NMDM121 MEDICINAL FOOD SCIENCE Session 14 Culinary Herbs and Spices Part II Nutritional Medicine Department

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Session Summary Discuss the nutritional values, phytochemical profiles, culinary uses and therapeutic benefits of: • • • • • •

Cinnamon Mint Coriander Turmeric Basil Oregano

• • • • •

Parsley Thyme Sage Black pepper Lemon balm

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Cinnamon

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Cinnamon: Introduction • The scientific name is Cinnamomum spp. and it belongs to the Lauraceae family. • The part used is the bark. • It was traditionally used mainly as a stomachic and carminative for gastrointestinal complaints. • TCM Thermal Nature: Flavour: (Kastner,

Warm to hot Acrid

2005)

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Cinnamon: Constituents • Cinnamaldehyde (resinous compound) ‒ The insulinotropic effects of cinnnamaldehyde have been preliminarily investigated and are thought to be responsible for promoting insulin release, enhancing insulin sensitivity, increasing insulin disposal, and exerting activity in the regulation of protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) and insulin receptor kinase (Allen et al., 2013).

‒ In vitro studies have found that cinnamaldehyde decreases release and expression of proinflammatory mast cell mediators – i.e. anti-allergy activity (Hagenlocher et al., 2014). © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Cinnamon: Constituents • Methylhydroxychalcone polymer (MHCP) ‒ In vitro studies have shown that MHCP acts as an insulin mimetic. • Volatile oils ‒ Cinnamon contains a wide range of essential oils – e.g. eugenol. • Procyanidins and catechins ‒ The procyanidins include both A-type and B-type linkages and have antioxidant activity. (Rao & Gan, 2014)

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Cinnamon: Therapeutic Uses Anti-diabetes activity • Based on in vitro and animal studies there is interest in using cinnamon to help manage conditions such as diabetes. • Short term RCTs investigating the effect of cinnamon on parameters such as fasting plasma glucose, total cholesterol, LDL-C, HDL-C, triglyceride levels and haemoglobin A1c have yielded conflicting results with some studies showing beneficial effects and others showing no benefit. • The high degree of heterogeneity between studies makes it difficult to apply results to client care because the preferred dose and duration of therapy are unclear (Allen et al., 2013).

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Cinnamon: Therapeutic Uses • Cinnamon has been used traditionally as tooth powder and to treat toothaches, dental problems, oral microbiota and bad breath (Rao & Gan, 2014). • In vitro and animal studies have shown that cinnamon has antioxidant activity, anti-inflammatory activity, neuroprotective activity (e.g. Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease) and antimicrobial activity (Rao & Gan, 2014).

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Cinnamon: Cautions • Cinnamon-flavoured products (toothpaste, chewing gum, food, candy and mouthwash) can cause oral adverse reactions; with the most common being contact stomatitis. Signs and symptoms of contact allergic reactions affecting the oral mucosa can mimic other common oral disorders, making diagnosis difficult (Calapai et al., 2014).

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Cinnamon: Culinary Uses • In the Middle East cinnamon is often added to sweetsour stews. • In Europe it is mainly used in baked pies and pastries and to flavour fruit compotes. • In Western cuisine it is often combined with nutmeg, clove and anise. • It provides the sweet note in spice blends such as Chinese five-spice powder and in Indian garam masala. • In combination with warm spices it is also used to flavour wine. (Bateman, 2003) © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Mint

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Mint: Introduction • The scientific name for peppermint is Mentha x piperita and the scientific name for spearmint is Mentha spicata. They belong to the Lamiaceae family. • Mint has been used traditionally for the treatment of digestive disorders. • TCM: Thermal Nature: Cooling Flavour: Acrid, slightly sweet (Kastner, 2005)

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Mint: Constituents • The principal active components of peppermint include menthol, menthone and menthyl acetate. • The aerial part of peppermint has been found to contain the flavonoid glycosides: eriocitrin, narirutin, hesperidin, luteolin7-O-rutinoside, isorhoifolin, iosmin, rosmarinic acid, and 5,7dihydroxycromone-7-O-rutinoside. • Additional identified components of peppermint include polymerized polyphenols, perillyl alcohol, flavonoids, carotene, tocopherols, betaine, rosmarinic acid, eriocitrin, luteolin, hesperidin, choline, caffeic acid, and alphahumulene. Trace amounts of coumarin have also been detected in peppermint. (Natural Standard, 2014a) © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Mint: Therapeutic Uses • Peppermint oil has been shown to be effective in relieving some of the symptoms associated with IBS. It reduces gastrointestinal smooth muscle motility. • According to the German Commission E monographs, peppermint oil (as well as peppermint leaf) has been used internally for spastic discomfort of the upper gastrointestinal tract and bile ducts, irritable bowel, catarrh of the respiratory tract, and inflammation of the oral mucosa. • Externally, peppermint oil has been used for myalgia and neuralgia. • Peppermint oil may act as an antispasmodic, carminative, cholagogue, antibacterial, and secretolytic, and has a cooling action. (Natural Standard, 2014a) © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Mint: Cautions • Even though peppermint can be beneficial for certain digestive complaints it may aggravate gastrooesophageal reflux in some people due to a relaxation effect on the lower oesophageal sphincter. • There is some limited animal and human research that suggest the polyphenols in peppermint tea may inhibit iron absorption. (Natural Standard, 2014a)

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Coriander

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Coriander: Introduction • The scientific name is Coriandrum sativum and it belongs to the Apiaceae family. • The leaves, seeds and roots can all be used in cooking. • The leaves are also called cilantro and Chinese parsley. • TCM Thermal Value: Flavour:

Neutral to cooling Bitter, acrid

(Kastner, 2005)

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Coriander: History • Coriander has been used as a folk medicine for the relief of anxiety and insomnia in Iranian folk medicine. • Coriander seeds are used in traditional Indian medicine as a diuretic by boiling equal amounts of coriander seeds and cumin seeds, then cooling and consuming the resulting liquid. • In holistic and traditional medicine, it is used as a carminative and as a digestive aid. • Coriander juice (mixed with turmeric powder or mint juice) is used as a treatment for acne, applied to the face in the manner of toner.

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Coriander: Constituents • Volatile oils such as carvone, geraniol, limonene, borneol, camphor, elemol, and linalool. • Flavonoids, including quercitin, kaempferol, rhamnetin, and epigenin. • Phenolic acids, including caffeic and chlorogenic acid.

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Coriander: Therapeutic Uses • Coriander leaves have been reported to remove mercury, lead, and aluminium from body tissues by accelerating their urinary excretion; however, the evidence to support this is very low level evidence. • In one study in mice, localised lead deposition in femur and kidney as well as renal tissue damage was decreased by administration of coriander leaves. • There is preliminary evidence from a human study that coriander leaves (100 mg tablet X 4 times a day) may prevent the absorption of mercury contained in amalgam dental fillings. • The evidence supporting this role for coriander is very low level evidence at this stage. (Natural Standard, 2014b) © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Coriander: Therapeutic Uses • Animal studies have shown that coriander seeds had a beneficial effect on lipid parameters in rats fed a high fat diet compared to the control rats (Dhanapakiam et al., 2008). • Animal studies have shown that an ethanol extract of coriander seeds decreased blood glucose and increased insulin release from the beta-cells of the pancreas in rats with diabetes (Eidi et al., 2009). • At this time, high-quality human trials supporting the use of coriander for any indication are lacking.

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Coriander: Culinary Uses • The seeds should be kept whole until ready for use – dry roast them quickly in a small frying pan and then crush or grind. Popular in Indian cooking and often paired with cumin. • The root is prized in Thailand where it is chopped and added to soups. • Fresh green leaves can be added to many dishes as a garnish.

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Turmeric

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Turmeric: Introduction • Turmeric is the rhizome from the plant, Curcuma longa and belongs to the Zingiberaceae family. • The bright yellow colour of turmeric comes mainly from polyphenolic compounds known as curcuminoids. • Curcumin is the principal curcuminoid in turmeric and is generally considered its most active constituent. • Turmeric powder generally contains about 3% curcumin by weight. • Turmeric is one of the ingredients in curry powder.

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Turmeric: History • In Ayurvedic practices, turmeric is thought to have many medicinal properties and many in South Asia use it as a readily available antiseptic for cuts, burns and bruises. It is also used as an antibacterial agent.

• Traditionally called “Indian saffron” used throughout history as a condiment, healing remedy and textile dye. Used in Chinese and Indian systems of medicine to treat inflammation, flatulence, jaundice, menstrual difficulties, bloody urine, haemorrhage, toothache, bruises, chest pain, and colic.

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Turmeric: Constituents • Phenolics → Curcuminoids → Curcumin – the principal curcuminoid in turmeric; considered to be its most active ingredient (there are at least 4 other curcuminoids). • Volatile compounds – terpenes and ketones. • Traces of minerals – manganese, iron and potassium. • Other constituents that have not yet been identified.

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Turmeric: Characteristics

TCM: Thermal Nature: Flavour:

Warming Bitter, acrid (Kastner, 2005)

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Turmeric: Therapeutic Uses • In vitro and animal studies have demonstrated that turmeric has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer and neuroprotective activities (Aggarwal, 2007).

• Clinical trials in humans indicate that the systemic bioavailability of orally administered curcumin is relatively low. There is some evidence that orally administered curcumin accumulates in the gastrointestinal tissues so could exert local antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, There may be other constituents or metabolites of curcumin that exert beneficial systemic effects (Higdon, 2007).

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Turmeric: Therapeutic Uses Inflammatory bowel disease • In a small RCT (n= 89) investigating the use of curcumin as maintenance therapy for people with quiescent ulcerative colitis: ‒ 1 gram of curcumin twice a day after meals combined with standard pharmaceutical treatment. ‒ Of 43 participants who received curcumin 2 relapsed during 6 months of therapy (4.65%) whereas 8 of 39 participants in the placebo group relapsed (20.5%) (P=.04). ‒ Curcumin’s actions include suppression of NF-kB, interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumour necrosis factor alpha. (Hanai et al., 2006; Brumatti et al., 2014) © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Turmeric: Therapeutic Uses Osteoarthritis • A small pilot RCT (n=40) found improvement in pain and physical function scores in participants with knee osteoarthritis taking 1500 mg/day curcuminoids in 3 divided doses compared to placebo for 6 weeks. (Panahi et al., 2014)

Alzheimer’s disease • In vitro and animal studies suggest that curcumin may have a neuroprotective effect and there is research interest in its potential for reducing the risk of Alzheimer’s disease. • Animal studies suggest that curcumin may improve neural plasticity and repair. (Morales et al., 2014) © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Turmeric: Therapeutic Uses Antimicrobial • In vitro study investigating the bactericidal and antiadhesive properties of 25 plants against Helicobacter pylori. • The selected plants were boiled in water to produce an aqueous extract similar to the effect of cooking. • Amongst plants that killed the H. pylori, turmeric was the most efficient followed by cumin, ginger, chilli, borage, black caraway, oregano and liquorice. • Turmeric was also able to inhibit adhesion of H.pylori strains to the stomach sections. (O’Mahoney et al., 2005) © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Basil

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Basil: Introduction • The scientific name is Ocimum basilicum and it belongs to the Lamiaceae family. • Basil is commonly used fresh in cooked recipes. It is generally added at the last moment, as cooking quickly destroys the flavour. • Predominantly green; some varieties feature red or purple. More than 60 varieties of basil, differ in appearance and taste. • The taste of sweet basil is bright and pungent, other varieties offer unique tastes: lemon, anise, Thai and cinnamon basil all have flavours that subtly reflect their name.

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Basil: Characteristics TCM Thermal Nature: Flavour:

Warming Acrid, bitter, slightly sweet. (Kastner, 2005)

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Basil: Constituents • Flavonoids - orientin and vicenin – in vitro studies on human white blood cells show that these constituents of basil protect cell structures as well as chromosomes from radiation and oxidative damage. • Volatile oils such as estragole, linalool, cineole, eugenol, sabinene, myrcene, and limonene. • Purple basil contains anthocyanidins – antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. • Excellent source of vitamin K with traces of manganese, copper, beta-carotene, vitamin C, calcium, folate and iron. © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Basil: Therapeutic Uses • Basil has been used traditionally as a cardiotonic, abdominal pain reliever, anti-diarrhoea medicine, hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant. • It has been traditionally used as treatment for a variety of neurological disorders such as anxiety, headaches and migraines, nerve pains, inflammation, cough, cold, digestive disorders, chest and lung complaints, fever, insect bites, menstrual cramps and sinusitis (Sarahroodi et al., 2012).

• There is currently a lack of scientific evidence to support any of these traditional uses. © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Basil: Culinary Uses • In Thailand, Vietnam and Cambodia, basil is used in spicy soups with ginger, lemongrass and kaffir lime leaves. The leaves may even be deep fried and added as a fragrant garnish. • In Italy it is added to a simple salad of sliced ripe tomatoes, creamy mozzarella cheese with extra virgin olive oil and sea salt. • Pesto – pounded basil leaves are mixed with olive oil, crushed pine nuts, sea salt and dry pecorino cheese. (Bateman, 2003)

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Oregano

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Oregano: Introduction • The scientific name is Origanum vulgare and it belongs to the Lamiaceae family. • It is closely related to marjarom and is called wild marjoram in many parts of Europe. • Oregano is a Greek word meaning ‘delight of the mountains.’ • The leaves, stems, and flowers are used medicinally and have been traditionally employed to treat respiratory and gastrointestinal disorders and menstrual irregularities. • Oregano is an important culinary herb. It is particularly widely used in Turkish, Greek, Spanish and in Italian cuisine. © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Oregano: Constituents • The principal compounds believed to be responsible for the antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant properties of oregano are carvacrol, thymol, eugenol, and their precursors • Good source of vitamin K with traces of manganese, iron and calcium. • TCM Thermal Nature: Neutral Flavour: Slightly acrid, bitter (Kastner, 2005)

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Oregano: Therapeutic Uses • Human research on oregano is limited, and evidence in support of any clinical use of oregano or oregano oil is lacking. • Uses with inconclusive laboratory evidence include antifungal, antioxidant, antibacterial, and insect-repelling activities. The antibacterial and antioxidant effects of oregano are of particular interest to the food industry, as oregano may hold promise as a natural preservative. (Natural Standard, 2014c)

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Oregano: Culinary Uses • Oregano is often combined with tomato. • It also goes well with mozzarella cheese. • To capture its full aroma, oregano should be added towards the end of cooking.

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Parsley

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Parsley: Introduction • The two varieties of parsley that are commonly available for sale are curly parsley and Italian flat-leaf (or continental) parsley. • The scientific name is Petroselinum crispum and it belongs to the Apiaceae family. • It is a native of the central Mediterranean where it is widely cultivated as a herb and vegetable. • TCM: Thermal Nature: Warming (leaf); Neutral (root) Flavour: Slightly acrid, bitter (leaf); Sweet, bland, slightly acrid (root) (Kastner, 2005). © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Parsley: Constituents • When consumed in portions of at least 30 grams (about ½ cup) parsley provides useful amounts of vitamin C, vitamin K, folate, calcium, iron and potassium. • It is also a good source of β-carotene, lutein and zeaxanthin. • It is an excellent source of chlorophyll. • It contains flavonoids – luteolin and apigenin. In vitro and animal studies suggest that apigenin has the following actions: antioxidant, anti-mutagenic, anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative (Patel et al., 2007). • It contains volatile oils – especially myristicin. © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Parsley: Therapeutic Uses • The published research on parsley has focused on the herbal medicine form as a liquid extract, rather than the food form. • In Morocco, parsley is mostly used as an elixir to treat arterial hypertension, diabetes, cardiac and renal diseases. • When added to vegetable juices only small amounts should be used (e.g. 7 parts carrot juice and 1 part parsley juice). Traditionally used for eye health and gum health. • Traditionally used as a breath freshener, e.g. after eating garlic. • Currently, the strongest evidence exists for Petroselinum crispum's antioxidant properties.

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Parsley: Culinary Uses • Wash parsley carefully before consumption. • An important ingredient of tabbouleh (tabouli) – a Middle Eastern salad containing burghul, parsley, mint, tomato, green onions, olive oil and lemon juice. • Add chopped parsley to hot and cold dishes. When used in cooking, add it at towards the end of the cooking process to maintain colour and flavour.

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Thyme

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Thyme: Introduction • The scientific name is Thymus vulgaris and it belongs to the Lamiaceae family. • Along with fresh sprigs of parsley and bay leaves, thyme is included in the French combination of herbs called bouquet garni used to season stock, stews and soups. • Thyme has a long history of use in natural medicine in connection with chest and respiratory problems including coughs, bronchitis, and chest congestion. • Whenever possible, choose fresh thyme over the dried form of the herb as it has superior flavour. The leaves of fresh thyme should look fresh and be a vibrant greengrey colour. © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Thyme: History o The ancient Greeks used it in their baths and burnt it as incense in their temples, believing that thyme was a source of courage. It was thought that the spread of thyme throughout Europe was thanks to the Romans, as they used it to purify their rooms and to "give an aromatic flavour to cheese and liqueurs". o TCM • Thermal Nature: • Flavour:

Warming Bitter, acrid

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Thyme: Constituents • Volatile oils including thymol, carvacolo, borneol and geraniol. In studies on ageing in rats, thymol has been found to protect and significantly increase the percentage of healthy fats found in cell membranes. In particular, the amount of DHA (docosahexaenoic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid) in brain, kidney, and heart cell membranes was increased after dietary supplementation with thyme. • Flavonoids, including apigenin, naringenin, luteolin, and thymonin. • Small amounts of vitamin C, iron and manganese. © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Thyme: Therapeutic Uses • Thyme has been used medicinally for thousands of years for a variety of indications, based upon proposed antimicrobial, antitussive, spasmolytic, and antioxidant activities. • To date there are no well-defined controlled clinical trials in humans to support thyme as a monotherapy for any condition. • Thymol, one of the constituents of thyme, is often an ingredient in antiseptic mouthwashes. Limited clinical study has corroborated its efficacy as a monotherapy in dental outcomes, such as reductions in plaque formation, gingivitis, and caries. (Natural Standard, 2014d)

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Sage

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Sage: Introduction • Scientific name is Salvia officinalis and it belongs to the Lamiaceae family. • There are many different species of sage, with some reports describing over 900 species. • Sage has been used traditionally in Europe as popular treatment for inflammation of the mouth and throat, dyspepsia, and excessive sweating. Often used as a mouthwash or gargle. (Natural Standard, 2014e)

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Sage: History • Historically used for its culinary and medicinal properties. • The plant had a high reputation throughout the Middle Ages, with many sayings referring to its healing properties and value. • Dioscorides, Pliny and Galen all recommended sage as a diuretic, hemostatic, emmenagogue and tonic. • TCM: Thermal Nature: Warming, slightly hot Flavour: Bitter, acrid (Kastner, 2005)

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Sage: Constituents • Polyphenols including carnosic acid, rosmarinic acid and caffeic acid – all have strong antioxidant and antibacterial activities; ursolic acid has anti-inflammatory activity (Hamidpour et al., 2014).

• The principal components of sage oil are 1,8-cineole, camphor, α-thujone, β-thujone, borneol and viridiflorol (Hamidpour et al., 2014).

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Sage: Therapeutic Uses • Sage has longstanding use as a traditional herbal remedy that can enhance memory and improve cognitive functions. Several small studies on healthy subjects and those with Alzheimer’s disease have shown promising results in enhancing cognitive function but further research is needed (Mirrodi et al., 2014). • Throat sprays containing sage have shown promising results for treatment of acute sore throat in several small human trials (Schapowal et al., 2009).

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Sage: Therapeutic Uses • Sage has been traditionally used to treat sweating and menopausal hot flushes, as well as to alleviate associated menopausal symptoms and as a general tonic: ‒ A small trial (n=71) using a once daily tablet of fresh sage leaves for 8 weeks demonstrated clinical value in the treatment of hot flushes and associated menopausal symptoms (Bommer et al., 2011). ‒ The European Medicines Agency (EMA) reported a number of unpublished studies confirming the perspiration–inhibiting and antihidrotic effects of sage (Walch et al., 2011). © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Sage: Culinary Uses • Sage was thought to aid digestion so it is often paired with fatty foods such as pork sausage meat, and with onion in sage and onion stuffing for Christmas turkey or goose. • Commonly paired with liver in Italy and pork sausages in France. • Added to bouquet garni with other herbs to flavour soups, stocks and stews. • One of the classic English cheeses is Derby, coloured green with sage leaves. (Bateman, 2003)

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Black Pepper

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Black Pepper: Introduction • Scientific name is Piper nigrum. • Black pepper, white pepper, and green pepper are all differently preserved berries or seeds of the Piper nigrum plant. • Black pepper may have some digestive benefits: ‒ Consumption may lead to greater satiety. ‒ In animal studies, protein digestibility and biological value of the protein were increased in combination with a mixture of spices including Piper nigrum. (Natural Standard, 2014f)

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Black Pepper: Characteristics TCM Thermal Nature:

Flavour:

Warming to hot (black) Warming (green) Warming to hot (white) Very acrid (black) Acrid (green) Very acrid (white)

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Black Pepper: Culinary Uses • Pepper should be ground from the whole seed when required. Once ground it loses its flavour. • Compared to chilli, the heat from peppercorns is gentle and warming. • Black pepper is used in the Indian spice mix, garam masala, which is added at the end of cooking. • When pepper is used in cooking it loses its flavour quickly because heat drives off the piquant volatile flavour oils. (Bateman, 2003)

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Lemon Balm

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Lemon Balm: Introduction • Scientific name is Melissa officinalis and it is a member of the Lamiaceae family. • A lemon-scented herb native to southern Europe. • Historically, lemon balm has been purported to possess sedative or tranquilising, anti-gas, fever-reducing, antibacterial, spasmolytic, hypotensive, memoryenhancing, menstrual-inducing, and thyroid-related effects (Natural Standard, 2014g). • Lemon balm is used by herbalists for nervous digestive disorders – believed to relieve flatulence and spasm and act as a gentle sedative. © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Lemon Balm: Introduction • Records concerning the medicinal use of lemon balm date back over 2000 years, including a recommendation by Paracelsus (1493–1541) that lemon balm would completely revivify a man and should be used for “all complaints supposed to proceed from a disordered state of the nervous system” (Scholey et al. 2014). • Several herbal apothecaries have attributed the plant with general beneficial effects upon the brain including specific improvements to memory (Scholey et al. 2014). • Lemon balm contains rosmarinic acid. • In vitro data suggest that lemon balm may contain high concentrations of antioxidants. © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Lemon Balm: Therapeutic Uses • Preliminary studies suggest that lemon balm may have an anxiolytic effect with improvements in mood and cognitive performance (Scholey et al., 2014). • Research appears to support the use of topical lemon balm to alleviate symptoms of herpes simplex infections. ‒ Cream containing 1% of a standardized 70:1 extract has been used topically up to five times daily for up to 14 days. Anecdotally, a tea has been applied to herpes lesions with a saturated cotton ball several times daily. The tea was prepared by steeping 2-3 teaspoons (2-3g) of the finely cut leaf in 150mL of boiling water for 5-10 minutes and then straining (Natural Standard, 2014g).

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Herbs: Phenolic Content Herb

Total phenolic content mg/100 g

Coriander

Dried Fresh

2,260 159

Dill

Dried Fresh

1,250 208

Oregano

Dried Fresh

6,367 935

Parsley

Dried Fresh

1,584 89

Rosemary

Dried Fresh

2,518 1,802

Sage

Dried Fresh

2,919 185

Thyme

Dried Fresh

1,815 1,173

(Opara & Chohan, 2014 © Endeavour College of Natural Health

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Spices: Phenolic Content Spice

Total phenolic content mg/100 g

Cinnamon

9,700

Cloves

16,047

Coriander seed

357

Ginger-Dried Ginger-Fresh

473 204

Nutmeg

1,905

Turmeric

2,117

(Opara & Chohan, 2014)

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Herbs and Spices: Summary Anti-inflammatory

Ginger, turmeric

Antimicrobial

Clove, fennel seed, garlic, onion, sage, thyme, oregano, turmeric (lemon balm – antiviral)

Anxiolytic

Lemon balm

Carminative action

Dill, fennel, lemon balm, peppermint, asafoetida, cardamom, caraway, coriander seeds, ginger.

Circulatory stimulants

Cayenne, chilli, ginger, horseradish, mustard, paprika (cinnamon and cardamom – mild)

Galactagogue action

Fennel seeds, fenugreek

Neuroprotective

Turmeric, sage, rosemary

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Allen, R et al. 2013, ‘Cinnamon Use in Type 2 Diabetes: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis’, Annals of Family Medicine, vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 452-459, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3767714/pdf/0110452.pdf Aggarwal, B et al., 2007, ‘Curcumin: the Indian solid gold’, Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol. 595, pp. 1-75. Bateman, M 2003, The World of Spice, Kyle Cathie Ltd., London. Bommer S et al., 2011, ‘First time proof of sage's tolerability and efficacy in menopausal women with hot flushes’, Advances in Therapy, vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 490500. Brumatti, L et al. 2014, ‘Curcumin and inflammatory-bowel disease: Potential and limits of innovative treatments’, Molecules, vol. 19, pp. 21127-21153. Calapai, G et al. 2014, ‘Oral adverse reactions due to cinnamon-flavoured chewing gums consumption’, Oral Diseases, vol. 20, no. 7, pp. 637-643. Dhanapakiam, P et al., 2008, ‘The cholesterol lowering property of coriander seeds (Coriandrum sativum): mechanism of action’, Journal of Environmental Biology, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 53-56.

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Eidi, M et al. 2009, ‘Effect of coriander seed (Coriandrum sativum L.) ethanol extract on insulin release from pancreatic beta cells in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats’, Phytotherapy Research, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 404-406. Hagenlocher, Y et al., 2014, ‘Cinnamaldehyde is the main mediator of cinnamon extract in mast cell inhibition’, European Journal of Nutrition, Dec 11. [Epub ahead of print]. Hampidour, M et al. 2014, ‘Chemistry, pharmacology and medicinal property of sage (Salvia) to prevent and cure illnesses such as obesity, diabetes, depression, dementia, lupus, autism, heart disease and cancer’, Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 82-88, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4003706/ Hanai, H et al. 2006, ‘Curcumin maintenance therapy for ulcerative colitis: randomised, multicentre, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial’, Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology, vol. 4, no. 12, pp. 1502-6. Higdon, J 2007, An evidence-based approach to dietary phytochemicals, Thieme, New York.

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Kastner, J 2005, Chinese Nutrition Therapy, 2nd edn. Thieme, New York. Kavvadias, D et al. 2003, ‘Constituents of sage (Salvia officinalis) with in vitro affinity to human brain benzodiazepine receptor’ Planta Medicavol. 69, no. 2, pp. 113-117. Mirrodi, M et al. 2014, ‘Systematic review of clinical trials assessing pharmacological properties of Salvia species on memory, cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease’, CNS Neuroscience and Therapeutics, vol. 20, no. 6, pp. 485-495. Morales, I et al. 2014, ‘Neuroinflammation in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. A rational framework for the search of novel therapeutic approaches’, Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, vol. 8, pp. 112, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4001039/ Natural Standard 2014a, ‘Peppermint’, © Natural Standard, www.naturalstandard.com Natural Standard 2014b, ‘Coriander’, © Natural Standard, www.naturalstandard.com Natural Standard 2014c, ‘Oregano’, © Natural Standard, www.naturalstandard.com Natural Standard 2014d, ‘Thyme’, © Natural Standard, www.naturalstandard.com

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Natural Standard 2014e, ‘Sage’, © Natural Standard, www.naturalstandard.com Natural Standard 2014f, ‘Black pepper’, © Natural Standard, www.naturalstandard.com Natural Standard 2014g, ‘Lemon balm’, © Natural Standard, www.naturalstandard.com O’Mahoney, R et al. 2005, ‘Bactericidal and anti-adhesive properties of culinary and medicinal plants against Helicobacter pylori’, World Journal of Gastroenterology, vol. 11. no. 47, pp. 7499-7507. Opara, E & Chohan, M 2014, ‘Culinary herbs and spices: Their bioactive properties, the contribution of polyphenols and the challenges in deducing their true health benefits’, International Journal of Molecular Science, vol. 15, pp. 19183-19202. Panahi, Y et al. 2014, ‘Curcuminoid treatment for knee osteoarthritis: a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled trial’, Phytotherapy Research, vol. 28, no. 11, pp. 1625-31. Patel, D et al. 2007, ‘Apigenin and cancer chemoprevention: progress, potential and promise (review),’ International Journal of Oncology, vol. 30, pp. 233-245.

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Rao, PV & Gan, SH 2014, ‘Cinnamon: A Multifaceted Medicinal Plant’, EvidenceBased Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 2014, Article ID 642942, 12 pages, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4003790/pdf/ECAM2014642942.pdf Sarahroodi, et al. 2012, ‘The effects of green Ocimum basilicum hydroacloholic extract on retention and retrieval of memory in mice’, Ancient Science of Life, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 185-189, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3644756/ Schapowal, A et al. 2009, ‘Echinacea/sage or chlorhexidine/lidocaine for treating acute sore throats: a randomized double-blind trial’, European Journal of Medical Research, vol. 14, no. 9, pp. 406-12. Scholey, A et al. 2014, ‘ Anti-Stress Effects of Lemon Balm-Containing Foods’, Nutrients, vol. 6, pp. 4805-4821, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4245564/pdf/nutrients-06-04805.pdf Walch, S et al. 2009, ‘Antioxidant capacity and polyphenolic compositions as quality indicators for aqueous infusions of Salvia officinalis L. (sage tea)’, Frontiers in Pharmacology, published: 1 December 2011 doi: 10.3389/fphar.2011.00079, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3242359/pdf/fphar-02-00079.pdf

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