Fall-Winter 2013, vol. XXV No.3,4

Table of Contents

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SPECIAL FOCUS Nuclear Power as a Tool for Sustainable Development

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HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT Childhood Exposure to Herbicides

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Thyroid Cancer Epidemic

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Industrial Chemicals in Lower and Middle Income Countries (LMICs)

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FOOD FOR THOUGHT Reflections on the High-level Panel on the Post-2015 Development Agenda

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Coal Power in South Africa and the need for Wind Energy

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DID YOU KNOW? Genetically Modified Foods – The Future or Science Gone Wrong

NUCLEAR POWER AS A TOOL FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

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GOOD NEWS Air-Purifying Pavement Solar Impulse – The first plane solely powered by solar energy Better management of hazardous chemicals in Africa pledged Hair sampling tests in Mauritius 2013 duck numbers remain strong n n

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VOICES 22nd International Conference On Health and Environment: Global Partners for Global Solutions Sri Lanka to Hold World Youth Conference 2014 UNESCO World Conference on Education for Sustainable Development 2014 Global Health and Innovation Conference 2014 Third International Climate Change Adaptation Conference EREC Welcomes Ocean Energy As New Member n

GLOBAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURE AND CARBON DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS, 1880 - 2006 Data from NOAA’s National Climate Data Center (NCDC) & Oak Ridge National Laboratory Source: Woods Hole Research Center

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POINT OF VIEW Global Poverty Halved Before UN Target Date

Manifestations of global climate change are becoming increasingly evident. In May of 2013, the atmosphere officially reached a concentration of 400 ppm CO2, the highest level of the heat-absorbing greenhouse gas that the planet has seen in millions of years. Across the world, temperatures are increasing, sea levels are rising, and biodiversity is being rampantly lost. Global climate change and the widespread use of fossil fuels are contributing factors. Many (including a multitude of environmental groups) have begun to recognize the crucial role that nuclear power can take in combatting climate change and simultaneously addressing a growing energy demand. Increasing atmospheric CO2 from fossil fuel use plays a more inevitable and exigent threat to global wellbeing than

Education brings choices. Choices bring power. World Ecology Report is printed on recycled paper.

does the potential human and environmental harm of nuclear power, making increased implementation of nuclear a “necessary evil” if we are to avoid further environmental deterioration.

Energy Options Without implementing nuclear power, an increase in traditional, carbon rich fuel sources such as coal, natural gas, and biomass will be used to meet the increasing energy demand in most parts of the world. Coal is largest contributor to CO2 emissions, and the energy of 1 million metric tons of coal is equivalent to that produced from just a half ounce of uranium fuel. Coal reserves are robust, however, and technologies and infrastructure are already in place to distribute coal energy, making a coal-centered solution a simple, albeit environmentally destructive, one. Air pollution is widespread in areas surrounding coal plants, and a recent study shows that residents living in the most heavily air polluted regions of China have lifespans five years shorter than those of residents living in less polluted regions of China. THE HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WATER CYCLE

Source: EPA

Increased reliance on biomass energy presents a particularly strong problem in developing countries. As much of the population increase across the world is occurring in areas that lack access to electricity, people are forced to harvest trees for energy. Use of biomass energy, then, very directly disrupts ecosystems, and is a major source of emissions. Because biomass use stems from lack of access to cleaner electricity, future energy programs must aim to dramatically increase the accessibility of energy, as well as increase its efficiency. In light of increasing oil prices and increased desires for energy independence, extraction of natural gas is also on the rise. Natural gas is cleaner burning than both coal and biomass, and, because it must be delivWorld Information Transfer

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ALTHOUGH RENEWABLES ARE THE FASTEST GROWING GROUP, COAL AND NATURAL GAS WILL GROW THE MOST IN ABSOLUTE TERMS

Source: EIA, International Energy Outlook 2011

ered through pipelines, is largely confined to regional markets. Through the process of hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”), natural gas is extracted from shale sediments deep in the ground. Many oppose fracking, as the practice requires an invasive extraction technique whereby pressurized water, sand, and corrosive chemicals are flushed into shale reserves 300 feet below the ground. When the potent cocktail is pumped in at high pressure, the shale fractures, and the natural gas buried in the shale can be collected. Fracking is a particularly contentious method of natural gas extraction, largely because of the myriad of possible human and environmental health concerns associated with the practice. The fracking process requires large amounts of water, which is commonly taken from local bodies of water. After fracking, the water is contaminated with chemicals and therefore cannot be returned to its original location, resulting in major changes to freshwater ecosystems. Critics of fracking are also particularly concerned about the potential for groundwater pollution that may result from the process. By pumping the mix of chemicals and water in at such high pressures, the mix will often travel from the wellbore, and then move into aquifers that are sources of drinking water. Although studies have not yet definitively linked fracking to water contamination, preliminary reports by agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency suggested that fracking practices were to blame for increased methane and benzene contamination of several drinking water sources.

COAL, LIQUIDS (INCLUDING BIOMASS) AND NATURAL GAS ACCOUNT FOR THE GREATEST CO2 EMISSIONS

Source: EIA, International Energy Outlook 2011

In light of reports that the tap water can be lit on fire in areas that have undergone fracking, finding concrete connections between fracking and water contamination seems to be only a matter of time. Although many believe that renewable energy will be the ultimate solution to the energy crisis, the reality is that at present, the lofty price tag, lower efficiency, and specific topographic requirements of renewable energies make them an impractical large-scale solution to combatting pressing climate change. Renewables are the fastest growing energy sector in the world, and hopefully with further research and development will play a large role in meeting energy demands in the future. Currently, 473 nuclear power plants produce 12%, or 372.5 GW, of the world’s energy. Nuclear power is generated through fission, a process whereby large, unstable atoms such as uranium or plutonium are split into smaller, more stable atoms. During the process, some mass of the large atom is converted to energy, which can be captured and harnessed for use in the electrical grid. While no energy source can be truly emissions free, cradle-tograve analyses suggest that nuclear power emits 95% less emissions than coal, putting its efficiency on par with renewable technologies such as wind and solar. Nuclear power has the potential to help meet the growing energy demand while also decreasing greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, nuclear power is a large-scale solution that can be utilized by almost any country in the world given each country’s commitment to nuclear transparency and often a promise for non-proliferation.

Understanding Criticisms of Nuclear Energy Disapproval for nuclear power is fueled by public distaste after nuclear accidents such as those at the Chernobyl Plant in Ukraine in 1986 and at the Fukushima Daiichi plant in 2011. There is grave concern for both human and environmental wellbeing in the event of accidents or in the event that the plants are targets of attack. The Chernobyl disaster, in particular, had major ramifications for human health. After the meltdown of Reactor 4, northwest winds pushed the radiation cloud towards Belarus, where 60-70% of the radiation from the incident was deposited. Children ages 0-4 years were most impacted by this radiation, as children absorb iodine, which of course was in this case radioactive, at higher rates than adults. Thyroid malignancies in individuals who were children or adolescents at the time of the accident represent the most dramatic increase in incidence; rates of thyroid cancer were estimated to be five to six times greater in adolescents exposed than in those unexposed. Lung disease, cardiovascular disease, blood and digestive disorders, birth defects, fertility problems, and immune deficiencies were also caused by exposure. Only individuals who directly participated in the clean up of the plant contracted acute radiation syndrome. Finally, psychological problems, due to a lack of transparency in disclosing the accident, as well as from major social and economic disruption, have also been common. The release of radionuclides to the environment in the 30 km radius surrounding the Chernobyl plant led to clear environmental contamination. Much of the radioactivity became deposited in plants, which were then eaten by larger animals, leading to the bioaccumulation, or concentration, of radioactive materials in animals higher up on the food chain. Radioactive deposits of cesium, iodine, and strontium were most detrimental to the environment, eventually causing radioactive contamination of urban, agricultural, and marine environments. The health consequences of the Fukushima Disaster have been far less severe than those of the Chernobyl Disaster, presumably because of Japan’s prompt evacuation and sheltering of people living within 30 km from the plant. Studies suggest that solid cancer in those exposed World Information Transfer

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NUMBER OF NEW CASES OF THYROID CARCINOGENS IN CHILDREN (WHITE) AND ADOLESCENT (BLACK) OF BELARUS.

Source: Endocrine Society

between the ages of 0-4 years of age will be 4% greater than peers who were not exposed. Although incidence of thyroid cancer is expected to increase 70%, this represents a shift from a baseline of 0.75% to an anticipated 1.25% of the population who may contract thyroid cancer. Estimated doses in the Fukushima prefecture were not high enough to impact pregnancies, and no impairment of fetal development is expected. No radiation related deaths or acute effects were observed among the 25,000 plant workers, and there are no health risks outside of Japan. As for non-human biota, the United Nations Environment Program suggests that although some damage may have been done to individual plants MAINTENANCE COSTS OF VARYING POWER SOURCES

Source: “US Electricity Production Costs.” Nuclear Basics. World Nuclear Association. 21 June 2013. world-nuclear.org/info/Country-Profiles World Information Transfer

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or animals, community and population dynamics will not be impacted. The financial price of nuclear technology is a common concern, as new plants today often cost around $2 billion to research and construct. Despite the high initial investment, however, nuclear plants have minimal operating costs as compared to other energy technologies such as coal or natural gas. With the exception of places in which there is direct access to fossil fuels, nuclear power is costcompetitive with other energy technologies. The cost of decommissioning, or retiring, a nuclear power plant, generally ranges from 10-20% of the cost of the plant’s construction. In general, the decommissioning process generally involves two main steps: removal of the contaminated materials for permanent storage, and decontamination of the surface radioactive materials from the facility. As decommissioning is part of a plant’s lifecycle, the cost of the procedure is generally reflected in the price consumers pay for electricity; about 5% of the cost of energy produced is set-aside for the plants decommissioning. When the plant is no longer operating sufficiently, corporations owning the plants already have the funds to pay for its retirement. The need for long-term disposal of radioactive materials is another common criticism of nuclear energy. Housing nuclear waste is not necessarily as inconvenient as commonly perceived, however. Unlike coal or natural gas waste, nuclear waste is minimal and can be contained; fifty years worth of power from one plant generates only enough waste to fill a football field seven yards deep. After approximately five years of wet storage, where spent fuel rods are stored below 20 feet of water in pools at the reactor sites, sufficient radioactive decay and decreased temperatures of the fuel rods allow for the waste to be transferred to dry storage. Dry storage, in which waste is stored in concrete and/or metal canisters filled with inert gasses, is more passive than wet storage, and therefore minimizes risk of human and mechanical errors. Furthermore, lots of waste can be recycled and reprocessed for additional energy extraction. Both wet and dry storage, however, are only temporary. There is agreement in the scientific community that longterm geologic disposal is a safe and effective way to permanently store spent fuel, and all studies have shown that permanent disposal presents minimum long-term health effects.

LIGHT FROM SPACE DEMONSTRATES WHICH PARTS OF THE WORLD LACK ELECTRICITY

Source: apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap001127.html

Cleaner Energy Fosters Development Social development is driven by energy availability. While the developed world is consuming more energy than ever before, 1.3 billion people in developing countries still lack access to any electricity. By 2035, it is estimated that energy demand will increase by up to 70%, and that the price of energy will increase 15%. On top of that, the global population is expected to grow from 7.2 billion to 9.6 billion people by 2050. An additional seventy plants are under construction, and estimates suggest that by 2050, nuclear power plants will produce 50-200% more energy. Due to an increase in population size and an increase in per capita demand for energy, steps clearly need to be taken to increase energy availability. Improving many forms of human health is dependent upon providing clean and reliable energy sources to the entire world. In developing nations, attaining access to energy is a key step in providing better healthcare. For instance, 26% of sub-Saharan health clinics lack electricity, making any medical emergencies that occur at night inherently more dangerous than those that occur during the day. Currently, 2.6 billion people are reliant on biomass energy for cooking. Replacing biomass and coal stoves with energy from more efficient sources, such as nuclear, is essential to eradicating deaths from diseases that are exacerbated by smoke exposure, such as pneumonia.

Case Study: Bangladesh

BIOMASS HARVESTING IN BANGLADESH

Source: ramsar.org/cda/fr/ramsar-mediasites-bangladesh-enlarges/main/ramsar/1-2534%5E18490_4000_1__

Central to Bangladesh’s fight for development is a lack of widespread and reliable energy. About 60 percent of the population lacks access to any electricity, while those who do have energy experience frequent power outages. Currently, Bangladesh obtains the majority of its energy from natural gas. Nonetheless the country has plans to erect two Third Generation 1000 MWe nuclear power reactors, the first of which should be finished in 2020. Russia is acting as a mentor of sorts to Bangladesh’s nuclear development: the country has volunteered to provide financial support, employee training, and waste disposal. Bangladesh’s most pressing issues, which include social discord stemming from economic inequality, environmental degradation and lack of infrastructure, point to the need of a comprehensive solution not just electricity. While nuclear power will alleviate deforestation and increase human health as it provides an energy alternative to biomass, nuclear is not a solution to decades of social strife. In this regard, it is critical that Bangladesh creates other development programs after the installation of nuclear power. Decentralized, renewable energy technologies programs, which have a precedence of small-scale success in Nepal, India and China, are one possibility, as they provide jobs to marginalized people while also increasing the renewable energy sector. World Information Transfer

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Case Study: Ukraine CHERNOBYL NUCLEAR POWER PLANT, UKRAINE, 1986

energy, a sure sign of its commitment to providing its citizens with consistent and low-emissions electricity, the tragedy acts as a reminder of the sensitivity of nuclear systems, and the importance of safety monitoring. Most recently, in 2011, Ukraine and all other members of the International Atomic Energy Agency approved an Action Plan for nuclear safety, which is a guide of universal safety protocols.

Case Study: France NUCLEAR POWER FACILITIES IN FRANCE, MAY 2013

Source: thevelvetrocket.com/2011/01/31/ visiting-chernobyl

Twenty-seven years after the Chernobyl disaster, environmental and human health concerns are still present in communities surrounding the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. Incidence of thyroid cancer in Ukraine, Belarus and the Russian Federation, the areas where most radioactive materials were deposited after the accident, is high. Additionally, cancer, cataracts, and other diseases can all be linked to radiation exposure from the event. There is a general consensus that had there been more openness on the part of the former Soviet Union at the time of the meltdown, many of these detrimental human health effects could have been prevented. Since the accident, Ukraine has focused on increasing the transparency surrounding its nuclear programs. Home to uranium reserves, Ukraine is still heavily dependent on nuclear power. The country today possesses 15 reactors at four plants that supply half of its electricity, and has intentions to build two more reactors by 2030. While much of Ukraine’s waste is sent to Russia for storage, Ukraine intends to create a long-term deep geological disposal site. Despite localized physical consequences, the Chernobyl Disaster sparked global change in nuclear safety policies, as well as a shift in public attitude toward nuclear power. While Ukraine continues to invest in nuclear World Information Transfer

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Source: world-nuclear.org/info/CountryProfiles/ CountriesAF/France/#.UdwpHj7rkhQglobal

After the first oil shock in 1974, France made the decision to shift its energy reliance from fossil fuels to low carbon, nuclear power. As a country lacking natural oil resources but possessing an abundance of engineering and technological expertise, France’s decision to utilize nuclear power has enabled it to be largely energy independent. Today, France’s 58 nuclear power reactors generate 75% of the countries power (17% of which is generated from recycled nuclear fuel). France earns over three billion euros a year as the world’s largest electricity exporter, and is also active in nuclear technology

development and equipment export. The 2006 Waste Management Act placed an emphasis on reducing the amount and toxicity of waste produced, as well as improving intermediate storage sites and creating a deep geological long-term disposal site to open by 2025. In spite of two level 4 nuclear ‘accidents’ on the 7-point International Nuclear Event Scale, France’s widespread use of nuclear power has enabled it to obtain the lowest carbon emissions per capita of any major industrialized country. France’s success in decreasing its emissions while maintaining human and environmental health indicates that extensive nuclear programs can be safe, and therefore should be thought of as tools for sustainable development. Energy enables development. It acts as a hurdle that, without being overcome, halts progress. Time and time again, a relationship between energy accessibility and higher quality of life, health, and level of human development has been observed. But a focus on energy is more than just a focus on people; it is a commitment to environmental health as well. Development today needs to be not only sustainable, but also restorative. In an atmosphere that is 400 ppm CO2, large-scale, global action needs to be taken before the effects of global climate change can no longer be mitigated. Nuclear technologies have the capability to not only reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but also provide developing states with tools for change. By addressing the energy crisis, countries are free to focus their efforts on other development projects. While nuclear is by no means a ‘golden solution’, it is the most pragmatic answer to otherwise inevitable global deterioration.

5. Durbak, Christine K. “Is There Still a Role for Nuclear in the

Author: Norah L. Crossnohere. June 2013

zines/Bulletin/Bull323/32304783942.pdf.

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16. “Radioactive Wate”Production, Storage, Disposal. ” U.S

1.Chen, Y., Ebenstein, A., Greenstone, M. and Hongbin Li.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 11 July 2013. www.nrc.gov/

“Evidence on the impact of sustained exposure to air pollution

reading-rm/doccollections/nuregs/brochures/br0216/r2/

on life expectancy from China’s Huai

br0216r2.pdf.

River policy.” PNAS

21st Energy Mix?” 16 April 2013. UNHQ, NY. 6. Environmental Consequences of the Chernobyl accident and their remediation: twenty years of experience. IAEA. 2 July 2013 www.pub.iaea.org/mtcd/publications/pdf/pub1239_web.pdf.  7.  “Global CO2 emissions continue to increase in 2011, with per capita emissions in China reaching European levels.” JRC News Release. European Commission. 18 July 2012. edgar.jrc. ec.europa.eu/news_docs/CO2_emissions_until_2011.pdf.  8. “Health effects of the Chernobyl accident: an overview.” Ionizing radiation. World Health Organization. April 2006. www.who. int/ionizing_radiation/chernobyl/backgrounder/en/index.html 9. “Health risk assessment from the nuclear accident after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami.” World Health Organization. 2 July 20apps.who.int/iris/bitstre am/10665/78218/1/9789241505130_eng.pdf. 10. “Hydraulic fracturing can potentially contaminate drinking water sources.” July 3 2013. NRDC. www.nrdc.org/water/files/ fracking-drinking-water-fs.pdf. 11. Kuchinov,V. “Development of Nuclear Power — International Aspects.” 16 April 2013.UNHQ, NY 12. “No Immediate health risks from Fukushima Nuclear Accident says UN Expert science panel.” 3 July 2013. News Center. UNEP. www.unep.org/newscentre/Default.aspx?DocumentID=2 716&ArticleID=9518&1=en#sthash.8NwpLdBd.dpuf. 13. “NREL Develops More Precise Look at Emissions for Energy Technologies.” News Releases. Natiponal

Renewable Energy

Laboartory. 4 May 2013. www.nrel.gov/news/press/2012/1832.html. 14. Osborn, S.G., Vengosh, A., Warner, N.R. and Robert B. Jackson. “Methane contamination of drinking water accompanying  gas well drilling and hyfraulic fracturing.” PNAS (2011). www.pnas.org/content/108/20/8172.full.pdf. 15. Pabitra L. De. “Costs of decommissioning nuclear power plants.” IAEA Bulletin. (1990). www.iaea.org/Publications/Maga-

(2013). www.pnas.org/content/early/2013/07/03/1300018110. 

17. Sowder, Andrew. “Is There Still a Role for Nuclear in the

2. “Chernobyl Studies.” The Chernobyl Accident. chernobyl.

21st Energy Mix?” 16 April 2013. UNHQ, New York.

cancer.gov/studies.html.

18. VanLeeuwen, Ruchenda. “The Health Nexus - sustainable

3. Corradini, Michael.  “America’s Energy Challenge: Why the

cities, transport and energy delivering healthy people.” 18 June

U.S. Needs Nuclear Energy.” 16 April 2013. UNHQ, New York.

2013.

4. “Country Profiles.” Information Library. World Nuclear As-

19. “World Energy Outlook 2012 Factsheet.” International En-

sociation. 21 June 2013. www.world-nuclear.org/info/Country-

ergy Agency. 1 July 2013 www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/

Profiles/.

weowebsite/2012/factsheets.pdf. World Information Transfer

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Health and Environment: CHILDHOOD EXPOSURE TO HERBICIDES The widespread pracof these illnesses and distice of using pesticides by abilities. However, when ex­ farmers in both industrial periments are performed and developing countries is on rats similar results were heavily relied upon. United found from exposure to States alone uses 1.1 billion pesticides. The document pounds of these chemicals released by PANNA showed per year. Many studies inthat rats exposed to atrazine dicate that pesticides harm during their prenatal stages human health, particularly created a delay in pubertal children, as the dose of pesdevelopment in both males ticides is larger due to the and females and there was relative size of their bodies. Source: water-research.net/images/slump.jpg an increase in failed pregAlso, children, particularly nancies and damage to the babies are also exposed through breastfeeding, trans- immune systems of the rodents. placental pathways, as well as their tendency to play on With evident and visible linkages between the health the floor or in the dirt. The Pesticide Action Network risks and exposure to pesticides, many wonder to what North America (PANNA) has done extensive research extent do pesticides actually affect the population? Mary compiling over 200 studies that look at the correlation H. Ward of the National Cancer Institute collected dust between children’s health and the exposure to pesti- from vacuums from 112 homes in the agricultural arcides. With these health risks in mind, Mary H. Ward of eas of Iowa and looked for agricultural chemicals that the National Cancer Institute has found that pesticides are commonly used for farming. 28 percent of the 112 are also present inside homes. households contained at least one of six herbicides. 85% Agricultural herbicides are the most frequently used of the homes of agricultural workers had one or more pesticides. In PANNA’s compilation of studies titled “A of the six agricultural herbicides. 2,4-D, the third most Generation in Jeopardy,” many findings are discussed widely used herbicide in the United States and Canada, that correlate children’s health and herbicides. In the was found in 95% of the homes in Iowa. spring and summer months high concentration of the chemical atrazine is found in water and the rate of infants with birth defects increases significantly. The dangers of exposure are not limited to a child’s birth; if either parent is exposed to herbicides in a period of five years before the birth, studies have found that the child is more at risk for childhood brain tumors, astroglial tumors, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, primitive neuroectodermal tumors, and other tumors. Exposure to herbicides during the first year of life, makes a child 4.6 times more likely to develop asthma as a child who has never been exposed. Despite these compelling findings children are exposed to working in the fields throughout the world. Even in the United States, the federal law allows children under twelve to do field work. PANNA recognizes that there are other causes for the Source: “A Generation in Jeopardy” via Winchester, rise in childhood illnesses and disabilities. The pesticide P.D., J. Huskins and J. Ying. “Agrichemicals in surface industry believes that since there is no direct link, nu- water and birth defects in the United States.” Acta Paetrition, environment, and genetics influence the rate diatrica. 2009 98: 664–669. World Information Transfer

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With vast amounts of research and scientific data available, it is important that further education and possibly more regulation is necessary to prevent the cause of unnecessary disabilities, particularly in young children. Sources: 1. Schafer, Kristin S., and Emily C. Marquez. A Generation in Jeopardy: How Pesticides Are Undermining Our Children’s Health and Intelligence. Rep. Pesticide Action Network North America, Oct. 2012. Web. 11 July 2012. 2. World Health Organization: Children’s .Environmental Health. “Children are Not Little Adults.” World Health Organization. PowerPoint.2008 writingcenter.gmu.edu/ resources/summaryvsinterpretation/index.htm. 3. Mary H. Ward et al. “Proximity To Crops And Residential Exposure To Agricultural Herbicides In Iowa.” Environmental Health Perspectives 114.6 (2006): 893-897. Environment Complete. Web. 4. Adams, Mike. “Prof. Warren Porter Is Warning People about Pesticides, but Chemical Companies Are out to Silence Him.” Natural News. Natural News, 21 Apr. 2005.

INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS IN LOWER AND MIDDLE INCOME COUNTRIES (LMICS) The Price We Pay:

Lead exposure directly affects the brain which leads to a loss in IQ and learning capacity. The economic cost in LMICs from childhood exposure to lead has been found to be $977 billion annually, contributing to 1.20% of the world GDP (in 2011). The numbers in the USA and Europe are estimated to be $50.9 and $55 billion, respectively. Childhood lead exposure within LMICs is an economic burden which will continue to plague generations to come if policies are not put in place and enforced. Source: Attina, Teresa M, and Leonardo Trasande. “Economic Costs Of Childhood Lead Exposure In Low- And Middle-Income Countries.” Environmental Health Perspectives (2013): MEDLINE with Full Text. Web. 13 July 2013

Exposure to Toxic Waste Sites:

THYROID CANCER EPIDEMIC In recent years there has been a thyroid cancer epidemic in the United States and across the world. Thyroid cancer has been on the rise due to radiation exposure for the past 10 years from 3.6 per 100,000 to 8.7 per 100,000 cases. The American Cancer Society estimates 60,220 new cases for 2013, mostly papillary thyroid cancer which are attributed to radiation exposure. Thyroid cancer is a cross cutting disease, in that it affects a wide range of age groups and ethnicities, although it is more common in women. In the U.S. thyroid cancer is increasing across all races and is not restricted to solely adults. Between 1973 and 2004, there were 1,753 cases of pediatric thyroid cancer in the U.S. Thyroid cancer is also on the rise in New Zealand, Australia, France, Israel, and various other countries. Furthermore, the incidence of thyroid cancer in the Ukraine, Russian Federation, and Belarus increased dramatically after the nuclear accident at Chernobyl. There are many possible reasons for this worldwide thyroid cancer epidemic. In recent years doctors have been using X-rays, MRI’s, thyroid ultrasounds, and other medical diagnostic tools to screen for thyroid cancer, so more cases are showing up. These advances in technology and their increased use have led to more cases being discovered. Also, the more radiation one is exposed to, the more likely one will develop thyroid cancer. Currently, scientists are looking to see which thyroid cancers are caused by radiation and which are caused by other environmental factors. Sources: end with Michael Tuttle, MD, Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center.

Locations of the 373 waste sites in the Philippines, Indonesia, and India Source: ehp.niehs.nih.gov/1206127/ Because there is not much data or research on toxic waste sites within LMICs, researchers have started looking into the effects of this starting with the Philippines, India, and Indonesia. It has been found that toxic waste sites are large contributors to disease within these three countries. In 2010, 8,639,750 people were at risk of exposure to toxic chemicals from 373 waste sites. Researchers involved in this project calculated the DALYs, or disability-adjusted life years, which resulted from such exposure through combining estimates of disease incidence from these exposures with population data. They concluded that exposure to toxic waste sites ranged between 814,934 to 1,557,121 DALYs. These numbers are similar to outdoor air pollution and malaria, two other serious problems. With such compelling results, it is clear that something must be done to remove such exposure to these sites in order to restore human health. Source: Richard Fuller, et al. “Burden Of Disease From Toxic Waste Sites In India, Indonesia, And The Philippines In 2010.” Environmental Health Perspectives 121.7 (2013): 791-796. MEDLINE with Full Text. Web. 15 July 201 World Information Transfer

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Food For Thought: REFLECTIONS ON THE HIGH-LEVEL PANEL ON THE POST-2015 DEVELOPMENT AGENDA The world has seen the fastest reduction in poverty in human history in the last 13 years when the United Nations committed to the Millennium Development Goals, a strategic plan developed to tackle global inequality and poverty. However, in certain ways the MDGs did not concentrate enough on approaching the poorest and the most excluded people around the globe. Most of all, with reference to rapid instabilities that are shaping the current political landscape, a new development agenda should address issues with regards to development in times of conflict and war. Furthermore, the new post 2015 development agenda must have an intense focus on economic, environment, and social development in order to tackle the world’s pervasive problems of poverty and inequality in a sustainable way. In the Secretary General’s reflections on the Post2015 development agenda, the section on ensuring sustainable energy was a vital component of the environmental aspect of sustainable development that was originally left out of the MDGs. The focus on renewable forms of energy outlined in this report is important in combating global warming and encouraging the use of clean energy. This is necessary in order to reduce global warming and sustain our increasing energy needs. Another component that could be added to this is to focus on building energy infrastructure in developing countries and communities who do not have stable energy systems and ensure that these systems are going to be constructed using renewable forms of energy such as wind and solar power. This will ensure that the energy needs of the developing world are met in a sustainable way. Furthermore, developed countries and developing countries that already have energy infrastructure in place should aim to phase out the use of oil, coal, and other non-clean energy resources and set a specific target on replacing this with green energy. Furthermore, the section on empowering girls and women and achieving gender equality which was not included in the original MDGs is included in the post 2015 development agenda report. Women continue to be marginalized, left out, and discriminated against all over the world and we cannot hope to achieve sustainable development if 50% of the population does not have equal rights and is unable to participate. EmpowerWorld Information Transfer

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ing women and girls is not only a necessary human right but will increase countries’ economic growth if women are able to work and fully participate in civil society. The inclusion of women and girls and the granting of all

Source: un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/report-2013/mdg-report2013-english.pdf

necessary rights including improving women’s access to health and education must be included in the sustainable development framework. There are many other new goals outlined in this report on the post 2015 development agenda that were not included in the MDGs that further promote all three pillars of sustainable development like the two discussed above. However, one issue that is still left out is a goal to combat population growth. This severe problem is on the rise and if we continue at our current level of consumption and level of population growth, our planet will not be sustainable. Targets need to be set to help curb population growth i.e. setting targets to educate the poorest of the poor as education leads to smaller family sizes. Most of the goals that are laid out in this new report aim to tackle a wide range of problems in many different capacities. However, one thing this report lacks is a specific way in which these goals are going to be implemented and the targets be met. It’s great to say that we will “Ensure equal right of women to own and inherit property, sign a contract, register a business and open a bank account” (Goal 2c), but how will this be done? A plan needs to be set out to ensure countries actually follow through with what is proposed and accepted and there needs to be a concrete way to monitor and ensure that all targets are being met. Overall, the Secretary General’s report did highlight the necessary shifts that are going to be made to take the MDGs to the next level and ensure a sustainable development agenda for the future. The five transformative shifts laid out: leave no one behind; put sustainable development at the core; transform economies for jobs and inclusive growth; build peace; and effective, open and accountable institutions for all, forge a new global partnership and show a plan for making the post 2015 development agenda more sustainable and inclusive. These transformative shifts are broad, yet represent concrete efforts to continue the most important aspects of the MDGs and include new aspects and plans for development. This re-design of the MDGs should further be built on past experiences; this should be an insightful reflective process regardless of how much time it takes to devise a transparent, attainable and groundbreaking plan. We must continue our strive to improve the lives of those who most need it; we must continue to achieve tangible results whilst implementing both quantitative and qualitative measuring apparatus to keep us focused on the main goal. Finally, we need to eradicate poverty and move towards a more equal, egalitarian and just life for all. Sousce: un.org/sg/management/pdf/HLP_P2015_Report.pdf

COAL POWER IN SOUTH AFRICA AND THE NEED FOR WIND ENERGY

Source: darlingwindfarm.com

Africa, primarily in Sub Sahara cannot generate enough power for itself. In the JRC Scientific and Technical Reports, data collected in 2008 concluded that 589 million people in Africa do not have access to power, a number that has grown by nine million each year after 2002. One potential long term solution to this problem is wind power, as many places in SubSaharan Africa have the potential to generate large amount of electricity from wind. In 2010, the World Wind Energy Report found that Africa’s growth rate of wind power production however was below the global average of 23.6% at 20%. 2 The majority, 890 MW out of a total of 906 MW from wind-based energy, comes from Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia.2 The remaining 16 MW is not a sufficient amount of wind energy generated. Several plans have been developed to create more wind turbines in South Africa. The environmental impact of the burning coal in South Africa is extensive. Coal-fired power plants account for 93.5% of total energy production.3 South Africa was ranked five in the list of the top hard coal consumers in the world in 2010 with an estimated 255,000,000 tons burned that year. Yet only 70% of the households in South Africa are plugged in to the grid. The health impacts caused by the widespread use of coal fired power plants in South Africa is quite evident. In 2005, the United Nations Council on Sustainable Development concluded that, “there are a number of air pollution “hot spots” around the country where severe air quality problems are experienced.” Sources: Belward, A., B. Bisselink, et al. (2011). “Renewable Energies in Africa”. publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/23076/1/reqno_jrc67752_final.pdf. World Wind Energy Association. (April 2011). wwindea.org/ home/images/stories/pdfs/ World Information Transfer

World Ecology Report 11 Fall-Winter 2013

Genetically Modified Foods – The Future or Science Gone Wrong

From politics, to supermarkets, to your food, the topic of discussion is Genetically Modified Foods (GMF) and the positive/negative aspects of enhancing foods scientifically. In the media saturated world we now live in with powerful entities on both sides of the argument, it is tough to get an unbiased solid advice into the public domain on what exactly defines Genetically Modified Foods and Plants, and what exactly are the implications to the health of the land, animals, eco-system and indeed people when these products are consumed. The world has changed, we have food that grows faster, bigger, and lasts longer. Genetically modified plants have been manipulated to express a desired trait that they do not intrinsically posses, such as drought resistance or insect resistance. Are these Genetically Modified Foods (GMFs) healthy for us? Although the World Information Transfer

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multi- billion corporation, Monsanto, claims that their studies indicate that the food is no more dangerous than traditional food, few scientific studies are available. Concern over the health implications of consuming genetically modified crops have been present since their first planting, as a result of insufficient knowledge as to the long-term effects of ingesting GMFs as well as the wide variability of potential hazards associated with the crops. In USA the public has been kept in the dark, with no labels or education of what is a Genetically Modified Food. On May 25 2013, there was a worldwide March against Monsanto Corp. The protest, starting with a Facebook page, had 2 million people in 436 cities in 52 countries in the world demonstrate against Monsanto. Protesters said this was a march for awareness. They want people to know what’s in their food so they can make their own decisions of what they eat. This protest was focusing on enlightening people and pushing for labeling. Many fears regarding GMFs have arisen since their introduction to the market in 1996. One such concern is that GMFs will cause allergic reactions, either because of new allergenic genetic combinations in plants, or due to the undisclosed use of genes from plants that are already known allergens according to Trish Malarkey. The toxicity of GMFs is another potential hazard, as the resulting genetic combinations are novel and thus unstudied prior to creation she writes. Finally, there is overwhelming concern for the unpredictability of GMOs in causing harm to human health. The lack of long-term studies regarding health and GMF consumption cannot be ignored, and further investigation into long-term effects are necessary before GMFs are deemed safe for consumption according to Myhr and Traavik.

The introduction of genetically modified crops has had almost exclusively negative implications for the environments into which the crops are planted. Loss of biodiversity in the regions immediately surrounding GM crop fields has commonly been observed, either due to the outcompetition of native plants by GM crops themselves or by hybrids of GM and conventional crops. Such loss of native plants is detrimental to ecosystem functioning and animal diversity. Additionally, because of the genetically engineered stability of GM seeds, many farmers coat their fields in pesticides or herbicides, rather than spot treating problem patches according to Key et al.. The increased intensity of pesticide or herbicide frequently has negative implications for the health of surrounding plants, water systems, and soil. Despite the many negative implications of GM crops, however, the potential benefits of the technology cannot be ignored. In a planet increasingly ravaged by extreme environmental conditions and a growing population, GM crops enable a greater diversity of crops to be planted in areas that might not otherwise be able to sustain traditional agriculture. Other advantages, such as the ability of some GM varieties to uptake heavy metals, demonstrate that the crops also have potential applicability in environmental restoration. Although the US Senate has rejected a law to label GMFs, consumers have started to take this issue into their own hands. Whole Foods demands genetically modified foods that it sells are labeled as such by 2018. Vermont and Connecticut proposed that food companies declare genetically modified ingredients on their packages. One can buy an app now called Buycott, which will notify consumers whether their food contains GMOs or is produced by a company that backs Monsanto.

Not only have consumers and states in America taken a stance, but now other countries are starting to voice their concerns. The European Union has started to voice legitimate concerns that free trade negotiations with the US could lead into lowering food safety and public health standards in favor of advancing special trade interests. The EU is concerned about the trend to harmonize tolerances of growthpromoting hormones used on animals such as ractopamine, or other chemicals such as chlorine-washed poultry. Countries like France are pushing to keep the culture of their food by not using GMFs. This situation is similar to the one of tobacco a decade ago. Corporations have a tight hold on government. It will be up to the people to educate what are the dangers associated with GMF’s and the potential damage to both the environment and indeed humans. The need for legislation and concise progressive laws to keep these foods labeled seems to be the nest step. Tobacco’s dangers were finally posted for the public, now it is up to the governmental organizations to protect and inform the public about GMF. Sources: Key, Suzie, Julian K-C Ma, and Pascal MW Drake. “Genetically Modified Plants and Human Health.” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 101.6 (2008): 29098. Web. Malarkey, Trish. “Human Health Concerns with CM Crops.” Mutation Research 544 (2003): 217-21. Myhr, Anne I., and Terje Traavik. “The Precautionary Principle: Scientific Uncertainty and Omitted Research in the Context of GMO Use and Release.” Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Ethics 15.1 (2002): 73-86. Yonekura-Sakakibara, Keiko, and Kazuki Saito. “Review: Genetically Modified Plants for the Promotion of Human Health.” Biotechnology Letters 28.24 (2006): 1983-991. Niller, E. 1999. Monsanto remains a magnet for GM opposition. Natural Biotechnology 17, pg 848

The project faced a few restrictions including the weather but even on days with high radiation and low humidity, there was a decrease of 45% in the concentration of NOx. On average, the DeNOx street had a 19% concentration of NO, and in afternoons it had on average a 28% lower concentration when compared to the control street.

Air-Purifying Pavement

Steps towards more sustainable urban planning are becoming tangible as an air-purifying pavement in Norway is producing successful results. Nitrous Oxides (also known as NOx) are compounds that cause both environmental and health problems including acid rain and urban smog. Scientists in the Netherlands utilized the catalyst titanium dioxide (TiO2), which is activated under ultraviolet light and converts NOx into less toxic nitrates. A project using paving blocks containing the photocatalyst TiO2 began in January 2008 in Henglo, Norway. One hundred fifty meters of the street were replaced by photocatalytic blocks (the DeNOx street). Throughout the year humidity, radiation, wind speed and direction, vehicle traffic, NO concentrations, and NOx concentrations were measured.

On Castorweg Street in Hengelo, Netherlands, researchers have installed paving blocks treated with smog-eating titanium oxide. (Science Direct / July 5, 2013) Source: latimes.com

Source: Ballari, M.M., and H.J.H. Brouwers. “Full Scale Demonstration Of AirPurifying Pavement.” Journal Of Hazardous Materials 254-255.(2013): 406-414. Academic Search Elite. Web. 12 July 2013.

Solar Impulse – The first plane solely powered by solar energy

Source: econews.com.au/news-to-sustain-our-world/solar-impulse-plane-tocross-us-in-may/

The first solar powered plane has finished its trip from Dulles Airport in Washington, D.C. to New York City, Sunday, July 7th, 2013. The airplane is completely powered by the sun and the more the plane flies, the more energy it has. This extraordinary project carries a strong message that with technology we can create clean and renewable energy. The airplane shows that technology can solve problems for a better world. Solar Impulse’s creators view themselves as green pioneers, promoting lighter materials, solar-powered batteries, and conservation. The pilots and team plan to fly around the world on solar power by 2015. Source: UN briefing, July 7th, 2013

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World Ecology Report 13 Fall-Winter 2013

Better management of hazardous chemicals in Africa pledged

Source: hirshbergchemicals.com

National legal and institutional arrangements and resources for chemical management are often insufficient in Africa, where increased chemical use, production and disposal are projected in the coming years. However, recently representatives of 28 African countries developed a draft roadmap aimed at driving the continent toward meeting the 2020 goal of the sound management of chemicals across their lifecycles. The experiences of Zambia, Burkina Faso and Uganda were drawn on to draft a plan to be turned into appropriate legislation in the respective countries. The initiative is hoped to contribute to the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM), which was adopted in 2006 and has the overall objective of ensuring that, by the year 2020, chemicals are produced and used in ways that minimize significant adverse effects on both the environment and human health. Source: unep.org/newscentre/Default. aspx?DocumentID=2723&ArticleID=956 2&l=en World Information Transfer

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Hair sampling tests in Mauritius Mercury is a toxic and bioaccumulative substance that, according to the WHO, causes health problems like cutaneous outbreaks, central nervous system damage, congenital anomalies and sometimes death. Pesticide Action Network Mauritius (PANeM), an NGO created in 2005, whose aim is to encourage Mauritians to adopt ecological practices to replace the use of dangerous chemical pesticides conducted hair sampling tests to evaluate people’s intoxication degree of mercury in Cité La Chaux in Mahébourg, a major fishconsuming area in Mauritius. Fish can contain high volumes of mercury as it accumulates up the food chain. The mercury dose in the hair gives a certain measure of the mercury accumulation during the previous months. The samples enabled the participants to be aware of the danger of mercury exposure and its presence in certain kinds of fish. Source: http://www.lemauricien.com/ article/cite-la-chaux-pesticide-actionnetwork-effectue-des-tests-cheveux

2013 Duck Numbers Remain Strong The US Fish and Wildlife Service released its report on 2013 Trends in Duck Breeding Populations on 12 July 2013, based on surveys conducted in May and early June. The report found that, despite slight declines, most species remain well above longterm averages. Total populations were estimated at 45.6 million breeding ducks in the surveyed area, which represents a 6% decrease from last year’s estimate of 48.6 million birds, but is 33% above the 1955-2012 longterm average. Particularly, scaup and blue-winged teal were significantly below last year’s estimates, while American wigeon were 23% above

Source: ducks.org

last year. While the spring moisture was a positive sign for duck breeding, the continuing loss of nesting habitat remains a major concern. The ongoing loss of grasslands and wetlands across the Prairie Pothole Region is believed to continue to impact the number of ducks in the fall flight. Source: ducks.org/conservation/ waterfowl-surveys/2013-ducknumbers?poe=eblast

22nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE On Health and Environment: GLOBAL PARTNERS FOR GLOBAL SOLUTIONS will be held at the United Nations Headquarters on December 2, 2013 on the THEME “Sustainability Risks” Co-sponsored by the Government of Ukraine for inquiry: E-mal: [email protected] Tel: 212-686-1996 SAVE the DATE: Theme: “WATER AND TECHNOLOGY” September 19, 2013 United Nations Headquarters Sponsored by the Permanent Mission of Ukraine to the United Nations

Sri Lanka to Hold World Youth Conference 2014

Next year, Sri Lanka will host the World Youth Conference. Its focus will be on strengthening the role of youth in development and emphasis will be placed on youth involvement in the decision making process in the planning and implementation of the post-2015 development agenda.

Photo from: jhsph.edu

Photo from: earthcharterinaction.org

Youth are defined as individuals between the ages of 15 and 24. Currently, there are 1.2 billion youth on the planet, accounting for 18% of the world’s population. The large majority of the world’s youth live in developing countries (87%) and 45% of youth globally live on less than 2 dollars a day. Youth are often marginalized in society and face challenges including limited access to resources, education, training, employment, and social services. The World Youth Conference will discuss these pressing issues with youth from around the globe and seek sustainable solutions as well as ideas and recommendations for a focus on youth initiatives in the post2015 development agenda.

Today for a Sustainable Future”. The conference will focus on the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD), celebrating the Decade’s achievements and showcasing initiatives, actors, networks, and ideas from the DESD. The conference will be organized around four specific objectives: 1. Celebrating a Decade of Action (“What have we achieved, what are the lessons learnt?”) 2. Reorienting Education to Build a Better Future for All (“How does ESD reinforce quality education”) 3. Accelerating Action for Sustainable Development (“How are sustainability challenges addressed through ESD?”) 4. Setting the Agenda for ESD beyond 2014 (“What are the strategies for our common future?”) The conference will focus on efforts to improve the world wide quality of education and will also emphasize the role of ESD in the transition to green economies as well as highlight ESD as a catalyst for cross-sector planning and execution of programs dealing with climate change, biodiversity, and disaster risk reduction. Finally, education is a powerful tool in poverty eradication and has the capacity to transform people’s lives.

Sources: worldyouthconference2014.org/ youth-and-mdgs.htm, worldyouthconference2014.org/sites/default/files/Download/ConceptNote-UNWorldYouthConference2014.pdf

UNESCO World Conference on Education for Sustainable Development 2014 Location: Aichi-Nagoya, Japan Dates: November 10-12, 2014 The World Conference on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) will be held next year in Japan, under the theme “Learning

Source: http://www.unesco.org/ new/en/unesco/events/programmemeetings/?tx_browser_pi1%5BshowUid% 5D=7156&cHash=bac2fd4d7b World Information Transfer

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greenhouse gas emissions, higher temperatures, more intense floods, droughts, wildfires, and rising sea levels are being seen worldwide. The International Climate Change Adaptation Conference seeks to find sustainable solutions to these grave environmental consequences. Source: http://adaptationfutures2014. ccst.inpe.br/index.php/about/

EREC welcomes Ocean Energy as new member

Photo from: www.uniteforsight.org

Global Health and Innovation Conference 2014

The Global Health and Innovation Conference is a two day event held at Yale University from April 12-13 which brings together students, professionals, and representatives from around the world to discuss pressing global public health issues. The conference will include 300 speakers, with keynote addresses from Mr. Seth Godin (New York Times Best-selling Author), Mr. Michael Moss (Investigative Reporter, New York Times), Dr. Jeffrey Sachs (Director of Earth Institute, Columbia University) and Dr. Sonia Ehrlich Sachs (Director of Health, Millennium Village Project). Topics to be discussed will include education initiatives in global health, environment, energy, and agriculture, healthcare delivery models, maternal and child health, water and sanitation, and technology in global health. This conference will feature lectures and workshops, as well as statements from Student Leaders in the global health field.

Fortaleza, Brazil from May 12-16, 2014. This conference focuses on adaptation to climate variability and change, with an emphasis on arid and semi-arid lands. Research scientists, policy makers, and practitioners from developed and developing countries will come to participate in this 5 day event to discuss adaptation challenges and opportunities. Inspired by the two previous conferences in Australia in 2010, and Arizona in 2012, this year’s conference will be hosted by UNEP’S Programme of Research on Climate Change Vulnerability, Impacts and Adaptation (PROVIA) and the Earth System Science Center of the National Institute for Space Studies. Even though efforts have been made to reduce

Source: http://www.uniteforsight.org/ conference/speakers-2014

Third International Climate Change Adaptation Conference

Next year’s Climate Change Adaptation Conference will be held in World Information Transfer

16 World Ecology Report Fall-Winter 2013

Photo from: epa.gov

The European Renewable Energy Council (EREC) welcomed the European Ocean Energy Association (EU-OEA) as a new member. “Ocean Energy is becoming part of EREC – first and foremost to add our voice to EREC’s call for binding targets for renewable energy, cutting emissions and energy consumption by 2030”, said Sian George, Ocean Energy Association CEO, “Bringing Europe’s ocean energy online will have several benefits for the renewables sector as a whole – such as system balancing and maximising the asset value of our green infrastructure.” EREC is the umbrella organisation of the major European renewable energy industry, trade and research associations. It represents an industry with an annual economic activity of more than 130 billion EU and more than 1 million employees. Source: erec.org/fileadmin/erec_docs/ Documents/Press_Releases/EREC_PR_-_ EREC_welcomes_EUOEA.pdf  

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Point of View: GLOBAL POVERTY HALVED BEFORE UN TARGET DATE Did the policies underlying the Millennium Development Goals cause the global poverty target to be reached two years ahead of schedule? Wouldn’t it be nice if the answer were a resounding, “YES!” Wouldn’t a resounding “YES!” signify a United Nations success. The MDGs initially received criticism for setting unrealistic goals derived from naïve optimism about international cooperation. Such criticism was unfair partly because it failed to notice the specific targets within each goal. The specifics of global poverty reduction focused on halving the number living in extreme poverty. In 1990, when extreme poverty meant living on $1.00 per day, 47% of the population in developing nations struggled under such conditions. Ten years later in 2000, when the MDGs came into being, extreme poverty levels were reduced by one third and within another decade, by 2010, were down to 22%. The dollar amount for extreme poverty was adjusted to $1.25 per day then. In other words, in the twenty years from 1990 to 2010, extreme poverty globally had been cut in half, suggesting neither concerted international policies nor specifically the MDGs had anything to do with the decrease. It must be noted, that living on $1.50 or $2.00 per day would do little to alter an impoverished life, and those living just above the line marking extreme poverty still live a similar misery, though they are measured differently.

One country accounted for almost three-quarters of the global decline in extreme poverty in the thirty years between 1980 and 2010. In 1980, 84% of China’s population lived in severe poverty. That number dropped to 60% in 1990, then to a dramatic 12% in 2010, meaning that 680 million Chinese came out of severe impoverishment in three decades. In contrast, between 1990 and 2010, extreme poverty fell from 56% to 48% in sub-Saharan Africa, the region of the world currently suffering from the most intractable poverty. There is little doubt that economic growth in China, led to the decline in extreme poverty in that country, and consequently to the MDG poverty elimination target being reached early. The past twenty years suggests that the policies of economic growth of individual nations, and perhaps, international economic cooperation, rather than international aid policies, will affect further worldwide reduction of extreme poverty. It might be naïve optimism again to think that a nation’s desire for economic power will lead to the achievement of all of the MDGs. Sources: http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Resources/Static/ Products/Progress2013/Progress_E.p; http://mdgs.un.org/ unsd/mdg/Resources/Static/Products/Progress2013/English2013.pdf http://www.economist.com/blogs/economistexplains/2013/06/economist-explains-0; http://www.economist. com/news/briefing/21578643-

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