n c o u ld c e rta in ly n o t b e fou n d in th e B ib le (!).

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— the members of the family should eat together, and leave some places at table for others12; — before starting a meal they should recite the formula: “In the name of God Our Nourisher!”, and with the first morsel: — “See, how good is Our Lord!”, with the second morsel: — “Blessed are those who rely on Him!”, and with the third morsel: — “Those who pray to God will never lack food!”. If a meal and a prayer happen at the same time on Wednesday and Friday, the prayer may be postponed until after the meal13. — do not eat in a reclining position, but sitting erect; you can lift the right knee; — a place of honour is due to the oldest person and he or she is the first to start eating and should stay at table till the end. If one member of the company has had his fill earlier than others, he should not stand up, but keep them company till the end; — do not blow at a hot dish, but wait patiently until it cools down; — while reaching for the dish around which the company is gathered, each of them should stretch his hand in front of him, and not to the place of his neighbour; — put small morsels into your mouth, and chew them well; — do not take food from the middle of the dish, but from the side, without dipping your hand in it; — do not put anything on a piece of bread, or wipe your hand with it; — break your bread with your hand and do not cut it with a knife; — after biting a piece of bread earlier dipped in a dish, do not dip it again. The bread broken should be of such size as to make one morsel; 12 B a r E b ra y a a c k n o w le d g e s th e s u p e rio rity o f c o lle c tiv e m e a ls , h o w e v e r h e s ees n o th in g w r o n g in e a tin g a lo n e. H e re h e u s e s th e e x a m p le o f St. J o h n th e G o ld e n -m o u th e d . A fte r b e in g ra is e d to th e offic e o f a b is h o p th is s a in t w a s s u p p o s e d a lw a y s to ea t a lo n e. T h is p ra c tic e o f h is w a s u s e d b y h is o p p o n e n ts w h o s a id th a t he a lw a y s ate a lo n e b e c a u s e h e w a s g r e e d y a n d h e m a d e a w r y m o u th w h ile ea tin g. 13 In B a r E b ra y a ’s d a y s th e re w a s rig o ro u s fa s t on W e d n e s d a y s a n d F rid a y s . T re a tin g fa s tin g a s a p ra y e r o f th e b o d y w h ic h o n th ese tw o d a ys la s ts fro m m id n ig h t till s u n set, B a r E b ra y a s ee s n o n e e d fo r d ou b le p ra y e r a t th e c o s t o f a m e a tles s m eal. F a s tin g o n W e d n e s d a y s a n d F rid a y s c o n tin u e s to b e o b s e rv e d b y th e A s s y ria n s a n d o th e r c o m m u n itie s o f E a s te rn C h ris tia n s . T h e c o o k in g o n th o s e d a ys d oes n o t e n v is a g e a n y d ish e s w ith e ven a trace o f a n im a l p ro d u cts.

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— the adults should behave at table so that none of the company should feel discouraged; — while eating fruits, do not put the stones into the same dish with fruit, or keep them in your hand, or throw aside, but put them into another vessel; — do not drink too much water while eating. How to behave after a meal (pp. 178-179) When the meal is over and before the company leave the table, Bar Ebraya insists on avoiding motions that do not become good society and on keeping neat. He recommends: — to discreetly remove remnants of food from between one’s teeth with one’s left hand. This should be done with one’s head bent and turned aside and with one’s mouth covered. The rest should be wiped with a towel; — to pick up crumbs and consume them out of respect for the Lord’s gift itself; — not to wipe one’s hand against one’s lips, or with one’s tongue, and not to put it in one’s mouth in order to lick it14; — to utter the formula: “Thank God for these gifts!” And if this gift has been presented by somebody else and eaten in a new company, then one should say: “Let God bless the man who entertained me, and bestow his grace upon him and his dead and receive him in His Kingdom!”; — when washing, one should start with one’s hands, and later wash one’s teeth and mouth, and finally arms; then wipe them with a towel; — the person serving water for washing should stand on the guest’s left side; — while washing, one should not spit on the ground or to the vessel which holds the washing water. Invitation to a Party (pp. 179-185) Bar Ebraya reminds his readers that they should visit their friends and acquaintances from time to time. It is best for such a visit not to overlap with meal times. However, if it is necessary to visit somebody at such a time, one should not then impose oneself on the company at table without an open invitation from the host. The latter should not ask the guest whether he would 14 E v e n n o w , it is n o t u n u s u a l in th e M id d le E a s t to see a p ers o n w ip in g his m o u th w it h a s le e v e or lic k in g h is fin g ers . T h is is a freq u e n t h a b it o f s om e B ed o u in s .

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like to eat something, but serve what he has got, even if it is merely bread and salt. The guest, on the other hand, should not demand anything particular, but consume with moderation what he is given. One should do the opposite — Bar Ebraya stresses — when one is formally invited to a party. If the party is to meet Christian demands, its organizer should not forget the poor, the more so, because they are not able to do the same in return. If an invited person supposes that the invitation is not sincere, he should excuse himself and not take part; he should act alike, if he knows that the party is financed by dishonest means, or the food comes from theft. However, if the invitation is sincere, and the invited person does not come to the party, he commits a sin. Neither distance, nor an individual fast can be an obstacle. And if he participates out of curiosity or because of other motivations, he commits a double sin. The invited person should enjoy the presence of poor people at the party. Where to sit? (pp. 183-184) Bar Ebraya maintains that the organizer of the party should invite as many people as he is able to entertain well. The guest must be punctual. When he comes to the party he should not look for the best place to sit down. It is best for him to occupy some modest place at the end. The host, who knows the guest’s rank, will himself appoint a suitable place for him; such a gesture will meet with the company’s comprehension. The guest should not agree to change his place for a better one, if it is suggested by someone in the company. The host’s will should be respected and accepted with thanks. Before starting a meal the guests should wash their hands regardless of whether they are still standing or have already sat down. The host is the first to do this. Laying the table (pp. 184-185) While citing “some worthy man” whose name he does not men­ tion, Bar Ebraya emphasizes that one should not delay laying the table, burying the dead, giving one’s daughter away in marriage, paying one’s debts and repenting one’s sins. Once the guests have sat at table, they should not wait long for the meal. Bar Ebraya’s description shows that there were various views at that time on the order of serving food. Some thought that in the first place one should serve fresh fruit, which may soon rot. Others maintained

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that the most tasty dishes should be served first. But there were still others who chose a different policy. Going on the assumption that a hungry person will eat with good appetite whatever he is served, they suggested that the most tasty dishes should come at the end. In this way all dishes would be consumed with equal appetite. While citing such examples Bar Ebraya thinks it best to serve all the dishes at the same time. Every member of the company may then choose what he likes best. However, one should remember to set apart earlier an adequate amount of food for the members of the family who do not take part in the meal. When it is over, the host is the last person to wash his hands. Bidding fa re w e ll to guests (pp. 185-187) While bidding farewell to his guests, the host should go with them outdoors and there thank them for coming and for their company. The guests, on their part, should express their satisfaction with the meal, even if there were some weak points about it. It is not fitting for the guests to complain to anybody about it. They should rather find arguments that would excuse the host. If there are some visitors from other localities, the host should invite them to stay for some time. If this proposal is accepted, the guest should by no means stay longer than three days. Where and how much alcohol? (pp. 186-187) Bar Ebraya mentions weddings and births as festivities where food is accompanied by hamro. Nowadays hamro is associated only with sweet wine, but then it could also signify other drinks, although home-made wine (made from grapes and figs) was and continues to be the most popular alcoholic drink of the Assyrians. Hamro can be served — as Bar Ebraya adds — also at other celebrations, not necessarily connected with a family holiday. A lay Christian may drink hamro, but with moderation. Every individual has some special boundary of his own that he should not cross. A small amount of hamro may add some flavour to a meeting, while a large dose can give rise to a quarrel. It is especially important for the members of the company to be well selected, balanced and full of respect for one another. One should definitely avoid the company of impetuous, over-excitable and talkative people. Conversation should be carried out in a low voice and quiet tone and not touch on serious matters; it should be light and witty, preferably such where all the company can take

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part. The youngest person should rather listen than talk15. When somebody in the company feels unwell, he should stop drinking and not let himself be persuaded into drinking anymore. And if the company insist, let him withdraw and leave this place. If he feels like vomiting, let him go outdoors and return only when he feels better, but he should not drink any more. Before and in the course of drinking one should eat, too. Away with gluttony (pp. 144-153, 237-244, 348-349) In the third chapter of the third lecture Bar Ebraya raises the problem of gluttony and the ways of overcoming this vice. At the beginning he cites a story which reflects upon a hermit’s life-style as well as various opinions on gluttony. — An old man visited Abba Ishaya in his hermitage. He saw Abba dip pieces of dry bread in water, then put them into salt, so as to swallow them more easily. Having noticed it, the old man cried: “Behold Abba Ishaya relish his soup in an Egyptian desert!” This gave rise to a saying: “If you want soup, go to an Egyptian desert!”16 The scholar also cites other sayings: “A man may be as strong as a lion, but because of gluttony he falls into a net”, as well as: “Unless gluttony impaired human minds, they would not surrender in their fight against Satan”. As the results of gluttony Bar Ebraya mentions dissipation, greed and a wish to domineer. On the other hand, temperance sets the psyche right, clears the mind, mildens the thoughts, and makes one sensitive to spiritual stimuli. It leads to modesty and to consideration of the poor, hungry and suffering. Temperance favours good health and allows one to share what one has with the needy. To those who want to reduce their daily ration from two loaves to one, Bar Ebraya suggests a one month gradual cure system. They are to divide a loaf into 30 parts, and leave uneaten one part more every day. Thus on the first day of the month he recommends eating one loaf and twenty nine parts of another. In the middle of the month it would be one loaf and a half. On the last day of the month there will be only one loaf. Bar Ebraya assures that such a system would do no harm to the body. 15A p o p u la r A s s y ria n a p h o ris m ru n s: “ M a n w a s e n d o w e d b y G o d w ith o n e to n gu e a n d tw o ea rs , so a s to ta lk le s s a n d lis te n m o r e ” . 16 B a r D ru g a 1994, v is ite d

E b ra y a k n e w th e a p o p h th e g m s o f th e E g y p tia n F a th e rs o f th e D e se rt. In k s ię g a s ta rcó w , ed. M a re k S t a r o w i e y s k i , K ra k ó w : V e rb a S e n io ru m , pp. 3 4 -3 5 ), w e re a d th a t th is A b b a w a s c a lle d Is a ia h , a n d th e o n e w h o h im (in S k e tis) w a s A b b a A c h ille s (a p o p h th e g m 10:12 6 ).

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The quantity and quality o f fo o d and the categories o f hermits (pp. 179-181, 240-245) Depending on the quantity of bread they eat, Bar Ebraya divides the hermits into four categories: the first one embraces those who eat a quarter of a loaf a day, the second those who eat half a loaf, the third those who eat two thirds, and the fourth — three quarters of a loaf. These categories also correspond with the type of bread: from sifted wheat flour, from unsifted wheat flour, from sifted barley flour and from unsifted barley flour. Apart from that Bar Ebraya mentions another criterion — that of the frequency of meals. Since loaves could be of different sizes, Bar Ebraya takes the size into account or converts it into the weight of coins. He says that a hermit in Alexandria used to break loaves into small pieces which he could put into an amphora with a small neck. To eat, he would pull out only one piece a day. There were also hermits who did not eat bread at all, but cooked pulses with or without oil. A lot of admiration was aroused by those who did not eat anything but vegetables. Bar Ebraya writes: It is a sign of permanent fasting to dip bread in water and salt, and the evidence of such a state is the fact that no flies gather round the spittle of such a person on the ground. He informs us that the diet of the monks in monasteries differs definitely from the model adopted by hermits. The monks eat eggs and fish as well as milk and its products. The concluding phrase Bar Ebraya ends his deliberations on food with the following words: “Health is a gift achieved through a complicated mechan­ ism of the body. The body provided with the senses knows when and how much food it should call for. However, this should be decided by the will and reason, since the senses cannot size up divine miracles, but reason can comprehend them. Sight notices food, the nose senses smell, but consumption is determined by the appetite, and the quality of consumption is decided by the will, in accordance with the régime it adopts. The greedy lack the will that would signal to them when to stop eating. By eating too much, they ruin themselves and others” (pp. 29-330). ( T ra n s la te d by A g n ie s z k a K re c z m a r)

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