PSYCHOLOGY

Negative Life Events, Prayer and Life Satisfaction Amanda A. Reasonover

Abstract The current study assesses individual's negative life events, past prayer practices, current prayer practices and their impact on life satisfaction. Forty-one participants ranked major life events that they had experienced. For the purpose of this study the most negative life event was used. Surveys on past and current prayer practices were correlated to assess the individual's perception of life satisfaction. Results indicated a positive correlation between current prayer practices and an increased level of life satisfaction.

Introduction Coping with negative life events is a topic that has been researched for many decades. Much research has shown that coping is an ongoing, evolving process. Houston (1987) identified that the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of a given coping behavior will influence the use of other coping behaviors. Logically, if a certain coping behavior is effective for an individual they have less need to continue seeking other behaviors to assist in remedying the situation. Conversely, ifthe coping behavior is not providing relief, the search continues to find a positive solution. The broader topics of faith and the beliefs an individual professes need to be considered when discussing and researching coping skills. For instance, prayer is often utilized by people as a coping mechanism. Currently, there is a growing need to include how religiosity affects human functioning with regard to negative life events. Within the past decade, religious coping has shown implications for improved mental health. Research conducted by Koenig, McCullough, and Larson (200 l) linked aspects of religious involvement to a wide variety of health results. According to Ellison et al (200 I), religious involvement has shown to be an important predictor of psychological distress. Further research conducted by Graham, et al (2001) indicated religion and spirituality were positively correlated with coping with stress. However, those individuals who were spiritual through religious beliefs had greater immunity to stressful situations than those individuals who were spiritual but not religious. In addition, research conducted by Trevino and Pargament (2007) shows the relationship between positive religious coping and lowered levels of depression, better quality of life and greater positive affect. As a result, one can broaden this view and imply those with positive religious coping have greater life satisfaction than those without religious coping because of a greater quality of life and the lowered likeliness of one acquiring a mental disorder like depression. Religiosity (as discussed above) and its implications on mental health have been, and continue to be, measured in many different ways. Measures include types of religious coping, active church involvement, personal one-on-one communication with a h{gher-being known as prayer, and others. These have been associated in previous research with positive outcomes for individuals going through negative life event stressors. In this domain, Bjorck and Thurman (2007) found negative life events were related to increased use of positive and negative religious coping. Researchers found the high use of positive religious coping buffered the effects of negative life events. These findings have many implications especially for those who have experienced high stress situations

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such as a death in the family. Mcintosh, Silver a religion was positively related to cognitive proce those individuals who participated in religious e' support and coped more successfully with the de events.

Religious studies on the subject of coping with s further the reasons why some people successful!: not. Eliassen, Taylor, and Lloyd (2005) report ir to non-religious respondents. The researchers fo religious individuals than among very religious c respondents were noted to have a lower life satis religious or non-religious. Additionally, they fo1 prayer among the less religious.

Research concerning prayer is also an increasing one of the many components ofreligiosity, it is i to Stone, Helder, and Schneider (1990), prayer n (2002) researched psychiatric patients who were prayer. The research indicated that certain religi severe symptoms of their diagnosis. In addition, religious practices were involved.

While much research has shown a positive corre been inconsistencies between how one measure ' affects differing populations. Previous studies o mentioning because they point out the need for r of religion and coping was indicated when indiv Pargament, 2007). These individuals experience satisfaction when they faced spiritual conflicts. lessen emotional problems. However, it was not to be only useful with certain types of stressors \ Helder, & Schneider, 1990).

This study is intended to extend the research aln negative life events, prayer usage during the rep• and life satisfaction. The aim of this study is to ' and incorporate individual 's past and current pra satisfaction. It is expected that individuals who have lower life satisfaction than those who have individuals who prayed during their negative lifi than those who did not pray. It is also hypothesi who currently pray. These results may have im1 to participate in prayer and even broader implica satisfaction. In addition, this study's results ma~ are more likely to be included as a regular aspec

PSYCHOLOGY

Prayer and Life Satisfaction A. Reasonover

\.bstract

tive life events, past prayer practices, current prayer Forty-one participants ranked major life events that study the most negative life event was used. Surveys >rrelated to assess the individual ' s perception of life orrelation between current prayer practices and an

t has been researched for many decades. Much evolving process. Houston ( 1987) identified that the ing behavior will influence the use of other coping vior is effective for an individual they have less need 1 remedying the situation. Conversely, ifthe coping 1tinues to find a positive solution. ndividual professes need to be considered when instance, prayer is often utilized by people as a 1ing need to include how religiosity affects human

1own implications for improved mental health. and Larson (2001) linked aspects of religious .. According to Ellison et al (2001), religious dictor of psychological distress. Further research eligion and spirituality were positively correlated iduals who were spiritual through religious beliefs m those individuals who were spiritual but not frevino and Pargament (2007) shows the relationship I levels of depression, better quality of life and )aden this view and imply those with positive han those without religious coping because of a ;s of one acquiring a mental disorder like depression. ations on mental health have been, and continue to be, nclude types of religious coping, active church tion with a higher-being known as prayer, and others. ;h with positive outcomes for individuals going )main, Bjorck and Thurman (2007) found negative itive and negative religious coping. Researchers buffered the effects of negative life events. These ·those who have experienced high stress situations

such as a death in the family. Mcintosh, Silver and Wortman (1993) found the importance of religion was positively related to cognitive processing and finding meaning in death. They found those individuals who participated in religious events had an increase in perception of social support and coped more successfully with the death than those who did not participate in religious events. Religious studies on the subject of coping with stressors have led researchers to investigate even further the reasons why some people successfully cope with negative life events and why others do not. Eliassen, Taylor, and Lloyd (2005) report insightful findings concerning religious as compared to non-religious respondents. The researchers found higher levels of depression among moderately religious individuals than among very religious or nonreligious people. Moderately religious respondents were noted to have a lower life satisfaction rate than those individuals who were very religious or non-religious. Additionally, they found heightened stress exposure may elicit increased prayer among the less religious. Research concerning prayer is also an increasingly growing subject. Since prayer is considered just one of the many components of religiosity, it is important that this aspect is recognized. According to Stone, Helder, and Schneider (1990), prayer may alleviate one's emotional burdens. Baetz et al. (2002) researched psychiatric patients who were involved in various religious practices including prayer. The research indicated that certain religious practices may have protected patients from severe symptoms of their diagnosis. In addition, patients experienced higher life satisfaction when religious practices were involved. While much research has shown a positive correlation between religion and coping, there have been inconsistencies between how one measure's the different aspects ofreligion and how this affects differing populations. Previous studies on the measurement ofreligiosity are worth mentioning because they point out the need for more research in this area. A negative correlation of religion and coping was indicated when individuals experienced spiritual struggles (Trevino & Pargament, 2007). These individuals experienced greater depression and lower levels of life satisfaction when they faced spiritual conflicts. Along the same lines, prayer was indicated to lessen emotional problems. However, it was not directed toward eliminating a problem and seems to be only useful with certain types of stressors where there is no direct action possible (Stone, Helder, & Schneider, 1990). This study is intended to extend the research already done by assessing the correlation between negative life events, prayer usage during the reported negative life event, current prayer practice and life satisfaction. The aim of this study is to evaluate the severity of an individual's life event and incorporate individual ' s past and current prayer usage as it relates to their overall life satisfaction. It is expected that individuals who have experienced a severe negative life event will have lower life satisfaction than those who have experienced a moderate negative life event. Those individuals who prayed during their negative life event are expected to have greater life satisfaction than those who did not pray. It is also hypothesized that life satisfaction will be greater for people who currently pray. These results may have implications on when individuals choose to continue to participate in prayer and even broader implications on how individuals can obtain greater life satisfaction. In addition, this study' s results may refine our understanding of when prayer practices are more likely to be included as a regular aspect of an individual's normal daily life.

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PSYCHOLOGY

Method

Discussion

Participants

Much research has been devoted to improve o negative life events. Prayer has been found to going through traumatic life events (President has previously been identified and was found 1 Koenig, McCullough, & Larson 2001 ; Ellison finding the relationship between negative life practice on 1ife satisfaction.

Participants were 23 undergraduates at Indiana University South Bend enrolled in an introductory psychology course and 18 friends and family members. Males (8) and females (33) participated in this study. Ages were indicated by checking one of five ranges, 18-22 (48.8 percent), 23-30 (26.8 percent), 31-50 (22 percent), and 51-65 (2.4 percent). Respondents were African American (2.4 percent), Caucasian (87.8 percent), Hispanic (4.9 percent), and others (4.9 percent). Participants self-identified their religious background. Reported were Agnostic (9.8 percent), Protestant (24.4 percent), Mormon (2.4 percent), Roman Catholic ( 19.5 percent) and other ( 43 .9 percent). Each participant was given an informed consent form, which had been approved by the university's institutional research review board. The form indicated that the research involved recalling negative life events, prayer involvement and level of life satisfaction . Contact information was provided for mental health assistance. Participants were given the option to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.

The first hypothesis expected individuals who have lower life satisfaction than those who ha' event. However, no correlation was found bet satisfaction variables. An explanation for this major negative life event might have employe, the trauma. Therefore, the event overall woul, overall current life satisfaction.

Instrumentation Negative life events were rated through a checklist. Prayer practices and life satisfaction were measured with three surveys. Questions administered on the surveys were tested for reliability via Cronbachs ' alpha. All questions were reliable at or above the .84 level. Each of the surveys administered contained two reversal questions such as "I am satisfied with my life," contrasted to "Most of the time I feel my hard work gets me nowhere." The Major Life Event Checklist assessed the participant's number of negative, neutral and positive life event responses (i.e. getting a promotion at work, death of a family member, moving.) The 8-item Past Prayer Practice survey was completed as it related to the most negative life event reported. The Past Prayer Practice survey asked participants to rate each statement on a five-point scale from I (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). For example, "Prayer was central to me during my negative life event." This survey assessed prayer practice during the major life event reported. Participant's filled out a Current Prayer Practice survey which used the same questions as the Past Prayer Practice survey but assessed whether or not participant' s currently pray. For example, "I currently believe in the power of prayer." In addition, an 8-item Life Satisfaction survey was administered to assess participant's general impressions on the quality of their life. Participants rated questions such as, "I have a sense of meaning and purpose in my life" on a five-point scale from I (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The complete questionnaires are provided as attachments. Results A stepwise, multiple regression was used for statistical analysis. The variables analyzed were negative life events, past prayer practices, current prayer practices and life satisfaction. A positive correlation was found between current prayer practices and life satisfaction variables (r2 = .268, D 2 = .517, adj. r = .249). The 26.8% of variance in life satisfaction can be explained by current prayer. The results show that current prayer practices are the best predictor variable for life satisfaction.

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The second hypothesis predicted that life satis during their negative life event. This hypothes for past prayer usage (the prayer practice occu satisfaction. An explanation for this result cm their past prayer usage accurately, especially i Woolley and Phelps (2001) propose that child found by 7 years of age, children' s prayers are recalled a negative life event that took place '"' prayer usage on that event, it is likely that thm their prayer practice. This seems to be a valid event occurred early in life.

The third hypothesis expected life satisfaction to those who do not currently pray. The result positive correlation was found between indivic life satisfaction. This finding shows that pray sense of well being (life satisfaction) and that

This finding appears to correspond to previom higher levels of well-being and life satisfactio1 these results may be that people who pray free support structure could provide more encamp< life experiences and therefore the overall percc heightened.

The majority of this research sample was Caw life satisfaction results . Research conducted b American's have lower levels of well-being 01

PSYCHOLOGY

Discussion

University South Bend enrolled in an introductory 1embers. Males (8) and females (33) participated in 1e of five ranges, 18-22 (48.8 percent), 23-30 (26.8 rcent). Respondents were African American (2.4 .9 percent), and others (4.9 percent). Participants orted were Agnostic (9.8 percent), Protestant (24.4 ic ( 19.5 percent) and other (43.9 percent). Each 1, which had been approved by the university's ndicated that the research involved recalling vel of life satisfaction. Contact information was rnts were given the option to withdraw from the

:list. Prayer practices and life satisfaction were istered on the surveys were tested for reliability via tt or above the .84 level. Each of the surveys .uch as "I am satisfied with my life," contrasted to 10where." The Major Life Event Checklist assessed j positive life event responses (i.e. getting a noving.) The 8-item Past Prayer Practice survey life event reported. The Past Prayer Practice on a five-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 itral to me during my negative life event." This r life event reported. Participant's filled out a ame questions as the Past Prayer Practice survey :ly pray. For example, "I currently believe in the ttisfaction survey was administered to assess of their life. Participants rated questions such as, "l 'on a five-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to . are provided as attachments.

tistical analysis. The variables analyzed were it prayer practices and life satisfaction. A positive Ktices and life satisfaction variables (r2 = .268, D t life satisfaction can be explained by current prayer. ! the best predictor variable for life satisfaction.

Much research has been devoted to improve our understanding on how individuals cope with negative life events. Prayer has. been found to be a successful coping method for many individual's going through traumatic life events (President et al. 2007). As mentioned earlier, religious coping has previously been identified and was found to correlate with improved mental health (e.g., Koenig, McCullough, & Larson 2001; Ellison et al. 200 l ). The current study was interested in finding the relationship between negative life events, past prayer practice and current prayer practice on life satisfaction. The first hypothesis expected individuals who had experienced a major negative life event would have lower life satisfaction than those who have experienced a moderate, or minor negative life event. However, no correlation was found between major negative life event experiences and life satisfaction variables. An explanation for this might be that individuals who have experienced a major negative life event might have employed other successful coping strategies for dealing with the trauma. Therefore, the event overall would not have had a significant impact on a person's overall current life satisfaction. The second hypothesis predicted that life satisfaction would be greater in individuals who prayed during their negative life event. This hypothesis was shown to be false. There was no correlation for past prayer usage (the prayer practice occurring during the negative life event) and life satisfaction. An explanation for this result could be that individuals might have trouble recalling their past prayer usage accurately, especially ifthe event took place when they were a child. Woolley and Phelps (2001) propose that children can start praying at roughly 3 years of age. They found by 7 years of age, children's prayers are very similar to adult prayers . If participant's recalled a negative life event that took place when they were a child, and responded to their past prayer usage on that event, it is likely that those individual 's could have false memories concerning their prayer practice. This seems to be a valid consideration ifthe individual's most negative life event occurred early in life. The third hypothesis expected life satisfaction to be greater in those who currently pray compared to those who do not currently pray. The results indicate that this hypothesis was correct. A positive correlation was found between individuals who currently pray and their overall reported life satisfaction. This finding shows that prayer may well be beneficial to an individual 's personal sense of well being (life satisfaction) and that it can be a predictor of positive mental health . This finding appears to correspond to previous research which found religious people reporting higher levels of well-being and life satisfaction (Spilka et al. 2003.) An alternative explanation for these results may be that people who pray frequently do so in a community of believers. This support structure could provide more encompassing support for all aspects of the individual's daily life experiences and therefore the overall perception of their personal life satisfaction could well be heightened. The majority of this research sample was Caucasian (87.8 percent) . This could have affected the life satisfaction results. Research conducted by Levin and Taylor (1998) suggests African American 's have lower levels of well-being or life satisfaction than Caucasians. Only 2.4 percent

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PSYCHOLOGY

of this study' s population was African American. They note that it is unclear whether it is a racial confound or a socio-economic status issue. Future research should target a greater number of African Americans to see if this study' s results remain constant when the racial make up reflects more accurately the population of the country. Age might have affected the correlation hypothesis of negative life events and life satisfaction. Approximately half of the population was in the 18-22 age range. Younger individuals may not have experienced as severe of a life event as someone who is in the 51-65 age group. Life experiences increase with age. As one ages parents die, divorces occur and job changes become more frequent. All of these events have impact that goes beyond the individual. These factors figure into perceived overall life satisfaction. A broader age range in the study might, once again, produce significant differences in the statistical outcome. Another limitation to this study was that the subjects were primarily all women. Women tend to report being more religious than men (Ladd & Spilka 2006; Spilka et al. 2003). It follows that a more religious person would tend to pray more than one who does not portend to be religious. A religious person might also be more likely to gravitate toward a study involving prayer, thus affecting the result. Therefore, ifthe percentage of men involved in the study were increased, there might be a significant difference in the result. This study could be the impetus for future research that has an impact on the process of providing mental health education and support. If prayer can be shown to be beneficial to greater life satisfaction, perhaps this concept could be incorporated as a basic part of treatment. It could be included as one more tool in the arsenal of mental and physical healthcare professionals as they work with patients. A person's outlook on life, and the issues with which they have to deal, has a profound impact on the healing process. Findings brought about by scientific research that will help people cope with the struggles of day to day living will benefit the body knowledge used by mental health practitioners. Future research on this topic would greatly enhance this aspect of the mental health profession.

References Baetz, M ., Larson, D. 8., Marcoux, G., Bowen, R. & Griffin, R. (2002). Canadian psychiatric inpatient religious commitment: An association with mental health. Can J Psychiatry, 47(2), 159-165. Bjorck, J.P. & Thurman, J.W. (2007). Negative life events, patterns of positive and negative religious coping, and psychological functions. Journal/or the Scientific Study of Religion, 46(2), 159-167. Eliassen, H. A., Taylor, J. , & Lloyd, D.A. (2005) . Subjective religiosity and depression in the transition to adulthood. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 44(2), 187-199. Ellison, C.G., Boardman, J.D., Williams, D.R., & Jackson, J.J. (2001). Religious involvement, stress, and mental health: Findings from the 1995 Detroit Area Study, Social Forces, 80, 215-49. 66

Graham, S., Furr, S., Flowers, C. , & Burke, M.T stress. Counseling and Values, 46, 2Houston, 8. K., 1987. Coping with negative lif{ perspectives. New York and London: Koenig, H.G., McCullough, M .F., & Larson, D. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ladd, K. L. & Spilka, 8. (2006). Inward, outwa Journal/or the Scientific Study of Reli Levin, J.S. & Taylor, R.J. (1998). Panel analyse african americans : Contemporaneous' Study ofReligion, 37(4), 695-709.

Mcintosh, D.N, Silver, R.C., & Wortman, C.B. 1 life event: Coping with the loss of a cl 65, 812-821. President and fellows of Harvard College, 2007. Publications. Vol. 32: 3-4.

Spilka, B. R., Hood, W. Jr. , Hunsberger, 8., & ( An empirical approach (3rd ed.). New

Stone, A. A. , Helder, L. , & Schneider, M.S. (19 1 dimensions and issues. The Journal oj

Trevino, M. & Pargament Kelly and K.I. (2007) disaster. Southern Medical Associatio

Amanda is a senior psychology majc advance

PSYCHOLOGY

They note that it is unclear whether it is a racial e research should target a greater number of main constant when the racial make up reflects

is of negative life events and life satisfaction. 18-22 age range. Younger individuals may not eone who is in the 51-65 age group. Life 1ts die, divorces occur and job changes become at goes beyond the individual. These factors >roader age range in the study might, once again, utcome.

!cts were primarily all women. Women tend to •ilka 2006; Spilka et al. 2003). It follows that a an one who does not portend to be religious. A ·itate toward a study involving prayer, thus )fmen involved in the study were increased, there

h that has an impact on the process of providing n be shown to be beneficial to greater life )rated as a basic part of treatment. It could be and physical healthcare professionals as they id the issues with which they have to deal, has a s brought about by scientific research that will living will benefit the body knowledge used by is topic would greatly enhance this aspect of the

Graham, S., Furr, S., Flowers, C., & Burke, M.T. (2001). Religion and spirituality in coping with stress. Counseling and Values, 46, 2-13. Houston, B. K.., 1987. Coping with negative life events: Clinical and social psychological perspectives. New York and London: Plenum Press. Koenig, H.G., McCullough, M.F., & Larson, D.B. (2001). Handbook of religion and health. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ladd, K. L. & Spilka, B. (2006). Inward, outward, upward prayer: Scale reliability and validation. Journal for the Scientific Study ofReligion, 45(2), 233-251. Levin, J.S. & Taylor, R.J. ( 1998). Panel analyses of religious involvement and well-being in african americans: Contemporaneous vs. longitudinal effects. Journal for the Scientific Study ofReligion, 37( 4), 695-709. Mcintosh, D.N, Silver, R.C., & Wortman, C.B. (1993). Religion's role in adjustment to a negative life event: Coping with the loss of a child. Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 65, 812-821. President and fellows of Harvard College, 2007. Taking control of Stress. Harvard Health Publications. Vol. 32: 3-4. Spilka, B. R., Hood, W. Jr., Hunsberger, B., & Gorsuch, R.L. (2003). The psychology of religion: An empirical approach (3'd ed.). New York: Guilford. Stone, A. A., Helder, L. , & Schneider, M.S. (1990). Coping with stressful events: Coping dimensions and issues. The Journal ofPrimary Prevention, 11, 182-209. Trevino, M. & Pargament Kelly and K.I. (2007). Religious coping with terrorism and natural disaster. Southern Medical Association, 100(9), 946- 947.

& Griffin, R. (2002). Canadian psychiatric iciation with mental health. Can J Psychiatry,

Amanda is a senior psychology major. She wrote this paper for Dr. Ritchie's advanced lab class. Je events, patterns of positive and negative lions. Journal for the Scientific Study of

Subjective religiosity and depression in the C)cientific Study of Religion, 44(2), 187-199. Jackson, J.J. (2001) . Religious involvement, the 1995 Detroit Area Study, Social Forces, 80,

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P SYCHOLOGY

Generational Perceptions and H< Lauren~

Figure 1 . Scatter Plot of Current Prayer Practice on Life Satisfactio

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This research examines how Baby Boomers a: perception has affected their intergenerational subjects, each of whom completed a surve) modified Rochester Interaction Record to rate perceptions and interactions within and I: association showed that there was an interact both cohorts associated more negative words negative perception of Generation Y both bet' given to the Baby Boomers both between and "

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Diversity has new meaning in the workplace. l alongside each other right now; the Veterans, b Generation X, born 1964-1979, and Generatior (Boychuk Duchscher & Cowin, 2004; Jorgense Squires, & Tourangeau, 2007). Accord ing to D Boomers and GenXers made up approximately only approaching the workforce at the time thi~ have completed their bachelor and masters deg workforce in droves .

Researchers have extensively studied the diffe dissecting the personality traits, the educational years, and then finally looking at the similaritie astonishment of many of the researchers, the B than differe nt in their values on work and work Jurkiewicz, 2000; Yang & Guy, 2006). It has b workplace between Baby Boomers and GenXe1 (Davis, et al., 2006). As both of these birth coh holding similar workplace values, they face a n the oldest of the cohort tum 29 this year, they v however, there is very little research on their re

Twenge (2006), author of Generation Me: Wh; assertive and entitled-and more miserable thc. important" group. They were raised in a societ~ have been told since birth about how special th• they will be successful. The fact that this gener prosperity in the United States factors into thei.J of life (Boychuk Duchscher & Cowin, 2004). C values. It reflects in their choice of words and c

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