Of Curses and Cows: Barriers to the Realization of Special Needs Education in Kenyan Maasai Communities Nathaniel A. Hsieh include secondary school with the introduction of Free Day Secondary Education. These and other efforts by the government have resulted in the establishment of more schools and consequently the education of more Kenyan children and youth. In 1963, immediately following independence, it was reported that 892,000 students were enrolled in 6,058 primary schools and 30,000 students were enrolled in 151 secondary schools. In 2010, by contrast, it was reported that 9.4 million students were enrolled in 27,489 primary schools and 1.7 million students were enrolled in 7,038 secondary schools [1].

Abstract This research examines the various factors that prevent special needs education from becoming a reality in Kenyan Maasai communities. The barriers of cultural attitude, poverty, and inaccessibility which prevent Kenyan children from attending school in general are significantly magnified when it comes to children from rural Maasai communities. Those with special needs face these same obstacles to an even greater extent. This paper will discuss these obstacles at length and will also examine two organizations that are working to provide educational opportunities for disabled Maasai children. Recommendations for steps that may be taken to more fully actualize special needs education are made at the end.

The 2010 Constitution of the Republic of Kenya affirms free and compulsory basic education as the right of every child and defines basic education as eight years of primary school, four years of secondary school, and four years of university [2]. Furthermore, Kenya’s blueprint for national development, Kenya Vision 2030, establishes education as the primary means for achieving the human and social capital necessary for sustainable development. Specifically, the mandate of the Department of Education is to provide services that promote 1) economic development, 2) social development, and 3) political development. The government views education as the primary means by which citizens become productive and contributing members of the labor force, become instilled with national values and

1 Introduction and Overview Education in Kenya Since it achieved independence in 1963, the Kenyan government has recognized education as a basic human right and necessary vehicle for developing human capital and furthering national development. It was not until forty years later however, in 2003, that the government declared Free Primary Education for all Kenyan children. Five years later, in 2008, governmentsponsored education was expanded to

 

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aspirations, and become upholding the rule of law [1].

capable

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Protestant churches. After independence, special needs education (SNE) took place only in special schools geared towards those affected by four main types of disability: physical handicaps, mental handicaps, hearing impairments, and visual impairments. In the 1970’s, integrated and inclusive education programs were initiated and children with special needs could attend public schools with typical children for the first time. Also in the 1970’s, the government established the SNE section of the Ministry of Education and appointed a SNE specialist at the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE). Various pieces of legislation were passed in the subsequent decades regarding children affected by disability. These policies were synthesized and harmonized in the Children’s Act (2001) which purposed to improve the wellbeing of all children, regardless of disability. The most defining piece of legislation in regards to the disabled community, however, was the Persons with Disabilities Act (2003) which establishes a comprehensive legal framework outlawing all forms of discrimination toward those with special needs or disability [4].

Despite the increased enrollment rates since Kenya’s independence and the many legislative efforts made to affirm education as a basic human right and national responsibility, many Kenyan citizens remain uneducated as only 15% of adults aged 15-64 have received a secondary level education [1]. Furthermore, while more Kenyan students are attending secondary school than ever before, the overall net enrollment rate remains low at 32%. Many barriers prevent Kenyan children and youth from attaining what the Constitution of Kenya (2010) sets forth as basic education. Finances remain a hindrance for many as although education is technically free and compulsory, expenses such as uniforms, school supplies, and school lunch are basic necessities many families cannot afford. Families that live in rural regions of the country find education even less accessible as students must either commute long distances by foot or, if it is even an option, pay boarding fees to live at the school for the entire term. Cultural views of education also prevent some from attending school as education is not necessary for becoming a full and contributing member of many traditional Kenyan societies.

In regards to education, the number of special needs students enrolled in primary or secondary school has doubled in the past decade with an increase from 22,000 students in 1999 to 45,000 students in 2008 [4]. Despite the increase, however, this number remains grossly and disproportionately low. In 2008, the overall number of children enrolled in primary or secondary school was 9,946,032 and thus children with special needs make up less than 0.5% of students enrolled in Kenyan schools [4]. Considering that 10% of all children in Kenya are affected by some sort of disability, this means that less than 5% of school aged children with special needs are actually enrolled in school. Additionally, despite its bold legislative statements, the

Special Needs Education The government of Kenya has committed to achieving Education for All (EFA) by the year 2015. This notably includes individuals with special needs and individuals affected by disability who, at approximately 3.5 million people, make up over 10% of Kenya’s total population [3]. Education of those with special needs began in Kenya after the Second World War and was initiated almost exclusively by Faith Based Organizations (FBO’s) and Catholic and

 

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Kenyan government has failed to provide the financial backing necessary to actualize SNE with only 0.2% of the education budget being spent on SNE.

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Location and Lifestyle Among the most storied African people groups, the Maasai are the “quintessential cattle herders of Africa” [5]. Indeed although not all Maasai find their livelihood in this way, many do and cattle herding is a defining aspect of Maasai culture. The Maasai are said to have originated in the Upper Nile River Valley, yet by the 1600’s already began migrating to their present day location straddling the border of Kenya and Tanzania. The Maasai are known for their resistance to Westernization and have in many ways successfully preserved their cultural traditions and rural lifestyle.

There are many factors that contribute to the fact that the vast majority of children with special needs are not being educated. Many of the barriers that prevent typical children and youth from attending school are simply magnified to extreme degrees when it comes to SNE and those affected by disability. For instance, financial barriers are greatly magnified when it comes to SNE and children affected by disability as special schools are many times private and thus extremely expensive. Even for the special schools that are public, there are so few that students are often required to board due to the distance of the school from the home, placing an additional financial burden on the family. Beyond school costs, disabled children are often seen as unable to contribute to the family and thus it is seen as a better investment to educate the typical children who can one day help support the family. As far as the barrier of accessibility, even getting to school is nearly impossible for many disabled children who live in remote, rural regions. Even if there was a way for these children to get to school, most schools are not equipped with the physical infrastructure necessary to accommodate their needs (ramps, paved pathways between buildings, etc.). Cultural barriers are similarly magnified with regards to disability and SNE. There is a strong stigma surrounding individuals affected by disability in many Kenyan societies and parents are often hesitant and embarrassed to even bring their disabled children out in public, much less sacrifice to send them to school.

 

The Maasai

(Figure 1) Research was conducted amongst Maasai communities in the Loita Hills of the Rift Valley Province, near the border of Tanzania (See Figure 1). We stayed at Ilkerin Loita Boarding Primary School (ILBPS) and thus interacted most frequently 3  

with those involved in the school and the villages surrounding it. Nearly all of the 804 students enrolled at ILBPS are Maasai as well as those living in the surrounding villages. Research was conducted primarily through interviews, surveys, and general observation. Interviews were conducted with ILPBS students, teachers, administration, and board members; community leaders, doctors, and health workers in Ilkerin and the nearby town of Entasekara; students from Loita High School; and local Maasai men and women in their own villages. Surveys were conducted with approximately 120 students from ILBPS Standards 6-8.

in some cases, very complicated. Whether or not it is primarily caused by a pastoralist perception of wealth, numerous teachers shared that families were often not able to purchase uniforms and school supplies for their children and that some children could not even bring or purchase lunch, thus going the entire school day without eating. One teacher, said that a child once collapsed in his class because he had not eaten the whole day [6]. The barrier of accessibility is also intensified for many Maasai who, because of their nomadic lifestyle, often live in very remote locations. This often forces children to walk considerable distances to get to school; the head teacher reported that some children walk over 10 kilometers one way. Beyond obviously causing fatigue that can hinder concentration in class, such a long commute by foot leads to more serious issues. One is heightened absenteeism. Understandably, many of the children who travel long distances are unable to attend school on a sufficiently regular basis. Many factors- from unfavorable weather, to safety concerns, to family obligations- cause Maasai commuter students to have inconsistent attendance records, making it difficult to keep up in class and perform well on tests and exams. Safety is another major concern. Maasai students who must walk for hours to get to school often leave before the sun rises and return after the sun sets. These long walks in the dark through the bush leave students vulnerable to assault and even rape, both of which ILBPS teachers said have happened to their students.

General Barriers to Education There are numerous barriers hindering Maasai children specifically from attending school and receiving an education. Many of these barriers are similar to general education barriers seen across Kenya, but a panel discussion with 14 teachers and administrators from ILBPS revealed many challenges that are unique to Maasai students. The issue of poverty is exacerbated in many Maasai communities because not only are many Maasai families lacking in money and material goods, they perceive wealth with a purely pastoralist mindset. To most Maasai, wealth is quantified in the number of cows and amount of livestock one owns, not in the amount of cash or Kenyan shillings one has saved. Thus, while one may own a herd of cattle, he may not have the amount of Kenyan shillings required to purchase school uniforms and supplies for his children. Of course cows and livestock can be sold at the market, but the fact that most rural Maasai do not have a steady source of income often puts many families in economically difficult situations. Also, the fact that the Kenyan school system and most Maasai families operate according to different monetary systems makes payment for school supplies and boarding,  

There are many unique traditions in Maasai culture that become barriers to attending school and receiving an education. For Maasai young men, this is often the practice of moranism. In Maasai societies, all males are divided into three main age sets: herd boys, morans, and elders. Herd 4  

boys are prepubescent males whose responsibility is to herd and looks over the cattle, morans (the Maa word for “warriors”) are the circumcised young men whose job is to protect the community, and elders are the older men who serve as the leaders and decision-makers of the community. Becoming a moran is quite a process, however, and occurs approximately every 15 years when all the post-pubescent males in the community are circumcised and initiated into their new age set. Moranism, or warrior training, often requires the young men to fulfill certain responsibilities and travel long distances as a group [7]. Inevitably, this leads many young Maasai men who were attending school to drop out despite the fact that some may desire to continue their education. Many never return to school to finish their education and those who do are often significantly older than their classmates. In standards 6-8 at ILBPS, there are a significant number of young men who are 16-20 years old.

pregnancy just the week before the panel discussion took place [6]. While many become pregnant by their sexual partners at home, some, teachers report, become pregnant as a result of rape. Although the head teacher said some girls at ILBPS have successfully returned to school after becoming pregnant and giving birth, many do not and instead devote themselves to raising their children. These issues paired with the fact that many Maasai parents see educating girls as less important than educating boys explain the fact that often schools have significantly more boys enrolled than girls [6]. At ILBPS, there are 497 boys and 311 girls [8]. Barriers to Special Needs Education The overwhelming stigma that surrounds disability in Maasai culture proves to be a major barrier preventing the realization of SNE. In every interview conducted, one word was consistently mentioned in explaining how Maasai societies perceive disability: curse. Every interviewee, without exception, said that the most prevalent understanding of disability in Maasai communities is that it is a simply a curse. An interview conducted with a local Maasai family, the Kashu family, outside their boma confirmed this view as they spoke of a man they knew who had a mental disability. When asked what they believed the cause of the disability to be, they replied by saying that his father was bewitched and thus his son was born with a mental disorder [9]. Some also understand disability to be a form of divine punishment on the parents of the disabled child. A teacher at ILBPS, Mr. Joseph Wachira, told the story of a man who invited many people to his wedding, but when a few cripples came in wheelchairs, he became angry and sent them away. When it came time for his wife to give birth to their first child, he was shocked to discover that he had become the father of twins- both of

For Maasai young women, early marriage, pregnancy, and, in some cases, female genital mutilation, become barriers to education. Although not nearly as common as before, the practice of female circumcision is the traditional rite of passage by which a girl becomes a woman. In Maasai communities, this entails clitoridectomy where the clitoris and part of the labia are cut and removed. After this ceremony, the young girls, who are usually between 11 and 14 years old, are married to older men and expected to bear children and care for the household. Even for girls who are not forced into early marriage, becoming pregnant at an early age is common and often leads to the interruption of schooling. The teacher of the standard 4 class at ILBPS said that a 10-12 year old girl in his class dropped out due to pregnancy just this past year and the standard 4 Science teacher reported that a girl dropped out due to  

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whom had disabilities. While this particular story can actually result in better treatment of those with disability for fear of the punishment that may ensue otherwise, there is no denying that individuals and families affected by disability are intensely stigmatized in Maasai culture [10].

reminded of me. He took me to a pastor, and said I was a bother because of the money he wasted on me while I was as good as dead…” [12] Clearly, the barrier of cultural stigma prevents many special needs individuals from even going out in public, much less attending school and receiving an education.

Alex Munyere, a Kenyan Maasai man born with albinism, reports that disabled children are occasionally referred to as “oloibe enkai”- “one hated by God”. He also mentions that fathers who deny that a child is theirs- as is the case with many fathers of disabled children- can lay the child at the entrance of the gate and let the cattle run through. If the cattle avoid the child, it is said to be his, but if they kill it, it supposedly was not. Mothers, he mentions, often responded negatively to having disabled children as well, sometimes going as far as to withhold breast milk and expose the child to harsh conditions to induce death [11]. While it may be argued that such extreme responses are no longer (or at least less frequently) seen, people affected by disability in Kenya still report feeling intensely discriminated against. For instance, the 2007 State of Disabled Peoples Rights in Kenya Report, states that 45.3% of disabled individuals interviewed report feeling “discriminatory attitudes in the family” while 74.7% report feeling “discriminatory attitudes in society.” In regards to familial discrimination, one woman is quoted in the Report as saying:

The barriers that stem from the remote location and nomadic lifestyle of most Maasai families are further intensified when it comes to children affected by disability. Long 5 to 10 kilometer commutes by foot that are arduous for typical children become impossible for most special needs children, especially those affected by physical disabilities. Fredric Geso, a 14-year-old student at ILBPS, attested to this fact. Fredric was not born with a disability, but when he was 12 he fell down while looking after the cattle and severely injured his hip. After the accident, he spent nine months in a Tanzanian hospital before being released and returning to school. While Fredric has the luxury of being a boarding student, he said it is still difficult to walk long distances and walks with a conspicuous limp. Even the walk back to his village after the term ends is extremely painful, Fredric said. The fact that walking long distances through the bush is a necessary part of functioning within peripatetic Maasai society poses significant problems to the less mobile and those with physical disabilities like Fredric [13].

“My parents and my siblings all see me as a burden and have gossiped about me since I was young. My father decided to hide me for 6 months. My mother was not supposed to tell anyone…My father didn’t want to pay the hospital bills, because he thought he would be throwing away his money. He felt I wasn’t worth it. He doesn’t like to be  

The isolated lives most Maasai live in order to herd their cattle and livestock make it very difficult to access basic healthcare. There is obviously the issue of medical awareness and understanding, but even if a Maasai individual realized what kind of healthcare he or she needed, the 6  

nearest hospital or dispensary is often miles away. Not only does this preclude those with special needs from accessing the therapies and treatments they may regularly need, but this in a way creates disabilities that could be treated and corrected otherwise with access to basic healthcare. Stephen Barta, for instance, is a 16 year old student at ILBPS. He has no obvious disabilities, but he began performing poorly in school and his teachers noticed that he held everything very close to his face in order to read. It soon became clear that he could not see the board and, because of his eyesight, was quickly falling behind in his classes. Stephen said he started having problems with his eyesight in 2009, but has never been to an optometrist or received an eye exam. One of his teachers recognized that Stephen was nearsighted and all he needed was a pair of glasses. This teacher then asked Stephen’s parents to send whatever money they could and took him to see a doctor in Narok, the nearest town which is an approximately 3 hour drive from Ilkerin. Once they arrived in Narok, however, they were told that the doctor was not available and were told to return on a specific date months later. Meanwhile, Stephen still cannot read the board in class and said he scores an average of 60% on tests and exams [14]. This small example demonstrates how the remote and isolated lives most Maasai live exacerbate and in a sense create disabilities that could otherwise be addressed by access to basic healthcare. For students, this clearly has a negative effect on academic performance and becomes a significant barrier to receiving a thorough education, special needs or otherwise. Although inaccessibility is a major barrier, poverty is also a factor that must be taken into account as even if healthcare was readily accessible, there is no guaranteeing Maasai families would be able to even afford the services they need.

 

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Namelok-Naretoi

The barriers that prevent disabled and special needs individuals from attending school and receiving an education are complex and varied. One organization that has successfully and holistically removed many of these barriers, however, is Namelok-Naretoi Home for the Handicapped in Entasekara. Since 1991, founder and director, Franciska Mukinka, has worked tirelessly to not only raise awareness about disability in the Maasai communities surrounding Entasekara, but to also ensure that disabled children receive the healthcare they need and have the opportunity to attend school. “NamelokNaretoi” means “sharing success” in Maa and the success Franciska has achieved in regards to removing cultural stigma, transforming communal attitudes, and helping special needs children realize their full physical, social, and scholastic potential can be attributed to the holistic, integrative, and long-term nature of her approach. Franciska’s approach to establishing and running Namelok-Naretoi can be divided into four necessary and strategic steps: 1) research and field work, 2) raising awareness, 3) providing necessary healthcare, and 4) ensuring appropriate school placement. Each of these steps will be discussed and examined at length as a means of analyzing how to most effectively remove barriers to special needs education in Maasai communities. Research and Fieldwork In his work with the Maasai, the parish priest of the mission Diocese of Ngong began to notice that disabled children in Maasai families were marginalized, neglected, and largely hidden from the rest of the community. Thus in 1991, the priest 7  

commissioned Franciska, who was then a social worker for the Diocese, to go from village to village gathering basic information and data on those affected by disability. Being herself Maasai and also a formally trained nurse, Franciska seemed to be the right person for this task and thus for three months did intensive on the ground field work learning about those affected by disability in the surrounding Maasai communities. This task was much more difficult than she anticipated, however, and much of her work consisted of trying to identify and simply find disabled children who were being intentionally hidden away by their parents and families. Even when Franciska would learn of a family that had a child affected by disability, the parents of the child would become extremely defensive and ask who told her about the child as they clearly did not want their family to be associated with the stigma of disability. Some tried denying outright that they had a disabled child, she said, and others were skeptical of her motives, fearing she would expose them and open them up to the shame that accompanied disability. This sense of shame often led to division in Maasai families, Franciska learned, as the father would declare that the disabled child was not his and consequently divorce the mother.

needs of the disabled individuals and their families were. The results of Franciska’s field work and research not only informed her next step in trying to meet the needs uncovered by her work, but were also used by the government to better understand disability in the rural, tribal context. Raising Awareness What became clear to Francsika during her three months of research was that before much could be done to help the disabled children themselves, the overall attitude of their communities must change in regards to disability. This meant working to undue deep-seated cultural stigmas that had been engrained into the Maasai understanding of life for generations. Franciska started at the ideological level by informing communities that while disability is indeed a problem, it is not a curse. Working in conjunction with ideas brought by various missionaries that many Maasai had begun to embrace, Franciska affirmed a Judeo-Christian understanding of people affected by disability, namely that they are valuable because they are made in the image of God. This is in stark contrast to the commonly held Maasai belief that disabled people are cursed and hated by God and the result of witchcraft or divine punishment. By introducing a sense of accountability to a God who cared about the disabled, Franciska reported that fear of this God motivated families to be less negligent to their disabled members.

Despite the sometimes stiff resistance she encountered, Franciska succeeded in attaining a fairly comprehensive understanding what kind of disabilities were represented in the region and which were most prevalent. Her research showed several cases of cerebral palsy and hydrocephalus as well as instances of clubbed feet, cleft palate, deafness as a result of infection, disabilities as a result of severe burns, and other deformities she did not immediately recognize. This general survey of the region was obviously necessary in order to determine what the

 

Franciska took many practical steps to raising awareness in rural Maasai villages, some of which include holding workshops and teaching health seminars. Being a social worker, Franciska held many workshops and “barazas” (the Swahili word for “meeting held to address an issue”) where people from the community could 8  

come to hear a lesson on disability, ask questions, and discuss their thoughts and concerns. Additionally, Franciska used the training she received as a nurse to teach health seminars detailing many of the medical explanations that exist for various disabilities. Aside from undermining the traditional Maasai belief that disability has no other cause than witchcraft, medical explanations for disability allowed Franciska to also explain that there are preventative and corrective measures can be taken in regards to specific disabilities.

children by simply wearing special casts. Conditions like cleft lip and hydrocephalus are similarly correctable, but only through surgery. Nonetheless, providing medical explanation and potential preventative and corrective measures for specific conditions eliminates much of the mystery and superstition surrounding disability in traditional cultures like the Maasai. Providing Necessary Healthcare Beyond raising awareness through education, Franciska said that what proved most effective in changing communal attitudes was demonstrating what their own disabled children could do if given the proper medical attention. Franciska said that she would often take the most severely disabled children in a community and ensure that they received the healthcare they needed, whether it was in the form of surgery, therapy, or medication. Although many disabilities can never be fully “cured”, to show how much children, who were formally deemed useless, could do given the right medical attention was enough to transform the attitude of whole families and communities. Franciska recounts the very first disabled child she helped to receive treatment, a young girl named Gladys. Gladys, like many other disabled children at the time, was largely hidden away because of the large growth and deformity on her head. The fear and disgust of Gladys’ family and community was evident as Franciska inquired about seeing her and helping her to receive treatment. “Don’t look at her! She has eight heads! She’s not even human!” they warned. Unheeding of their warnings, Franciska not only met Gladys, but brought her to a hospital to receive corrective surgery. The surgery was very successful and soon after, Franciska ensured that Gladys was placed in school. She did very

For instance, many of the children she encountered had become disabled as the result of severe burns. In many Maasai villages, cow dung and other forms of trash are gathered into a large pile right outside the village and burned for days. Also, Maasai families generally keep a fire burning in their bomas at all times as a source of heat and light and also to make tea. Bomas are made of flammable materials like sticks and cow dung and are extremely small, however, and thus pose a significant safety hazard. Many children receive debilitating burns by simply rolling out of bed and into the fire, Franciska reports. Similarly, having a large pile of burning trash right outside the village where children play and run around is a safety hazard that unfortunately results in children falling in and receiving debilitating burns. Infections are another common yet very preventable cause of disability that Franciska taught about. Ear infections leading to deafness, for instance, could often be prevented by taking deliberate hygienic steps. Corrective measures were another topic Franciska discussed during health seminars. For example, she noticed that clubbed feet was a common disability in the surrounding communities. While correctable only by surgery in adults and older children, clubbed feet can be corrected in babies and young

 

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well academically and completed her secondary school education all while living with Franciska because Gladys’ father divorced her mother after she was born and her mother largely abdicated responsibility. Gladys’ success became a compelling vehicle for change not only in her community, but also in her family as she recently went back to live with her family who is now accepting and proud of her. Even her father who she never knew came out of hiding to claim this now educated and accomplished young woman as his daughter. Gladys was the first of many children Franciska helped to receive necessary medical attention and exemplifies clearly that if given the opportunity, individuals affected by disability can demonstrate for themselves their many abilities and their worth as human beings.

not allow for appropriate rehabilitation and recovery. Instead of progressing, many children who were set up for success by the initial medical attention they received began regressing and developing new problems and infections. Franciska tried encouraging, counseling, and training parents in how to properly help their children recover, but eventually realized that only so much can be done in the context of Maasai lifestyle which is often unsanitary, transitory, and simply not conducive to necessary rehabilitation. Recognizing this need, Franciska officially opened Namelok-Naretoi Home for the Handicapped in 2004. This center, located near the Entasekara Health Centre, is designed to be a halfway house where children can fully and properly recuperate after receiving surgery and medical treatment. In this context, Franciska can personally ensure that children are receiving the therapy and medication they need to maximize the effect of their initial treatment. Also, by allowing children to live at Namelok-Naretoi for extended periods of time, she could solidify foundational habits which would set children on the road to full recovery. The goal of Namelok-Naretoi is not to become a permanent home for individuals affected by disability, but to be a transitional and training center. NamelokNaretoi seeks to provide an environment where disabled children can be physically and mentally prepared for successful transfer to a school and also seeks to be a resource for parents and community members to learn how to best come alongside those affected by disability. Although SNE is the ultimate goal, Franciska recognized that a disabled child’s medical needs must be fully addressed before he or she can succeed in an educational environment.

As mentioned, what Franciska did for Gladys she did for many other disabled children in various Maasai communities. Although her experience as a nurse helped her to generally recognize and understand various conditions, she often took children to an assessment center in the city of Narok to ensure that they received a professional diagnosis and thus the appropriate treatment. Accessing healthcare was definitely challenging, however, considering that Entasekara and the surrounding villages are so remote and inaccessible. Franciska was able to establish partnerships with several hospitals and health centers, but even finding ways to transport disabled children from their villages to various centers proved extremely difficult. At times she went as far as far as carrying children on her back from villages that were especially inaccessible. Another major barrier she encountered was the fact that children did not have a place to go after they received treatment. Of course most were returned to their homes and villages, but the Maasai lifestyle often did

 

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Ensuring Appropriate School Placement

during and sometimes even after treatment. Two of the boarding students at ILBPS are sponsored by Namelok-Naretoi and are being educated in a fully inclusive setting as the vast majority of ILBPS students are not affected by any sort of disability. There are many barriers preventing the realization of SNE in public schools and ILBPS will be discussed extensively as a case study of inclusive and integrative education.

Franciska recognized early on that education is necessary for helping children with special needs to realize their full personal potential. Just as each disabled child is different in what medical treatment he or she requires, each disabled child is different in what school setting would allow for maximized learning and development. Children who are deaf, blind, or affected by exceptionally severe physical disabilities are placed in special schools. In these schools, children are taught in ways that accommodate for their specific impairment and are allowed to interact with students who have similar life experiences and face similar challenges. In schools for the deaf, for instance, classes are taught using Kenyan Sign Language (KSL) and students are able to freely communicate with each other using sign. Since these schools are specialized and few, however, students who attend are forced to board at school. Paired with the fact that many of these schools are private, financing a child to attend and board at a specialized school is extremely expensive and places a significant burden on NamelokNaretoi, which supports its children through school with minimal contribution from parents, for reasons that will be discussed later.

Through Franciska’s dedicated work, many of the barriers preventing the realization of SNE in the Maasai communities surrounding Entasekara have been removed. Children who were once seen by their families and communities as cursed have received the healthcare they needed and been able to attend school and receive an education. Many students sponsored by Namelok-Naretoi have successfully completed secondary school and have become active and contributing members of their communities. Two students, for instance, have returned to work at NaemlokNaretoi and assist Franciska in running the center that gave them the opportunity to be educated and live largely self-sufficient lives. The success of Namelok-Naretoi’s holistic approach to removing cultural barriers and addressing medical issues with the ultimate goal of realizing SNE is recognized by the entire community. Maasai Chief of the Ilmarai sub-location, Moses S. Koroine, said that Namelok-Naretoi is the only resource in the area that he knows of for people affected by disability. “In Loita, in our community, we rely on that center,” he said. Though it required much sacrifice and hard work on the part of all involved, especially Franciska, Namelok-Naretoi is a testimony to the fact that SNE can become a reality for disabled children in the most rural and remote Kenyan Maasai communities.

The other option for disabled children after they receive the medical attention they need is placement in inclusive public schools. One of the 15 target areas of the National SNE Policy Framework is inclusive education and although public schools are not always fully equipped to meet the special educational needs of these students, disabled children have the right to attend public schools within their locality. Most of the children who live at NamelokNaretoi attend St. Angela’s Academy, which is located immediately behind the center,

 

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Successful, but Unsupported

Aside from refusing to accept new children, Franciska fights to keep NamelokNaretoi running by refusing to take a salary for herself. She still tries to compensate her two assistants, who were themselves supported by Namelok-Naretoi, for their time and service, but the compensation is small, she said. Parent contribution has and continues to be minimal for reasons discussed earlier regarding Maasai economy and understanding of wealth. While initially parents did not even want to allow Franciska to help their disabled children, much less spend precious resources on them, parents are now eager to support Franciska as she works with their children. Still, the offerings are meager. Sometimes parents will bring maize, milk, or a goat, she said, but nothing to significantly offset the cost of paying for medical treatments and school fees. Efforts have been made to generate income for the center, but nothing sustainable or sufficiently profitable has been discovered. Franciska once gathered the mothers of the children at the center to make rings and other pieces of Maasai beadwork which were sold abroad for a profit, but this project proved unsustainable as there was no steady demand and it was a single event driven by foreign efforts. Recently, Franciska has converted part of the center to a hostel where visitors can pay to spend the night and although there is nothing like it in the Entasekara region, the visitors that pass through the area are so few and far between that the profit is limited. While the cost of running Namelok-Naretoi is estimated at 2.5 million Kenyan shillings per year, the center now only receives 750,000 Kenyan shillings from Liliane. Additionally, many of the hospitals and health centers that previously gave Franciska a discount because of the nature of her work can no longer afford to do so, forcing Namelok-Naretoi to pay the full, unsubsidized price for surgeries and medical treatments. This has obviously

Despite the obviously successful model Franciska has established in addressing the many complex barriers that prevent SNE, Namelok-Naretoi currently does not have the financial support it needs to operate at full capacity. Initially, Namelok-Naretoi was funded by a Dutch organization, Liliane, which supported organizations that served people affected by disability internationally. Through the support of Liliane, Franciska was able to pay for the treatments and surgeries the disabled children required and as well as their school tuition and fees. Also, Liliane supported the construction of the Entasekara center in 2004. With the global economic downturn in 2008, however, Liliane fell on extremely hard times and was forced to cut funding from many of its programs. Namelok-Naretoi was one of them and starting in 2009, Liliane was only able to provide less than one third of the financial support that it did in the past. Franciska thus found herself in a very difficult situation as, at the time, NamelokNaretoi was supporting over 30 children, some of whom were living at the center in Entasekara and some of whom were in various schools. Starting in 2009, NamelokNaretoi refused to accept any more children. At first, Franciska kept a waiting list, but after the waiting list was filled at ten children, she began having to turn parents away outright as she knew there was no way she could even accept children off the waiting list until another source of funding was identified. The irony of the situation is evident as initially Maasai parents didn’t even want Franciska to know they had children affected by disability. Now, they are seeking her out and brining them to her, but she has no means of helping them access healthcare and education like she once did.

 

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prevented some children from receiving the healthcare they need and also prevented Namelok-Naretoi from making necessary payments on behalf of students they support aat various schools.

actively seek support. Thus although Namelok-Naretoi is a successful example of how to systematically remove the barriers preventing SNE in Kenyan Maasai communities, even this single effort will no longer be sustained unless additional sources of funding are located or the community commits to supporting the center. Instead of being recognized as an effective model to be replicated and spread to other Maasai communities, Namelok-Naretoi itself may be forced to close its doors and consequently reestablish barriers to SNE [15].

Efforts have been made to try to access funding from the government, but to no avail. Franciska said she has talked extensively to local government leaders and even drafted proposals, but nothing has ever come of them. Chief Koroine said the community has come before the Narok council and challenged them to support the center, but those efforts did not prove fruitful either. There is no systematized way for an organization like Namelok-Naretoi to apply for government funding and there seem to be several specific factors making government funding inaccessible. The first is the general state of the Kenyan government. As mentioned earlier, despite clear and detailed policy statements issued by the Ministry of Education in regards to SNE, only 0.2% of the educational budget is actually allocated for such work [4]. Also many, including Franciska, suspect that whatever funds are allocated for the disabled are lost amongst the inefficiency and possible corruption of political bureaucracy. The clearer barrier preventing access to additional funding, governmental or otherwise, however, is the extremely remote location of Namelok-Naretoi. Whatever government funds or foreign aid efforts are allocated for the disabled are usually directed toward those living in urban centers like Nairobi, Franciska said. A place like Entasekara, which can only be accessed by way of barely defined dirt roads through the bush, is so rural and remote that it is rarely, if ever, a concern for government officials or non-profit efforts. Not having internet access further isolates Entasekara and makes it difficult for organizations like NamelokNaretoi to make their needs known and

 

4 Ilkerin Loita Boarding Primary School As mentioned, the Kenyan Ministry of Education has committed to providing educational opportunities for children with special needs in an inclusive setting. It states in its 2009 National SNE Policy Framework that “The focus here is to enable children with special needs to enroll in schools of their choice within their localities. Therefore, there is need to remove barriers within the education system that bars them from inclusiveness and equity.” [4]. This is in accordance with the United Nations Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities which holds that education should be provided for the handicapped in integrated school settings [16]. This section will examine Ilkerin Loita Boarding Primary School (ILBPS) as a case study example of inclusive education. Research methods conducted at the school included individual and group interviews with students, teachers, administration, and board members, surveys with students in Standards 6-8, and general observation.

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Unrepresentative Enrollment

disability out of the 200 students enrolled [17].

Although ILBPS is viewed as an inclusive school where children affected by disability can learn in an integrated setting, the number of disabled students actually enrolled in the school is shockingly and disproportionally low. Of the 804 students enrolled, only five are reported as having disabilities- two have impaired use of their legs, two have impaired use of their arms, and one is hearing impaired [8]. This means that only 0.6% of the students in the school are affected by disability. While this is consistent with the fact that disabled children make up only 0.5% of students enrolled in Kenyan schools nationally, this percentage remains grossly unrepresentative as it is estimated that 10% of children in Kenya are disabled [4]. If this information is correct, only 5% of Kenyan children and youth affected by disability are attending school and being educated. This statistic was confirmed at the secondary school level as well. In a group interview with students from Loita High School in Entasekara, the seven students participating agreed that there was only one student- a girl with a physical handicap- was affected by

While students are not exposed to many children with special needs in school, many report to know more in their villages and home communities. Of 65 ILBPS students surveyed in Standards 6-8, 22 reported knowing 10 or more children with disability or special needs in their villages with the mean number being 9 children. The results of the survey may be inaccurate strictly in regards to children affected by disability, however, as children are taught in Standard 6 that “special needs” includes orphans and those with HIV [18]. Nonetheless, the overall results of the survey confirm that the number of disabled children enrolled in ILBPS is unrepresentative of the number of disabled children in the immediate community. Furthermore, another question on the survey asked how many of the disabled or special needs children students know from their villages attend school. Unlike the previous question where students often did not write in a numerical answer, students were given the options “none”, “few”, “some”, “most”, and, “all” and expected to circle the answer

they believed to be most accurate. The results of the 111 responses received are displayed in Figure 2. In keeping with the enrollment records of ILBPS and national statistics from the Ministry of Education, the majority of students (56%) reported that “few” or “none” of the disabled and special  

needs children they know from their villages attend school. While the fact that the surveys were printed in English and administered in a public classroom setting may have led to some erroneous responses, the students surveyed generally confirmed that there are 14  

many special needs children in Maasai villages who do not attend school.

(CRE) courses, including ILBPS, and use curriculum and textbooks issued by the Kenyan Ministry of Education. All this to say that an entire unit in the Standard 6 CRE curriculum is dedicated to learning about people with special needs and how to help them in a Christian way. I actually had the opportunity to teach a review lesson on this unit in the Standard 6 CRE class at ILBPS and found that disability was presented in five main categories: 1) the physically impaired, 2) the mentally challenged, 3) the visually impaired, 4) those with speech disorders, and 5) the hearing impaired [18]. Each of these categories was discussed at length and verses from the New Testament as well as suggestions for ways to practically help such individuals were presented. In the section on those with hearing impairments, for instance, the story about Jesus healing a deaf man in Mark 7 is told and basic information like the fact that many deaf individuals use sign language is included. Practical suggestions like learning basic signs or writing things down for a deaf person to read are made as well with the goal of helping children realize that the hearing impaired can “be very successful in life” and “do many things on their own” [18].

The Teachers and Curriculum Although there are relatively few disabled students enrolled in ILBPS, many teachers report feeling unprepared to teach and properly engage with such students. Teachers say there is little to no mention of SNE in their teachers’ college training and thus are not sure how to properly accommodate disabled children in the classroom. The government does not require schools to have a special education teacher and training to become a special education teacher is expensive and fully in addition to training received at a teachers’ college. Standard 4 teacher at ILBPS Edwin Museveni is one teacher who is planning to receive this specialized training, however, and recently enrolled in a Bachelors of Education in Special Education program at Kenyatta University in Nairobi. In order to complete this degree program designed for working teachers he must spend all three of his holidays taking classes at the University and pay tuition fees that are significantly higher than what he makes during the year as a teacher. The sacrifice of time and finances involved in receiving such specialized training obviously results in few teachers and few schools being properly equipped to actualize successful SNE [19].

This formal and systematized way of explaining disability is especially important for students coming from Maasai families as the traditional stigma surrounding disability as a curse or result of witchcraft runs deep and must not only be unlearned, but replaced by something better. CRE teacher at ILBPS, Joseph Wachira, said of the special needs unit in the Standard 6 curriculum that often “when children go through this they are changed.” (personal interview). While the formal discussion of how to properly treat those affected by disability is a clearly a positive thing, presenting disability in such rigid categories often precludes the

While training for teachers in regards to SNE is minimal, instruction for students in how to properly interact and engage with special needs children is actually part of the standard curriculum in most schools. In Kenya, religious education is a core component of primary and secondary school curriculum and while schools have the option of teaching Islamic Religious Education or Hindu Religious Education, most teach Christian Religious Education

 

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discussion of common disabilities which span across the five given categories. When I taught this unit as a review lesson, for instance, none of the students in the Standard 6 class were familiar with disabilities like autism, Down’s syndrome, or cerebral palsy. Also, disability and people with special needs are not discussed in the CRE Standard 7 or 8 textbooks and disability is not explained or discussed medically in any portion of the science curriculum. Interestingly, however, the unit that does discuss people with special needs in CRE Standard 6 does not limit special needs to those with disability. Instead, people with special needs include orphans, street children and street families, the poor, those affected by HIV/AIDS, and refugees. (“Living in Christ” 35). This broader understanding of special needs may have caused students to include children in these categories when asked “How many children that you know in your village are disabled or have special needs?” on the survey. While obviously a positive thing that students are receiving instruction on how to view and treat people with a broad range of special needs, this may have led to inaccurate survey results in regards to how many children actually have disabilities especially given the high poverty level of the rural Maasai.

students surveyed responded following way (figure 3):

the

While few circled “never”, nearly half of the students surveyed circled “rarely”. One of the teachers interviewed attested to the fact that although students are rarely mean to their disabled classmates they are often unsure of how to interact with them and thus simply avoid them. While the typical children are usually sympathetic, this teacher observed, the disabled children at ILBPS are still left out and often feel lonely [10]. This is partially because the activities that most students engage in during recess and free time require basic levels of mobility and dexterity that physically handicapped students do not possess. Volleyball and soccer, for instance, seem to be the most popular recreational activities at ILBPS and thus the four students with physical impairments are excluded from interacting with their classmates in this leisure setting. While obviously not much can be changed in this regard as athletic activities are inherently physical, another reason disabled students often feel excluded is because their classmates simply do not know how to interact with them. Perhaps they are uncomfortable or are afraid of making the disabled students feel uncomfortable, but a little exposure and encouragement can go a long way in tearing down social barriers that exclude special needs students and detract from their educational experience.

The Students While learning about inclusion in the classroom is necessary, SNE cannot be fully realized if inclusion does not extend beyond the classroom walls. This is largely contingent upon the attitude of the typical students at a school and how they view and treat their classmates with special needs. When asked “How often do you talk to or play with students with special needs or disability?”, the 112 Standards 6-8 ILBPS

 

in

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One thing that students from Loita High School said was helpful in exposing them to special needs children was volunteering at Namelok-Naretoi. Spending time with and learning to be comfortable around the disabled seemed to be a transformative experience for many as the group of students interviewed said that although they teased and laughed at special needs students while they were in primary school, they now understand their needs and try to help and include those with disabilities. It could be something as simple as each class taking a fieldtrip to Entasekara to visit Namelok-Naretoi, but the first step toward true inclusion among the students of ILBPS is providing opportunities for students to see for themselves that children affected by disability are not that different and still have unique interests and abilities. In addition to exposure, practical and structured ways to encourage inclusion are also effective. In many American high schools, for instance, there are clubs that that promote the inclusion of special needs students in structured yet sensitive ways. Buddy programs, for instance, where typical students are individually paired with special needs students to occasionally eat lunch or hang out with are popular as they ensure that every special needs student has a friend to turn to without putting unreasonable time demands on typical students. While this might not be the best solution for ILBPS as there are only five disabled students on record, there is definitely a need to encourage inclusion in structured yet sensitive ways. One possibility is integrating disability awareness initiatives into the already established and active health club. Things can start small with inviting disabled students to come and individually speak at club meetings, giving them a forum in which to safely share their stories and unique challenges and accomplishments. Another possibility is having club members learn

 

about various medical aspects of disability and brainstorm ideas of how to make activities like sports and games more conducive to including their special needs classmates. The possibilities are clearly many and there is no denying that exposure to those with special needs and encouragement of structured inclusiveness are integral to removing social barriers that prevent the full realization of SNE in public schools like ILBPS.

5

Recommendations

The barriers that exist to education in Kenya are significantly magnified when it comes to educating those with special needs and are even further intensified in regards to those living in rural Maasai communities. Through the examples of Namelok-Naretoi Home for the Handicapped in Entasekara and Ilkerin Loita Boarding Primary School, however, it is clear that efforts are being made to educate Kenyan Maasai individuals affected by disability. The barriers that remain to the full realization of SNE in these communities are still many, yet the potential for their removal is real. The hope is that the conclusions drawn and recommendations made in this section will be appropriate, plausible, and effective in removing these barriers. Strategic Partnerships Actualizing the ideals set forth by the Ministry of Education will require strategic planning and practical execution if SNE is ever to become a reality for the disabled in Kenya, specifically those in rural Maasai communities. In order to maximize efficiency and effectiveness it is crucial that the government is aware of what is already being done to aid the disabled as forging partnerships is more strategic and mutually 17  

beneficial than attempting to implement new initiatives which could prove redundant. In the case of Maasai individuals affected by disability in the Loita Hills, it would clearly be more effective to provide much needed funding to Namelok-Naretoi than to try to gather data, educate communities, provide healthcare, and ensure appropriate school placement when Franciska has successfully walked through each of those necessary steps. A model like Namelok-Naretoi, which has proven effective, can and should be replicated in other rural Maasai communities as it is designed to account for specific cultural challenges which stigmatize disability and prevent SNE. It is presumptuous to consider using NamelokNaretoi as a prototype for other Maasai communities, however, as it is not receiving sufficient funding itself. Also, while the Kenyan government would be able and willing to fund such efforts to actualize SNE in a perfect world, this is clearly not the case and access to government funding is limited at best. Whether or not it is due to corruption and inefficiency or simply because the government does not have the means to support a nomadic people that does not pay taxes, it would be idealistic to conclude that the ultimate solution to these problems is government funding.

strategic partnerships and participation of stakeholders including learners with special needs and disabilities in provision of SNE services.” [4]. By utilizing connections made as a result of such “collaboration and networking” to not only support its own initiatives but to serve as a mediator and establish partnerships between organizations working towards SNE, the government can maximize efficiency and effectiveness without having to create its own programs and initiatives. This would be a beneficial asset to organizations like Namelok-Naretoi which are too remote to actively communicate their needs to potential partners and supporters outside the region. Communities and Schools On a very practical note, one of the major causes of disability and one of the most significant barriers preventing SNE in rural Maasai communities is the lack of medical understanding. As mentioned, little is generally known about disability from a medical standpoint and preventative and corrective measures are rarely discussed. One possible step that can be taken to change this is working closely with the Community Health Workers (CHW’s) to ensure that they are equipped to educate communities regarding disability. Dr. Peter Langatt, the doctor stationed at the IlkerinLoita Dispensary, explained that CHW’s are secondary school students and professionals who are trained to go out into a certain region and educate communities regarding pertinent health issues. There are 36 CHW’s assigned to the Loita region, for instance, and although the CHW program was begun by an NGO it is now funded by the Kenyan government [20]. One practical way to effect change in Maasai communities is for the government to ensure that the CHW’s are trained to answer questions regarding disability. While the notion that disability is

While for whatever reason the government may not be able to fund efforts like Namelok-Naretoi, this does not mean that it cannot support such organizations in other ways. For instance, if the government and Ministry of Education were able to serve as liaisons between institutions in need like Namelok-Naretoi and NGO’s, FBO’s, and other organizations wishing to do work in Kenya, it would be promoting SNE without directly expending its own resources. One of the overall objectives of the 2009 National SNE Policy Framework is “To enhance collaboration and networking,

 

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simply a curse resulting from witchcraft has been dispelled in some regions, disability is still heavily surrounded by superstition and stigma in many Maasai communities. To have a CHW who is equipped to provide medical explanation and insight regarding various disabilities is pivotal to transforming societal attitudes toward those with special needs. Preventative and corrective measures are also something CHW’s should be prepared to address. For instance, encouraging pregnant women to eat more and work less may eliminate potential causes of disability and basic precautionary measures such as not leaving the fire burning in a boma overnight can lessen the chances of children receiving debilitating burns and injuries. In addition to encouraging individuals to receive vaccinations, CHW’s should also underscore that basic hygiene can prevent infections that lead to serious disability. Corrective measures are another topic CHW’s should be prepared to address. As mentioned earlier by way of example, a baby born with clubbed feet can have his feet corrected if he or she is fitted with a special cast at a young enough age. Educating community members about corrective measures like that ensure that the next time a child in their community is born with a correctable disorder, it can be identified and rectified before it is too late. Through the CHW’s the government can raise awareness regarding disability like Franciska did, but on a national scale. By simply including a unit on disability awareness in the Continuing Medical Education course CHW’s take, the government can utilize an already successful and established program to remove many significant barriers that prevent SNE in various communities, specifically the Maasai.

teachers must be prepared with the knowledge and confidence to teach students in their classes that may have special needs. Ideally this could be incorporated into the standard teachers’ college curriculum. While obviously separate and additional training will be required for those who want to become special education teachers, it makes sense to have some mandatory preparation for regular primary and secondary school teachers if the government is going to continue to push for inclusive education. Even if it was a simple one week unit for students at teachers’ colleges to become familiar with the various types of disability they may encounter in the classroom, such preparation is better than nothing and gives teachers the confidence required to actively incorporate special needs students into the classroom learning environment. Advice and specific tips on how to most effectively aid students with various types of impairments would prove beneficial as well as small things can make a major difference in the learning experience of students affected by disability. Another way of equipping teachers in regards to special needs students is offering continuing education classes or seminars. This could take place at the school or at universities and teachers’ colleges during school holidays. In the case of ILBPS, since one of its teachers, Edwin Museveni, is planning on attending special education classes at Kenyatta University during the holidays, it would be easy for him to teach short seminars for the other teachers during lunch or after school based on what he learned in his own classes [19]. Having one teacher specialize in special education and then proceed to equip his fellow teachers seems to be a cost and time efficient way to impact the entire school and elevate the overall quality of SNE. It would not be excessively expensive for the

In terms of practical steps that can be taken to fully realize SNE in schools,

 

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government to select one teacher from each school to receive subsidized training and the ways it might remove barriers to SNE could prove transformative. As far as curriculum goes, it is definitely a positive thing that the Standard 6 CRE class covers those with special needs so extensively, but there are obviously ways to give students an even fuller understanding of disability. One possibility is continuing discussion of those with special needs into the Standard 7 and 8 CRE curriculums. While the unit in the Standard 6 book is primarily application based, it would be helpful for students to develop an ideological and systematic understanding of disability rooted in Christian doctrine and theology. Also, it would be extremely beneficial for disability to be discussed from a medical standpoint in Science courses. Helping children understand the biological causes of disability and having them bring their knowledge back to their villages is yet another way to dispel the superstitious beliefs that often surround disability

empathetic, making them more responsible citizens. While the Ministry of Education’s goal of Education for All by 2015 is a lofty one especially in regards to those with special needs in rural Maasai communities, individuals like Franciska Mukinka and holistic care centers like Namelok-Naretoi demonstrate that it can be done given the right support. Ultimately, while it will always be a challenge to fully realize SNE for the Kenyan Maasai, strategic and intentional partnerships guarantee that progress is being made toward helping people affected by disability realize their full potential as human beings.

Conclusion

[3] World Heath Organization. Global Health Observatory Data Repository: Country Statistics for Kenya, 2006.

References [1] Republic of Kenya Department of Education. A Policy Framework for Education, 2012. [2] Republic of Kenya. Constitution of the Republic of Kenya, 43.1f and 53.1b, 2010.

While it may seem costly and unnecessary, quality SNE ultimately works in the nation’s best interest. From an economic standpoint, SNE maximizes the nation’s human capital as 10% of Kenyan citizens are said to be affected by some sort of disability [3]. While the positive economic contributions disabled individuals can make are often limited, equipping them to be primarily selfsufficient ensures that they do not become a drain on society’s resources. From a moral and ethical point of view, SNE affirms the fact that all human beings, regardless of ability, are valuable and have rights that deserve to be protected. By incorporating special needs students into integrative educational and social environments, typical children learn to be unprejudiced and

 

[4] Republic of Kenya. The National Special Needs Education Policy Framework, 2009. [5] T.L. Gall and J. Hobby. Maasai. Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, Vol. 1: Africa. 2nd Ed, 2009. [6] I.L.B.P.S. Panel discussion with teachers and administrators, 2012. [7] E. Coast. Maasai demography. Ph.D. Thesis London School of Economics, 2001. [8] I.L.B.P.S. Headmaster’s Office. Personal interview with A. Ithinji, 2012.

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[9] Kashu Family. Personal group interview, 2012. [10] J. Wachira. Personal interview, 2012. [11] A. Munyere. Living with a disability that others do not understand. British Journal of Special Education, 2004. [12] A.F.U.B. with K.U.B. and C.R.E.A.D. State of disabled peoples rights in Kenya report, 2007. [13] F. Geso. Personal interview, 2012. [14] S. Barta. Personal interview, 2012. [15] Namelok-Naretoi Home for the Handicapped. Personal visit and interview with F. Mukinka, 2012. [16] United Nations. Standard rules on the equalization of opportunities for persons with disabilities: rule 6, 2006. [17] Loita High School. Personal group interview with male students, 2012. [18] M. Ariithi, E. Jepkemei, and R. Gitau. Living in Christ 6: A CRE course, Oxford University Press, 2004. [19] E. O. Museveni. Personal interview, 2012. [20] Ilkerin Loita Community Dispensary. Personal interview with Dr. P. Langatt, 2012.

 

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